THE LUTHERAN CYCLOPEDIA EDITED BY HENRY EYSTER JACOBS, D.D., LL.D. DEAN OF THE LUTHERAN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Rev. JOHN A. W. HAAS, B.D, WITH THE CO-OPERATION OF PROFESSOR O. ZOCKLER, UNIVERSITY OF GREIFSWALD, AND OTHER EUROPEAN SCHOLARS AND REPRE SENTATIVE SCHOLARS FROM THE VARIOUS SYNODS NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1899 Copyright, 1899, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS PREFACE. Thb aim of this volume is to present a summaij of the chief topics comprised in the doctrine, the life, the customs, the history, and the statistics of the Luth. Church. It has been prepared almost entirely in America, from the standpoint of Lutherans, who either by nativity or adop tion are Americans, and who are interested in the gro-wth of their church and the maintenance of its influence in this its new home. The most notable fact in the progress of our Church in this land, has been not so much its rapid increase as the union within it o? representatives of the hitherto separated Luth. churches ot Europe. At the Reformation, Germany, the birthplace and centre of Lutheranism, -was not a compact government, but a loose organization of numerous and chiefly small principalities and cities, in each of which the great religious movement of the time had its pecuhar history. Upon the basis of a common confession of faith, the doctrinal, educational, liturgical, and governmental elements assumed in each province or territory a pecu liar form, as each ruler selected his own theologians and jurists to aid in the reform, and, by their co-operation, published his own Church Order. In constitutions, liturgies, catechisms, hymn-books, instructions to pastors and customs, there -was the greatest diversity. There was fixity of tjrpe with many varieties. To a still greater degree, the same principle was exhibited, as the Luth. faith penetrated other lands. The results of the German Reformation were adapted to the circumstances, characteristics, and precedents of the national life. In this country, these various streams, after having followed almost entirely separate courses since the Reformation, have at last met. Here are brought together, in the same synods, Lutherans from diverse parts of Germany, -with a common faith, but accustomed to different modes of administering that faith. Here, too, they meet -with those having an equal claim to the same name, from Norway and Sweden, Denmark and Iceland, Holland and Finland. These elements, however separated for one or more generations by national lines, must inevitably coalesce. If the Luth. Church, like a number of denominations, were based upon a peculiar polity or form of worship or mode of administering a sacrament, its people would soon be absorbed by churches of English origin. Mere reverence for ancestors is too weak a foundation for any permanence. When a few gener ations, at most, separate men from the land of their fathers, the attractions of their immediate surroundings overcome the resistance of such remote ties. But standing for a positive, clearly defined type of doctrine, which has been enriched by the labors of the profoundest theologians from whose treasures all scholars of other Protestant communions have freely drawn ; possessing riches of devotional literature in song and prayer that have moulded the hymnody and liturgies of those around them ; the heirs of a long line of noble witnesses, -with voice and pen, often amidst the fires of persecution ; ha-ving the nearest access to various forms of practical activity, introduced by their fathers and.brethren in the faith, and now widely appropriated in almost all parts of the Protestant denominations ; above all, as the representatives of the weak, and yet strong man, selected by God to lay the foundations of modern Christianity, and whose words are recalled and stUl arouse to life and action, wherever the history of the Church is earnestly read and the Bible studied, it is impossible for Lutherans to continue for centuries or even decades to continue to surrender their heritage with their native lands and languages. They are called upon to defend and maintain the same faith, in the same languages, to the same peo ple, and under the same circumstances ; and, in so doing, will soon share in each other's efforts. Nor can they isolate themselves from their historical antecedents, or the cotemporaneous appli cation and development of the same principles in other parts of the world. The Luth. Church is the communion of the widest horizon and the most far-reaching sympathies. She is siich, not only because of her geographical extension, her numerical preponderance, and her historical basis and spirit^ut also from her distinctive ethical principle, -viz. the Christian's lordship over all things, in the use of the earthly and temporal in the service of the heavenly and eternal and spiritual. If any of her children are narrow, it is not their Lutheranism, but their failure to imderstand what this really is, that has made them such. The Luth. Church of America has struggled upward to its present position out of great tribula tion. The student who reviews its more than two hundred and fifty years of history, can clearly trace a steady, even though slow, progress, often passing through circuitous paths that ultimately, by the guidance of an Unseen Hand, reach again the straight course. Her people came hither in poverty, and, -with few exceptions, uneducated. They were strangers to the language and institutions of the country, and often the -victims of cunning and unprincipled speculators. For long periods they were without churches and schools and pastors. The present century had far advanced before they had any higher institution of learning. For a time, there was general acquiescence in the feeling that the Luth. faith could be taught and preached iu no other than T vi Preface the German language, and that, since the change of tongue was inevitable, the Luth. Church m America had no other calling in the future than to provide for new immigrants until they too would disappear into other denominations. Tens, if not hundreds, of thousands of her children were allowed to desert her for other communions, in which many of them have left honored names, and even as in the case of one who bore the name of Muhlenberg introducing a new epoch among those with whom they cast their lot by carrying with them something of the spirit and many of the principles and customs of their mother church. The root of the difficulty lay in religious indifferentism and rationalism, on both sides of the Atlantic, which depreciated the importance of the Luth. faith, and could not understand how, as the pure preaching of the gospel, it was in tended for the world, and for all nations, and to be carried to all people in all places, and in all tongues. That the earlier efforts to provide for the transition were attended by much doctrinal confusion and vacillation, is only what might be expected under the circumstances. This Cyclopedia, prepared in response to a wide-spread demand, is one out of manjr indica tions of the progress the Church has been making not only ih the appreciation of her historical and theological resources, but also in readiness of her various sections to co-operate, wherever they can so do without surrender of principles, concerning which entire harmony has not yet been attained. It endeavors to present what is most important in the history of the Church as scattered throughout many lands and occupied -with many forms of Christian effort. The various features of German and American church life and theology, are represented by many -writers, Prof. Dr. O. Zoeckler of the University of Greifswald, as high an authority on the sub ject as there is, has contributed the article on "The Augsburg Confession," as well as that upon "Pietism." The faculty of the seminary at Rock Island, at their request, were assigned all topics bearing upon the Swedish churches of Sweden and America, determining the selection of subjects as well as the treatment. The editors provided for the history of the Swedish churches on the Delaware, and a few articles suggested as important after the rest were in hand. Prof. Dr. E. G. Lund, of the seminary at Minneapolis, and Rev. F. J. Bergmann of Gardar, N. Dak., were in charge respectively of all Norwegian and Icelandic topics. Through their efforts and those of their co-laborers, we can justly claim that the information in these departments is more complete than may be found elsewhere in the English, and probably also in the German lan guage. Rev. E. Belfour, D. D., of Pittsburg, has looked after the Danish articles. The depart ments of hymuology aud catechetics were in charge of Prof. Dr. A. Spaeth, whose intimate acquaintance with other departments has also been constantly at our service. The department of Liturgies was chiefly in the hands of Rev. E. T. Horn, D. D., of Reading, Pa., whose article on "The Liturgy," may be particularly mentioned, as condensing -within it the contents of an entire volume, and affording a valuable explanation of the "Common Service." The Rev. Dr. G. U. Wenner of New York, and Prof. Dr. Spaeth, also contributed to the same department. Rev. J. F. Ohl, Mus. Doc, was assigned the chief articles on Church Music ; others being in the hands of Mr. William Benbow, organist of Trinity Church, Reading, Pa., and Rev. Luther D. Reed, of Allegheny. The foreign mission articles were written mainly by Prof. Dr. W. Wack- ernagel of Muhlenberg College, a life-long student of the work of the German missionary soci eties. The homiletical department was assigned mainly to Rev. H. W. Hofmann. All articles pertaining to the Missouri Synod were referred to Prof. A. L. Graebner of the seminary at St. Louis ; those to the Iowa Synod to Prof. Dr. S. Fritschel, Profs. Lutz, Proehl, J. Fritschel, and G. J. Fritschel ; those to the Joint Synod of Ohio, to Profs. Drs. Stellhorn and Schodde. Among the representatives of the General Synod are Drs. Valentine, Wolf, Richard, Singmaster, Baugher, Gilbert, C. S. Albert, Hull, Bauslin, Breckenridge, C. E. Hay, Holman, Hamma, Remeusnyder, besides minor articles from pastors of historical congregations and heads of in stitutions. The United Synod of the South is represented by Profs. Drs. L. A. Fox, Painter, and Voigt, while the historical articles pertaining to the South were in the hands of Rev. D. M. Gil bert, D. D., for many years identified with its churches in Virginia and Georgia, and long a student of their records. The history of the New York Ministerium and its congregations and prominent pastors fell naturally to the historian of that body. Prof. Dr. Nicum. Dr. Seiss has contributed several important eschatological articles, and E. Augustus Miller, Esq., has made several contributions to legal questions pertaining to church interests. The list of contributors contains many other names to whom due credit is given. On subjects concerning which there has been heated controversy the effort has been made to secure representatives of both sides. Among such may be noted Altar Fellowship, Conversion, Predestination. On a ievv topics, the plans of the editors to secure double presentations failed. As the initials always in dicate the author, except where the editors themselves have written unsigned articles the re sponsibility for facts and opinions may always be traced, the editors deciding only as to the advisability of their publication in a volume in which they have pledged that all shall be treated fairly. The editors do not accept every statement that is made ; but deem it important that where there are differences these should be stated, and that an authoritative presentation of positions open to criticism should be at hand. They have aimed always at securing the most explicit presentations of points at issue, rather than vague generalities, framed to avoid offence but which mean nothing. They have tried earnestly, and their contributors have generally co-operated in this, to maintain an irenic spirit, and to see that all opponents are treated with respect. The determination of the names to be included in the biographical articles was attended -with no small difficulty. The line dividing Lutherans from those who are not, shades off so gradually Preface -vii that it cannot be exactly traced, even though all were agreed perfectly as to the definition. The result has been that much latitude has been used by including many names that are in place only because of their relation to the history of the Church and its theology. Upon this principle Ritschl and A. Hamack appear, although their attitude to the Confession of the Church is de structive, while Schleiermacher, whose influence is entirely that of an outsider, never in connec tion vrith a professed Luth. congregation, is excluded. A few hymn-writers -will be found who have been given place solely because of the powerful hold which their hymns have taken, and their general adoption into our collections. Only a few exceptions have been made to the rule limiting the names to those of men whose work on earth is finished. These have been made because of their important influence upon past and present movements, and are so few that we believe the propriety of the exceptions will not be doubted. The editors, while belonging to the same general body, disclaim all partisan motives in their work on this volume. If they had not decided theological convictions, it is improbable that they would have been called to the work, or that the book would be sought for after publication. If their S3rmpathies were believed to be confined to the General Council, and the advancement of its interests, they would not have received so many assurances of encouragement from prominent professors and pastors from all the General Bodies and larger independent synods. The senior editor was instructor in one of the institutions of the General Synod at Gettysburg, the place of his birth and education, for precisely the same length of time that he has been serving the General Council at Philadelphia. He trusts that he will never be indifferent to the memory of his venerated teachers, or to the associates and pupils of his youth. He called to his aid in this work the Rev. J. A. W. Haas, B. D. , a former pupil in whose qualifications and judgment he had every confidence, and without whose perseverance and industry in all the details, while the senior editor attended only to the general direction, the project would have been impossible. The burden of the work, from the outlining of the subjects to the reading of the final proof, has fallen upon the junior editor. The Rev. Charles M. Jacobs has been of great assistance to the editors in the re-vising of proofs, preparing list of contributors, and in other burdens of the edi torial work. In the first edition of a work of such compass, errors will undoubtedly escape the most careful scrutiny. There must necessarily be defects and inequalities of treatment where so many writers are engaged, while surprising omissions may be expected. All that the editors ask is that they be promptly informed by those who discover errors. Every effort will be made to rectify mis takes and to do justice to all. If sufficiently encouraged in this undertaking, a supplementary volume embodying all such suggestions may follow. This enterprise was not of our seeking. It seemed too vast and complicated to be under taken by men fully occupied with other responsibilities. It was only -with the greatest reluc tance that it was entered upon, when the late Christian Literature Co. urged it with such earnest ness that we felt that we could not refuse it, without declining an opportunity to do our beloved Church an important service. As it is completed, we are confident that it will be of immense service to all our departments of labor, and will contribute towards making all Lutherans in America better acquainted with each other and with the entire Church. The book is a library condensed, containing information that cannot be gathered elsewhere -with shelves full of au thorities. We pray that the blessing of God, in whose name and for whose glory we have ear nestly endeavored to act in the entire undertaking, may attend it, as it goes forth upon its mission. HENRY E. JACOBS. Lutheran Theological Seminary, MT. Airy, Philadelphia, July 13, 1899. THE LUTHERAN CYCLOPEDIA. Absolution, See Confession. Abstinence, See Temperance. Accent, ecclesiastical, is the customary drop ping of the voice in the final syllables and words of the Liturgy, when intoned. Acrelius, Israel, Swedish American histor ian, b. in Sweden, 1714, Provost of the Swedish churches on the Delaware, and pastor at Fort Christina ( Wilmington, DeL), 1749-56; after his return to Sweden, pastor at Fellinsboro' in the diocese of Westeras. Author of the chief source of information conceming the Swedish American churches of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, -viz. : Description of the Former and Present Condition of the Swedish Churches in what was called New Sweden, Stockholm, 1759. Translated into English by the late W. M. Reynolds, D.D., and published as Vol. XI. of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, under the title : His tory of New Sweden, Philadelphia, 1874. It is to the history of the Swedish what the Halle Reports are to that of the German churches of the same period. With Muhlenberg and his associates in the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, the relations of Acrelius were cordial, and his history warmly defends them against misrep resentations. Act, (forensic). See Justification. Acta Historico-Ecclesiastica. A periodical published at Weimar { 20 vols. ) 1734-56, particu larly important because of much contemporary material conceming the beginnings of the Luth eran Church in this countiy. Three volumes of Appendices appeared (1746-53), -followed by an exhaustive index in 1760. The Nova Acta His torico-Ecclesiastica, 12 vols. (1758-73), and the Acta Historico-Ecclesiastica of 1774-85, were continuations. Adiaphora is the neuter plural of the Greek adjective adiaphoros, which is derived from dia- phero to differ, make a difference, and it means things indifferent. The word was used in Stoic philosophy to denote things neither good nor bad, in Latin res medice or indifferenies. In Christian theology the term denotes actions that are neither commanded nor forbidden by God, and hence are left to the choice of men. They may belong either to the sphere of religious rites and ceremonies or to ttat of practical life. F. W. S. Adiaphoristic Controversies. There were two within the Lutheran Church. The first took place soon after the death of Luther and had reference to religious rites and ceremonies ; the second formed a part of the pietistic controver sies and concerned practical life. I. Having been -victorious in the Smalcald War, and finding that the Pope and the Council of Trent would not aid him in carrying out his plans of bringing back the Lutherans to the Roman church by making at least some con cessions to them, Emperor Charles V. con cluded to attempt the work of reconciliation and reunion. Hence he ordered the composi tion of what is known as the Augsburg Interim (1548), and required the Lutherans to accept it. Maurice, the new elector of Saxony, upon whom the emperor had conferred this dignity as a reward for treacherously deserting the cause of his Lutheran co-religionists, did not dare to offend either the emperor by rejecting the In terim, or his own Lutheran subjects by accept ing it. Therefore, as a compromise, he caused the so-called Leipsic Interim to be composed by the Wittenberg theologians, now led by the timid Melanchthon. It did not concede as much to the papists as the Augsburg Interim had done ; but, besides yielding to some extent -with regard to important Gospel truths, it rein troduced into the Lutheran Church almost all the Roman catholic rites and ceremonies, claim ing that these had to be considered as adiaphora, since they were not to be viewed and used in the former superstitious way. Thus the Liturgy of the Mass was introduced again with ringing of bells, candles, priestly garments, etc., though not without having communicants present ; the festival of Corpus Christi was again to be ob served, though with a sermon on the Lord's Supper and communion ; extreme unction was to be permitted according to the usage of the apostles ; fasts were to be observed, though only as secular institutions ; bishops that would perform the duties of their office in accordance -with the Word of God were to be recognized and obeyed ; and so on. It was further claimed that this was not denying the truth of the Gos pel in the least, nor giving offense to the weak in faith, but rather shielding the weak against persecutions with their unavoidable temptations to defection, and at the same time pro-ving the readiness of Lutherans to heal the lamentable disruptions and schisms of the church of Christ even at the cost of some sacrifice. Flacius, at that time professor at Wittenberg, and only 28 years "old, was the leader of the opposition to this attempt to bring about a re union of the Lutheran and Catholic churches, at least in things external ; and though in his zeal for Lutheran orthodoxy and in his, certainly not unfounded, suspicion of unionistic procliv ities in Melanchthon and his followers he may have gone somewhat too far in the manner and form of his opposition, he undoubtedly was 1 Adiaphoristic Adiaphoristic right in opposing the innovations intended. He correctly maintained, in the first place, that some of those so-called adiaphora were not such at all, for example, the use of an unknown language, the Latin, in a service that was, or ought to be, intended for the common people ; in the second place, that no adiaphora remain such in casu confessionis et scandali, that is, whenever a man, by adopting the ceremonies of errorists would seem to adopt their errors also, and to deny the true faith, and thus give offense. When elector Maurice, moved by the gro-wing dissatisfaction of his Lutheran subjects and, let us hope, also by his conscience, changed his political attitude, and by an entirely unexpected attack on the emperor, compelled him to assent to the treaty of Passau (1552), followed by the religious peace of Augsburg (1555), the Interims of Leipsic and Augsburg were no more con sidered binding ; but the principles involved in the adiaphoristic controversy were too impor tant to be left undecided in the Lutheran Church, and the controversy continued till at last it was settled for the Lutheran Church in and by the Formula of Concord. The decision given in its tenth article is in substance as follows: I. Ecclesiastical rites and ceremonies that are neither commanded nor forbidden in the Word of God, but are simply introduced for the sake of decency and good order, are not in themselves divine worship nor a part of it. 2. The Church of God in every place and at every time has the authority of changing, ac cording to circumstances, such rites and cere monies, just as it may seem conducive to edi fication, being careful only that no levity occur and no offense be given, especially to the weak in faith. 3. At the time of persecution, when a frank and constant confession of faith is required of us, we ought not to yield to the enemies of the truth, even in things that in themselves are indifferent ; for in such a case that which is really in question is no more the adiaphora, but the truth of the Gospel, Christian liberty, the confirmation of idolatry, the offense of the weak in faith. — Compare Preger, M. Flacius Illyricus, I. 135-204. Frank, Theologie der Concordienformel, IV. 1-120. Frank, System der Christlichen Sittlichkeit, II. 87 sqq. 219 sqq. Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopcedie I. 168-173. II. The second adiaphoristic controversy was an outcome of the Cal-vinistic, legalistic view of Christian life that through Pietism had crept into the Lutheran Church. Whilst Luther, ¦with a good conscience, enjoyed the natural gifts of God, and maintained that those who love God may, and even should, love his creatures also, though not beside or above him but under him, and that God has created them for the very pur pose that his children may enjoy them in mod eration, thanking him also for these gifts, Cal- -vin, in accordance with his austere and severe nature and his legalistic view of Christianity, rather frowned upon such natural enjo3Tnents. And just as Luther in this respect also was the model of the church named after him, so the Reformed churches and sects have, more or less, followed Cal-vin, Pietism as such, in so far as it consists in laying a one-sided and exaggerated, and therefore anti-evangelical, stress on piety and sanetification over against justification and the liberty of a child of God, is not a Lutheran plant, but rather one sprung up on Calvinistic and Puritan soil, and first imported into the Lutheran Church by Spener, who had become acquainted with it and favorably impressed by it during his stay at the city of Calvin, Geneva. It was in the Cal-vinistic Netherlands where in the first half of the seventeenth century, extreme, pietistic views concerning adiaphora were first proclaimed in the Protestant Church as indica tive of a true Christian, especially by G. Voetius, whilst prominent and morally irreproachable Lutheran theologians, e. g. Dannhauer, char acterized them as silly and empty ca-villings, Spener, indeed, did not go so far in this direc tion as some of his adherents did ; but he also maintained that whatever action does not directly serve the honor of God, our own or our neighbor's bodily or spiritual welfare, is sin, be cause at least a waste of time ; and to rejoice in anything that is not directly useful, but pleas ant and amusing, is in conflict with Christian self-denial. A dance, for example, that in no sense can be called indecent and unchaste, is still sinful, because it is simply a natural amuse ment. Spener, however, was incjined to be lenient in dealing -with those that thought they could safely enjoy those pleasures ; he was not ready, for example, to deny absolution to men that really did not see the sinfulness of such amusements. His followers went beyond him. The most prominent of these were J. Lange and A. H. Francke. Not only dancing, attending theatrical plays, playing at cards, but also inno cent jests and pleasantries, taking part in festive meals, taking a walk, laughing, were regarded as sinful ; in Francke's orphans' home the children were even forbidden to play. Bowling and the use of tobacco in Spener's opinion could be permitted onl5' when necessary to health. Some went even so far as to deny explicitly the existence of adiaphora, that is, of things or actions whose moral character depends exclu sively upon the circumstances under which they take place and the motives actuating those that engage in them. _ And, worst of all, abstinence from natural enjoyments and amusements was by many Pietists looked upon as the criterion of a true Christian — a very dangerous position, since it is not only sure to cause an uncharitable judgment of our fellow-men, but also may lead to grievous self-deception. It cannot be denied that the so-called ortho dox opponents of the Pietists very often went to the other extreme, and would seem at least to defend participation in natural and secular amusements as right under any circumstances. The first one that met the extravagant assertions of the Pietists in an altogether worthy and ef fective manner was V. E. Loescher. He frankly conceded that there is a danger for Christians that take part in such amusements as dancing theatrical plays, festival meals, and the like be cause this may prove a hindrance to their own growth in .sanetification and give offense to others. He even went so far as to say that par ticipation m such pleasures is to be considered a Adoption Agenda defect in a child of God, and that e-very Christian should be ad-vised against it ; but as a sober- minded Bible Christian and Lutheran he would not and could not admit the fundamental error (" proton pseudos")of the Pietists, that rejoicing in the natural gifts of God is in itself sin, and therefore was rebuked by Lange as a man that was lacking in moral earnestness and zeal. He was certainly right when he maintained that no man has the right, in the domain of religion and morals, to command or forbid anything that God has left free. It is the duty of every man to give practical proof of the correct moral disposition of his heart in all that he does ; hence no action of his is morally indifferent : it is either ^ood or bad. But there are things and conditions in natural life that in themselves are indifferent, neither commanded nor forbidden ; with re spect to them there is a liberty of action, i. e. a person may, generally speaking, engage in them or avoid them. This liberty, however, is limited by due regard to our own weakness as well as that of our fellow-men. Compare Lu- thardt. Compendium der Theologischen Ethik, § 43. Harless, Christliche Ethik, \ 36. Frank, System, Der Christlichen Sittlichkeit, \ 45. Schmid, Geschichte des Pietismus, pp. 423 sqq. Engelhardt, V. E. Loescher, pp. 226 sqq. Her zog-Hauck, I, 173-179. F. W. S. Adoption, as children of God, is the act of God, by which he receives the believers in Christ to be his children. It is included in justification. In some Kirchenordnungen the adoption of children is regarded as establishing a relation which hinders not only intermarriage between such children and their parents, but also be tween them and their brothers and sisters by adoption. Adultery. See Divorce. Advent. See Church Year. .Slpinus, John, (Greek form of German Hoeck), born 1499 in Ziegesar, Brandenburg, first Lutheran Superintendent of Hamburg (from May 18, 1532), sent to England (1534) to assist Henry VIII in the Reformation and advise him about his divorce, instrumental in carrying through and supplementing Bugenhagen's Kir- chenordnung in Hamburg, died May 13, 1553. In a lecture on Ps. 16 ( 1542 ) >Spinus taught that Christ descended into hell only with his soul, that this descent was suffering for man, whose soul, after burial of the body, went to the lower regions. The descent and burial formed the first death, which Christ suffered, but not the pains of hell. This teaching, fully published, 1544, caused controversy, which was finally de cided according to Luther's sermon (Torgau, 1533), that Christ descended "the entire person, God and man," to triumphantly destroy Satan's kingdom. Thus Chap. IX. Form, of Concord. See Frank, Theol. Der Cone. Form. III. p. 397 ff- Afdnity. See Marriage. Africa (Lutheran Missions). See Missions OF Luth. Ch. (Foreign). Agenda. A book contaiding directions and formularies for church worship and the Minis terial Acts. The word was used -with that meaning as early as the end of the fourth cen tury. The use of such books is traceable in remains of the fifth century. At first the texts of the Service had not been written, but were preserved by oral tradition. The first parts to be written probably were the diptychs (two- leaved tablets containing the names of persons prayed for in the Liturgy). Agendas were published in Germany before the Reformation. Many of the Lutheran Church orders of the sixteenth century give only the order of the parts of the service, -with special notes on some of them, but not the texts ; but others were provided with a more or less complete appa ratus. There were also books which provided the texts or the texts and music, as, for in stance, Sliiter's Rostocker Gesangbuch (1531), Lucas Lossius' Psalmodia (1561), Spangen- berg's Kirchengesaenge (1545), Ludecus, Matu- tinale et Vesperale (1589), Veit Dietrich's Agendbiichlein (in many editions), Eber's Cantica Sacra ^1588], Keuchenthal's Kirchen gesaenge, etc. (1573), Loner's Officia Misses (1600). For a general -view of the Lutheran Orders of Worship, which accorded with Luther' sprinci- ples, and were derived from his reformation of worship, see chart, page 4. The Orders of S. W. Germany, while Lutheran in doctrine, de parted from the Lutheran t3^e of worship, Mark Brandenburg ( 1540), Pfaiz-Neuburg( 1543), and Austria (1571), went beyond the Lutheran. norm in the retention of ceremonies character istic of the Roman Chiuch. The Agendas of the earlier period of the seventeenth century aim at the restoration of Lutheran Church order, which had beeiiL nearly destroyed by the Thirty Years' War, Those of the eighteenth century were affected by Rationalism. Pompous language, addressed to the emotions of the worshipers, took the place of a churchly style, and little by little the old service fell into disuse and was forgotten. The new Prussian Agenda (1822) marks the beginning of a return to the Liturgy of the Reformers. ( See Agenda Controversy, Com mon Ser-vice, and CONSENSUS OF Agenda). A full list of Lutheran Agendas -will be found in Daniel's Codex Liturgicus, II. , and a fair summary of them in Hofling's Urkundenbuch. E. T. H. Agenda, Consensus of. See Agenda. Al though there were so many Lutheran Church orders in the sixteenth century, and the Reform ers gave practical emphasis to the truth that uniformity of rites is not essential to the unity of the church, comparison of the Lutheran Agen das shows a certain type, a Normal Lutheran Service. If the parts be given : ( i ) Introit ; f 2 ) Kyrie; (3) GloriainExcelsis ; (4) Collect ; (5) Epistle ; (6) Alleluia ; (7) Gospel ; (8) Creed ; (9) Sermon; (10) General Prayer; (11) Pref ace; (12) Sanctus and Hosanna ; (13) Exhorta tion to Communicants ; (14) Lord's Prayer and Words of Institution, or Words of Institution and Lord's Prayer; (15) Agnus Dei ; (16) Dis tribution; (17) Collect of Thanksgi-ving ; (18) Benediction, it will be found that of these parts the Formula Missa omits (10) and (13), andputs (12) after the Words of Institution and before the Agenda Agenda Uither :v. Ord d. Qottesdlenst. Fo RMCI^MlSSAEI523. Wfeise der Me &^. He«M. Erfurt. rsae. strassb'g Schwabisch DoBePFN'b'g. ¦ kirchen.^ Hall 1526, 5pltalmesse. 1525. QermanJ Ampt..i5a5. BrandenB^rg \ S^"" ^'¦- ^rtt. 1528. ichw. Hall ¦ria"'"'^^? '"^-sAuT ,53. randl i"k issa>-~-^ Hoya 15S1. EdwaMVj. IS49. 'Brunswick TS38. , Hamburg 152^. ninden 1530. Qottingen 1530. Liibeck 153T. Soest 1532. Bremen IS34. Pammeriijsss, Hamburg 1539. Schl. Holstein 1543^ Cal. Gbttlngea 1542. 'Os-nabriick 1543 Br. Wolff enbuftel 1543. (Hadeln 1544.) Bargedorp r544. Hildesheim 1544,. Pommem 1542. isia 1525 . Austtia i'S7t. "Wittenberg iSS7.-tSS<>. Brunswick L,uneburg.V5d4. Brunsw'k.WoIffenbiitter 1569, Lief land 1570. Oldenburg'1593, Liegnltz 1594. Halle 1541. Schweinfurt.1543 Waldeck.1556.5axon Qen'l. Artt L,indau. 1573 El. Saxony ^Brunswick. _, VNieder^Sachs '557 issia 1544. CPrussIa rss7.) o.1580. (pommern. 1568.^ 1381. \ \ ,gy.J I 18.1585/ Hadetn. 1385/ .PrussiaJSfiS. Lord's Prayer. The German Mass of 1526 has all but (3), (10), (11), (15), putting the ^awc/^M.? during or after (16). Wittenberg (1533), has all (the Da Pacem instead of a lengthy prayer after the Sermon), and transposes the Sanctus to the place of the Agnus Dei. The Visitation Arti cles (1533), have all but (2), (6), (11) ; the Da Pacem as in foregoing; for (6), "A Spiritual Song ; " and allows the Sanctus instead of (15). Brunswick (1528), has all, putting (16) before (i5> and (13) before (11). Brandenburg-Nu remberg (1533), has all but (11), thus : (13), (14), (12), (16), (17), the Agnus Dei during the Distribution, and inserts the Pax and the Ben- edicam,us. Pomm,em (1535), has all, iu order. Saxon (1539), has all but (10). Mecklenburg ( 1552 ) , has all, putting ' ' A Psalm ' ' in place of (6) , and not prescribing (15) during the Distribu tion. Teutsch-Kirchenampt (1525), has all, putting (8), (9), and (13) before (15). The Prussia?i Landesordnung (1525), has all but the Sermon andputs (13) after (14). Schwdbisch- Hall (1526), omits the Epistle and Agnus Dei. Dober's Mass (1525), omits (9) and (10), puts (12) after (14), and (13) after (15). Liegnitz (1534), omitting only (15), and putting instead of the Creed a hymn to the Holy Ghost, has the Lord's Prayer after the Sermon and (8) and (13) before (11). Bremen (1534), omits (11), and puts the Sermon before the Creed. Nord- heim (1539), omits (11) and (12), and has the Creed after (10). Meissen Vis. Articles (1539), omit (ii), (12), (15). Hamburg (1539), has all, but puts the Exhortation before the Preface. Brandenburg (1540), omits (13). Halle, (1541), repeats Wittenberg (1533). Pomm.em (1542), has all but (15). Osnabruck (1543), puts (8) after (10), and seems to omit (17), (18). Refor mation of Cologne (1543), puts (8) after (10), and omits (13). Prussia (1544), omits (11). Pfalz-Neuburg (1543), has all. Stralsund (1555), has all but the Exhortation, and does not pre scribe the Agnus Dei. Edward VI. (1549), omits (6), (13), and (10). These variations are due (i) to the reintroduc- tion of the Sermon, which had fallen out of the Roman Mass; (2) the restoration of the Gen eral Prayer ; and ( 3 ) the insertion of an Exhorta tion before the Communion. The early orders did not at first know how to assimilate these characteristic elements of the Lutheran Service. As to the order of the parts, it is preserved by Saxon (152,9), Meckl. (1552), Pommern (1535), Schwdbisch-Hall (1526), {Pommem (1542), Prus sian (1544), Pfalz-Neuburg (1543), Stralsund, (1555), Rurg(i545), whence he fled to Hamburg (1551), General Superintendent in Mecklenburg (1552), a strong opponent of the Interim, prominent hymn -writer, though his poetry is somewhat mgged m form. He wrote "Nun freut euch Gottes Kinder all " (29st.) tr. by A. T. Russell " O children of your God rejoice," " Christe du bist der helle Tag," "Steht auf ihr Ueben Kin- derlein." ^ g Alberus, Matthew, b. Dec. 4, 1495, the "Luther of Swabia," reformer of Reutlingen his native city, preacher and one of the general supenntendents of Stuttgart (1548), opposed the Romish doctnne and the power of the bishop of Constance, as well as the Anabaptists and the uprising of the peasants, rejected the trial of witches, did not accept the Interim of 1548, d. Dec. 2 1570. In position generally Lutheran, though in the Lord's Supper not Albert Alt accepting the participation of unbelievers and the real presence of Christ in the elements, he was at once mild and determined, straightfor ward and courageous. Albert (Alberti) Heinrich, b. 1604 in Lob- enstein, d. 1651 in Koenigsberg, hymn writer, organist, and composer, nephew of Heinrich Schuetz, the famous Court Capellmeister in Dresden. He -wrote the words and music of that most popular morning hjmin ' ' Gott des Himmels und der Erden," tr. by J. Chr. Jacobi ( 1722 ) , and Arthur Tozer Russell (1848) , ' ' God who madest earth and heaven." A number of his tunes are in general use in the Lutheran Church. A. S. Alberti, Valentin, b. Dec. 15, 1635, Prof, in Leipzic, originally a friend of the Pietistic move ment, giving a room of his house for its meetings, became its opponent because of its abuses. D. Sept. 19, 1697. Albinus, Johann Georg, a German hjrmn -writer, great grandson of Selnecker, b. 1624, d. 1679, pastor in Naumburg. He wrote "The Last Judgment," Leipzig (1653), " Alle Menschen muessen sterben." (Hark! a voice says, all are mortal.) "Straf mich nicht in deinem Zom," (Not m anger smite us. Lord.) "Welt ade ! ich bin dein muede," (World, farewell ! Of thee I'm tired. ) A. S. Albrecht, Margrave, of Brandenburg Ans- bach, third son of the Margrave Frederick the Elder, was bom at Ansbach, May 16, 1490. He enjoys the distinction of having been the last Grand Master of the order of Teutonic Knights and the first Duke of Prussia. The Elector Hermann of Cologne superintended his clerical training, and he became one of the canons of the chapter at Cologne. On the 22d of November, 1512, Albrecht held his formal entry into Koen igsberg as Grand Master. Early in the twenties the mind of Albrecht was attracted to the prin ciples of the Reformation, and this tendency was nourished and confirmed by the sermons of Andrew Osiander at Nuremberg. Acting on the advice of Luther and Melanchthon he converted Prussia into a secular duchy, subject to Poland by feudal relation. Assisted by George of Polenz, Speratus, and Sabinus he introduced the Reformation into Prussia. In 1544 he founded the University of Koenigsberg. In the same year the work of reformatory organ ization was completed by the publication of a revised order of service. His last years were embittered by the Osiandrian Contro versy and various other annoyances. He died at Tapian in 1568, as a true confessor of the Gospel. G. F. S. Alesius Alexander, reformer, b. Edinburgh, Scotland, April 23, 1500 ; at first a zealous an tagonist of Lutheranism, he was turned towards it through the influence of the Scotch Lutheran mart5rr, Patrick Hamilton. In 1530, he went to Wittenberg, where he became a life-long friend of Melanchthon. In 1535, he became professor at Cambridge, but had to flee from the persecu tions of Henry VIIL, becoming professor first at Prankfort-on-the-Oder, and afterwards at Leip zig, where he died in 1565, a champion of Melanchthon to the end. Author of Commenta ries on the Psalms, Gospel of John, Romans, Pastoral Epistles, etc. Allegheny Synod. See Synods. I. Allendorf, Johann Lndwig Conrad, a Ger man hymn writer of the Pietistic school, b. 1693, d. 1773. He was court preacher ia Koethen, and pastor in Wernigerode and Halle, editor of the so-called Koethen songs, which appeared from 1736 to 1768, with 132 hymns of his own, to the ' ' Lamb' ' and the ' ' Bridegroom, ' ' after the manner of Solomon's song. Four of his hjTmns have been translated into En glish. A. S. Allgemeine Evang. Luth. Eirchenzei- tung. The title of the conservative Lutheran Church paper of Saxony, long edited by Dr. Luthardt, representing the confessional Luther anism of the present Lutheran German State Church. Alloeosis, A term used by Zwingli to explain N, T. passages by ascribing di-vine properties to the human nature of Christ, affirming that sometimes when the one nature is spoken of the other, nature is meant. It is criticised se verely by Luther in his Large Confession Con cermng the Lord's Supper (Erlangen Ed., Luther's Works, 30 : 200-3, and Formula of Concord, 628, 631). Alsace-Lorraine, Luth. Church in. This province of 3,236 sq. m., which Germany re gained in 1871, was the home of a Tauler (11361) and Geiler of Kaisersberg (ti5io). In its capital, Strassburg, Matthew Zell first became Lutheran. Capito, Hedio, and Bucer labored here, but in a mediating spirit. Feb. 20, 1529, the Mass was abolished. Despite the bloody opposition of the Austrian Government, John Sturm kept Strassburg Protestant. TheAugsb. Religious Peace granted Strassburg freedom. Lutheran and Reformed Protestants lived on. From the former arose Philip Jac. Spener of Rappoltsweiler (see Spener). The Lutherans, mostly found to-day in lower Alsace, have 198 Congregations and 146 " Filiale." Every congregation is under a presbyterial council of 5-7. These councils, elected by the congre gation, are under a consistory. For every 6000 souls there should be a consistory. But there are only 30 consistories, though the Lutherans numbered 250,361 in 1890. A chief consistory and a directory are above all consistories. The directory is formed of four laymen and one spiritual inspector. Beside this State Church there are some independent Lutherans. Two papers advance the cause of Lutheranism : " Ev. Luth. Friedensbote " of Pastor Ihme in Barenthal (since 1871), and "Monatsblatt fiir Christen Augsb. Confession," (Strassburg, since 1886). Lutheranism is mildly confes sional. Alt, Heinrich, b. in Breslau, July 21st, 1811. He was educated in Berlin, especially under the influence of Neander. From 1846 to 1886 he served as teacher and preacher in the Charity hospital in Berlin. His chief work Der Christ liche Cultus, Berlin (1843), a historical treatise on the development of Cmistian Worship, after wards appeared in two parts, Der kirchliche Gottesdienst and Das Kirchenjahr. He also Altar 8 Altar-Fellowsbip -wrote eight articles in Herzog's Encyclopsedia. He d. in Berlin November 28th, 1893. G. U. W. Altar, from the Latin alta ara, high altar, an elevation of stone or earth as a place for relig ious offerings and sacrifice, first mentioned in Genesis 8 : 20. The Old Testament Law forbade the erection of altars outside of the Tabernacle or the Temple (Leviticus 17: 1-6), but there was always more or less indifference to this provi sion. The principal altars of the Old Testament sanctuary were the altar of burnt offering, and the altar of incense (Exodus 27 : i ff. ; 30: i. ff. ) Since the fourth century, when Christian art, particularly architecture, began to develop, spe cial attention was given the construction of the altar, its position in the sanctuary (tothe East), its material (stone), etc. It imitates the sarco phagus and contains the relics of martyrs. In the Greek Church it is hidden from the eyes of the laity by curtains. As the Medieval Church substituted the sacerdotal ministrations of a sep arate hierarchical priesthood for the true spirit ual service of God's people the altar became the center of the service of the Mass, as the place where the priest, in behalf of the congregation, offered the sacrifice of the host for the propitia tion of the people. The number of altars was multiplied ; in addition to the central high altar -various side-altars were erected to the Virgin, to the Patron of the congregation, and to other Saints. The Lutheran Church carefully excluded from the altar and its service all Romish super stitions and abuses, particularly everything that savored of the sacrifice of the Mass. But in her conservative and historical spirit she saw no reason to condemn the altar, as such, as the ma jority of Reformed churches have done. To her the Lord's Supper is "the Sacrament of the Altar, ' ' and her whole service culminates in its celebration. She retains the altar as the com munion table, and as the proper place for con gregational prayers and offerings, and for the ministerial benediction. The minister in ad dressing the Lord in prayer, with the congrega tion and in behalf of it, therefore faces the altar ; but in addressing the congregation and pro nouncing the benediction he faces the congrega tion. In the construction of our churches proper at tention is due to the position of the altar. Its proper place is in the niche or recess at the east ern endT of the church. It ought to be elevated several feet above the floor of the audience room, so as to be visible from every part of the sanctuary. It must stand free and unimpeded, neither pulpit nor organ nor galleries behind it. But it should not be shut off from the nave by railings. The cross or the crucifix, and frequently also the candlesticks and candelabra, are retained on the altars of Lutheran churches. The altar should always be covered with white linen to mark it as " the table ofthe Lord." In addition to this the different colored and embroidered vestments, such as antependia, may be used, changing with the seasons of the Church year. When the sacrament of the altar is celebrated a square linen cover (called corporale) is laid in the center on which the communion vessels are to stand. A delicate veil (velum) is spread over the vessels when not being used in the service. It is a beautiful aud appropriate custom, espe cially on festive occasions, to adorn the altar with flowers, but they ought to be natural and not artificial. A. S. Altar-Fellowship. The celebration of the Lord's Supper, which, as a sacramental action, aims to communicate to its guests the grace of salvation through the communication of the body and blood of Christ, has also received of the Lord the sacrificial character of the celebra tion of his memory. Thus the apostle ex pressly explains the word of institution : " This do in remembrance of me," when he says (l Cor. 1 1 : 26) : " For as often as ye eat this bread, and drink this cup, ye do show the Lord's death." The celebration of the Lord's Supper is consequently an actual confession of the sac rificial death of Jesus, which combines as in its center the whole content of Christian faith. And this confession is made through the per formance of the sacramental action in the most solemn manner in the divine service, as the highest and most important confessional act of the Church. As such the celebration of the Lord's Supper constitutes the outward commun ion of the Christian Church, whose inner es sence is communion of faith that comes to out ward expression in communion of confession. This the apostle testifies to, when he says, that we are one body, because we all partake of the one bread. The unity of outward church-com munion in which the individual communicants are bound together, presupposes their unity of faith and confession. Where such di-vision and disunion has taken place, that communions with different confessions exist beside each other there it is not possible, as the Apostle says, i Cor. II : 20 {ouk estin, it cannot be) to celebrate the Lord's Supper in common. It is the sad in evitable result of the present division of the visible Church, that now every separate church- communion must celebrate the communion sep arately, and neither the members of one can participate in the celebration of the other, nor can the one admit the members of the other. For if the Lord's Supper is a conf essional act, in which the communion that celebrates it con fesses its faith publicly and solemnly, so that those who participate take part in this confes sion publicly and solemnly, then the Lutheran who takes part in the celebration of the sacra ment of a communion of different faith in the most public and emphatic manner con fesses the false faith, which is here confessed, and therefore publicly denies the faith of his church, even though he adheres to it in his heart. And when a Lutheran congregation oa principle admits those of different faith, it there by actually expresses its recognition of their false faith, and denies its own. Therefore the principle of unmixed altar-fellowship was from the begmning a confessional principle of the Lutheran Church, and was most decidedly main tained by it— as also by the Reformed Church- as long as It adhered to its confession. Union- ism has relinquished the principle and made mixed altar-fellowship its shibboleth. It is the Altar-Fellowship 9 Altar-FelloAvtiliip necessary result, that unionism no longer admits the distinctive doctrines of Protestant confes sional churches as the faith and confession of saving truth, but lowers them to purely human opinions, in which there can be difference with out endangering the unity of faith and confes sion. Wherever there has been a return to the churchly faith, and the confession has been taken seriously, the altar-fellowship with those of different faith as a principle has been re jected as actual denial of the truth of the con fession, and the principle of unmixed altar-fel lowship has been recognized as the self-evident result of the adherence to the churchly confes sion with its theses and antitheses. The General Council was therefore compelled from the very beginning of its existence to make this principle the subject of most earnest discussion, and has brought it to clear expression in the Galesburg Rule. In the Theses on the Galesburg Declara tion which Dr. Kranth, at that time President of the Council, elaborated, there is an exposition, which must be counted as one of the most thor ough and best that have ever been published on this subject. S. F. (Iowa). Altar-Fellowship. The confessional differ ence between the Lutheran and Reformed di- -visions of Protestantism led from the start to separate or close denominational communion in the Lord's Supper. The Lutheran Church took this course under a strong con-viction of the duty of maintaining thus a constant testimony against the errors of the Z-winglian and Cal- ¦vinistic teaching, especially -with respect to the Supper itself. The restrictive rule, admitting only adherents of the Augsburg Confession to the sacrament in the Lutheran Church, was maintained through the whole period, with few or no exceptions, from the Reformation to the establishment of the Prussian Union by Freder ick William III. in 1817. This union, adopted in some of the other German countries, of course brought -with it altar-fellowship between the adherents of the Lutheran and Reformed con fessions. In the Lutheran State Churches of Saxony, Hanover, Austria, Bavaria proper, and other places where the union was not adopted, as well as in the independent Lutheran con gregations organized in states where the union exists, the rule of close communion is prevalent. But in the new conditions which have been brought about, the rule, even in the Lutheran State Churches, is less absolute than in the earlier period. Of this condition Professor Hauck, (Hertz,. Real Ency.) says : "No confes sional Lutheran State Church can wholly ex clude the Reformed. Almost everywhere is the admission of theReformed as guests to the Lord's Supper in practice. And where it is refused, this IS not because the congregation takes offense at it, but because it is against the con-victions of the pastor. Even this is dependent on general circumstances. The modem intercourse has brought about a much closer association be tween the adherents of the different confes sions than formerly. It could not fail to make them conscious on how many points they are one." ... In the United States the situation from the first threw the Lutherans into close personal and social relations with the Reformed, and inter-denominational altar-fellowship became somewhat customary. The later large accession of strict-communion Lutherans from Germany and other countries, however, together 'with some reaction among Lutherans of American birth, has thrown the practice in this country very largely into the order of close communion. This order has been followed in the Joint Synod of Ohio, the Synodical Conference, the German Synod of Iowa, and the Scandinavian Synods. The United Synod of the South has declined to enact au exclusive order. The General Council has adopted the rule : "Lutheran altars for Lu theran communicants only, " the rule, however, being declared to permit " exceptions in the sphere, not of right, but of privilege," to be determined by the conscientious judgment of pastors. (See Galesburg Rule.) The Gen eral Synod has adopted no exclusive rule, but adheres to the practice which marked the prev alent sentiment in America from the begin ning, opening the pri-vilege of the Lord's Sup per to members, in good and regular standing, of other orthodox churches. It does this upon the basis of the truth that the Supper is "the Lord's table, " the pri-vilege of access to which should not be removed from the terms estab lished by Christ himself or limited by denom inational differences of churches which are ac knowledged to be parts of Christ'strue Church. It takes the Saviour's prayer that his people may be one, and the apostle's condemnation of schism as teaching the sacred duty of preserving and properly exhibiting the unity of the Church. That Church is believed to be truly "one, the congregation, or body of believers, among whom the Gospel is truly preached and the sac raments truly administered." The General Synod holds that this divine unity must be properly maintained and exhibited by denomi national churches, if the offense of schism is to be avoided. The Lutheran Church, even in its most exclusive forms of organization, has never assumed to be the whole, or the only and alone. Church of Christ, or denied that the Reformed churches are also parts of that Church. The Augsburg Confession declares that the sacra ments have been instituted ' ' as tokens by which Christians may be known externally," signs of union among Christians — not only among ad herents of particidar denominational confes sions. The use of the sacrament as a means of testifying against the distinctive teachings in which the different branches of the church dis agree, instead of as a witness of their spiritual oneness, seems rather an abuse than its true use — a self-excluding separation from the com mon fellowship or communion of the Church universal, that manifestly approaches the char acter of a schism. No valid appeal can be made for it to the apostolic injunctions to separate from ' ' heretics ' ' or those who preach ' ' another Gospel." The sentiment of the General Synod is that the narrowest denominational unity should not be made to obscure the particular church's living connection with the one holy Christian Church. It lays emphasis upon the great truth of the brotherhood of be lievers. M. V. (Gen. Synod.) Altenburg 10 America, North Altenburg, Michael Johann, b. 1584, near Erfurt, d. 1640, pastor, hymn-writer, and composer. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether he is in reality the author of the hymn ascribed to him, or only the composer of its tune. The Leipzig Hymn Book of 1638 ascribes to him the famous " Battle Hymn of Gusta-vus Adolphus," " Verzage nicht, o Haeuflein klein," "Fear not, O Little Flock, the foe," tr. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. (1855). Another translation by M. Loy in the Ohio Hymnal (1880), " Thou little flock be not afraid." A. S. Altenburg Conference, held at Altenburg, from Oct. 20, 1568, to March 9, 1569, between the Wittenberg theologians (Eber, Salmuth, Praetorius, Schiitz, Moller, Freyhub) and the Jena theologians (Wigand, Ccelestine, Irenaeus, Rosinus, Bressnitzer, Kirchner, Burgravius), upon invitation of the Elector August and the Duke John William of Saxony. The subjects discussed were justification, free -will, and the adiaphora. The result was greater mutual bit terness. Elector August, reassured of the Lutheranism of his Wittenbergers, finally learnt that Jena was not as extreme as repre sented. Althamer, Andrevr, b. about 1500, in Brenz,Wuertemberg, given to humanistic studies at Tubingen, and Leipzic (1518-1519), became school teacher in Schwabisch-Hall and Reutlin gen (1521-1523), and priest at Schwabisch- Gmiind (1524). Turning to evangelical prin ciples, he married under armed protection of friends, had to flee, and came to Wittenberg, (1525). Ripened by study into a decided Lutheran, he was appointed pastor at Elters- dorf near Erlangen (1527), became deacon at St. Sebald, Nuremberg (1528), was largely instru mental iu introducing the Reformation in Bran denburg. He was energetic and a great organ izer. Among his writings are a biblical dic tionary, a commentary on James, a harmony of difficult Scripture passages, a very clear cate chism (1528), and a noted commentary on Tacitus. He d. probably 1540 (T. Kolde. Andr. Althamer). Al-ting, John Henry, a Reformed professor at Heidelberg ( 16 13), author of an explanation of the Augs. Conf. -with an appendix, whether the reformed churches are to be recognized as under the Augs. Conf. Amandus, Dr, John, probably a native of Pomerania, was sent to East Prussia by Fred erick von Heydeck, counselor and fnend of Albrecht, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, reached Konigsberg in Nov. i523,be- came pastor of the Altstadt, was at first kindly mentioned and greeted by Luther in a letter addressed to Briesmann in 1524, but soon dis carded as a "hot-head and turbulent spirit," pleased the rabble, raised a riot against the monks by preaching on Easter day, 1524, " The gray monks have eaten at our table long enough, we should for once eat at theirs." The result was, the rabble drove the monks out, plundered their monastery, and destroyed altars and images. A. inveighed against the civil au thorities, until, at last, the citizens armed them selves against him towards the end of 1524 ; he escaped with his wife, was driven from Dantzic and Stolp, and became first Superinten dent of the churches at Goslar, where he d. in 1530. E. F. M. Ambrosian Chant, Cantus Ambrosianus, the oldest form of church music in the western church, introduced by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, b. 340, d. 397. Probably some fea tures of Ambrosian music have been preserved in such tunes as "Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland," " Komm, Gott Schoepfer Heiliger Geist," "Herr Gott, dich loben wir" (Te Deum). But in spite of all researches we have very little positive information concerning the character of this music. We know that it was antiphonal, and it is generally supposed that, in distinction from the Gregorian Chant, it was rhythmical and melodious. It had a pe culiar charm for the people, and was most likely taken from ancient worldly music, probably the Greek. The traditional theory that Am brose is the author of the four so-called Am brosian or " authentic " scales is not supported by sufficient historical testimony. A. S. Ambrosian Hymn. See Te Deum. Ambrosian Hymns. A large number of hymns (92 according to Daniel) is compre hended under this title, but probably not more than twelve of them can be ascribed to Ambrose. Several of these have been translated and received into Lutheran hymn books. A. S. .Emilia, Juliana, Countess of Schwarz- burg Rudolstadt, b. 1637, d. 1706, the daughter of Count Friedrich von Barby, wife of her cousin. Count Albrecht Anton, the most produc tive of German female hymn--writers, whose gifts in that direction were fostered and devel oped by Dr. Ahasuerus Fritsch. The beautiful hymn, " Wer weiss, -wie nahe mir mein Ende," in twelve stanzas, is now generally ascribed to her, though her authorship was disputed in the last century by G. M. Pfefferkorn, who claimed it as his own. Of the four English translations. Miss Winkworth's "Who knows how near my end may be," is the best. A. S. America, North, Lutheran Ch, i. Early Settlements. In 1623, the earliest Lutherans in America came with the first Dutch colony from Holland to Manhattan Island. At first pre vented from establishing public worship by severe laws and hea-vy fines, they at length, by the aid of the mother church in Amsterdam succeeded in securing the services of a pastor. In 1657, the Rev. John Ernest Goetwasser arrived and ministered to the spiritual wants of the Dutch Lutherans in New Amsterdam and along the Hudson. But he was not the first Lutheran pastor in the New World. As early as 1638, a colony of Swedish Lutherans had settled below Philadelphia and erected the first Lutheran church at Fort Christina, near Wilmington, Del. Their pastor was the Rev. Reorus Tor- killus. German Lutherans began to immigrate near the close of the seventeenth century. In 1701, the Rev. Andrew Rudman, pastor of the Swedish churches, preached to them in Phila delphia. The bulk of German Lutherans how- America, 9f orth 11 America, IVortli ever, did not arrive until 1708, when the Palat inates, driven by persecution from their homes, came in great numbers at first to New York and then to Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Caro lina. The Lutheran pastor who accompanied them was the Rev. Joshua von Kocherthal. A number of the Saltzburg Lutherans, driven from their homes in midwinter of 1731 by the Archbishop Firmian, found a new home in Georgia under the pastoral care of the Rev. Boltzius and Gronau. In point of time the Lutherans belong to the earliest settlers of this country. The Roman Catholics established themselves at St. Augustine in 1565 ; the first Church of England colony is that of Jamestown, Va., in 1607 ; the year of the landing of the Pilgrim Fathers (Congreg. ) is 1620; the Re formed Dutch Church held its first services at New Amsterdam in 1628 ; the Baptists settled Providence in 1640 ; and the first Methodist Church was not established until 1766. II. Immigration. In consequence of the oppressions, the German settlers were obliged to suffer ; many of the Lutherans residing along the Hudson, the Mohawk, and in the Schoharie ¦valley, left their farms and homes and moved to Pennsylvania. For 60 years up to the time of the revolutionary war, there was a large influx of German Lutherans, mostly to Penn sylvania. During the next 50 years Lutheran immigration practically ceased until about 1830, when it again began to assume large propor tions. Since i860 the Scandina-vian countries also added their quota. III. Distribution. Prom a map of Hy. Gannet, geographer, for the U. S. census of 1890 " sho-wing the proportion of the Lutherans to the aggregate population," it appears that in 1890 the Lutherans constituted less than one per cent, of the population in the region south of the Ohio, and throughout the entire terri tory from the Atlantic to the Pacific, as well as in all the territory west of the Missouri. There are exceptions, however. A number of coun ties in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, one in Georgia, one in Alabama, two in Miss issippi, New Orleans, two counties in Arkansas, eleven in Texas, one in Oregon, three in Wash ington, two in Wyoming, and four in Colorado, have a Lutheran population of from one to twenty per cent. Kansas and Nebraska must also be excepted, where the Lutherans con stitute a large percentage of the population : in Nebraska even a larger percentage than any denomination -with the exception of Roman Catholics and Methodists (Episcopal). Whilst Pennsylvania in 1890, numbered more Lu theran communicants than any other State, to -wit, 250,000, the Lutheran population in the states of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Dakota, exceeds the combined population of all other Protestant churches in these states, and in South Dakota that of the Roman Catho lics. IV. Statistics According to Countries, States and Prq-vinces. I. Canada, a. Manitoba, 3,524 communi cants, 6,410 souls; *. Northwest Territories (Assiniboia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan), 2,553 com., 4,834 souls; c. Ontario, ii,866com., 21,281 souls ; d. Quebec, 494 com., 813 souls ; i97i37i- Their increase equals only 13 per cent. The Presbyterians (12 divisions) report 1,519,978 communicant members, an increase of 19 per cent. The membership of the Congrega- iionalists is 644,802, showing an increase of 25 per cent., that of the Protestant Episcopal churches 675,477, an increase of a little less than 27 per cent., whilst the Refortned (2, branches) report 365,971 members, an increase of 23 per cent. The increase of the Lutheran Church represents a little more than 27 per cent. It is important to note that, as in 1890, the census office -will very likely also in 1900 find a much larger number of Lutherans than our almanacs give on the basis of the statistical tables in synodical reports, which are notoriously incom plete. Hence, the percentage of increase ascer tained upon the basis of the census of 1900 will be much greater than that which synodic^ tables give. The Roman Catholic Church is here purposely omitted, as its returns are utterly un reliable, as was shown by the census report of 1890, the Catholic almanacs gi-ving two to three millions of communicant members more than the bishops could find in their respective dio ceses and report to the census office. VII. The Languages Used in the Church Ser-vice. Our pastors in North America preach the Gospel at present in fourteen different lan guages. TheDutch, which for two hundred years asserted its right in the Lutheran churches along the Hudson, is heard there no longer. The lan guage of the great mass of Lutherans in North America is the German. 900,000 of the communicant membership, almost three-fifths, belong to German churches, nearly one-fifth or 500,000 to English, 210,000 to Norwegian, 115,- 000 to Swedish, 20,000 to Danish, 5,000 to Fin nish, and an equal number to the churches in Greenland using the Eskimo lang^uage, and 3,500 to Icelandic churches. Besides these there are services conducted in the Bohemian, the America, South 13 Amsdorf French, the Littavonian, the Esthonian, Slavo nian, and Polish languages. VIII. Theological Seminaries and Col leges. See Colleges and seminaries. There are 26 theological seminaries, ha-ving 90 professors and 1,264 students. Five belong to the General Synod, three each to the Gen eral Council and the Synodical Conference, and two are -within the territory of the United Synod of the South. Of colleges the Lutheran Church maintains 35, having 320 professors and 5.410 students. Besides these, there are as many academies and high schools and 15 ladies' seminaries. IX. Eleemosynary Institutions. The Lu theran Church not only in the fatherland but also in this country is noted for its many charitable institutions for the orphans, the sick, and the aged. There are 38 orphans' homes (see Or phanages), 10 homes for the aged and infirm, 13 hospitals (see Hospitals) , 9 institutions for the training of deaconesses, and one for deaf and dumb children. X. Of Religious Papers, 107 are published that have a general circulation, 43 are printed in German, 37 in English, 12 in the Norwegian, 5 in Danish, 4 in Swedish, 2 each in the Ice landic and Finnish, and i each in the Litta vonian and Esthonian languages (see Church Papers). j. N. America, South, Lutheran Church iu. As early as 1580 the Dutch secured a foothold upon the northeastern part of South America, and they still retain Dutch Guiana as well as several of the Leeward Islands. This accounts for the early settlement of Lutherans in South America. Lutheran churches w^ere founded in the first half of the eighteenth century. The pastors came from Amsterdam. Several of them came north and served churches along the Hud son. The large settlements of Lutherans in Brazil, as well as the smaller ones in Uruguay, the Argentine Republic and Chili are from Ger many and of comparatively recent date. Statis tics : I.Dutch possessions, in Leeward Islands : 2 churches, 500 souls ; 2. Venezuela : i church, 450 souls ; 3 British Guiana : i church, 350 souls ; 4. Dutch Guiana : i church, 3,000 souls ; 5. Brazil: Prov. Rio Grande Do Sui, 28 churches, 30,500 souls; Santa Catharina 11 churches, 18,400 soiils ; Parana, 7 churches, 7,500 souls ; Sao Paulo, 3 churches, 1,000 souls ; Rio de Janeiro, etc., lochurches, 19,200 souls; total 60 churches, 86,800 souls ; 6. t/ruguay : 3 churches, 700 souls ; 7. Argentine Republic : 4 churches, 7,000 souls ; 8. Chili: 4 churches, 2,ooosouls. Grand total for South America : 76 churches, and 100,- 600 persons in organized churches, equal to 58,000 confirmed persons. There is no Lutheran organization in French Guiana, Paraguay, Bo- Uvia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. — Barmen, which about the middle of the present century sent a number of pastors to the United States, also pro-vided the first missionaries for the Ger man settlements in South America ; Saint Chrishona sent some, but up to -within the last ten years by far the largest number of ministers has come from the mission house at Basel. More recently the Oberkirchenrat of the Pras- sian State Church has endeavored to provide for the German churches in South America, and more recently the pastors have mostly come from Pmssian Universities. The church in British Guiana is connected with the General Synod. In 1897 the United Gotteskasten of Germany, a distinctly Lutheran Association, has begun the work of supplying the churches in South America with pastors who firmly stand upon the confessions of the Lutheran Church, the first one being a member of the General Council. J. N. American Lutheranism, See Lutheran ism, American. Amling Wolfgang, b. 1542 in Munner- stadt, Bavaria, pastor at Coswig and Superin tendent at Zerbst (1573), is known for his oppo sition to the Formula of Concord, and his introduction of Cal-vinism into Anhalt by trick ery and deception. He d. 1606. Amsdorf, Nickolaus von, the stanchest friend and adherent of Luther, vigorous co-re former and unshaken defender of the Evangelical doctrine, to keep which in its purity he often fought in a harsh manner. He was named "Alter Lutherus." A descendant of a noble family, he was bom at Torgau, Dec. 3, 1483. Educated at Leipzig, he entered the newly founded University of Wittenberg for theolog ical studies. Having received the academic degrees he was made licentiate and Professor of Theology in 15 11. He was the first defender of Luther and his work ; accompanied Luther and Carlstadt to the Leipzig Disputation ; had the epochal treatise of Luther : "To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation," dedicated to' his name ; escorted Luther to Worms (1521), and was in the same vehicle with Luther, when the latter was captured and brought to the Wartburg. 1 It was he on whom Luther called when, in November, he secretly and in disguise left the Wartburg to pay Wittenberg a short visit. Highly recommended by Luther, the city of Magdeburg called him in 1524, in order to estab Ush the Reformation there. Laboring with equal decisiveness against Papal and Sectarian errors he served as pastor of St. Ulrich and city-Superin tendent (1524-1542) with eminently blessed re sults. His growing fame brought him several calls to important places, which he did not ac cept, but using Magdeburg as a center he organ ized the Evangelical work at Goslar and Eim- beck, and was active in the introduction and establishment of the Reformation in the duchy of Saxony. With Luther he remained on terms of most intimate friendship. He proved him self an indefatigable and ever-watchful defender of Evangelical truth, combining unrelenting acrimony with great frankness, when taking part as a delegate from Magdeburg at the Mar burg Colloquy, at the Wittenberg Concordia, at the renewed controversy with Erasmus, and especially at the religious Colloquy of Regens- burg ( 1541). Having been called in 1542 by the Elector John Frederick to the Bishopric of Naumburg-Zeitz, he left Magdeburg reluct antly. Luther himself consecrated him an Evangelical bishop "ohne Chresem und Schmeer " (without chrism and butter.) Faith ful in the exercise of his office he met with great Amsterdam 14 Amsterdam opposition, and felt little or no satisfaction in his new place. The Smalcald War obUged him to leave Naumburg. Staying at Weimar as "exul christi" with the son of the captive Elector, he labored hard for the founding of an University at Jena, which place was destined to become shortly after the stronghold of orthodox Lutheranism in opposition to the more lax Wittenberg under Melanchthon's rule. Strongly opposing the Interim Amsdorf had to flee to Magdeburg, then the common place of refuge for all persecuted, faithful Lutheran theologians. 'In company with Flacius he there bore the brunt of battle against all attacks threatening the Lutheran Church from Rome (Interim) and Wit tenberg (Adiaphoristic controversy). Magdeburg having surrendered, John Frederick, who con fided in him, and whom he afterward prepared for his end, called him to an honored position at Eisenach. Making an official -visit to Gotha, trouble arose between him and Menius, the Superintendent of that place ; Menius defended the teaching of George Major, according to which ' ' good works were necessary for salva tion. ' ' In the heat of argument Amsdorf main tained that "good works are dangerous for salvation. ' ' This sentence, according to his own explanation should, however, mean this, "that the trust in good works for salvation is dan gerous. ' ' It was, nevertheless, condemned by all strict Lutherans (melius sensit, quam locutus est). The Formula of Concord has, justly, re jected the proposition as being ' ' falsch und argerlich " (false and offensive). When the Synergistic controversy arose between Strigel and Flacius, A. sided vrith Flacius, -without, however, sharing his -view, according to which original sin belongs to the substance of human nature ; when Flacius and his adherents were banished from the duchy of Saxony, A. could remain unmolested. He died May 14, 1565. His sepulcher is found in front of the altar in the main church at Eisenach. Luther calls him a "theologian by nature." Mention should be made or the part he took in the translation of the Bible and of his issuing an edition of Luther's works, the Jena edition. He published a number of works of his own, mostly polem ical in character. Best literature on Ams dorf, I. Meier : (in Meurer's Altvaeter der Luth. Kirche) Amsdorf's Leben, and the article: "Amsdorf" in Hauck's Realencyclo- padie. W. P. Amsterdam (HoU.). In 1525, Erasmus of Rotterdam stated : " Most of the people in Hol land, Zealand, and Flanders know Luther's teachings. There were then also Lutherans in the large commercial city of A. John Tiemann of A. signed the Smalcald Art. The same in tolerant spirit which was manifested toward the Lutherans in New A. was more or less active also in A. Still the church prospered, and during the seventeenth and eight eenth centuries, it was one of the largest and wealthiest among the Lutheran congregations in the world. The Lutherans from Worms, Augsburg, Magdeburg, and even from Dublin appealed to their brethren for aid and never in vain. There is little to substantiate the charge that the church at A. lorded over the other Lutheran churches in Holland. An examina tion of the records of the consistory at A. from the beginning of the seventeenth century, shows that the church at A. indeed supported the smaller churches scattered from Maestricht to Groningen, exercising paternal supervision and calling pastors to account, but there was no evidence of arbitrary and harsh measures. There was, however, some internal strife. Nieii- wenhfiis, in his history of the Lutheran church at A., heads a chapter: "De Duivel in de Kerk, Twisten van 1619-1696." These dis putes were mainly caused by the deacons, who did not always co-operate with the consistory, i.e. the pastors and the elders, and culminated in 1680, when on Oct. 26, in the new church which had been erected a few years before in order to accommodate the Lutherans in the northwestern part of the city, in the midst of the service a woman began to sing, " Ach Gott vom Himmel sieh darein. ' ' Peace was restored, and the follow ing chapter has the heading : ' ' Ninety Years Peace, 1696-1786." The strictly confessional character of the Lutheran Church in A. dur ing the seventeenth century is attested by the fact that it selected its pastors from among those who faithfully adhered to the Lutheran con fessions. A number of them had been pupils of John Gerhard in Jena. In the "call" the church required of the new pastor : " He shall preach the pure doctrine of the divine Word, as contained in the . . . Unaltered Augsburg Conf., its Apology, the Smalcald Art., the two Catechisms of Luther, and the Form, of Concord, and faithfully avoid erroneous doctrines. ' ' We regularly, throughout the seventeenth cent ury, meet in the minutes of the consistory -with resolutions like these : "In all the Lu theran churches of HoUand, the Augsburg Confession shall be read and explained to the congregations. This shall be done annually." " The pastors shall be admonished to preach on Luther's Catechisms." During the latter half of the eighteenth century, the baneful influences of Rationalism and Socinian- ism made themselves felt in the church. The fall of Man (Gen. 3), was stated to be an allegory, the atonement was denied, and Christ only recognized as a teacher and example of morality. A large party withdrew, and in Aug. 1791, founded the " Restored Lutheran Church." At present the old congregation numbers 32,000 persons which are served by six pastors, one preaching German. The " Restored " number 7,500 souls, served by four pastors. Each party has a theological seminary in A. Some of the pastors are also professors at the university. The church at A. has been of vast importance and influence to the Lu theran Church in North America. For more than a hundred years the Lutheran consistory at A has provided pastors for the Dutch and Ger man Lutherans in N. Y. The lay-eldership in the Lutheran Church in America had its origin l"-"^ }^^ f^Y^ch of A., where the Lutherfns introduced this peculiarly Reformed institution into their church polity. Here we find it as f,t '^ "^i, ^ beginning of the seventeenth cent- ^S;»^ -fif^'^'-P*^^"^.^ '" N. Y. were also fur- mshed with copies of the " Agenda," containing Anderson 16 Andrese orders of divine service and ministerial acts. It is also worthy of note, that, wherever, in the records of the church at A., the Augsb. Con fession is mentioned it is qualified by the word " unaltered." It is a well-known fact that in the constitutions, calls to pastors and other solemn compacts, the same terms are used and in the case of the Loonenburg church it even reads " Unalterable A. C." J. N. Anderson, Paul, (1821-1892); Norwegian Lutheran pastor. In 1843 he came to America and received his education at Beloit CoUege, Wis. In 1848 he was ordained by the Franckean Synod, and organized the first Norwegian Lutheran Church at Chicago. He was elected president of the Northern HUnois Synod in 1857. He took a prominent part in organizing the Scandina-vian Augustana Synod in i860, and in organizing the Norwegian Augustana Synod in 1870. From 1876-1883 he was pastor at Mil waukee, Wis. He was the first Scandina-vian Lutheran minister in this country to establish a Sunday-school and to introduce regular Eng lish services. E. G. L. Andrese Jacob, one of the most influential Lutheran theologians in the latter half of the six teenth century, was bom at Waiblingen, Wuert- emberg, Marcb 25, 1528. His father Jacob Endriss, was a smiUi by trade, which accounts for the appellations given to the subject of this sketch, as Schmidlein, Fabrianis, Vulcanus, etc. The influence of Erhard Schnepf , the Wuert- emberg Reformer, made itself felt in his career as a student, which began in the Paedagogium at Stuttgart, and was continued and completed at the University of Tuebingen (1541-1546), in which year he became Diaconus at Stuttgart. When, in 1547, the Smalcald War led to the occu pation of Stuttgart by Spanish troops, Andreae was the only Protestant minister who remained at his post, commanding the respect of the con querors. But the introduction of the Interim — (1547)1 drove him from Stuttgart to Tuebingen, where from 1549 he officiated as Diaconus of the Collegiate Church. Andrese was the last one to administer to Duke Ulrich the Lord's Supper just before his death, Nov. 6, 1550. The doctorate of Theology was conferred on Andreae in 1553, and subsequently he became General Supt. of Goeppingen by regular promo tion. From this time onward we find him ac tively engaged in labors for the general welfare of the Church of Wuertemberg, participating with Brenz in the work of its organization . Con sistent in his efforts for Lutheran Concord as weU as in his opposition to compromise -with Calvinism, he was variou-sly engaged in impor tant commissions, preliminary to the great work of his life, his share in the preparation of the Formula of Concord, beginning with the Suabian Concord based on six sermons preached by Andreae. After Lucas Osiander had pre pared the Formula of Maulbronn in 1576, as a reply of the Suabian to the criticism of the Saxon theologians on the Suabian Concord, a meeting of theologians at Torgau, in which An dreae took part, prepared the Torgau Book on the basis of^all the previous material. At the final gathering in the monastery of Bergen near Magdeburg, Andreae, Chemnitz, Selnecker, and others went over the whole ground once more, and the result was the Bergic Book, or the Form ula of Concord, of the year 1577. (See Con cord, Formula of.) Indefatigable until the end, he d. January 7, 1590, after having spent 44 years in the ministry and 28 years as Chancellor of the University at Tuebingen. G. F. S. Andrese, John Valentine, was a grandson of Jacob Andreae, and son of John Andreae, pas tor at Herrenberg near Tuebingen, where John Valentine was born, Aug. 17, 1586. Entering the University of Tuebingen in 1601, he received his master's degree in 1603. He resembles Spener in the scope and variety of his reading, which included works on mathematics, geog raphy, and various modern languages, even the English, besides which he had a taste for print ing and playing on the lute, and even tried his hand at such arts as watch-making, and car pentry. He traveled considerably in S-witzer land, France, and Italy. Geneva in particular attracted him and here he imbibed those ideas conceming church discipline which he after wards endeavored to put into practice in his pastoral career. Ha-ving completed his theo logical studies he was settled as Diaconus at Vaihingen in 1614, and in the same year mar ried to Agnes Elizabeth Grueninger. His mmd turned toward the practical side of Christianity, and his literary activity was specially prolific during the early part of his life. Among his works those which dwelt on Rosicrucianism attracted most attention, viz., Fama fratemitatis R. C. (1614) and Confessio fratemiiatis, (1615). Andreae's object was to satirize the degeneracy of the times by his productions, which took the form of a ro mance, directed against the astrology and al chemy of the period, and depicted an " order of Rosicrucians, ' ' established 200 years before in the East, whose symbol R. C. denoted the mar riage of the cross and the rose, i. e. of Chris tianity and science. Andreae opposed the prac tical abuse of the above fiction with aU his might. The two chief spheres of his activity were Calw from 1620 to 1639, ^ period of suffering as well as action, and Stuttgart, where he held the posi tions of court-preacher and consistorial coun cilor. In order to relieve him somewhat for the sake of his health, the Abbey of Bebenhausen and later that of Adelberg was assigned to him. Herder terms him a " rose among thorns in his century," and Spener says : " Could I awaken any one from the dead for the good of the Church, it would be John Valentine Andrese." He d. June 27, 1554. G. F. S. Andrese, Laurentius (Lars Anderson), b. about 1480, d. 1552. Being archdeacon at Stregnas he was in 1520 through Olavus Petri won for the cause of the Lutheran faith and with him became one of the founders of the reformation of the Swedish Church. From 1523 until 1531 he was the chancellor of the king, Gusta-vus Vasa, and as such he used his great influence and talents to prepare the legis lative enactments against the papal prelates. He desired, however, to preserve the episcopal office in the Church of Sweden, and was too conservative to please the king, when the same king grew more and more avaricious of the Anne 16 Antichrist riches and power of the Church. At last, Laurentius Andreae was, together -with Ola-vus Petri, falsely and shamefuUy accused of high treason and condemned to death ; but both were pardoned by the king in 1540. Laurentius Andreae -wrote the excellent tract, " A short instruction on faith and good works. " He is also considered by several historians to be the translator of the New Testament into Swedish, which translation appeared anony mously in 1526, and is a masterpiece for its time. N. F. Anne, Queen of England, b. 1664, reigned 1702-12. Through her marriage to Prince George of Denmark, special favor was sho-wn the Lutheran Church in England. The German court chapel of St. James, endowed by her husband, had as one of its pastors, Boehme, who enlisted her interest in the oppressed Palatines, thousands of whom emigrated to England in 1709, and because of her generosity learned to know her as "Good Queen Anne." By her favor the Palatinate emigration to America began, which resulted in the establishment of the German churches of the last and beginning of the present century. With Frederick of Prussia she projected a scheme for the union of the Church of England and the churches of Germany. Details in Walch's Neueste Relig- ionsgeschichte, II. 121 seq. Antichrist. The et3rmology of the word does not indicate whether the Antichrist is a false Christ, who puts himself in place of the true Christ, or merely an opponent of Christ. For the prefix in the name may ex press either the idea of antagonism or of oppo sition and substitution. The nature of the Anti christ must be determined from the description of him in the Bible. Although the name occurs only in the epis tles of St. John, the chief passage on the doc trine of the Antichrist is 2 Thess. 2 : 1-12. St. Paul there describes the manifestations of the Man of Sin as one of the events which must precede the second advent of Christ. His reve lation is accompanied, perhaps preceded, by apostasy from the Christian faith. In him sin reaches such a culmination that he exalts him self against God, not denying his existence, but arrogating his prerogatives to such a degree that he sits as sovereign and as God in the temple of God, the Church. Nevertheless this lawless one is not the principle of evil itself, but only an instrument of Satan, working miracles and deceiving the lost enemies of the truth by the judgment of God. While the manifestation of this Man of Sin is referred by St. Paul to the last times, the apostle at the same time speaks of the working of this mystery of lawless ness as already existing in his times. Only his full manifestation was hindered for a time by some restrainer known to the Thessalonians. Is this Antichrist described by St. Paul, a person, or personification of a principle, or the personification of a polity ? Each of these -views has its advocates. Again opinion is di vided as to where and when the Antichrist is to be looked for. Was he a person living in the days of the apostles? Or is he a person who -wiU live shortly before the second^ coming of Christ? Or is the Antichrist something that accompanies Christianity always and every where ? Or can a distinct phenomenon in the history of the Church be identified with the Antichrist ? The confessions of the Lutheran Church con sider the Antichrist to be a polity and identify him -with the Pope. Cf. Smal. Art. P. II. , Art. IV., 10-14, and Tract, de Pot. et Prin. Papae, 39-41; Apol. VIL and VIH. (IV.), 24; XV. (VIIL), 18. Most recent Lutheran theo logians, however, while not denying the Anti christian marks borne by the papacy, regard the real Antichrist as a person yet to be re vealed. They expect that all Antichristian tendencies wiU ultimately become concentrated in a single person, who will be destroyed by the Lord himself at his appearing. This view is governed by a more faithful adherence to the language of Scripture than the spiritualiz ing interpretations that reduce the Antichrist to a mere personification of e-vil or atheism generaUy, and by a more reverent regard for the mysteries of the Christian faith than the rationalizing opinions that seek the Antichrist in some historical personage of the age of St. Paul ; for instance, one of the Roman emperors. But unsatisfactory as is the rationalizing his torical view that makes the appearance of the Antichrist a mere passing episode in the begin ning of the Church, it escapes one contradiction inseparable from the futurist personal view. It makes of the Antichrist simply a person, exist ing, working, aud known (as St. Paul says) in apostolic times. But the futurist -view, so much favored by modern conservative theologians, must consider the Antichrist as both a personi fication and a person ; the personification of a principle of error in apostolic and subsequent times, and a person at the end of the world. The only satisfactory way to conceive of the ]Man of Sin as already working in the times of St. Paul and yet continuing until the coming of Christ, when his destruction wiU ensue, is to follow the steps of the Reformers and to regard the Antichrist as the personification of a ten dency -within the Church, which continues in a succession of persons. That tendency does not attain its full manifestation at once, but when It is fuUy revealed it is manifest not as an antagonism to Christ from -without the Church, but as the effort -within the Church to place man in his stead -with claims of di-vine prerogative It IS a mistake of most of the modem interpret tations on this subject, both of the futurist and the pretenst type, that it views the Antichrist as a heathenish or atheistic secular power, whereas St. Paul's description manifestly depicts a power •r ,r ^ °°t.d'''ectly irreligious, but that exalts Itself withm the Church. Correspondingly the restraining power that hinders the full mani festation of the Antichrist for a time cannot be anything of this worid, like the Roman govern ment or cml government generaUy. That which restrains Antichrist is God hiiself, or more exactly the work of the Holy Spirit We can safely follow the Lutheran confes sions m their interpretation of the Bible on this subject and declare the Pope to be the Anti- Antichrist 17 Anthropology The view that the Antichrist is a polity is confirmed by the declarations in the epistles of St. John on the subject. Here the word is used both in the singular and plural. The characteristic of the antichrists is doctrinal opposition to Christ, especially the denial that Jesus is the Christ (i John 2 : 22 ; 4 : 3 ; 2 John 7). These antichrists, of whom many had arisen when St. John wrote (2 : 18), were false prophets -within the Church (4:112: 19). These numerous antichrists represent the beginning of the real ization of the Antichrist, of whose coming the churches had heard, and so tiiey are a sign of the last times (2:18; 4:3). Evidently this Anti christ is not a secular power, nor is it merely one person. It is represented in many per sons in the beginning. But a concentration of this power of error within the Church in a unity and system is implied in the use of the singular noun and also by the ascription to the Anti christ of a spirit, or that which is its equivalent (the noun is omitted in the Greek) in i John 4:3- In the same line are the declarations of our Lord conceming the last times. Our Lord no where mentions or describes the Antichrist. But in Matthew 24 he describes the working of the power of error and iniquity through false prophets. This agrees verj' well -with the con ception of the Antichrist as a system of error to be developed in the history of the Church. But if the Antichrist is a person, whether in times then near at hand, or to come at the end of the world, the omission of all reference to so re markable a phenomenon in our Lord's eschat- ology is strange. Strange, too, is the omission of any reference to a personal Antichrist in other places where St. Paul speaks of the last times and describes the iniquity and seductions and demoniac work ings characteristic of them. For example, i Tim. 4 : i seq. ; and 2 Tim. 3 : i seq. The same omission is noteworthy in 2 Pet. ch. 2. It is a difficult undertaking to develop any doctrine from the complex symbolic imagery of the books of Daniel and Revelation. But after having arrived at a conception of the Antichrist from clearer passages of the New Testament, it remains to compare the result -with the declara tions of Daniel and of the Apocal3pse that bear upon the subject. St. Paul leans upon Daniel to some degree in his description of the Man of Sin. Compare 2 Thess. 2 :4 -with Dan. 11 :36. But it does not follow from this appropriation of language that both -writers are necessarily speaking of the same thing. This remark also applies to the Apocalypse, the -writer of which also leans upon Daniel. The predictions of Daniel conceming the great enemy of " the saints of the Most High ' ' doubt less have a direct reference to Antiochus Epiph anes in the time of the Maccabees. Yet this is not their whole significance. They are ex pressly declared to belong to " the time of the end " (Dan. 8 : 17, 19 ; 11 :35)- From the Old Testament point of -view, " the time of the end " is the time of the Messiah, whose first and second coming are not distinguished in prophecy. The description of "the little hom " (Dan. 7 :8) must therefore look beyond Antiochus Epiphanes and have some bearing upon Messianic times. Our Lord himself indi cates this by applying some of Daniel's lan guage (8 : II ; 9 : 27 ; 11 :3i) to the destruction of Jerusalem (Matt. 24 : 15). We may therefore discover an indirect reference to the Antichrist in Daniel by regarding the blasphemous king he pictures as the type of the Man of Sin depicted in the New Testament. Prophecies which receive their fulfilment in one period gain a more complete fulfilment in a later period. So our Lord's prediction of the de struction of Jerusalem exceeds the historical event and is at the same time a prophecy of the end of the world. Applying this principle to Daniel's prophecies, we find that he pictures the great enemy of God and His saints not only for Old Testament, but also for New Testament times. But it cannot be inferred from Daniel that the Antichrist is necessarily a king nor even a single person. The same characteristics of wickedness may appear in a succession of per sons or in a system. The book of Revelation undoubtedly includes the Antichrist in its comprehensive eschatology. But not every person or power of evil symbol ized in the Apocalypse is to be identified with the Antichrist. Other manifestations of evil have some of the same marks as Antichrist. Only that can be applicable to the subject which corresponds with the representation of the Anti christ given elsewhere m the New Testament. For this reason the beast having ten horns and seven heads must be excluded. That is mani-- f estly a secular power. But the essential marks. of the Antichrist can be discovered in the second beast, the false prophet that deceived people into a worship of the first beast by its signs; (Cf. Rev. 13 : 11-17 ; 16 : 13 ; 19 : 20 ; 20 : 10). In one particular especially has this beast the essential character of Antichrist. As the coun terpart of the true Christ, the Lamb of God, it has two horns like unto a lamb (Rev. 13 : The Antichrist does not represent every form of opposition to the kingdom of Christ. It is a distinct form of antagonism, chiefly doctrinal in character, that aims to substitute the human for the divine, a false religious supremacy for the true Christ. It appears within the Church. It is not a temporary phenomenon of the first or the last age of the Church, a tyrannical Roman Emperor or a kind of human incarnation of Satan in the end. The Antichrist belongs to the history of the Church in its progress. The Reformers -with correct insight into Scripture and history, recognized where his marks ap peared. A. G. V. Anthropology, usually the second section in Dogmatics. Although the term means "the science concerning man," nevertheless the de partment is restricted to only a branch of the subject. Of the five states of man, viz. : that of integrity, corruption, grace, glory, and eter nal misery, only the first two are here treated. It comprises, therefore, the discussion of the image of God, the fall, sin, and the condition of the will in sin. Lutheran Anthropology is in its main features a reproduction of Augustinian- Antinomianism 18 Antinomianism ism. The chief definitions were framed in the Pelagian controversy. Fuller statements con cerning the image of God, the relation of Bap tism to Original Sin and human powers, resulted from the controversy with Rome. Within the Lutheran Church, the Flacian and Synergistic controversies demanded more explicit state ments. The organic unity of the race in Adam and the organic connection of all sins in the common sin of the race, is one of the most marked features of Lutheran Anthropology. See Image of God, Original Sin, Freedom OF the Will, etc. H. E. J. Antinomianism is either practical or theo retical, the former being the disregard of the law in practice, the latter the definition and theoretical maintenance of principles implicitly or explicitly denying the stringency or setting aside the proper use of the law. The first Anti- nomian was Satan iu Paradise as he appears Gen. 3 : 1-4. A spirit of Antinomianism, both theoretical and practical, pervaded the Gnosti cism of the early centuries of Christianity, and modern theology is by no means free from Anti- nomian notions. During the era of the Reformation Antino mianism was for many years a menace to Lu theran soteriology, threatening to pervert the doctrines of sin and grace, of the redemption, the means of grace, repentance, faith, justifi cation, sanetification, the law and the Gospel, in themselves and in their relations to each other. Purporting to object to the law aud its use in the Church, the enemy endeavored to set aside the Gospel, the blows dealt against Moses being really aimed at Christ. As early as 1525, Agricola of Eisleben, in his first printed work, a commentary on Luke, ad vanced theories savoring after Gnosticism, exhibiting the law as a futile attempt of God to work the restoration of mankind, viewing sin as a malady or impurity rather than an offense rendering the sinner guilty and damnable before God, man as an object of pity rather than of divine wrath, and repentance the purpose to abstain from evil rather than the contrition of a guilty conscience. Agricola first became aggres sive against Melanchthon when the latter had composed the Articles of Visitation, and though Luther succeeded in smoothing out the difficulty at Torgau in 1527, Agricola was not cured of his perverse ideas, and later on even endeavored to represent Luther as being at variance with his own doctrine. After his removal to Wittenberg he still maintained that the law must be used in the court-house, not in the church, that repent ance must come by the Gospel only, and not precede but follow faith. As he endeavored to disseminate his doctrine in books, one of which was confiscated after it had gone into print, Luther, -with reluctance and great anguish of his soul, at last saw himself constrained, after various warnings to Agricola, to come out in public disputations against Antinomianism and Its promoters in 1538 and 1539. Agricola appar ently yielded, and Luther's book " against the Antinomians," in 1539 was to serve as Agricola's recantation. But the conflict flared up anew and continued, until Agricola even went so far as to bring suit against Luther, alleging that Luther had slandered him in his disputations, his " book against the Antinomians, " and in his treatise on "Councils and Churches." But before the case could be brought to trial, Agri cola, though he had bound himself to remain at Wittenberg, left that city and repaired to Berlin, where he had been offered a position as preacher to the court. After his arrival there he made his peace with the Saxons, acknowledged his " error," and gradually conformed his doctrine to that which he had before opposed and as sailed, though still employing such terms as gospel and repentance in a peculiar way. The Antinomian leaven, however, was not purged out. Melanchthon and the Philippists, in the controversies occasioned by the Interim, also ascribed to the Gospel what must be reserved to the law, and again made a Moses of Christ, a law out of the Gospel, turned faith into a work, denied the identity of Christ's fulfilment of the law with that which we must have performed. In the.writings of such men as Michael Neander, Poach, Petzel, Krell, we find statements like these : The law is no longer over us, but under us. How then can the law be a norm to the righteous, since the righteous are the lords of the law and often do contrary to the law ? The Gospel, properly so called, is truly and properly the preaching of repentance, and the Gospel, properly so called, also convinces us of sin. The law does not teach good works. Good works are not necessary to salvation according to the law. Anton Otto of Nordhausen taught : The Christian's best art is to know nothing whatever of the law ; for Moses knew nothing of our faith, and the censures of the prophets are nothing to us. A Christian believer is above aU obedience, above all law ; laws, good works, new obedience, deserve no place whatever in Christ's kingdom, but pertain to the world, even as Moses and the Pope's dominion. Amsdorf, who had maintained that good works were det rimental to salvation, conceded the second use of the law, by which it works knowledge of sin, but denied its third use, by which it is a rule of life to the regenerate, and this form of Antino mianism was entertained by men who deemed it tlieir duty to defend the cardinal doctrine of Christianity. As other errors which had sought shelter in the Lutheran Church, Antinomianism was also dealt -with in the last great symbol of the Lutheran Church, the Formula of Concord, where, in the fifth article, " On the law and the gospel," and in the sixth, " On the third use of the law," Antinomianism is rejected as false doctrine, and the true doctrine of the law and its uses is asserted. The benefit which resulted from the Antinomian controversies to the Lu theran Church was a greater exactness in dis tinguishing between the law and the Gospel, justification and sanetification, and Luther's theses for his six Antinomian disputations, 258 in all, should be carefully and repeatedly studied by every theologian. Antinomian tendencies also cropped out among the Anabaptists of the sixteenth and the Puritans of the seventeenth centuries, and in va rious Pietistical and Quietistical circles and fanatical sects in various countries down to the present day. a_ ^ q Anton, Paul 19 Apology Anton, Paul, b. Feb. 2, 1661, in Hirsch- felde, Oberlausitz, studied at Leipzic 1680. Touched by Spener's writings he became a pietist, and one of the founders of the Collegia Biblica. 1687 he was appointed to travel with Prince Fredrick August of Saxony, 1689 Supt. at Rochlitz, 1693 court preacher at Eisenach, 1695 professor at Halle. Much attached to the symbolical books, which he constantly read, he was generally orthodox, while given to the pietistic method of instruction and Bible hours. Mild in polemics but forceful against the old Adam, he found the source of all heresy in the human heart. He d. 1730. Antonius, a monk of Bergen, and, in 1528, the first preacher of evangelical doctrines in Norway. As such he exerted some influ ence in favor of the Reformation there, but it does not appear that his work had any great results. E. G. L. Apocrypha, The. Generally applied to the books contained in the LXX. version of the O. T. that are not found in the Hebrew text. The distinction between the Canonical and Apocry phal books is indicated by Luther in his complete translation of the Bible of 1534, when he terms the latter as ' ' books which are not regarded of equal authority vrith the Holy Scriptures, but whose reading is nevertheless useful and good. ' ' When the F'ormula of Concord makes the Pro phetic and Apostolic Scriptures of the O. and N. T. the only rule and standard of doctrine and teachers, the Apocrypha are rejected. Quenstedt considers the universal teaching of the Lutheran Church as follows : ' ' Only those books of the O. T. are canonical that were written by the Prophets and the prophetic spirit, i. e. by immediate divine inspiration in the Hebrew language ; that were received by the Je-wish Church with the canon ; that were cited and commended by Christ and the apos tles in the N. T. ; and were recognized as canon ical by the Primitive Church. But all the rest, viz., Tobias, Judith, Book of Wisdom, Ecclesi- asticus, Baruch, the books of Esther, Hymn of the Three Children in the third chapter of Dan iel, the History of Susanna in the xiii., and of the Dragon in the xiv. chapter, are re jected." H.E.J. Apology of the Augsburg Confession, the second in order of time of the symbolical -writings of the Lutheran Church, and intended to be, as its name implies, a justification of the Augsburg Confession, especially -srith reference to its attempted refutation by the Romish theologians. Occasion. — The reading of the A. C. had pro duced a profound impression even in Romish circles. Yet the Romish party were not in clined to yield to the truth, and the Emperor Charles V., upon conference with his advisers, instructed a number of Romish theologians, among them Eck, Faber, and Cochlaeus, to pre pare a refutation, which was to be couched in moderate terms. In the meantime attempts were made to bring about an understanding, especially by Melanchthon, who communicated -with the papal legate, Campegius, and was in clined to yield more than his friends would ap prove of. The Emperor, on July 9, asked the evangelical princes whether they had anything more to present besides the Confession ren dered. They replied that they had for peace's sake refrained from mentioning all the abuses existing, and had rendered only a general con fession of their faith, and that if arguments were adduced against their confession, they stood ready to defend it by the testimony of God's Word. Threats against the evangelical princes with regard to their political standing and prospects were next resorted to, but the Evangelicals, encouraged by Luther from Co- burg, stood firm. The Confutatio, a very lengthy and bitter document, was delivered to the Emperor on July 13, but did not meet with his approval, and it was only after it had been re-written five times that it was read, in the German language, on August 3. It allowed the majority of the doctrinal articles, some unconditionally, arti cles 14 and 18 if rightly interpreted, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, and 11 vrith certain limitations, art. 12 and 15 as regards the first part, while the sec ond was rejected. Arts. 20 and 21, and the articles concerning abuses, were unqualifiedly rejected and the abuses cited therein declared to be proper ecclesiastical usages. As a counter-argument the Confutatio was notably weak. The Evangelicals requested a copy of it in order to be able to answer it. The request was denied, and the position taken that they had been refuted and were bound to sub mit and cease all discussion of the disputed points. The inability of the Evangelicals to yield to this demand inaugurated a new series of attempts to adjust the difficulty. After some preliminary discussions the matter was twice subjected to special committees, one of 14, the other of 6 members, who conferred on it for days. But all these attempts were with out result, the Romish party accepting most of the doctrinal articles, but demanding submis sion to the authority of the Church. Finally on Sept. 22, the decree of the diet in matters of religion was read. The evan gelical party were given until April 15 of the following year to consider whether they would submit. . In the meantime no new publications in matters of faith were to be issued and no proselytes made " to their sect." The evangel ical princes and theologians, having expected some such measure, had prepared for it. They protested against the decree and in connection vrith the protest handed the Emperor the Apol ogy of the A. C, which he was about to take, but was dissuaded from doing so by his brother Ferdinand. Preparation. — As soon as the Confutatio had been read it was evident that an answer had to be made. It is probable that Melanchthon -with ¦others of the theologians present began at once to prepare a draft of such an answer. Within two weeks of the presentation of the Confutatio, Osiander sent Melanchthon a draft of an answer from Nuremberg. On August 29, when the at tempts at adjustment had failed, Melanchthon was instructed to prepare an Apology of the Confession ( " Jusserant autem me et alios quosdam parare " — Introd. to Apol. ). He had Apology 20 Apostles' Creed no copy of the Confutatio, but only some notes made during the reading, chiefly by Camera- rius. His time, too, was limited, and it was not until the middle of September that he_ could give his full attention to the work, which he completed in a few days in Latin and German. Yet the Apology in its original form was never signed by the princes and never attained sym bolical authority. Its non-reception by the Emperor was fortunate, in so far as now the Apology, whose publication was rendered a necessity by the second and more severe decree of the diet, could be thoroughly re-vised, in fact rewritten, by Melanchthon. On his journey home from Augsburg he wrote incessantly upon it, in Spalatin's house at Altenburg even at table, until Luther took the pen from his hand. At home he continued the work, which grew under his hands to considerable proportions. He now had also obtained a copy of the Confutatio. The first sheets were printed in November, 1530, but it appeared only in April, 1531, as a quarto edition together with the first Latin and German edition of the A. C. , edited by himself. In September a second octavo edition appeared. Both these were in Latin only. The German translation based on the second Latin edition, but published in the same volume with the first Latin edition, on the title page of which it had been announced, was made by Justus Jonas, who translated in a free manner, Melanchthon making changes and emendations in the trans lation. The Apology was presented with the A. C. at the convention at Schweinfurth in 1532, was signed together with it at Schmalkalden in 1537, was included in the early corpora doc trines, incorporated in the Book of Concord in 1580, and is generally acknowledged as having symbolical authority. Contents. — The contents of the Apology are determined by those of the Confutatio. The articles there approved as correct are passed over briefly, the points of difference, however, treated very thoroughly. Appearing together with the A. C, it is meant together with it to justify the position taken by the Evangelical Church. This is done principally by Scripture proofs, though at the same time, the testimony of the ancient Christian Church is adduced to show the conservative character of the Church of the Reformation. The Introduction bears reference to the historical occasion and the pur pose of the writing. Art. I. , Of God, not being in controversy, is briefly dismissed, only the Scripture proof being emphasized. Art. II., Of Original Sin, defends the definition of Orig inal Sin given in the A. C, and tries to show that in opposition to that of Zwingli and the scholastics, it is the Scriptural and catholic definition. Art. IIL, Of Christ, differs from the A. C. only in its brevity and its reference to the Nicene Creed. Art. IV., Of Justification, cov ering besides Art. IV. the related Articles V., VI. , and XX. of the A. C, treats of the main point of difference at great length. Melanch thon's object was the defense of the Confession and the rebuttal of objections to it. As to the first, he shows that the Romanists magnify the law at the expense of the Gospel, and defines justifying faith as a trust in God's promises, and shows that it alone justifies. In combating the objections of the opponents, love and the fulfilment of the law are placed in the proper light. Art. VII. and VIIL, Of the Church, de fines and defends the statement that the Church is the communion of saints and refutes the de mand that the general observance of the same external rites is necessary. Art. IX., Of Bap tism, over against the insinuations of Rome, that the evangelical faith was the soil on which the Anabaptist error grew, emphasizes the valid ity of infant baptism. Art. X., Of the Lord's Supper, not attacked in the Confutatio, reiter ates the statements of the A. C. , citing witnesses from the Greek Church, that she, too, holds the real presence. Art. XI., Of Confession, states the true doctrine and refutes the demands of the Confutatio, that confession once a year be obligatory, and that all sins must be enumer ated in confession. Art. XIL, Of Repentance and Of Confession and Satisfaction, treats at length of the true nature of repentance over against the objection that the Evangelicals had departed from the threefold di-vision of this subject. Art. XIII., here superscribed : Of the Number and Use of the Sacraments, since the opponents, though approving the article in the A. C, added that the right doctrine must now be applied to the seven Sacraments, de fines the idea of the Sacrament, rejects the Romish Sacraments as not instituted of God or not conveying N. T. grace, and applies the term sacrament, as a means of grace, to Bap tism, the Lord's Supper, and Absolution. Art. XIV. treats of Ecclesiastical Orders, expresses willingness to recognize the episcopacy as a human ordinance, and recites the abuses perpe trated as a reason why it was rejected. Art. XV., Of Ecclesiastical Rites, emphasizes the fact that these rites must not be considered as meritorious and means of appeasing God. The design of Art. XVL, Of Civil Affairs, is to de fend the Evangelicals against the accusation of revolutionary tendencies. Art. XVII. simply repeats the statement of the A. C. on this point. Art. XVIII., Of Free Will, restates more m de tail the position of the A. C, and Art. XIX., Of the Cause of Sin, in few words does the same. Art. XXL, Of the Worship of Saints, briefly treated in the A. C, enters into a de tailed refutation of Romish errors on this point. The articles on Abuses in the A. C. had been totally rejected. Accordingly the correspond ing articles in the Apology in the main repeat the same positions at greater length and -with more detailed proof, with the exception of the last article, which is more brief than in the A. C. — Cf., " Die Apologie der Augustana geschichtlich erklart," Gustav Plitt, Erlangen, 1873- G. C. F. H. Apportionment, Sjroodical. See Collec tions. Apostles' Creed. Luther, who called this creed one of the oecumenical confessions, adopted its previous recognition in the Church. He also held the common idea, prevalent in the Western Church since the sixth century, though already found in an explanation of the symbol by Am brose, that the apostles had framed it. To each Apostles' Creed 21 Arason apostle, beginning with Peter, was ascribed a clause, perhaps owing to the faulty etymology of "symbol" as contribution. But the silence of the N. T. , of the fathers of the Church down to the fifth century, of the whole Eastern Church, and the many and various forms of the creed, militate against this theory. The Apostles' Creed was the result of growth. It originated from the baptismal confession, which delivered orally to the catechumens, was memorized. Changes or additions were introduced as here sies made it necessary to unfold the evangelical truth implied in and connected with its simple statements. Knowing the present form it can be traced back to its beginning, which was not in Rome in the second century (Hamack), but in apostolic times. It is probable from the com parison of I Tim. 6 : 12, 13 ; 2 Tim. 2:8; Rom. 1:3; 2 Tim, 4:1; Acts 10 : 42 ; i Pet. 4:5:2 Tim. 2 : 2 ; 3 : 10 ; 1 : 13, 14, that Timothy at his baptism confessed Christ as "of the seed of David," standing "before Pontius Pilate," to come " to judge the quick and the dead. " This form reminding of the Jewish soil in the words " of the seed of David," was changed between 70-120 to accord vrith the need of Gentile cat echumens. In 130 we find this new form in Ephesus, 145 in Rome, and 180-210 in Carthage, Lyons, and Smyrna. It is the foundation of all baptismal confessions of the East and West. In it were added, as far as can be ascertained, " one God, the Almighty," a fuller definition of Christ, and the words " a holy Church " leading gradually to other parts of the third article. About 200-220 " one " was omitted in Rome, because the Monarchian heretics used it to op pose Christ's divinity, and "Father" was in serted. The churches of Italy, Africa, and Southern France adopted this change, while it was not introduced in the East. The Roman form, used in Rome and its closely aUied churches down to 460 without change, is, ac cording to a consensus of texts of the fourth cen tury : "I believe in God, the Father Almighty ; and in Jesus Christ, His only-begotten Son, our Lord, born of the Holy Spirit and Mary the Virgin, crucified-and buried under Pontius Pi late, risen on the third day from the dead, as cended into heaven, sitteth at the right hand of the Father, whsnce he cometh to judge the quick and the dead ; and in the Holy Ghost, the holy Church, forgiveness of sins, resurrection of the flesh." In the Gallic, African, and East ern churches changes had meantime been going on, whose history is mostly unknown, but in the fifth century Rome received, probably from Southern France, the later form, which is the present. Its additions are : " Creator of heaven and earth, " which was in most confessions since the council of Nice; "conceived by the Holy Ghost," which only states the old form more fully ; " suffered ; " " died ; " " descended into hell," derived from the conf ession of AquUeia and originally interpre-ted by Rufinus "buried " (sepultus), but really containing the truth of Christ's descent to the place of departed spirits ; " catholic " used in its original sense, universal, for which the Lutheran Church has " Chris tian ; " "communion of saints," found first in the symbol of Nicetas (400) apparently -with the meaning "fellowship of saints," but perhaps also including participation in all holy things as e, g. the Sacraments, not, however, signify ing " congregation of saints," a meaning traced in Africa, prevalent since Luther as definition of "Church," which is scriptural but not the original historical sense; "life everlasting" from the symbol of Ravenna. The Apostles' Creed is in content apostolic truth, " taken from the Bible and summarized " (Luther). Opposition to its statements rests upon critical rejection of the genuineness of es sential parts of N. T. truth. Its force is irenic and unifying, its form rhythmic, and its brevity and comprehensiveness fits it for the creed of the people. Wisely has it therefore been made the basis of the creed in Luther's Larger and Smaller Catechisms, in which Luther's explana tion, comprehensive and concise, has added, in sentences of harmonious structure and poetic power, the element of individual, truly evangel ical, believing appropriation of the great ob jective facts of the Apostles' Creed. T. Zahn {Das Apostol. Symboluin), 1893; Seeberg, {Dogmengesch.). i. p. 47 ff; Har- nack, Dog. G., I. p. 148 ; for detail literature see Seeberg, p. 49 ; Realencycl. (3d ed.) i. p. 471. , ^ J- H. Apotelesmata, is a Greek term, meaning originally, the issue of a work, but in its use in dogmatics, the actions of Christ in redemption. In the Lutheran doctrine of the person of Christ " apotelesmatic " is the third kind {genus) of the " communicatio idiomatum " (i. e. the communication of qualities between the natures and the person of Christ, and between the natures reciprocally). It is " that by which, in official acts, each nature performs what is peculiar to itself with the participation of the other. I Cor. 15:3; GaL i : 4 ; Eph. 5:2." (Gerhard). The truth of this term was laid down by the Council of Chalcedon, its form is from John Damascenus. (See ChriSTOLOGY.) Aquila Caspar, b. 1488, son of tne Augs burg patrician Adler, studied at Wittenberg (1513,) became chaplain under Sickingen 1515, pastor at Jengen, near Augsburg 1516, where he began to preach the Gospel and married, for which act the bishop of Augsburg imprisoned him. 1522 he was instructor of Sickingen's sons ; soon after at Wittenberg, preaching in the castle church, and assisting Luther in the trans lation of the Old Test. He was a thorough Hebrew scholar, knowing the Bible, for Luther said : "Were the Bible to be lost, I would find it again with Aquila." Luther obtained for Aquila the pastorate at Saalfeld, Thuringia (1527), where (1528) Aquila was made superin tendent and remained until the disturbances of the Interim. Closely united with Luther and Melanchthon he yet leaned to Agricola in his an tinomianism for a time. He was a fiery and po lemical preacher. His method was analytical, his language picturesque. He d. Nov. 12, 1560. Arason, Jon, b. 1484, d. 1550, bishop of the diocese of Holar, Iceland. He was the last Roman Catholic bishop in Iceland, and is famous for his stubborn fight against the intro duction of the Lutheran Reformation. He became bishop in 1524. About 1530 the echoes Architecture 22 Architecture of the Reformation reached Iceland. In 1539, though apparently .ornamental, has a definite Gizur Einarsson was ordained superintendent purpose and use. Its two chief constructive ^ of the diocese of Skdlholt ; the southern part of the country, by the Danish Lutheran bishop, Peter Palladius, having first confessed full adherence to the Lutheran doctrine. In 1541, the church ordinance of King Christian III. , of devices are (i) concentration of strains upon isolated supports, rendered possible by vaulting ribs, whereby any space may be covered with a stone roof, the weights and thrusts of which are carried on the ribs ; (2) balanced thrusts. Denmark was adopted in the diocese of Sk&lholt whereby all weights and pressures are resisted through the influence of this fijrst Lutheran by counter-thrusts by means of half-arches or bishop. But in the diocese of Hblar, where the flying buttresses across intervening areas, and -will of the Roman Catholic bishop J6n Arason finally resisted by external buttresses. ( Ex- reigned supreme, it was bitterly opposed for the amples : France, cathedrals of Paris, Reims, next ten years. This opposition ended in the Chartres ; England, cathedrals of Canterbury, tiagic death of Arason. He and two of his sons Salisbury, Westminster Abbey; Germany, cathe- were beheaded Nov. 7, 1550, for repeated acts drals of Freiburg and Cologne; Spain, cathedrals of violence and thus the last resistance against of Burgos and Toledo ; Italy, Or%'ieto and Milan the Reformation was subdued. F. J. B. cathedrals ; Belgium, Antwerp cathedral. ) Architecture, Architecture is the art of Both Romanesque and Gothic architecture building. Applied to churches it has developed include many local variations in each country, definite types or styles : Early Christian (to V. due to political, natural, or sociological causes. c. ), Byzantine (to VI. c), Romanesque (V. to Not only is each national type distinctive, but XII. c. ), Gothic (middle XII. to XV. and XVI. ), each national type includes many local schools. Renaissance (from XV. c. ). The Basilica is The Gothic style reached maturity rapidly in the Early Christian Church, a rectangular build- the Ile-de-France, and its early perfection was ing -with a broad nave separated from aisles by due to the fact that the building of the church columns, with galleries over the latter ; at the of stone throughout, and thus practically fire- east end is a semi-circular projection called the proof, was the chief problem vrith which the apse for the bishop's chair ; the altar stood at the opening of the apse. (Examples : S. Cle- mente, S. Paolo, Rome). The typical Byzan tine church is S. Sophia at Constantinople ; a rectangular plan, roofed -with domes supported by pendentives and richly encrusted -with mosaics (now covered) ; interlaced ornament medieval architects were concerned. Gothic architecture is essentially "Christian" archi tecture, being the only style developed whoUy in Christian church building. Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the classic revival of the fifteenth and six teenth centuries. Gothic forms and methods in low flat relief much used for capitals of were wholly ignored for the employment of columns and panes. The Basilica is a frank classic forms and detail. (Examples, S. Peter's borrowing of Roman forms and models; the Rome; S. Paul's, London). The dome is a con- Romanesque is derived from Roman building, spicuous but not an essential feature of Renais- but is a distinct and definite style in itself. It sauce church architecture. was developed by the use of small materials Modern church architecture, like aU modern adapted to every part of the structure, especially architecture, is concerned with the application in built-up columns as distinguished from the of previous styles to modem needs. The style shaft of the Basilica. In plan the apse and of the modern church thus depends on the in- transepts are frequently well marked ; the di-vidual taste of those concerned with its erec- carved ornament is often rich but lacks refine- tion. It should be borne in mind, however ment ; round arches are used for openings ; in that the church is God's house, and whatever the later Romanesque tunnel or wagon vaults for its style it must exhibit the sacred purpose to naves aud cross vaults for aisles are used. The which it is dedicated. A church is not Roman- style was fully developed in the eleventh and esque because it employs round arches nor twelfth century ; compared -with Gothic its gen- Gothic because it has pointed ones ; but' it is eral character is heavy. (Examples : Italy, Romanesque or Gothic when it employs the Pisa cathedral ; France, Notre Dame du Port, principles of its style. In Lutheran churches Clermont, La Trinite, Caen; England (called the proper liturgical requirements must be care- Norman), Durham cathedral ; Germany, Speyer fully heeded. The altar division should be cathedral; Spain, cathedral of Santiago di Com- raised a few steps above the other parts - the P°^*^il^- ^- • . , , , ^'^^'^ ®^°''''^ ^*'^° and vaulting, the latter frequentiy of the most Present. New edition. London i8q^ 2 volcT complicated and highly decorative style, are GoNSE, L., V Art Gothique Paris used throughout. Gothic architecture rests on Hamlin, A. D. F., Histor^ of Architecture the elementary pnnciple that every part, even New York, 1896. "^ ^rcnitecture. Archives 23 Arndt LuBBKE, W., Geschichte der Deutschen Kunst von den Ftiihesten Zeiten bis zur Gegenwart. Stuttgart, 1893. Reber, F. v., Kunstgeschichte des Mittelal- iers. Leipzig (Translated, New York, 1887. ) STatham, H. H., Architecture for General Readers. London. Sturgis, R., European Architecture : a His torical Study. New York, 1896. Viollet-le-Ddc, E., Dictionnaire RaisonnS de V Architecture frangais du XI e. au XVI e. Siicle. Paris, 1868. 10 vols. Dehio tjnd Bezold. Die Kirchliche Bau- kunst des Abenlandes historisch und system.atisch dargestellt. Stuttgart, 1892. sqq. (A monu mental work not yet completed. ) B. F. Archives. Unless some permanent place be provided where official church records can be cared for under efficient supervision, the danger of their destruction, as time advances is very great. Besides, their value is increased as they can be conveniently compared in the search for data. Much gratitude is due the earlier pastors of the Ministerium of Pennsyl vania for the pro-vision made in the Constitu tion of 1792, for the care of its official papers. A beginning was thus made which, after the lapse of a century, furnishes the richest ma terial for the Church historian. The collections of the Lutheran Historical Society at Gettys burg have also many valuable MSS., and are particularly rich in synodical minutes. Both collections, however, could be greatly enriched if congregations could be persuaded to deposit in them all their older documents. Arends, Wilhelm Erasmus, German hymn ¦writer, b. 1677, d. 1721. To him is ascribed that powerful "call to arms for the spiritual conflict and -victory " of the Christian " Ruestet euch ihr Christenleute ! ' ' (Christians, prayer may well employ you, — ^translation in Wilson's Service of Praise, 1865, contributed by J. M. Sloan). A. S. Aristotle, Luther's Attitude Toward. Luther's study at Erfurt made him perfectly familiar with the writings of Aristotle, and his first lectures at Wittenberg were upon the Dia lectics and Physics of the latter. A remarkable sermon of the Reformer in A. D. 1515, makes large use of ideas borrowed from the great mas ter of Scholasticism, seeking, however, to apply them in a better way." From this time on ward, respect gives place to suspicion, deepen ing into passionate hostility. Aristotle had maintained the direct antithesis to the doctrine of salvation by grace, i. e. that " we become righteous if we practice righteousness." Finding the whole system of Scholasticism based upon this principle, Luther boldly set himself to demolish the superstmc- ture by discrediting its founder. Giving due credit for the contributions of the latter in logic, rhetoric and poetry, he ridiculed his claims in the spheres of theology and ethics. He pronounced him a blind heathen master and a shallow comedian, and viewed -with delight at the universities the growing ascendency of Augustine, the herald of grace. C. E. H. Arkansas, Lutherans in. Of the 18 con gregations and 1386 communicants reported in 1890, all but one congregation and 75 communi cants of the German Augsburg Synod belonged to the Synodical Conference. The English Conference of Missouri had a small congrega tion, and the Missouri Synod all the rest. Arndt, John, a devoted and famous Lu theran divine, from whom Pietism, in its better forms, took its rise, b. at Ballenstedt, in Anhalt, Dec. 27, 1555, nine years after Luther's death ; studied at Helmstedt, Wittenberg, Strassburg, and Basel ; appointed minister at Badeborn, a village of Anhalt, 1581 or 1583, where his Lu theran convictions exposed him to the anger and persecution of the authorities who were Re formed; in 1599 became pastor of St. Martin's, in Brunswick ; in i6ii became court-preacher at Cella, Hanover, where he died. May 11, 1621. His great fame and influence rests mainly on his writings, all of a devotional and practical character, inspired by his study of the Scrip tures, and such authors as Bernard, Tauler, Thomas A Kempis, and other mediaeval writers of the mystic school. His chief work is en titled, "The True Christianity," which has been translated into most European languages, and made the basis of many corresponding works, both Roman Catholic and Protestant. It is one of the greatest and most useful prac tical books produced by the Protestant church. The chief bearing of the work is the setting forth of Christ in His people, and not orAy for His people. The best edition in English is " A New American Edition, Revised, Corrected, etc. ; " by Charles F. Schaeffer, D.D., Philadel phia, Lutheran Book-store. J. A. S. Arndt, Ernst Moritz, b. 1769, on the island of Ruegen, d. i860, in Bonn ; German patriot, historian, author, and poet. In 1805 he became professor of history in Greifswalde. In 1806 he had to flee from the persecution of the first Napoleon. He associated himself -with Freiherr von Stein in his endeavors to break the yoke of French oppression. Arndt's patriotic and in spiring war-songs did much to prepare the Ger mans for the great conflict of 1813-1815. In 1818 he was appointed professor of history in Bonn, but niost unjustly deposed by the reactionary Prussian government in 1820. King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. restored him in 1840. He was a man of deep religious feeling, and a true-hearted manly witness for the Chris tian faith. His treatise " Von dem Wort und dem Kirchenlied " (Of the Word and of Church Song) was a ringing protest against the wretched hymn-books of the rationalistic period of the eighteenth century. Among his 427 poems, about one hundred are of a religious character (Geistliche Lieder). Fourteen have been translated into English. The most popu lar of his hymns sung at his own funeral, is, " Geht nun hin und grabt mein Grab," tx. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. 1855, "Go and dig my grave to-day." Other well-known hymns are " Ich weiss woran ich glaube," tr. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. 1855. " I know in whom I put my trust. ' ' (Another translation in the Ohio Hymnal, 1880, " I know whom I believe in) ; "Derheilge Christ ist kommen," Arnold 24 Articles of Faith tr. by C. T. Astley, i860, "The Blessed Christ is coming ; " "Was ist die Macht, was ist die Kraft? " tr. by R. Massie, 1865, " What is the Christian's Power and Might? " A. S. Arnold, Johann GottMed, was an erratic genius, in many respects an Ishmael in the theological world of his day, who aroused con troversies that did not end even at his death. He was bom on the 5th of September, 1666, in Annaberg in the Saxon mountains, the son of a parochial school teacher. In 1682 he entered the gymnasium of Gera, and in 1685 the Uni versity of Wittenberg, devoting himself to phi losophy, philology and theology. He severely criticised the -wild student life of his times, and devoted himself diligentiy to his studies. He refused to enter the ministry as he found serious objections in the orthodox churchdom of the times. Early he came into closer relations -with the pietists, notably Spener, through whom he received several private appointments. Later he developed a pronounced mysticism. In 1697 he was appointed professor of history in the University of Giessen, but already the next year he resigned because he feared that the constant devotion to a secular science would endanger his soul's salvation. In 1699 he published his epoch- making work, ' ' Unparteiische Kirchen-und-Ket- zer-Historie, ' ' which was the theological sensa tion of his times. In this work he introduced the principle of impartiality in the treatment of church history, but went to the opposite extreme of becoming practically the apologist for all man ner of heretical movements. In later years Ar nold changed his hostUe attitude somewhat to ward the church of his times. He, in 1705, en tered the ministry, became court-preacher in AUstedt, later in 1707 in Werben, in 1709 in Perleberg, where he died, 30th of May, 1714. He was a very prolific -writer, also, in hymnol ogy, an earnest scholar and a marked man of his day. He published more than fifty different works. G. H. S. Arnsch-wanger, Johann Christoph, b. at Nuernberg (1625), died 1696, pastor in Leipzig, Hamburg, Helmstedt, and Nuernberg, hymn -writer, member of the ' ' Fruitbearing Society ' ' (1675), author of " Kommt her, ihr Christen, voUer Freud;" "Auf ihr Christen, lasst uns singen " (Up ye Christians, join in sing ing). A. S. Art in the Lutheran Churcli. "The Lu theran Church loves the arts, and -wishes them to enter the Church, that they may adorn the wor ship of God." Pictures and statues were re tained in the churches, unless they were abused by superstition. Music received a further and characteristic development. (See Church Mu sic, Architecture.) The German artists who flourished in the time of the Reformation, many of whom became its adherents, were too much a product of their own time and people, to be claimed simply by the Lutheran Church. It was consistent with the principles of the Reformation that German art from this time sought other subjects than occupied the great Italian painters. Not only were the artists not the prot6g€s of great princes of the Church (as Michel Angelo and Raphael were), but there- stored Gospel had shown the sacredness of com mon life, the sanctity of the family and the state. Accordingly later art descended to low lier subjects than Madonnas and saints. Genre painting is characteristic of Protestant coun tries. Protestant art was employed also in deco ration of public buildings and homes of rich merchants, rather than of churches. The Thirty Years' War impoverished Germany and delayed its civUization. No distinctively Lu theran style of architecture has yet been elabo rated. The present age has seen many great works of statuary commemorative of the Reformation, foremost among them the Luther Denkmal at Worms. It may truthfully be said that no German work of art of the last three centuries has been untouched by the influ ence and genius of the Lutheran, the Ger man Church. And perhaps the best known sculptor of latter time is he who has adorned the Fruen Kirche of Copenhagen vrith his Christ and His Apostles, the Danish Thor- valdsen. E. T. H. Articles of Faith. {ArticuU fidei, also lod theologici, i. e. theological topics or points) our older theologians called the essential parts of the divine truth that has been revealed for our salvation. "The term article" {articulus — a small member, connecting parts of the body, joint) "is derived from ar<«j" (member). "It properly signifies members of the body closely joined together, as the joints of the fingers closely cohere. Metaphorically the word article is applied to the parts of the doctrine of faith that are most intimately joined together." {Hollaz, in Schmid's Doctrinal Theology, transl. by Hay and Jacobs. ) "So that articles of faith are parts of the doctrine of faith, divinely revealed for our salvation, which are most intimately united to each other and to the whole, as the parts or joints of a finger, and into which the whole structure of the Christian relig ion, as a finger into its joints, may be resolved. And their connection is so intimate that, when one is removed, the rest cannot continue sound and whole." {Quenstedt, ib.). "Not all the matters contained in the Scriptures can be regarded as articles of faith, strictly and ac curately speaking, but only those doctrines the knowledge of which is necessary io salvation" {f. Gerhard, ib.).— The articles of faith are divided in a twofold way, with regard to their importance, and with regard to their origin or source. With respect to their importance they are divided into fundamental and non-fundamenial articles. This division is used already by J. Gerhard, who adopted it from the Scholastics' but fuUy developed by N. Hunniusover against Reformed theologians who, in order to bring about an external union between the Reformed and the Lutherans, had denied a fundamental difference between them. " The fundamental articles, or those that cannot be unknown or at least not denied consistentiy with faith and salvation, are those which are intimately con nected with the foundation of the faith " {Quenstedt, ib )-The term " foundation of the faitii IS used by our older tiieologians in a Articles of Faith 25 Asceticism threefold sense : the substantial or personal foundation of the faith and salvation is Christ with his merits ; the organic foundation is the Word of God as a seed out of which Chris tians are born again ; the dogmatic foundation is "that part of the divine doctrine which is not referable to any other doctrine, but revealed for its own sake, and to which all other doctrines, as if revealed for its sake, are referred, and from which, as a sufficient and immediate cause, faith results " {Quenstedt, ib. ). This threefold foundation is, in this connection, really one and the same, -viewed from different sides : Christ in the Gospel. — The fundamental articles again are di-vided into those of the first and those of the second rank, or tiie primary and the secondary. The former are those " without the knowledge of which no one can attain unto eternal salva tion, or which must be known in order to hold the foundation of the faith and secure salvation " {Quenstedt, ib.). Such are the doctrines of the love of God, of Christ and his merits, of the Trinity, of justification, grace, and eternal life. The latter ' ' are those, a simple want of acquaint ance with which does not prevent our salvation, but the pertinacious denial of, and hostility to which overturn the foundation of the faith. Such are the parts of the Christian doctrine in regard to the characteristic peculiarities of the Divine Persons, of the intercommunication of attributes in Christ, of original sin, of the decree of election in view of final faith." {Hollaz, ib. ) " The non-fundamental articles are parts of the Christian doctrine which one may be ignorant of or deny, and yet be saved ' ' ( Quen stedt, ib.). " E. g., concerning the sin and eternal ruin of certain angels, concerning the immortality of the first man before the fall, con cerning Antichrist, concerning the origin of the soul, whether by creation or by transmission. At the same time we are to be careful in regard to this matter, lest by embracing or professing error we rashly sin against divine revelation or God himself ; especially, lest something be maintained, through the persuasion of others, contrary to conscience, whereby the foundation and the truth of one or more of the fundamental articles of the faith are overturned. For thus, at length, as by immortal sin, faith and the Holy Spirit may be and are entirely driven away" {Baier, ib. ). With regard to their origin or source the articles of faith are divided into pure and mixed articles. "There are some doctrines in Scrip ture which are simply /M/a (matters of faith) and cannot be at all learned from reason, but are infinitely above it ; there are also some things to be believed which, although they are revealed in Scripture and necessary to be known, are nevertheless of such a nature that even reason by the use of her own principles could attain some sort of knowledge of them ; hence arise the pure and mixed articles. The forrner are found in the Word of God alone and are simply matters of faith, as the article concern ing the Trinity, etc., etc. ; the latter, although they may be known in some degree from the light of nature, are nevertheless purely matters of faith- in so far as they are known by di-vine revelation ; e. g., that God is, etc., is known from e-vident proofs, and is believed on the authority of the divine relation " {Quen stedt, Va.). F. W. S. Articles, Smalcald, Torgau. See Smal cald Articles, etc. Artman, Horace, G, B,, missionary in India, born at Zionsville, Lehigh Co., Pa., Sept. 23, 1857, died at Rajahmundry, Sept. 18, 1884. He graduated in Theol. Seminary, Philadelphia, was ordained at Lancaster in May, 1880, left with his wife, Lizzie Vaux, for India July 7th, and arrived at Rajahmundry, Oct. 18. A. became head-master of the mission-schools at R. In Jan., 1884, he opened a high-school for Brahmin and Mohammedan boys, whose management exhausted his strength. The career of this promising missionary was cut short by climatic fever. W. W. Artopaeus, Peter (Bekker), Lutheran theologian, born 1491, studied at Wittenberg, rector at Stettin, (1528), and pastor at St. Mary's there (1549). Friendliness towards Osiander's position, caused his deposition. He wrote some comments on the O. and N. T. ; d. 1565. Asceticism (Greek asked, to exercise ; askesis, exercise, regimen) was practised by the Essenes, the Buddhists, the Pythagoreans and other religious and philosophical sects of pre-Christian times. It came into Christianity through the Alexandrian philosophy. The word was used to describe the life of those who surpassed others in pious exercises. Clement of Alexandria calls the Christian religion askesis. Chrysostom ap plies the word to a "life regulated by a law." Asceticism formed an important element in Gnosticism and Manichaeism, which sought to emancipate the individual from contact with matter and to lift him into the realm of light. To this end both systems inculcated celibacy and rigid restrictions in diet. From these systems, when they had become defunct, asceti cism passed into the monastic life which arose in the fourth century in opposition to the sur rounding -wickedness. The monks were some times called " ascetics," as those who practised a -vigorous discipline, who took no part in public affairs, lacerated their bodies, lived on a sparse diet, made vows of continence, went on pil grimages, observed appointed hours of devotion. The object of such discipline was to extirpate the passions, to merit the favor of God, to secure the pardon of sins, to attain a higher state of bliss. This manner of life is based, first, on the notion that matter is e-vil, secondly, that the in dividual's sole duty is to secure his own blessed ness. The asceticism of the Middle Ages renounced society. Many of its practises were purely formal, and had no beneficent end. Luther struck the tap-root of the monkish asceticism when he wrote in his ' ' F'reedom of the Christian Man, " that "a Christian Man is the most free lord of all, and subject to none ; a Christian man is the most dutiful servant of all, and subject to every one." He develops the thought that works cannot justify, cannot reconcile with God, cannot give peace. The Christian can use all God's creatures, but he must serve his neighbor unto edification. Justi- Ash Wednesday 26 Atonement fication by faith alone excludes aU work- righteousness, but is fruitful in good works. It lifts man above the law as an instrument of righteousness before God, but it subjects him to law as a means of promoting a pious life. Hence Luther wrote : "No work, no suffering, not even death, can help us before God." (Erl. Ed. II : 104). And again: "So long as the article of justification, which shows how a per son becomes pious before God, is justified, and saved — so long as this article stands uncorrupted, no one can easily become a monk." (60 : 348.) The Confession, Art. XX., regrets "the neces sity of puerile and needless works such as rosa ries, worship of saints, monastic vows, pilgrim ages, stated fasts, holidays, fraternities, etc."; and Art. XXVI. says: "It is taught that no one is able by the observance of such human traditions, to merit grace or to reconcUe God, or to atone for sins." In the Apology such traditions are called "hypocritical and delusive ordinances, " by which " many are misled and tormented. ' ' But while rejecting the monkish, unevangel- ical asceticism, which imposes human com mands, and in-rites self -invented austerities and torments, the Lutheran Church teaches a true, evangelical asceticism, which consists in sub duing sinful appetites and passions, and in pre senting the members instruments of righteous ness unto God in doing good to others. She rejects every thought of self-imposed pains and sufferings, but teaches that Christians should bear the afflictive dispensations of God vrith patience and obedience. Self-denial and the mortification of the flesh must be practised for the development of the new ethical life of the Christian, for the fulfilment of the mission of the divine kingdom on earth, but the times and methods of every Christian practice must be left to the indi-vidual's own choice, and no law dare be imposed to disturb or destroy the indi vidual Christian life, or to restrain the individ ual's proper relations to society. The com mandments of men are nothing in the Christian life ; the commandments of God are everything : Repentance, the fear of God, faith, worship, confession, patience, chastity, temperance, dili gence in one's calling. " Fasting and keeping the body under are a good external discipline," but faith alone makes the person "worthy." ' ' Good works should and must be done . . . for the glory of God." (A. C. XX.) and as a mark of Christian perfection in the sense of Phil. 3 : 12-15, and A. C. XV. J. W. R. Ash Wednesday. See Church Year. Assig, Hans, von, b. 1650 at Breslau, d. 1694. A SUesian nobleman, author of the hymn " Dreieinger, heilger, grosser Gott." Assurance, belongs to faith in Christ. It rests on the Word of God as authoritative, be cause revealed by God. But faith is also certain, full confidence, as e-ridence of things not seen, firm assent, and persuasion. (Rom. 4:21; i Cor. 6 : 17 ; Eph. 3 : 12 ; i Col. 2:2; Heb. 6 : 11 ; II :i). Athanasian Creed, the third of the oecumen ical or General Creeds, also called Symbolum Quicunque, fromthe opening Latin word " Qui- cunque vult salvus esse, anti omnia opus est, ut teneat Catholicam fideni " (Whosoever -will be be saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the Catholic (true Christian) faith. It is not the work of the great Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria (d. 371), though our Book of Concord ascribes it to him. It was origin ally written in Latin, not in Greek, the language of Athanasius. Not before the eighth century is his name connected with it, and then only as an uncertain tradition. Hilarius of Aries (429) and Vigilius of Tapsus (484) are mentioned by some in connection with its origin. But its author is not known. The Church Historian Gieseler holds, that it had its origin in Spain, about the seventh or eighth century. Others think that it originated in France about the fifth century. (See Koellner's 5y»z^o/z^.) It presents the Catholic faith over against the heretical teachings of Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism, etc., setting forth particularly the doctrines of the Trinity and the Person of Christ. But the orthodox Christian faith is here presented not so much in the form of a confes sion, — the term " We believe " is not used — but rather in the form of brief, pithy comprehensive doctrinal statements, to be used as the basis for fuUer instruction on those points. Albertus Magnus describes the relation of the three Gen eral Creeds in this way : The Apostolic Creed " ad fidei instructionem," the Nicene " ad fidei explicationetn,'' the Athanasian " ad fidei de- fensionem. ' ' It may be said that it holds a sim ilar place among the three ancient Creeds as the Formula of Concord does among the Confessions of the Reformation Era. The Lutheran Church always held this Creed in very high estimation and embodied it in her Book of Concord as the third of the three Gen eral or oecumenical Symbols (Tria Symbola Catholica or CEcumenica). Luther himself had a high opinion of it. "I doubt, ' ' he says in his commentary to the prophet Joel, "if since the days of the apostles anything more important and more glorious has ever been written in the Church of the New Testament." Even in the Liturgical Service of the Lutheran Church a place is assigned to this Creed by a number of our Agenda and Cantionals, espe cially in the Matin, as one of the Canticles, alter nating vrith the Te Deum or the Benedictus, or in place of the third Psalm ; on Sunday (Wit tenberg 1533 ; Braunschweig Wolfenbuettel, 1543) ; on Saturday (Elector John Casimir of Saxony, 1626). The Pomerania Agenda of 1563, and the Cantional of Lucas Lossius ( 1553, 1579) furnish appropriate chants for it. It was sung antiphonally, closing with the Gloria Patri. Now and then it is even appointed for the mam service (Communio), to be recited after the Gospel at the Altar (Hessia, 1574), espe cially on Trinity Sunday (Schwaebisch HaU, 1615). A. S. Atonement, The. sin is the direst catas trophe of history. It has broken the harmony of the universe, set up rebellion against the divme government, tom asunder the bond of communion between the Creator and the creature bearing his image, entaUed upon aU of Adam's posterity an irresistible propensity and an inevi- Atonement 27 Atonement table bondage to evil -with a guUty consciousness of their estrangement from their Heavenly Father, brought upon us death and all our woe. This catastrophe Christ came to undo (i Jno. 3:8). He has reclaimed a fallen world, sealed the doom of evil, enabled the sinner to return to his original state, reconciled the Creator and the creature and re-established personal communion between God and man (Heb. 10 : 20). This achievement is called the atonement, vvhich means satisfaction for an offense setting at one or reconciling parties who were estranged. The more Scriptural term, reconciliation ( 2 Cor. 5:i8ff. ; Rom. 5:iof. ; 11:15; CoU. 1:21), very clearly defines the essential import and goal of the incarnation : to restore moral accord, actual fellowship between God and man. Chris tianity is the synonym for complete and absolute reconcUiation. How this was achieved, by what phase or part of Christ's career the great deliverance was ef fected, is the problem of the atonement. It offers depths which cannot be sounded. The very attempt to explain a transaction which lies in the impenetrable mysteries of the Godhead, and deals with the inscrutable judgments of the Eternal Throne, savors of presumption. But God's word offers instruction concerning it, and God's world has similitudes which help us to certain conceptions of the stupendous scheme. The former, however, follows by no means a uniform conception and the latter are always partial. Consequently all theories of the atone ment are of necessity defective, presenting only certain aspects or bearings of the subj ect. God' s relation to man, sundered by sin, restored by Christ, may be viewed from many sides and illus trated by various analogies. Christ's work admits, therefore, of various forms of statement, and the different theories conceming it have taken shape from the divers analogies which lie back of them. While the result is real, the atone ment an actual fact, its explanation has to be sought in metaphors, which are confessedly in adequate. No single figure, no single theory, conveys the whole idea. No one definition of a creed, no individual passage of Scripture exhausts it. Not by one nor by all together is the full truth comprehended. The term generally employed in O. T. for rep resenting the idea of the atonement, the domi nant idea of revelation , is a word which means to cover, and is used to describe the effect of sin and trespass offerings. On account of their sin fulness even the chosen people could not ap proach God except by means of propitiation. Communion -with God was made possible by something that covers sin, or serves as a cover ing to man in the act of approaching a Holy God. Sin blocks this approach ; with it out of the way access to the Holiest is free. However, only what had divine appointment to serve this pur pose could avail as a covering or expiation for sin, could intervene between the divine wrath kindled by sin and the people seeking the divine favor. It was provided, therefore, that the life of a clean spotless animal should be vicariously sur rendered to God, its blood still quick and in stinct -with the soul, should be offered upon the altar. This pure life of an innocent victim sub stituted for an impure being and placed as a sacrifice between him and God, God accepted as covering the offender, as an act of self- surrender on his part, purging away his offense, expiating the guilt which was acknowledged by this transaction and testifying to the righteous ness of God's anger against sin. The atoning element resided in the blood and the symbolical use of it was the atoning act (Lev. [7 : 11 ; Gen. 9:4). Says Oehler : "The guilt isto be cov ered — withdrawn, so to speak — from the gaze of him who is reconciled by the atonement, so that the guilty one can now approach Him vrithout danger. ' ' The notion of equivalency is not essentially involved in the covering, neither the idea of punishment, nor the thought of propitiating an angry deity, or of overcoming God's reluctance to forgive. What is required is that the offering shall be one of God's own appointment, there fore well-pleasing to Him, making the offerer and the offering acceptable, soul in his eye cov ering soul, life atoning for life. Oehler adds : ' ' That by which a trespass is covered can only be something by which He against whom man has offended is satisfied. ' ' And thus the idea of a covering passes over into that of a ransom — a payment which, bearing some proportion to the debt to be discharged or the subject to be released, sets free the debtor or captive. The self-sacrifice of the offerer is thus vicari ously accomplished, the blood shed by his own hand both bearing witness to the obstacle in the way of the sinner's communion with God, and in -rirtue of the life still quick within the blood — liberated rather than destroyed by death — overcoming the obstacle, the pure life instead of the impure being brought before the divine presence in the Holy of Holies. In the New Testament the Epistle to the He brews and several other passages follow the O. T. typology in representing our redemption , but the ruling representation -with Paul falls under the notion of reconciliation. Alienation is assumed between God and man, on man's part as the direct consequence of his sin, on God's part be cause in His nature He cannot be indifferent to sin. His -wrath is, however, not viewed as per sonal resentment. God is never spoken of as man's enemy, though man is declared to be God's enemy (Rom. 5 : 10 ; 8:7; Coll. i : 21) and Christ is nowhere said to have appeased the Father. Theories. Since the Apostles confine their statements of this truth to figurative illustra tions, and do not offer a uniform conception or an authoritative theory, theology has from the beginning wrestled with the problem, and has developed several widely-accepted theories, be sides numerous individual views which open up one aspect or another of the exhaustless theme. The oldest theory, and one long dominant, -riewed the self -offering of Christ as a ransom for sinners, paying the price of His blood to their de facto Lord, the prince of this world, who through their obedience had made them captives, and acquired in them the rights of conquest (Matt. 20 : 2S ; Col. 2 : 15 ; Heb. 2 : 14). Atonement 28 Atonement A more profound explanation is that kno-wn as the satisfaction theory. The atonement has its ground in the infinite perfections of God. It is ' ' deducible by a logical necessity from certain divine and human relations." Sin has dimmed the divine majesty, denying the honor due to God. Thereby an incalculable debt has been incurred by man and a necessity grounded in the nature of God demands that this debt be paid, that something be done to restore unto God the honor of which he was deprived by sin. Satisfaction has to be rendered. As due from man such debt can be discharged only by man. Yet such was the measureless magnitude of the offense that its expiation is possible to no one inferior to God. Hence God became man, the God-man, that as a substitute meeting all the conditions, he freely accepting in fuUest sym pathy and fellowship as his own our sins -with the infinite debt they incurred, might volun tarily endure the penalty of suffering and of death. Having in his own person as God-man possessed all the attributes of deity, yet, in our stead, undergone even the death of the cross, he made full satisfaction to the injured honor of God, and his work is accepted as if rendered by us, his death was our death (2 Cor. 5 : 14 ; Rev. ) and thus di-rine justice is satisfied, reconcilia tion has been effected (Rom. 8:1). Not only has Christ in this way removed the barrier which closed the access to God, but be cause of the infinite value which attaches to his work because of the union of the divine nature -with the human in one person, he has more than met " the law's demands," he has obtained for sinners the outflow of boundless benefits from their reconciled Father. Thus God is shown to be just, yet the justifier of him who believes in Jesus, the apparent con- fiict between his justice and his love is solved. It was inconsistent -with his justice to forgive sin by mere volition. It was inconsistent vrith his love to let the sinner irremediably perish. When the Augsburg Confession states that " Christ truly suffered and was crucified. . . that he might reconcile the Father to us and be a sacrifice, not only for original sin, but also for all actual sins of men," this is not to be so un derstood as to make God -rindictive or implaca ble and to present Christ as overcoming his enmity. It is only sought here to express the truth that Christ's office effected a change of the relation ' ' in which the di-rine holiness, which is in itself changeless, enters to changeable man. ' ' Eternal righteousness must be maintained, and the awakened conscience burdened by guUt, and facing the divine wrath which it knows is no dream, -will come for pardon only to a reconciled God. But, however the demands of God's na ture and law may be affected by the atonement, "the wondrous plan " itself originated -with the Father, it sprang from his changeless, fathom less love, it was pro-rided at an infinite cost to himself, the sacrifice unto death of his only-be gotten son (Jno. 3 : 16 ; Rom. 5:8; 8 : 32 ; i Jno. 4:9, 10 ; 2 Tim. i : 9) at the same time that the son bore all our sins and suffered for them in his own body on the tree ( i Pet. 2:21, 24), and this atonement, a di-rine self-oblation, the work of the Father through the Son, is now. by the agency of the Spirit, offered to man's free acceptance (Rom. 3 :25 ; 2 Cor. 5 ; 18-21). While this theory of satisfaction, -with the doctrine that the merits and sufferings of Christ possess objectively an infinite value, passed into all the creeds of Christendom, it received modi fications and additions at the Reformation. The Lutherans emphasized the idea of punishment. Christ's self -surrender to death was a confession of the world's guilt vicariously assumed, an ac knowledgment and an experience of the justice of the sentence pronounced upon mankind for their sins. In being made an offering for sin he bore its penalty {Apology, p. 112), They also included in the atonement the whole thean- thropic manifestation and life, the active obedi ence of Christ (Heb. 10 : 9) as weU as the pas sive, referring the former to the perfect obedi ence he rendered to the law, the latter to the culmination of his obedience when he volun tarily died upon the cross, a sacrificial -rictim for his enemies. According to the Formula Con- cordiae: " The righteousness, which out of pure grace is imputed to faith or the believer, is the obedience, suffering, and resurrection of Christ, by which he has made satisfaction for us to the law, and paid the price of our sins. For since Christ is not alone man, but God and man in one undi-rided person, he was as little subject to the law, because he is Lord of the law, as, in his own person (he was subject) to suffering and death. Therefore his obedience not only in suffering and dying, but also that he in our stead was voluntarily subject to the law, and fulfilled it by his obedience, is imputed to us for righteousness, so that on account of this com plete obedience, which by deed and by suffer ing, in life and in death, he rendered his heavenly Father for us, God forgives our sins, regards us godly aud righteous, and eternally loves us " (p. 572, cf. 573). Again " Because the obedience is of the entire person, it is a com plete satisfaction and expiation for the human race " (Rom. 5 : 19 ; I Jno. 1:7). The governmental theory, denying that Christ endured actual punishment, or in any way ren dered an equivalent for man's sin, holds that law is positive, and that God as its moral execu tive has the prerogative of relaxing its demands. He may in the maintenance of the majesty of the di-rine government accept substitutionary suffering and thus make forgiveness consistent -with the upholding of the law. Not to -n^eaken the restraint of disobedience, it behoved God as a pre-condition of forgiveness, " to furnish such an example of suffering in Christ as wUl exhibit his determination that sin shall not escape with impunity. ' ' The moral influence theory accentuates the high moral end of the atonement, to constrain men to give up their sin and retum to their al legiance to God. There was no need on God's side for the removal of obstacles to the outflow of infinite love, but there was need on man's side for a revelation of God's heart, of the rela tion m which mankind stands to him, and of Christ's essential relation to the Father and this was effected by Christ's perfect obedience to the Father's wiU by his sufferings. There is thus brought home to man the fact of his estrange- Attrition 29 Augsburg Confession ment and the depths of his degradation ; peni tence is wrought in him. Christ's confession of sin already made becomes his own, his rebel liousness is subdued, his guilty fears extin guished. The love of God in Christ calls for the one love, and the reconciliation becomes the spring of a new and spontaneous obedience. The essential ideas of these two theories may be included in the sacrificial theory, which, however, excludes the detects of both. The latter resolves all the divine attributes into be nevolence and the former derogates from the inexorable justice of the eternal throne. Both minimize the turpitude and the effects of sin and lose sight of the paramount import of the death of Christ, who kno-wing no sin was made sin for us and hung accursed on the tree ( i Cor. 5 : 21 ; Gal. 3 : 13). The atoning efficacy of the typical O. T. ritual is found in the shed blood, and according to the obvious teaching of the N. T., this effi cacy is grounded in the sufferings and death of Christ. As Hagenbach observes : " The incar nation of the God-man, in and of itself had a re deeming and reconcUing efficacy, by breaking the power of evil and restoring the harmony of human nature, through the life-awakening and Hfe-improving influences, which proceed from this manifestation of Deity." Yet the Apostles specifically ascribe the atonement to his death (Rom. 5:10; I Cor. 15:3), his cross (Eph. 2 : 16), and his blood. (Coll. I : 20). This was the culminating point of the offering, the final test of its completeness, the signal of the -rictory over Satan's power, the price paid for salva tion, the moment which appeases the guilty con science. Our vital participation in Christ's work is realized by faith in his blood (Heb. 12 : 24 ; 1 Pet. 1:2). Another representation of this truth, which also coalesces -with the satisfaction theory, is known as the mystical theory. By the Incarna tion God has entered into a living, mysterious union -with man, Christ has identified himself as the second Adam -with the race. He is one -with us, participating in our nature, sharing to the fullest extent our life, taking upon himself our sins, and dying, the head for the members, as suming all that is ours in order to give us a part in all that is his. This mediatorial remedy is provided for the world (Jno. 1:29; 3:16; i Jno. 2:2). The reach of grace is "far as the curse is found." While in the nature of things its full, sa-ring efficacy depends on its inner appropriation by the faith of indi-riduals, the whole world is in cluded in its benefits. The shadow of the cross, the reflection of God's love, falls upon all man kind (F. C, p. 526). We are dwelling upon a redeemed planet. The Lamb of God taketh away the sin of the world. Literature : Anselm, Cur Deus Homo ? Baier, Lehre v. d. VersShn- ung ; Thomasius, Christi Person u. Weick ; Ritschl, Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation; Oxenham, The Catholic Doctrine of the Atonement ; Bruce, Humilia tion of Christ ; Strong, System of Theology ; 'PavrhaiTn,Christ in Modern Theology. E.J.W. Attrition, mentioned in the Apology and Smalc. Art. (Part III.) is the Romish term for incomplete repentance, in contrast with contri tion, complete repentance. Attrition is the dread of sin's results and eternal punishments. Con sidered meritorious it is really deadly sorrow of the world (2 Cor. 7 : 10). Auberlen, Karl August, b. 1824, in Fellbach, Wuertemberg, studied in the Latin school at Esslingen, in the Proseminary at Blaubeuren and in the Theological seminary at Tuebingen, where J. T. Beck influenced him considerably ; he became professor of theology in Basel, in 1851, declined a call to Koenigsberg, 1855, and d. 1864. He was a brilliantly gifted and most prom ising modem representative of the old Suabian Scriptural Theology of J. A. Bengel, Roos, Rieger, Steinhofer, and others, somewhat in clined towards the theosophical speculation of Oetinger, on whom he -wrote a valuable treatise in 1847. A more decidedly positive and Biblical standpoint is taken in his book " The Prophet Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John " ( 1854), which was translated into French and English. His most mature and valuable contribution to theological literature is the first volume of his Divine Revelation (1861), an apologetical tieat- ise which, in an original and ingenious man ner combats modern negative criticism on its own ground and with its own weapons. It was translated into English, Dutch, and French. Auberlen also furnished a number of articles for Herzog's Theol. Real. Encyclopedia. A. S. Augsburg Confession. I. Historical and Theological Importance. The Confession which the evangelical estates of Germany pre sented to Chas. V. June 25, 1530, at Augsburg, rightly bears honorable names as Confessio augusta (augustissima) (grand confession), or "the evangelical apple of the eye" (in the sense of Prov. 7:2). It -will obtain in all future as in the past as the fundamental and chief confession of evangelical, Lutheran Christen dom, (i) for its universal historic importance as the instrument that opened the way for the politi cal recognition, which it has secured for German Protestantism as well as that beyond Germany ; (2) for its historic importance in the Reforma tion, in virtue of which it forms the foundation laid in common by Luther and Melanchthon for the whole confessional literature of the Lutheran Church ; (3) for its excellent value in its theo logical-literary aspect, as an unattained model of doctrinal exposition and apt defense of all fundamental truths of the gospel over against the degenerate religionism and theology of Pap ism. None of the remaining evangelical sjax- bols, either in the Lutheran or Reformed group, can even approximately boast of an importance simUar to that consisting of the three advan tages indicated. And this importance of the " evangelical apple of the eye " vrill remain as long as there shall be a confessional church attached to it. In much greater measure than the (II.) Helvetic Confession is a rule for those Reformed, who confess it, the Augs. Conf. will retain for those named after it, kinsmen of the A. C. (Addicti Aug. Confessioni), the worth of a doctrinal rule of incomparable value and never- aging authority. II. History of its Genesis. The historical occasion for the composition of the A. C. was Augsburg Confession 30 Augsburg Confession fiven in the edict of Chas. V. at Bologne in the eginning of 1530 for the assembling of a Ger man diet at Augsburg. At this assembly called for AprU of the same year the estates evangeli cally inclined were to report about the innova tions of faith which they had undertaken. As soon as the imperial in-ritation to the diet had been issued. Elector John the Constant of Sax ony, the prince-leader of the Evangelicals, com missioned his four most eminent theologians, Luther, Melanchthon, Justus Jonas, and Bugen- hagen to -write a justifying report. Since the autumn of 1529 there existed a common confes sion of the most reno-wned theologians of Luther anism, conceming the fundamental articles of their faith, which Luther himself had edited. This was the series of seventeen theses accepted at a convention in Schwabach (near Nuremberg), soon after the Marburg coUoquy -with Z-wingli. Its foundation was the shorter group of articles ( 14, perh. 15 ) agreed upon -with the Z-winglians at Marburg (Oct. 1-3). But for the less strictly Lutheran formulation of the Marburg articles a more definitely Lutheran form, particularly in the Lord's Supper, had been substituted. StUl these Marburg-Schwabach articles (articuli Suo- bacenses), which sought the shortest possible form, would of themselves not have sufficed to give the diet a picture of the faith and life of the Evangelicals, which presented clear information aud as much as possible disarmed existing pre judices. A more exact and detailed presentation of the controversial questions, discussed more than a decade between Catholics and Evangeli cals, was needed. And such a detaUed apology of the Evangelical standpoint was asked for by Elector John at the beginning of March, 1530. It does not appear that for the -written sketch, which was dra-wn up in accordance -with this re quest, any one else but Melanchthon, the ablest -writer and most ready in reply, contributed fuUy. This collection of partly longer, partly shorter essays concerning the controverted ques tions were given the Elector by the Wittenberg theologians toward the end of March at Torgau, and has therefore received the name Torgau articles (Articuli Torga-rienses ) . The articles which Foerstemann, the investigator of Reform ation history, fortunately discovered in 1830, and delivered from obli-rion, are a rather disordered collection of documents. The majority of the essays belonging to it clearly bear the impress of Melanchthon's authorship ; some few may be from Luther's pen, but that Jonas and Bugen- hagen contributed is rather improbable. Even a hasty comparison of these Torgau articles, largely of Melanchthon, -with the second ( polem- ico-practical) part of the Augustana, shows that the latter arose from a reconstruction and an improved arrangement of the former. Like- -wise the 17 articles (dogmatic-theoretical) forming the first part of the Confession clearly appear as the reconstruction of the 17 Schwa bach articles. In this the fundamental main part, the Augs. Conf. is essentially the spir itual product of Luther. The second part which is more explicit but only of secondary impor tance has essentially Melanchthon as its author. To the latter must also be attributed everything that pertains to the combination of both parts. to the addition of a preface to the emperor, to a double epilogue (after Art. 21 and 22); in gen eral ever3rthing pertaining to its editorial com pletion. Melanchthon carried on this editorial work vrith greatest carefulness during the first two months of his stay at Augsburg before Etnp. Chas. appeared and the activity of the diet began. Of the theologians there present Jonas, excellent in his Latin as well as German style, appears to have particularly assisted Melanch thon. In the formulation of the preface to the emperor the electoral chancellor. Dr. Briick, seems to have given counsel and help on account of the legal expressions to be observed. To Luther, who remained at a distance from the Augs. meeting, at the castle of Coburg in south- em Saxony, because of the Worms edict of pre scription against him, Melanchthon's sketch of the Confession when almost completed was sent by an Electoral courier. Luther's express ap proval of the Confession in contents and form is contained in the celebrated letter of May 15, 1530 : " I have read Master Philip's Apology. It pleases me very weU and I know nothing to im prove nor change ; nor would it be appropriate since I cannot step so gently and softly. Christ our Lord help that it may bring much and great fruit as we hope and pray. Amen." III. Contents and Di-vision. The Confes sion which arose thus from the combined acti-rity of the two main leaders of the Reformation com prises a shorter or doctrinal, and a longer or prac tical, polemical part. The former consisting of the first 21 articles may be di-rided into A. The proper dogm-atic exposition contained in the 17 doctrinal articles (formerly Schwabach Art. ) and embracing the following four exposi tions : I. The theological and Christological presup positions of salvation (Art. i of God the Triune ; A. 2 of sin ; A. 3, of the person and work of Christ). II. The salvation in Christ or the fundamental features of soteriology- (A. 4, of justification ; A. 5, of the word preached as the foundation of justification ; A. 6, of the new obedience as the fruit of justification). III. The Church and her means of grace or fundamental features of ecclesiology (A. 7, 8, the Church according to her outer and inner essence ; A. 9-12, of the sacrament of the Church ; A. 9, baptism ; A. 10, Lord's Supper ; A. II, 12, confession and repentance ; A. 13, of the use of the Sacraments ; A. 14, of church government. ) IV. The earthly temporal realization and the future completion of salvation or fundamental features of ethics and eschatology (A. 16, of church ceremonies ; A. 17, of ci-vU government ; A. 18, Christ's retum to judgment). To this IS added : B. A series of additions or theoretic comple- m.ents conceming I. The doctrine of sin (A. 18, of free wUl ; A. 19, of the cause of sin). 2 The doctrine of justification (A. 20, of faith and good works.) 3. The doctrine of God and Christ (A 21 in vocation of saints). The second main part (A. 22-28), offers a Augsburg Confession 31 Augsburg Confession series of practical complements referring to the ecclesiastical abuses corrected by the Evangeli cals ; therefore the Latin text has the heading : " Articuli in quibus recensentur abusus mutati." The points touched here concern the celebra tion of the Sacrament (A. 22, of both forms ; A. 24, of mass) ; celibacy (A. 23); confession (A. 25) ; laws of fasting (A. 26, of difference of meats) ; monastic vows (A. 27) ; of the power of bishops (A. 28). IV. Presentation and First Edition of The Confession. Five days after the emper or's entrance into Augsburg on the 15th of June, when the first solemn session of the diet had taken place, the evangelical princes ob tained, not without great difficulty, the imperial permission for public reading of their Confes sion. For this the afternoon of the 25th of June w£is appointed. The final copy of both texts of ¦the document, the German and the Latin, had been completed but shortly before ; and only one or two days previous to the presentation had it been subscribed by the six princes confessing it (Elector John of Saxony, Margrave George of Brandenburg- Ansbach, Dukes Ernest and Francis of Liineburg, Landgrave PhUip of Hesse, Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt) and two free cities (Nuremberg and Reutlingen). The reading took place on the afternoon named, in the hall of the Augsburg bishop, in the presence of the impe rial estates assembled about the emperor. The German text was read by the second electoral chancellor, of Saxony, Dr. Baier, whereupon the first chancellor. Dr. Briick, presented the final copies of both texts to the emperor. He trans ferred the German copy to Elector Albrecht of Mayence, the chief chancellor of the empire, to be preserved in the archives of the empire, whilst he kept the Latin, which he understood more readily.. The printing of the Confession was expressly forbidden the evangelical estates by the emperor before he closed the session. An effectual enforcement of the imperial pro hibition could succeed all the less, in proportion to the powerful impression created by the read ing of the Confession. Even some of the princes and bishops of Catholic persuasion are said to have expressed themselves not unfavorably about the contents of the evangelical confession, e.g. the dukes William of Bavaria and Henry of Bruns-wick, Archbishop Lang of Salzburg and Bishop Stadion of Augsburg. In the circles even before inclined to the gospel the powerful impression which proceeded from the act of con fession brought about several new accessions during the further proceedings of the diet ; thus at first the upper German cities Heilbronn, Kempten, Windsheim, Weissenburg, and then Frankfurt on the Main and others. From the printing presses of Augsburg and other cities no less than six editions of the German text and one of the Latin were issued within several months of the presentation of the Confession, despite all prohibitions, to satisfy the incredibly large demand for the text of the Confession. The exceedingly careless condition of these un authorized editions, full of mistakes of every kind, being as it were apocrypha, forced the writer of the Confession to arrange for an au thentic edition toward the end of 1530. Thus there appeared in the winter of the year after the diet, the German and Latin editio princeps, dated 1530, by Melanchthon himself, which was printed quarto by George Rhau in Wittenberg, and therefore generally called "the first Wit tenberg quarto edition." Owing to the favor able political situation, which seemed to make obedience to the imperial prohibition unneces sary on the part of the Evangelicals, several other editions, partly of the German partly of the Latin text, could foUow the first Melanch thon edition during the next few years. For the circulation of the Confession beyond Ger many several important steps were soon taken. Bugenhagen when called in 1537 to reform the established church of Denmark made the Au gustana the fundamental confession. The year previous the first English edition of the Augus tana as well as its Apology had been published by Tavemer, which later was to exert an impor tant influence upon the form and contents of the chief confessions of the Anglican Church (cf. Jacobs, Lutheran Movement, etc., p. 74 ff. ). V. The EdiTio Variata. In a new edition of the Latin text of the Augustana which Me lanchthon published in 1540, he made so many and in part essential changes of the form of words of the Confession that this edition was called "Editio variata" (or mutata). Some of the changes made could be regarded as im provements, thus e. g. the rearrangement of the articles of the practical-polemical part, by which the section referring to celibacy was taken from its place between the two articles referring to the Lord's Supper and placed immediately be fore the article on monastic vows. Of the ex pansions also through more or less extensive ad ditions, which a part of the articles (spec. 4, 5, 6, II, 18, 20) suffered, many may be regarded as improvements, particularly as gratifying elu cidations or as serving for a firmer proof of the truths delineated. But not a few of these " Lo- cupletationen " effected rather the introduction of the synergistic mode of teaching into the doctrinal unity of the Confession, a mode which had for some time been preferred by Melanch thon, approaching the Catholic point of view.' Even more reprehensible than this attempt at innovation in a Romanizing sense was the change which he made the loth art. " de coena domini " (Lord's Supper) suffer. Here he ac tualized his inclination to Bucer's and Calvin's spiritualistic doctrine of the Lord's Supper, in asmuch as he put in place of the strictly realis tic and genuine Lutheran explanation : " quod corpus et sanguis Christix vere adsint et distri- buantur (are truly present and distributed) vescentibus in coena Domini," the indefinite formula : " quod cum pane et vino vere ex- hibeantur (are truly presented) corpus et sanguis Christi vescentibus in c. D." He also eliminated the final sentence " et im- probant secus docentes " which disapproved of the Reformed counter-doctrine. In this at tempt at the alteration of the strictly Lutheran doctrinal conception of the Confession in an especially characteristic feature Melanchthon failed in his duty as_ a true watchman and guardian of the Confession which he himself had helped to erect. He forgot that the Augustana Augsburg Diet 32 Augsburg, Religious Peace vvas not his private Confession but the confes sional foundation and firm rule of evangelical Christendom. Although the German text was not changed by Melanchthon, yet the material changing of the Latin necessarily soon caused a sensation and scandalized the true adherents of the doctrinal conception of the Augsburg Invari- ata of 1530. The confusion appeared in fuU strength in the years foUo-wing Melanchthon's death ; especially when Frederick III. , Elector of the Palatinate, who had gone over to the re formed faith, used the Variata as a defense for his deviation from the true Lutheran conception of the Lord's Supper at the diet of evangelical princes at Naumburg (1561). It was attempted to imitate this action in other places. Only the Form, of Concord (see art. Concord, Form, of) put an end to the inner controversies called forth in this manner in its exclusion of the party of the Philippists or Crypto-Calvinists, which supported itself by the Variata, from the circle of the genuine confessors of Lutheranism. The Form, of Concord determined the unchanged Augustana as the only genuine doctrinal founda tion of Lutheranism. VI. Literature. Editions'of the Confession. Best crit. ed. -with full apparatus of variations, in Bindseil, Corpus Reform. (0pp. Mel.) vol. :ss:vi. Braunschweig (1853). Smaller crit. ed. of both texts, German and Latin in J. T. Miiller's Symbol. Bifcher der ev. luth. Kirche, 4th ed. Giitersloh (1876), and in Zocklerand Kolde (see below), cf. the Engl, and Latin ed. in Ph. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom,, vol. iii., Jacobs, Book of Concord, Phila. (1882), vol. i. Introductory and Explanatory Writings. Older works: Chytraeus (1576); E. S. Cyprian (1730), C. A. Salig (1730), E. G. Feuerlein (1743), G. G.Weber (Krit. Gesch. 2 Thi. 1783). Of modern date : G. Plitt (Einl. 2 vols. 1867 ff.); A. F. C. Vilmard. A. C. erklart (1870); O. Zockler (d. A. C. als symbol. Lehrgruudlage der deutschen Ref. 1870) ; Th. Kolde (d. A. C. deutschu. lat. kurz erlautert); Jacobs, Book of Cone. ii. p. 24 ff. ; p. 69 ff. O. Z. Augsburg Diet. This diet, so memorable for its Confession, was looked for -with eager ex pectation. Since the protest at Spires (1529), which showed the deep religious differences, it became necessary. Chas. V., who had been absent from Germany for nine years, had called it -with the promise and admonition "to allay discussion, to abandon opposition, to commend past errors to our Sa-riour, and to industriously endeavor to understand and weigh the judg ment, opinion, and sentiment of every one in love and kindness, to remove whatever had not been rightly interpreted or performed on both sides. " But this promise was doubted, as Chas. V. had received his crown, Feb. 24, 1530, at Bologne from the Pope -without the German princes and was reported to be on friendly terms -with Rome. Nevertheless the invitation to the diet, issued at Bologne, Jan. 31, 1530, was gen erally accepted, though -with suspicion by PhUip of Hesse and the south-German cities, -with the exception of Nuremberg, whose policy it was to court imperial favor. John the Constant of Saxony issued the call leading to the prepara tion of the Augs. Conf. March 14, having re ceived the imperial invitation on the nth. Luther, Melanchthon, and Jonas left Wittenberg with the Elector, AprU 3d. Luther remained at Coburg, the others proceeded to Augsburg, Spalatin, Agricola, and AquUa having joined them. The Elector John was in-rited to be at Augsburg, May I, and arrived on the 2d, but Chas. V. tarried at Innsbmck, delayed by the Roman party. He forbade the Lutherans preaching in Augsburg, but they refused to comply. Meanwhile the Confession was being discussed and fully shaped, and finally, on June 15, the emperor entered Augsburg on the eve of the festival Corpus Christi. He asked the Evan gelicals to participate in the procession, which they refused. The matter of preaching was again discussed, and settled by the compromise, which prohibited both Romanists and Evangeli cals from preaching. Originally the emperor decided to take up the religious controversy first, but in his opening address the war against the Turks preceded, and the religious dispute was mentioned last. The Evangelicals were ac cused of breaking the Worms edict, and of caus ing the Peasants' war. Every party was to pre sent its position in writing, German and Latin. The Evangelicals, seconded by the Papal nuncio, desired the religious subject to be discussed first, and thereupon Friday, June 25, was fixed. The Roman party, claiming that they had kept the Worms edict, delivered no -written account, and thus put the Evangelicals in the position of those who had not simply to confess but to defend themselves. Melanchthon constantly fiUl of fear, after the confession, negotiated privately -with Campeggi, making many concessions, but in vain. Rome demanded absolute submission. On Sept. 22, the recess was passed. The Lu therans were given untU April 15, 1531, for con sideration. Meanwhile they were to make no innovations, nor to disturb the Catholics in faith or worship, and to assist in suppressing the Anabaptists and despisers of the Sacrament. Later diets were those of 1547 about the Interim (see Interim), of 1555 for religious peace (see Augsb. Rel. peace), of 1566, when this peace only for the adherents of the Augsb. Confession was extended to the Reformed domain of Fred rick III. of the Palatinate. See Luther's Let iers, De Wette, vol. iv. ; Corp. Ref or., vol. u., xxvi; Foerstemann, Urkundenbuch; Ranke, Deutsche Gesch., vol. iii. p. 162, ff. ; Hauck's Realencycl. II. p. 242, ff. ; Plitt. Einl. in die Aug., I. p. 524, ff. ; Schaff, Church Hist., VI. p. 695, ff. ; MoUer-Kawerau, Kirchengesch. III. P- 94, ff.) J. H. Augshurg Interim. See Interims. Augsburg, Religious Peace, in 1544 Charles V., free from the threats of the Turks and French, began to attack the Smalcald league, founded 153 1 by the Evangelical princes for mutual defense against the power of the em- peror._ This he was enabled to do by the aid of Maurice of Saxony, who betrayed the Evangeli cal cause ; and by breaking the Nuremberg agreement of 1532, which guaranteed religious freedom untU a general councU could be con voked. In 1546 the leaders of the Smalcald league, Elector John the Constant of Saxony and Landgrave PhUip of Hesse were captured Augsburg Seminary 33 Aurifaber Their shameful treatment by the emperor en raged Germany, and Maurice, repenting of his duplicity, revolted from the emperor, surprised him at Innsbruck, and obtained the Passau agreement of 1552. After various negotiations, and the declarations of the Lutheran princes at Naumburg (March 6, 1555), that they would firmly maintain the Augsburg Confession, the religious peace of Augsburg was concluded Sept. 25, 1555. It assured all adherents of the Augsburg Confession of religious freedom. No edition of the Confession was specialized, and thus the Cal-rinists were also included under it. The spiritual jurisdiction of Rome was not to be exercised in Protestant communities, but the Roman chapters were not to be expeUed from the cities. Church property, which at the Pas sau agreement no longer belonged to Rome, was to be left to the Evangelicals. But only the temporal estates had the right of religious free dom. The religion of the prince was to be the religion of the land, and those of different views might emigrate. Were a prince-bishop to be come Protestant, he forfeited his estates. But Lutherans living under such princes were granted the exercise of their faith. While this peace gave legal status to the Protestants, i. e. Lutherans, it destroyed the mediaeval ideal of one faith for one people, which even the Protes tants maintained despite their assertion of in dividual freedom. The Lutherans numbering seven-tenths of the population, gained no pro portionate advantage. Through the reservaium, ecclesiasticum i. e. the forfeiture of estates of princes becoming Lutherans, Protestantism was hindered in its advancement, and a great part of the land kept permanently Catholic. The loss then sustained by the lack of decision and strength of the Evangelical princes, under the leadership of August of Saxony, was never re gained. J. H. Augsburg Seminary (Norwegian). See Sem inaries. August, Elector of Saxony, b. July 31, 1526, in Freiburg, d. Feb. 11, 1586, second son of Henry the Pious, assumed the government 1553. He was a -wise lawgiver, a patron of art and science, and so affable to the people, that he was kno-wn as "Father August." By faith a de cided Lutheran he said: "If my Lord Jesus Christ had uttered such a word : see, in this trunk, stone or wood you have my body and blood, I would have believed it ; my reason least of all should have led me away." But despite this thorough Lutheranism the Crypto-Calvinists long deceived August, and had him depose the true Lutherans, who did not accept the Wit tenberg catechism (1571). When in 1574 the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's Supper was openly attacked, A. saw his error, the Crypto- Calvinists were removed, the Form, of Concord was prepared, whose cost in the necessary meet ings, etc. (8o,oco thalers) A. bore alone. A.'s -wife was the pious " Mother Anna " of Saxony, rich in faith and good works. Augustana Synod (Swedish). See Synods, II. Augusti, John C. W., b. Oct. 27, 1772, pro fessor at Jena, Breslau, Bonn, d. April 28, 1841, 3 as consistorial counselor at Coblentz. A volu minous writer of exegetical and historical works, of which the most important are : Denkwur- digkeiien aus der chr. Archdologie, and a L)og- mengeschichte. Not thorough and original, though critical, A. maintained the dogma against rationalism. Augustine, Luther's attitude toward. It was in an Augustinian monastery that Luther fought the great spiritual battle of his life. The writ ings of Augustine greatly aided him, and his own theology always reflected, though not serrilely, the distinctive views of this great teacher. He admired his fidelity to the literal sense of Scripture, and yet, like him, loved to exalt the spirit above the letter. He accepted -without qualification his doctrine of absolute divine sovereignty and human inability, but maintained it only as furnishing an apparently necessary basis for the assurance of salvation. Luther's theory of original sin was far more comprehensive than that of Augustine, as indi cated in his Pauline conception of the term "flesh." In the central doctrine of justifica tion by faith, which formed the real bond of union between the two men, Luther advanced to a much clearer position and his apprehen sion of the relation of the indi-ridual believer to the church at large was more distinctly evan- gehcal. C. E. H. Aurifaber, John, probably b. 1519, ia Mansfeld, studied at Wittenberg, twice war- chaplain, became the famulus of Luther,. whose death he -witnessed ; in 1550 he was ap pointed court-preacher at Weimar, but lost his. position by preaching against sects, false doc trines, corruptions before the court inimical to> Flacius, whom A. upheld. He was a strict Lutheran, opposing fiercely all milder tenden cies. Melanchthon counted him amoug the the ologians, ' ' rabid, raging with hate. ' ' From 1540 he gathered letters, etc., of Luther, superin tended the Jena edition of L.'s works (1555- 1558) , adding two volumes. His famous work is Table-talk and Colloguia, byD. M. L. (1556). In this he used Lauterbach's chronological col lection of L.'s table-talk, systematized and added to the matter, enlarged upon L. 's strong expressions in a partisan though not intention ally falsifying manner. He d. Nov. 18, 1575. Aurifaber, Andrew, b. 1514, at Breslau, professor and rector at the Konigsberg univer sity, d. 1559, physician and counselor of the weak Duke Albrecht of Prussia, advocated Osiandrianism diplomatically at the courts and universities. He was the son-in-law of Osian der. Flacius attacked him bitterly. Aurifaber, John, brother of Andrew, b. Jan. 30, 1517, educated at Wittenberg under Me lanchthon's influence, who was his continued friend, and whose position A. always held ; professor at Wittenberg and Rostock ; through his brother's influence president of Samland. He was eminent for his learning, a great preacher, but strongest as organizer, having largely -written and introduced the Mecklenburg Kirchen Ordn. (1552). He sought to mediate between the Osiandrians and their opponents, asking the former to recant. In 1558 he was Australia 34 Bach attacked for omitting the exorcism from the Prussian Kirch. Ordn. Tired of theological contentions, he retired to Breslau (1567), and d. Oct. 19th, 1568. Australia, the Lutheran Church in. The British Colony of Australia includes, besides the Continent of Australia, the two islands of Tas mania and New Zealand. Opened for coloniza tion at a comparatively late date (1788), the European population of the colony has grown with startling rapidity, and, according to the and 1839 in consequence of their opposition to the Prussian Union (q. v.), while the Luther ans of the other states are Germans, and some Swedes, who have emigrated in the hope of bet tering their material circumstances. There are in Australia four general Lutheran synods, and five district synods, -with eighty-four pastors, thirty- seven teachers of parochial schools, and two synodical organs, but in spite of the rapid Angli- cization of the people, little or nothing is being done to establish an English Lutheran Church. New South West Wales. Australia. 562,980 24,769 iio,ri2 4,556 109,390 1^96 7.950 S 13,112 (?) 24,112 1,573 22,336 800 286,917 12,464 South Australia. Victoria. Queensland. Anglican Methodist Presbyterian Lutheran Baptist CongregationalistSects Roman Catholic. . 89,277 60,813 18,206 23.328 17.54711,88210,526 47.179 417,182 158,040 167,027 15.553 27,88222,11038.590 240,267 142.553 30,86845.63923.383 10,256 8,5717.577 12,765 1,176,763 364.389342.258 70,294 68,797 68,248 79,829 599,592 census of 1891, the whites on the mainland number 3,036,600, in Tasmania, 146,670, and in New Zealand, 6 mill., while the natives have been either exterminated or driven back to the interior where they still live in heathenism. Six regular Protestant denominations are repre sented in Australia, besides a great number of small sects. The following table, copied from Herzog's Real-Encyclopadie, (9th edition), will show their relative strength in the different states. From this it -will be seen that the Lutheran ranks fourth among Protestant churches and that its greatest strength is in Queensland, South Australia, and Victoria. The Lutheran population of South Australia was originally composed of Germans who left Prussia in 1838 The number of Lutherans in Tasmania is small (est. 421), but in New Zealand there is a considerable population of Germans and Swedes (est. 5,643), supplied by missionaries of the Im- manuel (Australian) Synod, and of the Neuen- dettelsau Mission Institute. Some mission work is done among the heathen natives by the Hermannsburg and Neuendettelsau societies and the Immanuel Synod. See further Herzog, Real Encyclopddie (9th ed.), vol. ii. pp. 209 ff. ; Lenker, Lutherans in all Lands, p. 703 ff. ; Meusel, KJirchliches Hand Lexikon, vol. i. p. 254 f. C. M. J. Authority, divine, of Bible. See Inspira tion ; Word of God. Avenarius. See Habermann. B. Bach, Johann Sebastian, one of the great est musicians that ever lived, belonged to a family distinguished for musical gifts through several generations. He was the youngest son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, and was born at Eisenach, March 21, 1685. Left an orphan at the age of ten, he went to live -with his brother, Johann Christoph, organist at Ohrdruff, from whom he received his first instruction on the harpsichord and in singing. When his brother died in 1699, and he was left to pro-ride for him self, his fine voice secured for him a place in the choir of St. Michael's school at Liineberg, where he _ remained until his eighteenth year. After filling various positions as organist and concert- master, he was in 1723 appointed cantor at the Thomas Schule in Leipzig, a position which he held until his death, July 28, 1750. It was here as the organist and musical director of the churches of St. Thomas and St. Nicholas, that his won derful genius fuUy unfolded itself, and that he wrote his greatest works. With the exception of the opera, these comprise almost the entire range of musical forms, vocal and instrumental. Child-like in his piety, and dedicating his art en tirely to the serrice of God, Bach naturally found his deepest inspiration in the themes that connect with the history of redemption and the life of the Church. In his vocal and instrumental composi tions for the church service, he endeavored so faithfully to express the varying phases of the church year, that he usuaUy obtained a synopsis of the sermon before it was preached, and pre pared the musical part of the service accordingly. In this way originated his five series of can tatas for church use, each for an entire year "In these," says Ritter, " aU that touches man's soul most deeply, every feeling, every emotion, from the cradle to the grave, is re vealed in compositions inexhaustible in rich ness of harmony, truthfulness of melodious ex pression, and the greatest variety of form. He penetrates the spiritual depth of Holy Writ, raises its sense by means of his incomparable art' transfigures it in tone until its whole meaning IS revealed." His largest and most important works are his Passion Oratorios and the Mass in B Minor Of the former only two are known and pubhshed, the one according to St. John and the greater one according to St. Matthew! Ot the latter it is said that " aU that Bach's genius could reach lies unfolded, in immortal master-strokes, in this wonderful sacred poem " Bach also verote a vast number of pieces for the harpsichord, many concertos, sonatas, suites etc., and various secular vocal compositions -- Bachman 35 Baden Lit. — ^J. N. Forkel, Life of John Sebastian Bach, Get. ed. Leipzig (1802), Eng. ed. Lon don (1820) ; J. A. P. Spitta, Johann Sebastian Bach (1884), 3 vols. J. F. O. Bachman, John, b. at Rhinebeck, N. Y., Feb. 4, 1790; d., Charleston, S. C, Feb. 24, 1874. Educated at Williams College, from wliich he received honorary M. A., though com pelled by hemorrhage from the lungs to leave before graduation. Abandoned study of law for theology. Taught at Frankfort and Phila. His theological studies were directed by Rev. Dr. Quitman and Rev. Dr. P. F. Mayer ; 1813, suc ceeded his preceptor, A. Brann,as pastor of Gilead pastorate, N. Y. Ha-ring been ordained by N. Y. Ministerium, he was recommended to St. Johns, Charleston, and was pastor there for fifty-six years. Displayed extraordinary S}rmpathy, wisdom, and power as a pastor, and was a leader in the organization of the Southern Church. Joined S. C. synod at its second convention ; was its president for years ; led in establish ment of the Theological Seminary at Lexington, S. C. (afterwards at Newberry), and Newberry College ; in establishment of the General Synod (Pres. 1835, 1837) , and afterwards of the General Synod South ; in the adoption of the Book of Worship (1866) ; and was the first after Muhlenberg to urge the preparation of a com mon order of service. During the Ci-ril War he sympathized strongly with his people, and said the prayer at the convention in which the ordi nance of secession of S. C. was passed. His congregation was scattered ; his library,_vatll valuable scienti fir. cn11(^(7ti"ns, -was^estroyed by ¦Tne_of_ShprrriaTi'.s rn1iit7p]v;, a-nd Vie ^xa,=i atrn- "ciouslv be.aten bv soldiers. Peace ha-ring re tumed, he gathered his congregation, which he had served in its dispersion in every part of the state. — Was distinguished in natural history ; in youth a friend of Wilson in Phila. ; later, of Humboldt and Agassiz ; a. collaborator of Audubon in the Birds of America and in the Quadrupeds. D.D. Penn College, (1835) ; Ph. D. University of Berlin ; LL- D., (1848), professor of natural history in Coll. of Charleston. Pub lished many monographs on scientific subjects, and volumes on the Unity of the Human Race, and a Defense of Luther (1853). See John Bachman, Letters and Memoirs of His Lif e (by his daughter), Charleston (1888). B. T. H. Bachmann, John Francis Jul., b. in Ber lin, Feb. 24, 1832, a scholar of Tholuck and Hengstenberg, taught at Berlin (1856), called to Rostock (1858), noted for his thorough work on the festival laws of the Pentateuch (1858), and the book of the Judges (only 5 chapt. ), and for his knowledge of Lutheran hymnology. He favored the spiritual interpre tation of prophecy, and in the Pentateuch ques tion advocated the old traditional view. In conviction a stanch Lutheran, he d. April 12, 1888. Bacmeister, Luke, d. 1608, Prof, at Rostock, and author of the hymn, "Ach lieber Herr im hochsten Thron," sung during the pesti lence. Bacmeister, Luke, son of the former, b. 1570, d. 1638, educated at Rostock under Chy traeus, at the Univ. of Strassburg, (1587), first a jurist, then a theologian and Prof, at Witten berg, Rostock, finally Supt. at Gustrow (1612). He defended Luth. truth against Calvinists, and Jesuits ; was succeeded by a son of the same name. Baden, Lutheran Church in. The present Archduchy of Baden includes besides the origi nal possessions of the Margraves of Baden- Durlach and Baden-Baden several territories which in the time of the Reformation belonged to other States, e. g. one in the South to Aus tria, one in the north to the Palatinate, others to bishops, abbots, free cities, and nobles. In 1386 the University of Heidelberg was founded in the Palatinate, in 1456 that of Freiburg in the Austrian possessions. Jerome of Prague (1406), Nicholas of Jauer (1417), John Wessel, Jacob Wimpheling, Reuchlin, and Agricola as teachers, Melanchthon, Bucer, Brenz, Schnepf as students at Heidelberg, Capito (1511), Hedio, Urbanus Regius as teachers at PVeiburg paved the way for the Reformation. Luther aroused great enthusiasm by his disputation at Heidel berg (1518). Many nobles declared for Luther, e. g. the Count of Westheim, Goetz of Berlich- ingen, Francis of Sickingen. After the diet of Worms and still more after the Peasants' war the followers of Luther were persecuted, espe cially the preachers, e. g. Hubmeier was burnt alive, Rebmann had his eyes crushed with a spoon, Spengler was drowned. The city of Con stance was forced back into Romanism. What the Austrian soldiers began, the Jesuits finished. After the religious peace of Augsburg (1555), Charles II. of Baden-Durlach furthered the Re formation assisted by the Swabian Theologians Jacob Andreae and Jacob Heerbrand. One of the most zealous Lutheran princes was the Pala tine Otto Heinrich who aided by John Marbach of Strassburg, published his famous " Kirchen- Ordnung" in 1556, made the strict Lutheran, Tilemau Heshus, general superintendent of the churches, and ordered him to reform the Heidel berg University. But his successor Frederick III. (since 1559) undid everything in favor of Calvinism (Heidelberg Catechism, 1562). His son Louis VI. was a strict Lutheran ; 600 Calvin istic preachers were deposed ; but after his death, in 1583, his brother John Casimir suppressed all Lutheran teaching ; 400 Lutheran preachers had to leave the country. During these un happy changes and bitter contests the territory of the Margrave of Baden-Durlach remained Lutheran (cities : Carlsruhe, Durlach, Pforz heim, Stein) . In 1771 the Margravate of Baden- Baden (mostly Catholic) was added to it, in 1803, parts of the Palatinate, (mostly Reformed) in 1806 a portion of Westheitn, Odenwald, Kraich- gau, Ortenau, and some places in Wuertemberg, all Lutheran. But Rationalism, whose most in fluential and most shallow representative was Prof. Henry E. G. Paulus at Heidelberg, paved the way for a union of Lutherans and Calvinists. At a convention of delegates in 1821, the "Evangelical-Protestant" State-Church was established. There were 261,565 Lutherans and 67,170 Reformed, and for these latter the Lu theran Church was officially abolished, the Augs burg Confession, however, being retained and Baden 36 Baier Luther's SmaU Catechism, but together -with the Heidelberg Catechism. At the Holy Supper a "consensus" formula was to be used. Five churches being dissatisfied were aUowed to use wafers instead of bread. When, in 1830, a rationalistic catechism was published for the State-Church, Alois Henhoefer, formerly a Roman priest, but afterwards a faithful witness of Christ, attacked it successfully. Later on a better, but unionistic, catechism, mixing Luther's and the Heidelberg Catechism, an Agenda and hymn-book, was published. By the law of Oct. 9, i860, the Protestant and the CathoUc churches were privileged to administer their o-wn affairs. But whUe the Catholic Church is governed by the Archbishop of Freiburg, the Protestant Church must acknowledge the head of the State as its summ,us episcopus who gov erns it through the ' ' High Ecclesiastical Court ' ' and a General Synod representing the churches. There are 372 pastoral charges in the State- Church. The whole Church is pervaded by an unchristian liberalism, the " Protestants' Union " ha-ring very many adherents amongst the clergy and the people, especially at Heidel berg (Professors Schenkel and Holtzmann). Professors Friedrich Carl Umbreit, Carl UU- mann, Richard Rothe, Carl Christian Baehr represented a more positive Christian theology. Dr. Muehlhaeusser and others were influential in opposing the unchristian liberalism. Some Lutherans left the State-Church and formed strictiy Lutheran congregations under Pastor Eichhom since 1850, who at first belonged to the Breslau Synod, as weU as the weU known Max Frommel at Ispringen who had charge of four congregations (numbering 881 souls in 1876). In recent times several new congrega tions have been gathered, e. g. at Carlsruhe. One belongs to the Missouri Synod, the others are connected -with the Immanuel Synod. But none belong to the Breslau Synod at pres ent. There are now about 1,000 souls in these congregations, a little over a mUlion Catho lics and 565,000 Protestants in the State- Church. E. F. M. Baden, Laurids, Danish theologian, b. 1616, pastor at Horson, his native city (1648), d. 1689, known for the devotional work Him,melstige (Copenhagen, 1670). Baden, J. H., b. at Westeresch, Hanover, Dec. 20, 1823. He studied theology at the Uni versity of Berlin ; established the congregations at Mt. Vernon and Hastings, N. Y., and after haring been for several years assistant of Rev. Dr. Stohlmann, iu New York, established St. Luke's Germ. Ev. Luther, congregation in Brooklyn, of which he was pastor for 24 years. In 1879 lie was chosen editor of the Herold, the organ of the New York Ministerium and two years later became president of this body. He took an active part in the establishing of the Home for Emigrants, was a director of the Theological Seminary in Philadelphia, and a member of the board of tmstees of the Wartburg Orphans' Home. D. July 10 1897. W.L. Baetis, William, Lutheran minister. Was b. 1777. Entered the ministry and became a member of the Ministeritmi of Pennsylvania, 1810. Was pastor at Cohenzy, N. J., i8io. Be came pastor of the church at Schaefferstown, then Lancaster, now Lebanon Co., Pa., and fom: other congregations in 1811. Resided at W/ar- -wick (Brickerville), Lancaster Co., from 1812 to 1836 or 1837. Became the first pastor of Frie- dens Church, Myerstown, Lebanon Co., Pa., in 1812. Removed from Warwick to Lancaster, Pa., 1836 or 1837, and was Pastor of Zion's Lutheran Church untU 1853. Was elected Senior of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, 1836. He attended the meeting of the Minis terium at Lancaster, 1866, when, as Senior, aged nearly 89 years, he addressed the Synod in a most impressive manner and bid it farewell. The President of the Synod made an appropriate response. Senior Baetis departed this life Aug. 17, 1867. F. J. F. S. Bager, J. G., pastor, first in the Palatinate, theu in Lebanon and York counties, Pa., New York City and Baltimore, Md. ; b. 1725, an alum nus of Helmstedt, arrived, 1752, d. 1794, at Conewago, near Hanover, Pa., his residence during tiie most of his life in America. Ances tor of the Baughers. Bahnmaier, Jonathan Friedrich, b. 1774, d. 1841, a prominent theologian, preacher and hymnologist of the Lutheran Church in Wuer temberg, member of the committee for the prep aration of the Wuertemberg Hymn Book of 1842, and author of the beautiful Mission Hymn " Walte, walte (Original : fuerder) nah imd fern. ' ' J. Julian's Dictionary of English Hymn ology mentions six EngUsh translations, of which Miss Winkworth's has found most gen eral acceptance "Spread, O spread. Thou mighty Word." A.S. Baier, Johann Wilhelm, b. Nov. 11, 1647, at Niirnberg, studied at Altorf from his seven teenth year, took the Doctor's degree in theol ogy at Jena (1673), and a professorship in the foUo-wing year. In 1679 he was made the first Rector of the Univ. of Halle, and a year later he was called to Weimar as Genl. Supt. , court preacher and city pastor ; but he arrived at Weimar in faUing health, and d. Oct. 19, 1695. His teacher and father-in-law, Johann Musseus of Jena, exerted great influence on him as a theologian, and this appears very distinctiy in his Compendium Theologice Positivae, the work by which his name was made known to many students of theology, not only in his day, but also in the present time, as it was and is used as a compend of dogmatic theology. The work fol lows the analytical method, beginning vrith the concept of theology and its end and aim, (Theol ogy proper), then treats of its subject (Anthro pology), and thereafter of the causes and means of salvation (Soteriology). The latest edition of the Compend was pubUshed at St. Louis, Mo., m 1879, ty Dr. Walther, and contains, besides Baier s work, a neh collection of extracts from the -works of the earUer Lutheran theologians, which, -with numerous sections on the various antitheses of ancient and modern times, form by far tiie most valuable part of tiie contents of tins edition, serving at the same time as a cor rective to various statements made in Baier's Baicriein 87 Baltimore paragraphs and notes. — Baiet, Johann Wil helm, son of the former, b. at Jena, June 12, 1675, studied at Heilbronn, Jena, and Halle, was made Professor of Philosophy at Jena (1703), Professor of Physics and Mathematics at Altorf, (1704), and Doctor of Theology (1710), also Pro fessor of the Greek language. Besides a great number of dissertations of his own, he also pub lished several works of his father, as his Com pendium Theologicz Moralis, Compendium Theologicz Exegeticoe, Compendium Theologice Historian, Aphorismi de Informatione Cate- chetice. D. May 24, 1729. A. L. G. Baierlein, Edward, b. 24 Apr. 1819, mission ary of Leipzig Society in Michigan (1846-53) ; established Bethania near Saginaw, among Chip- pewas, translated catechism, prayers, liturgy, etc., 60 converts in 1853. Recalled and sent to India. After his departure mission de clined untU abandoned (1868). — In India (1853- 1886), Emeritus (1887) near Dresden. — {Im Urwalde, bei den roten Indianem, Dresden, 1888. ) G. J. F. Bake, Reinhard, b. 1587, pastor at the Cathedral Church of Magdeburg (1617). After the siege of Magdeburg by Tilly, Bake met him at the church portal with a greeting from Vir gil (Aen. II, 324). The Jesuits in vain at tempted to convert Bake, when Tilly's secretary enabled him to flee to Grimma ; 1640 he re tumed to Magdeburg, where he died (1657). Baker, John Christopher, b. in Philadel phia, May 7, 1792. He studied at Nazareth Hall, Nazareth, Pa., afterwards pursuing his theolog ical studies under George Lochman, D. D., at Lebanon, Pa. He was ordained in 1811, by the Pennsylvania Ministerium, remaining a leading member of it until death. He was first assist ant pastor in German Lutheran Congregations in PhUadelphia. His charges were German- town, (1812-1828), Lancaster, Pa. (1828-1853), St. Luke's, Philadelphia, where he d. May, 1859, in his 68th year. He was earnest, enthusiastic, conscientious, hard-working, self-den5dng, an able preacher, a fine pastor, a well-read scholar, a devout Christian. C. S. A. Balduin, Friedrich, a Lutheran theologian, b. at Dresden, November 17, 1575, studied at Wittenberg from 1593 and was there made A. M. and poet laureate in 1597. In 1601 he became a member of the philosophical faculty at Wit tenberg, in 1602 a preacher at Freiberg, in 1603 superintendent at Oelsnitz, and in 1604 profes sor of theology at Wittenberg, where, in 1607 he also succeeded Mylius as superintendent. Declining the office of court preacher at Prague, he remained at Wittenberg, where he died March i, 1627. Among his numerous books the most important is a Latin commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul, which may be termed one of the classical works in Lutheran exegeti cal literature ; and his tractatus de casibus consdentice (publ. after his death), a noted work on casuistics. A. L. G. BaUe, Bishop Nicolai Edinger, b. October 12, 1744, at the age of eleven years entered the Latin School, at eighteen the University in Copenhagen, was graduated at twenty-one and continued his studies at Leipzig and Goettingen. He retumed to Denmark in 1770, and became Erofessor in the University. The following year e was appointed Pastor at Kettrup and Goet- terrup in me Aalborg Diocese and was ordained by Bishop Brorson. One year later he was made professor of theology in the University. In 17% he was ordained Bishop in Frue Kirke in Copenhagen. Living at a time when ration alism was at its height in Denmark and was propagated by men of great ability and learn ing, he condemned and controverted their teachings and endeavored to counteract their evil and ruinous influence. He was very active in his -risitation of the Churches, stri-ring to edify the people and strengthen them in the true faith. He also effected extensive im provements in the church property and he published a number of books, all aiming to lead the people into living communion with Christ. Shortly after his ordination as Bishop, he received a letter from America asking him whether he would ordain young men for the ministry, or, if possible, a Bishop for the Church of England in America, if the men were sent to him. The reason of the recjuest was that such ordination was refused by Bishop Lowth, of London, to the candidates who went from America to England to obtain it, because they would not take the oath of loyalty to the crown, being citizens of the United States. Bishop Balle and others were appointed a com mittee to comply -with the request and ordain a Bishop and the young men in question, but in the meanwhile the Rev. Dr. Seabury was or dained Bishop in Scotland. Bishop Balle al lowed the Reformed in Denmark to commune in the Lutheran Churches and the Lutherans in the West Indies to commune in the Reformed Churches during a vacancy in the pastorate of the Lutheran Churches. He ordained 17 Bishops, 80 Deans, and 453 Pastors. In 1808 he resigned his Bishopric and ordained the Rev. Dr. Muenter as his successor. He d. October 19th, 1816. The theological stud ents carried his body to the grave, and the clergy of the diocese erected a monument to his memory. E. B. Baltimore, Luth. Church in. Among the earliest distinct tiaces of a Lutheran organization in Baltimore are the -risits, once in six weeks, of Rev. John George Bager, whose second pastor ate in York county. Pa. , began in 1769. " Some elders " of the congregation addressed in 1770 a request to the Patriarch Muhlenberg for the services of Rev. John Andrew Kmg, but the latter was moved by the action of Synod to ac cept a call to Fredericktown, Md. In 1773 Rev. John Siegfried Gerock took charge, remaining until his death, 1787. His successor was Rev. J. D. Kurtz, D.D., who served the congregation for fifty years. The first English Luth. congregation dates from 1826, and was ministered to by its first pastor, Rev. J. G. Morris, D.D., LL.D., for thirty-three years. The second English con gregation was founded in 1841, the third shortly after, and St. Mark's in i860. The city embraces at this time not less than 35 Luth. congregations, of these 15 belong to the General Synod, 10 to the Joint-Ohio Synod, Bamberg 38 Baptism 6 to the Missouri Synod, 4 are Independent. Of the General Synod churches 13 are English ; of the Joint-Ohio 6 ; of Missouri 3, the other 3 are German. The Mother Church was alienated from the Luth. faith and from Synodical con nections through a Rationalist pastor. Baltimore has in the last decade -witnessed an extraordi nary multiplication of churches due in large part to a local Church-Extension Society with which all the General Synod congregations co operate. E. J. W. Bamberg, Reformation in. George of Lim- burg, the Bishop of Bamberg until his death. May 31, 1522, was a humanist. The Gospel was preached in some of his churches and found con fessors in the Chapter, among the citizens, and among the nobles of the principality. John Schwanhausen and Ulrich Burkhard were lead ing preachers of the Truth, and from the press of George Erlinger went forth proofs that the Reformers held the pure doctrine of the Early Church. George's successor, Weigand v. Red- witz, was on the side of authority and tradition, and was in continual struggle with his city and neighbors. Van Schwarzenberg, his counsellor, was dismissed, and the Lutheran preachers were driven away. The Peasants' War put a weapon into his hands. The Reformation in Bamberg was effectually checked. But many of the nobility of the district remained Luther ans. See Die Reformation d. Kirche in Bain- berg (1522-1556), Erhard, 1898. E. T. H. Ban, denoted in the civil law of the old Ger man Empire, a declaration of outlawry ; to put a prince under the ban of the empire was to di vest him of his dignities and to interdict all in tercourse and all offices of humanity with the offender. Sometimes whole cities were put under the ban, that is, deprived of rights and privileges. After the Diet of Worms Luther was placed under the ban of the empire by Charles v., which branded him "as a de-ril in human form disguised under a monk's cowl, who had gathered a mass of damned heresies into one pestilential cesspool." Intercourse with him would be punished as treason. It was the sacred duty of every one to arrest him and deliver him to the emperor. In the Smalkaldic War, Charles V. issued the ban against John Frederic of Saxony and Philip of Hesse, confiscating their estates and branding them as rebels who, under the mask of religion, were threatening the peace of Germany. This, however, was arbitrary and a violation of the rights of the German na tion. In the twelfth century it was adopted by the Church, as the common name for a declara tion of excommunication, and signified in this connection an anathema, an ecclesiastical curse upon the offender. It sometimes signified a pecuniary mulct or penalty laid upon a delin quent for offending against a ban of the empire, or, a mulct paid to the bishop, in addition to other penalties, for certain crimes connected with sacred things, chiefly sacrilege and per jury. C. S. A. Baptism. The Usage of the Word " BapTizein." The Baptists maintain that in classical usage the verb baptizein has but one meaning, to immerse, and that it always refers to the mode of baptizing, submersion . But the word does not always mean io immerse, and it does not necessarily fix the special mode of applying the element to the object baptized, — for the clas sical writers use baptizein of the flowing or pouring of water over an object, of the washing of an object, whether by aspersion or immersion, of being overwhelmed by wine, or by debts, or with sophistry, or by taxes, or by grief, or by disease, or by misfortune, or by sleep, or by ex cess of study, etc. (See Dale, Classic Bap tism , pp. 234-354. ) In the Greek Sepiuagini the word is used in three senses, to dip or plunge (2 Kings 5 : 14), to overwhelm with fright (Isa. 21 : 4), and to wash (Judith 12 : 7). In the N. T. baptizein (and its derivatives) is occa sionally used metaphorically in the sense of be ing overwhelm.ed with calavtities (Mark 10 : 38, 39 ; Luke 12 : 50), but it generally has reference either to Jewish ceremonial purification and washings (Mark 7:4; Luke 11 : 38 ; Heb. 9 : 10), or to Christian Baptism. (See the N. T. Greek Lexicons of Thayer and Cremer. ) The Baptism of John. Not only were the Jews acquainted with "the divers wash ings " (Greek, baptisms, Heb. 9: 10) of the O. T. economy, but it is now fully established that the baptism of proselytes was practised by them before Christ's time (so Schuerer, Eders- heim, Delitzsch, Zezschwitz, against Schneck- enburger, whom most modern scholars, as Winer, Keil, Meyer, and others, have fol lowed). Although John's baptism and Christian baptism agree in aiming at the forgiveness of sin (Matt. 3:6; Mark 1:4; Acts 2 : 38), there is such a clear distinction drawn between the two (Matt. 3:11; Luke 3 : 16 ; John 7 : 39 ; Acts 18 : 26, 27 ; 19 : 1-6) , that the demands of an exact exegesis compel us with Luther, Melanch thon, Hofliug, Thomasius, Zezschwitz, Luth ardt, and others, to maintain that there is a great difference between the two. John's bap tism was a washing of repentance, Christian baptism is a washing of regeneration (Tit. 3:5); in John's baptism forgiveness of sin is promised, in Christian baptism it is bestowed. Those who had been baptized -srith John's baptism were re- baptized, because the Baptist was neither the author of righteousness, nor the giver of the Spirit. The Baptism oe Christ. Our Lord sub mitted to the baptism of John, {a) not because he had any sins to confess, or needed repent ance (Matt. 3:11; Mark i : 4, 5), for he was " separated from sinners " (Heb. 7 : 26); {b) but because as a true man he must "fulfil all right eousness " (Matt. 3 : 15; Rom. 8 14), thus set ting us an example of perfect obedience ; and (c) that he might sanctify baptism for us as a means of grace. The Formdi,a of Baptism. In the ex pression being baptized " z« the name" (Acts 2 : 38 ; 10 : 48 ; i Cor. 6 : 11), the reference is more particularly to the ground on which bap tism IS administered, while " into the name " (Matt. 28 : 19 ; Acts 8 : 16 ; 19 : 5 ; Rom. 6:3; I Cor I : 13 ; Gal. 3 : 27 ; Col. 2 : 12) refers es pecially to the relation into which the baptized were placed,— but aU these expressions refer to the baptism instituted by Christ. The Pauline Baptism 39 Baptism expression "being baptized into the name of the Lord Jesus " does not imply that it was not the custom of Apostolic Times to use the formula of baptism as directed by our Lord (Matt. 28 : 19) , for we learn from the Early Fathers that baptism was always administered in the name of the Trinity. Definition of Christian Baptism.. On the basis of N. T. teaching we may define Christian baptism as that sacrament -or rite, instituted by Christ (Matt. 28:19, 20), through which those who do not resist the grace of the Holy Spirit, are born again into a new life (John 3:5; Col. 2:12, 13; Tit. 3:5), brought into fel lowship with Christ (Rom. 6:3-5; Gal. 3 : 27) and his Church (i Cor. 12 : 13) and made partakers of eternal life (Tit. 3:5; i Pet. 3:21). Apostolic Teaching concerning the Significance of Baptism. Wherever faith had been -wrought by the preaching of the Word, there baptism was administered (Acts 2 : 38, 41 ; 8 : 12 ; 10 : 48 ; 18 : 8). Baptism is not, however, merely a confessional act on the part of man, but an act of God by which He imparts forgive ness of sin and bestows the gift of the Holy Ghost (Acts 2 : 38) . This gift of the Holy Ghost vnay follow baptism as an effect ( Acts 2 : 38) , as well as go before as a foundation, as in the case of adults who have been regenerated by the preaching of the Word (Acts 10 : 44-47). According to Peter entiance into a state of grace and salvation is effected through baptism. He speaks of it as a means of grace by which souls are saved (i Pet. 3 : 21). It purifies us from an eril conscience and secures to us forgiveness of sins and peace (Acts 2 :38 ; l Pet. 3 :2i). According to Paul baptism is the means of bring ing us into living fellowship with Christ, mak ing us partakers of his death and resurrec tion (Rom. 6: 3, 4). It is a "putting on of Christ" (Gal. 3: 27), " a washing away of sins " (Acts 22 : 16 ; i Cor. 6:11). At the time of our second birth (John 3:5), the Holy Ghost be comes the principle of the new life in us, "for in one Spirit were we all baptized into one body, and were aU made to drink of one Spirit " (i Cor. 12 : 13). By baptism we are ingrafted into Christ, and a new life is implanted in us (Gal. 2 : 20). Baptism cleanses from the stains of guilt (Eph. 5 : 26, 27), and by it a new creation takes place in the believer, which new life has only its perfect development in a living fellow ship -with Christ (Eph. 2:10; 4:24). The grace conveyed in baptism is purely gratuitous and is not bestowed on account of any merit of our own (Tit. 3:5). In this last passage regen eration and renewal through the Holy Ghost are directiy associated with the sacramental act of baptism, while in i Cor. 6:11 Paul includes also justification and sanetification in the gracious work -wrought by the Holy Ghost in the act of baptism. THE Teaching of the Eari,y Church. There is probably no subject on which the Early Fathers kept closer to the plain teaching of Scripture. They believed and taught that it really conveyed to believers the benefits of the sacrificial death of Christ. Baptism brings the gift of the Holy Ghost, regeneration, the second birth, and the remission of sins (Justin Martyr, Irenseus, Tertullian, C)rprian, etc.). The Teaching of the Lutheran Church. In strict accordance with the teach ing of the Apostles and the Fathers of the Early Church, our Church teaches " that by baptism the grace of God is offered " (A. C. ix. 2), that we " are born again by baptism and the Holy Spirit " (A. C. ii. 3) , that it promises and brings. " victory over death and the devil, forgiveness of sin, the grace of God, the entire Christ, and the Holy Ghost with his gifts " (L. C. 471, 41), and that baptism is ordinarily necessary to sal vation (Mark 16 : 16 ; A. C. ix. i ; L. C. 466, 6). The Lutheran Church therefore rejects (i) the view of those like the Quakers, who maintain that baptism is not necessary because the Holy Ghost is given immediately and directly, without the external Word and the Sacraments ; (2) the -riew of those like the Unitarians and others allied to them, who hold that baptism is simply a cere mony of initiation into external church mem bership ; (3) the view of those like the Bap tists, who maintain that baptism is primarily the act of the convert, who thus makes a pro fession of a regeneration which has already taken place in him, — and these therefore admit to baptism only those who give evidence of being really regenerated, and thus reject infant bap tism ; (4) the views so common among the Reformed churches (Congregationalists, Meth odists, etc. ) , that baptism is only a sign and a seal of the covenant of grace, but not a direct instrument of grace. Most diverse views are current among the Reformed denominations, al though there are some theologians, notably among the Episcopalians (and the Presby terians) who are gradually approaching the -riew as taught by the Lutheran Church. In contradistinction to all these views, our Church teaches that baptism is a direct instru ment of grace, " for through the Word and Sacraments as through instruments, the Holy Ghost is given, who worketh faith where and when it pleaseth God " (A. C. v. 2), i. e. in them who do not reject ihe grace ofthe Spirit •wtivih. is offered in baptism. The Baptismai, Regeneration of In fants. Through baptism children " are offered to God, and received into His grace " (A. C. ix. 2). When the new birth takes place it is in variably wrought by the Holy Ghost. The new life implanted by means of baptism in the case of an infant is the gracious presence and ac tivity of God the Holy Ghost, and because the Holy Ghost is of both the Father and the Son, that which He bestows is our union with the Triune God, but especially our fellowship -with Christ. That which takes place in the baptism of an infant is not an acting on its part, but an internal, real, and effective uniting with Christ, by which the Holy Ghost makes it a partaker of Christ by means of His Word and Sacrament. The infant does not resist the work of the Holy Spirit, and when therefore grace is offered through baptism, the gift of the Holy Ghost is actually conferred, and there is di-rinely -wrought a receptivity of grace, — for whatever God offers in the Word and Sacrament bears with the offer the power of being received. Baptism 40 Baptism Krauth : ' ' This divinely wrought condition we call receptive faith, and though its phenomena are suspended, it is really faith, and as reaUy involves what is essential to justification, as does the faith of the adult. For faith justifies by its receptivity alone. There is no justifying merit in faith as an act, nor is there any in the acts it originates" {Cons. Ref. 580). The bap tismal grace bestowed on infants, however, first comes into exercise through self-conscious re pentance and faith, — for the mark of being in a state of grace is a living personal belief in Christ, a personal relation to the grace bestowed in baptism (cp. Infants, Faith of). The Significance of Baptism to the Adui,T. In teaching the doctrine of baptismal regeneration our Chmrch, however, most em phatically rejects the error of those like . the Chmrch of Rome "who teach that the sacra ments justify by the outward act, and who do not teach that faith .... is recjuisite in the use of the sacraments" A. C. xiii. 3). In the case of infants, inasmuch as they do not reject the grace offered in baptism, the Holy Ghost works that receptive faith which justifies. In the case of adults our Church most posi tively teaches that the sacrament does not bestow blessings apart from personal faith. The Holy Ghost through the preached Word must first bring about repentance and faith in the case of the unbaptized adult, before ever he can receive baptism, or obtain its blessings. For regeneration is not only by Word and Sacrament in indissoluble union, but we may also be regenerated in the strictest sense, by the Word alone (i Pet. i : 23, 25) (see Re generation). But this personal regeneration by means of the preached Word lacks as yet the right support for the personal life, — ^there is still wanting the rich background filled by grace, — for it is only through baptism that the believer is ingrafted into Christ, put into li-ring feUowship with Him, receives the seal and as surance of forgiveness, and is entitled to claim the full blessing of salvation -with all its spiritual gifts and pri-rileges. Baptism is the very means appointedr by Christ for uniting us in saving union -with Himself, and if we by true repentance and faith remain in union -with Him, we may daily appropriate the whole fulness of the bless ings of communion -with Christ, first bestowed on us at our baptism. Baptism ordinarii,y necessary to salvation. Our Church holds that baptism is ordinarily necessary to salvation ;( i ) because God has commanded it ; (2) because there are great promises connected -with it; (3) because it is made one of the ordinary channels of the grace of God. But it is not absolutely necessary, if the command cannot be carried out, — for it is the contempt of the Sacrament that condemns. The Salvation of Unbaptized In fants. Although our Confessions and early Dogmaticians preserve a wise caution in dis cussing this subject, our Church has never taught that unbaptized infants are lost,— because God is not bound to the means which He has appointed for the new birth, without which there can be no entrance into the Kingdom of God, but may operate in an extraordinary way and bestow the gift of the Holy Ghost at the very moment of death, when the soul of the in fant appears in the presence of Christ. But our Church holds that unbaptized infants are not saved ( i ) on the ground of personal or relative innocence ; for an infant is born with original sin, which is tmly sin, and condemns and brings eternal death to all who are not bom again ; (a ) nor are they saved because Christ by His vicari ous death has procured salvation for all men ; for we have no warrant in Scripture to suppose that the mediatorial work of Christ produces the new birth separate and independent from the applying power of the Holy Ghost ; (3) nor are they saved because they are born of Chnstian parents, for this relation to one or both parents of itself can have no regenerating power ; (4) nor are they saved because born into covenant pri-rileges, as so many of the Reformed Churches teach, for children are not born into the Church, but by nature are chUdren of wrath and need the new birth ; (5) nor is there any regenerating power in deatli itself, which is the wages of sin and cannot bring about the new birth which is absolutely necessary for entrance into the King dom of God (cp. Unbaptized Children). The Lutheran Church Teaches the Necessity of Infant Baptism. The teaching of our Church is very clear on this point. We need only refer to two passages : " It is very certain that the promise of salvation pertains also to little children, for the divine promises of grace and of the Holy Ghost belong not alone to the old, but also to children. . . . Because salvation is offered to all, so baptism is offered to all, to men, women, children, and infants " {Apol. IX. 52), and " children ought to be bap tized, for they belong to the promised redemp tion made through cfirist, and the Churchshould administer it to them " {Smal. Art. III. V. 4). Scriptural Reasons for Infant Baptism. I. We have an express warrant for infant baptism. Scripture clearly teaches that infants by nature are children of wrath ( Eph. 2:5), born -with original sin (John 3:5), liable to death as the wages of sin (Rom. 5 : 14), and need the new birth to enter into the kingdom of God (John 3 : 3), of which baptism is the ordi nary channel of appUcation (John 3:5). That all flesh stands in need of baptism (John 3:6; Eph. 2:3), and that the promise of Christ con cerning baptism is valid for all flesh, forms the ground on which rests the necessity of baptism, and the certainty of that faith in which infants are brought unto baptism, and not a command or law enjoining infant baptism. II. We have an implied warrant for infant baptism, (i ) It is implied when Christ commands His Apostles to make disciples of all ihe nations by baptizing them (Matt. 28: 19), for the word nations em braces also infants. (2) Itis implied when Paul ma.kes a comparison between the rite of circum cision and that of baptism (Col. i : 11, 12), for if infants were admitted into the covenant with God under the O. T., and it was the design to abolish infant membership under the New Dis pensation, it should have been distinctly and clearly forbidden. (3) It is implied because it IS Christ's express desire that chUdren should be brought to him that they might receive a Baptism 41 Baptism spiritual blessing (Mark lo : 14-16), and baptism is the ordinary means appointed by Him through which this blessing is offered and conferred. (4) It is implied because infants must also be cleansed from the guilt of original sin " by the washing of water vrith the word " (Eph. 5 : 27). (5) It is implied in i Cor. 7 : 14, " else were your children unclean; but now are they holy," — winch although a confessedly difficult passage, probably has reference to infant baptism. (6) It is implied by the very nature and scope of the N. T. If circumcision as the sacramental rite of the O. T. , secured to male infants (female children were not included owing to the peculiar family position which the woman as wife and mother occupied) admission into the fellowship of the covenant people as an outward work, much more does the N. "x., which is broader and more gracious than the old, embrace not only male infants, but aU infants, and offer and bestow upon them those blessings of which circum cision was but a type. (7) It is distinctiy im plied because we have the distinct statement that whole families were baptized (Lydia " and her household," Acts 16 : 15 ; the jailor "and all his," Acts 16 : 33 ; "the household of Ste phanas," I Cor.i : 16). We grant indeed that we cannot positively prove by the letter of Scrip ture that infants were included in these ' ' house hold baptisms, ' ' but it is equally true that it can not be shown thai infants were excluded, and it is far more reasonable and scriptural to suppose that infants and young children were included. Let us not forget that the necessity of infant baptism does not rest upon a positive command, nor upon a clear and vmdisputed example of such infant baptism, but on the fact that Scripture positively teaches that all flesh without excep tion stands in need of the new birth, of which baptism is the ordinary channel of application. III. Infants should be baptized because even adults must receive the kingdom of God in the same way that a little child receives it (Mark 10 : 14, 15) . It is easier for a little child to be born into the kingdom of God than for an adult, as it does not resist the grace of the Holy Ghost offered and bestowed in baptism. Just as in the adult faith is divinely wrought — itis " not of ourselves, it is the gift of God " (Eph. 2 : 8), so in the infant there is wrought of God, through the Holy Ghost, by means of the Water and the Word, that receptivity of faith which receives the blessings offered and which justifies. IV. Infants should be baptized because for them also Christ died, and they are entitled to all the blessings offered in the Gospel (Acts 2 : 38). As infants must be born again, and as they can not be influenced and regenerated by the preach ing of the Word, God in His mercy offers and bestows the new birth and all grace through baptism. It is no valid objection to say that because infants are not conscious of covenant obligations, nor able to understand the signifi cance of baptism, that therefore they are not en titled to baptism, — because even human cove nants do not necessarily require consciousness and intelligence on the part of all embraced in them. Historical Reasons For Infant Bap tism. Infants should be baptized, because it cannot be shown that there ever was a time in the Christian Church, including the age of the Apostles, that infant-baptism was not prac tised. No one questions the fact that this has been the case since the third century, but it may be of interest briefly to examine the evidence preceding that period, (i) It was the common practice from 200-250 A. D. This can be seen from the decision of the CouncU of Carthage (253 A. D.), as given by Cyprian (Ep. LVIII.) in answer to a letter from Bishop Fidus, who suggested that infants should not be baptized before the eighth day, because on that day cir cumcision had been administered. Cyprian writes that all present (sixty-six bishops) agreed that infants might be baptized at any time prev ious to the eighth day — thus proving the com mon practice of infant baptism. (2) It was the common practice from 100-200 A. D. This we learn from the writings of Origen, Tertullian, and Irenaeus. Origen, born 186 A. D., about ninety years after the death of John, not only speaks of infant baptism as the recognized prac tice of the Church, but distinctly says "the Church received a tradition from the Apostles to give baptism also to Uttle children." Tertul lian (died 220 A. D.), who in knowledge of an tiquity and of the usages of the church was second to none of his age, gives most conclusive proof that infant baptism was a common prac tice, because he was opposed to it, not however, because he denied its importance, or because it was an innovation — ^for among aU the early Fathers there is not a single voice against its lawfulness or its apostolic origin — but Tertul lian teaching that no mortal sins could be for given after baptism, thought that it ought to be postponed until later in life. His very opposi tion shows how common infant baptism was. (3) We may even af&rm that it was the common practice of Apostolic times, because Justin Mar tyr, -writing about 147 A. D., speaks of those ' ' sixty or seventy years old, both men and wo men who have been Christ's disciples from child hood " {Apol. XV). This can only have one meaning with Justin Martyr, and he e-ridently here refers to their baptism as children some sixty or seventy years before, — thus bringing us back to the very days of the apostles. Here we may safely rest the case. The doc trine of infant baptism as taught by the Lu theran Church is Scriptural and historical. Those who reject it have no warrant for such rejection either in Scripture or in history. The Question at issue in discussing THE Mode of Baptism. The Baptist, and the smaller sects in sympathy with them, maintain that there is no valid baptism without immer sion ; others hold that it should be administered only by pouring {affusion) or by sprinkling {asper sion) ; while still other denominations, among which the Lutheran Church historically takes the pre-eminence, maintain that water is neces sary in baptism, but that the validity of the Sacrament does not depend on the quality, or quantity of water, nor on the mode of its appli cation. The Baptist -vie-w of the Necessity of Immersion Examined. The Baptist claim that the valid mode of baptism is by immersion. Baptism 43 Baptism and by immersion only, because the meaning of the word in classical Greek and in N. T. Greek is always io immerse, io plunge. But this can not be proven. As to the N. T. usage we an swer ; (i) the word baptism includes also the idea of washing (Mark 7:4; Luke 11 : 38 ; cf. Matt, 15: 2), whether by immersion, bathing, pouring, or sprinkling (the " divers washings " of Heb. 9 : 10) ; (2) it does not and cannot always mean a local immersion, as can be seen from Matt. 3 : 11 ; Luke 3 : 16 (" baptism with the Holy Ghost and with fire "), and from Matt. 10 : 38, 39 ; Luke 12 : 50, where it is used in the sense of being overwhehned with calamities ; (3) it cannot be proven that the baptisms men tioned in the N. T. were all by immersion, for it does not f oUow from the use of the preposition eis (in Mark 1:9), nor from en (in Mark 1:5,8; Matt, 3 : 6, II ; John i : 26, 31, 33, where it is most likely used in the insiru-mental sense) , nor from ek (in Mark i : 10 ; Acts 8 : 38, 39) or apo (Matt. 3 : 16), for ek and apo may indicate that the persons baptized stood in the water, and that the water was poured or sprinkled upon them, as was most likely the case, and that they came up out of the water ; nor from the much water of John 3 : 23, for this expression may refer to the many springs suitable for the refresh ment of the great crowds present at John's preaching. An exact exegesis of all these pass ages shows that there is no reference whatever to the mode of administering baptism, but sim ply to the act of baptism itself ; (4) it cannot be proven that baptism was administered by hn- mersion in the case of the three thousand (Acts 2 : 41), of the eunuch (Acts 8 : 38, 39), of Cor nelius (Acts 10 : 22, 47, 48), of Lydia (Acts 16 : 15), of the jailor (Acts 16: 33), and of Paul (Acts 9 : 18 ; 22 : 16). We do not deny that it is possible that in some of these cases baptism may have taken place by ifnmersion, but it is highly improbable, as a careful examination of each case would show, — for it would also imply that this immersion took place in a nude condi tion. The Baptists are so persistently aggressive and unreasonable in their whole discussion, that we have a right to demand of them a clear ad mission of the exegetical facts of the case. They cannot cite a single, clear, undisputed example of baptism by immersion in the whole New Testa ment ; (5) it cannot be proven that all allusions to baptism imply ifnmersion, for there is no reference to it in Mark 10 : 38 ; Luke 12 : 50 ; nor in Rom. 6 : 3, 4. — for the point of the Apos tle's argument here lies in the significance of baptism ; nor in Col 2:12; nor in Heb. 10 : 22 ; nor in i Cor. 10 : i, 2 ; much less in i Pet. 3 : 20, 21. In fact there are no passages in the N. T. that positively teach that baptism is by im mersion, or that absolutely imply it, — and above all, there is not a single passage which in any way favors the utterly untenable position of the Baptists, that the validity of baptism depends upon the external mode of applying the water. ( But see also Immersion. ) Historical Sketch of the Mode of Baptism. The oldest extant testimony -with reference to the mode of baptizing is given in the Didache or Teaching ofthe Twelve Apostles, which was probably -written within twenty years of John's death,— at least before 150 A. D. From this we learn that the common mode of baptism at that time was threefold immersion in running water, or in water in pools or cis terns, or in warm water in the house, — ^but if neither running nor standing, nor cold nor warm water could be had in sufficient quantity for immersion, then the directions are " to pour water on the head three times in the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost " (chap. vii.). This settles the whole question at issue. The validity of baptism by affusion {pouring) or by aspersion {sprinkling) is not questioned, nor was it ever questioned in the Early Church. Up to the thirteenth century threefold immersion was the rule, affusion or pouring being the exception, but since then pouring gradually, but not universally took the place of immersion in the Roman Catholic Church, — while threefold immersion is still the rule in the Greek Church. When the Reforma tion began baptism was commonly administered by pouring and sprinkling, as weU as by im mersion. The -mode of baptism was not a point of controversy between Lutheran Protestants and the Catholics, but Luther and our Confes sors most positively repudiate the Baptist doc trine of ihe necessity of immersion. The Lu theran Church has always taught that baptism by immersion is a valid baptism, but she lays no stress upon the mode of applying the water, for the validity of the sacrament does not depend upon this. None of her ministers, however, at the present day, would immerse any one, nor would any of her members who understands the biblical teaching concerning the nature and significance of baptism ask that baptism be ad ministered by immersion, because in the present state of the controversy this would imply that immersion was a better mode of baptism than pouring or sprinkling, or that a greater blessing would be bestowed, — both of which errors our Church absolutely denies. Times of Administering Baptism. In the N. T. baptism took place soon after con version. About two centuries later the seasons of Epiphany, Easter, and Pentecost, were re garded as especially appropriate, particularly for the baptism of adults who required preparatory instruction. As Adult baptism is now the ex ception, the Lutheran Church provides for the administiation of baptism at every service, and in the case of sickness at any suitable time. Places of Administering Baptism. In the N. T. baptisms took place at times by the road-side (Acts 8 : 36-38), in private houses (Acts 9: 18), or in prison (Acts 16: 29-33). Later, especially during the fifth and sixth cen turies separate buildings, known as baptisteries, were provided for the administration of baptism. In some places the baptistery was connected with the principal church, whUe in other cities one was connected -with each parish church — sometimes the church itself was used as a bap tistery, or a baptistery as a church. It is the custom in the Lutheran Church that aU bap tisms, especially of adults, take place in the church, and infants ought not to be baptized in pnvate houses, except on account of sickness, or other good reasons. Baptism 43 Baugher The Validity of the Sacrament. This does not depend on the quality or quantity of water used, nor on the mode of application ; nor does the validity depend on the character or faith of the officiating minister, for baptism is administered in the name of the Triune God, and by His command, who alone operates in the sacrament ; nor does its verity and integrity depend on the faith of the one baptized, — for al-though the blessing is only for those who do not reject the grace offered, — it is equally true that neither faith nor unbelief in any way either constitutes or destroys the validity of the sacra mental act, if it is administered in the manner prescribed by Christ. But three things are nec essary to constitute a valid act of Baptism : (i) the use of water as the earthly element ap pointed by Christ; (2) the utterance of the words of the institution during the administra tion of the ordinance ; and (3) the threefold action of applying the water at the recitation of the words. These parts cannot be separated and they constitute the very act of baptism. All other acts and ceremonies are intended only to make the act more solemn, and to teach us the nature, significance, efficacy, and benefits of baptism. Lay Baptism. From the earliest days of the Church -the administration of baptism was committed to the ordained ministers of the Gospel. Lay baptism was forbidden as a rule but recognized in cases of necessity. Such has been the judgment of the Church at all times. The Lutheran Church in her Rubrics lays stress, however, on the public confirmation of baptism administered by laymen under necessity, and provides a suitable form. Care is to be taken in ascertaining whether baptism has been properly administered, and if this has been the case, it is not to be repeated, — because the Church has always taught that baptism once really conferred can never be really repeated. Select Literature. In addition to the well-known Lutheran Dogmatic works of Frank, Krauth, Luthardt, Martensen, Philippi, Schmid, Thomasius, Vilmar, Walther ( Baier), and Zez- schvritz we -will name the following special articles or treatises on Baptism ; (i) Augusti, Archoeologie der Taufe (vol. -rii. of his Den- kwuerdigkeiien) . (12 vols. 1817-31), — more satisfactory even than Bingham ; (2) Dale, Classic Baptism, 1867 ; fudaic Baptism, 1869 ; Johannic Baptism,, 1871 ; Christie and Patristic Baptism, 1874 ; (3) Gerfen, Baptizein, 1897 ; (4) Gerhard, Erkl. der beiden Art. von der heil. Taufe und dem heil. Abendmahl (1610), 1868 ; (5) Hoefling, Das Sakrament der Taufe, 2 vols. 1846-48, — the most elaborate work from a Lutheran standpoint ; (6) Krauth, Infant Baptism and Infant Salvation in the Calvinistic System, 1874 ; Marriott, Baptism, in Smith and Cheetham's Did. of Christian Antiquities ; (8) Martensen, Die Chrisi. Taufe und die Bapt. Frage, i860 ; (9) Pusey, Doctrine of Holy Bap tism as taught by Scripture and the Fathers, 1891 ; (10) Sadler, The Second Adam and ihe New Birth, or the Doctrine of Baptism as con tained in Holy Scripture, 1876; (11) Seiss, Baptist System examined, 1859 ; (12) Steitz— ¦ Hauck, Taufe in vol. xv. of Plitt-Herzog Real. Ency. ; (13) Wall, History of Infant Bap tism, 2 vols., 1862 ; (14) Whitteker, Baptism, 1893 ; (15) Wilberforce, Doctrine of Holy Bap tism, 1850 ; (16) Zezschwitz, System der Kate- chetik, vol. i., 1863. R. F. W. Barth, Dr. Christian Gottlieb von, was b. in Stuttgart, July 31st, 1799. He became pastor in Moettlingen in 1824. He was a gifted and unwearied friend of missions which he pro moted by the publication of books and maga zines for old and young. In 1838 he retired to Calw and devoted the rest of an intensely active life to his literary work and publication inter ests. He d. November 12th, 1862. Compare biographies by Werner, and Weitbrecht. G. U. W. Bassler Gottlieb, b. Dec. 10, 1813, at Lan- genthal. Canton Berne, Switz. ; came at the age of four, with his father to Butler Co., Pa., where he passed his life as teacher, missionary, pastor, director ; d. Oct. 3, 1868. Printer 1826-36, then entered Pa. College ; grad. with honor, 1840 ; tutor there and stud. in Theol. Sem. , 1841-2 ; licensed by W. Pa. Synod, Sept. 26, 1842 ; and began Eng. Luth. congs. at Zelienople, Lancaster, Ryder's, Butler and Prospect. Secty. of convention that organized the Pittsburg Synod, Jan. 1845 ; or damed at Zelienople, July, 1845, by Pitts. Synod; its Prest. 1848-50, 1856-58, 1865-67, 9 years ; first Director of Orphan's Farm School, Ze lienople, 1854-68 ; Prest. of the Preliminary Convention, 1866 and first Prest. of the General Council of the Ev. Luth. Ch. in N. America, 1867-8. He was Prin. of the Synod's Academy, an exact teacher ; always laboring under much physical infirmity, he was an aggressive and tireless missionary in West Pa. and Canada, a practical, searching preacher ; a faithful pastor, humble, full of self-denial, strict in discipline, of sound judgment, positive in his convictions, fearless in duty, a prince among parliament arians. H. W. R. Bauer, Friedrich, (b. 1812, d. 1874), an able assistant of Loehe in educating young men for the Lutheran missions in the West. Thus only the wonderful growth of the Missouri Synod was possible. With the rupture between Loehe and Missouri he removed to Neuendettels au (1853), ^nd was the leader of the American work as inspector of the Missionshaus. Under him the seminary had to be enlarged twice. Wrote a German grammar of which he saw 15 editions. G. J. F. Baugher, Henry Lewis, Sr., D.D., b. Adams Co., Pa., 1803, graduated at Dickinson College, 1825, studied theology at Princeton and Gettysburg; pastor Boonsboro' Md., teacher in Gettysburg Gymnasium, 1831 ; Professor of Greek, Pennsylvania College, 1832-50, Pres ident until his death in 1868. Baugher, Henry Levris, Jr., D.D., b. Gettys burg, 1840; d. PhUadelphia, Feb. nth, 1899; graduated Pennsylvania College, 1857 ; studied theology at Gettysburg and Andover, Mass., pastor. Wheeling, W. Va., Norristo-wn, Pa., Indianapolis, Ind., and Omaha, Neb. ; for 24 years professor of Greek in Pennsylvania col- Baumgarten 44 Bavaria lege, and temporarUy in Howard University, Washington, D. C. ; editor of Lutheran World, and Augsburg Sunday-school Lessons; author of Commentary on Luke, 1896 ; President of General Synod, 1895-7 : when health failed (1898), was professor elect of Theology of United Synod of the South. Baumgarten, Michael, b. March 25, 1812, d. July I2th, 1889, educated under Lutheran in fluences, deeply moved to religious life by Claus Harms, studied under Twesten at Berlin, was an enthusiastic follower of Hengstenberg, until, as Privatdozent at Kiel (1839-1846), be ginning -with a study of Domer, influenced by Schleiermacher and von Hofmann, he empha sised Christian life subjectively in opposition to doctrine, rejected the episcopate of the prince, made the sermon in opposition to all liturgy the present word of God. In 1850 he was called to Rostock, but was soon found to be in conflict with the churchly and liturgical tendencies led by Kliefoth. After a number of radical utter ances and publications, he was deposed from his professorship by order of the Duke, Nov. i. 1856, vrithout having had an opportunity to de fend himself, and without being refuted from the Word of God, but simply from the confes sions. The formal error of this procedure was opposed by such stanch Lutherans as Luthardt, V. Scheurl. Baumgarten afterward joined the radical Protestantenverin, but left because of the intolerance of evangelical truth. He was a man of great ability, but misguided by combat ive subjectivism. (Realencycl. 3d. ed. II, p. 458 ff). Baumgarten, Sigismund Jacob, b. 1706, d. 1757, studied at Halle and after being teacher in the Orphans' Home, inspector of the Latin school, adjunct of G. A. Franke, became adjunct of the theological faculty (1730), and professor (1743.) Very successful as a teacher whose lectures were attended by 300 to 400 students, and a prolific writer, he introduced the method of demonstration after the manner of Wolff's phi- - losophy into theology. His teaching in content was orthodox, his spirit pietistic, but orthodoxy has cooled off, pietism become reflective, and thus Baumgarten forms the transition from pietism to rationalism. Scientifically he is the father of Semler. (Realencycl. 3d. ed. II, p. 464). Baumgarten-Crusius, Lud. Fr. Otto, b. 1788 at Merseburg, d. 1842, Prof, at Jena, known especially for his exegetical works and his Dogmengeschichte, emphasized the supernat ural origin of revelation, but interpreted it rationalistically. He was opposed equaUy to Lutheran confessionalism and -vulgar rational ism, related to Schleiermacher but approaching Schelling. Baur, Gustav Ad. L., b. July 14, 1816, in Hammelbach, Hessia, professor in Giessen (1844-1861), pastor in St. Jakobi, Hamburg (1861- 1870), professor in Leipzig (1870) to his death May 22, 1889. He combined with broad cul ture, mild Lutheranism, in teaching O. T. exe gesis and practical theology. Bavaria, Lutheran Church in. The present kingdom of Bavaria was organized from 1808-10 by Napoleon, wjio added, to the former elector ate of Bavaria, a number of petty states and free cities (e. g. Nuremberg, Augsburg, Lindau); thus a large new state vrith a very mixed popu lation was formed. The Lutheran Church was organized 1809 similar to that of Wuertemberg -with the king as summus episcopus. Absolute freedom in all internal affairs was solemnly guaranteed ; these are controUed by the Higher Consistory (Oberkonsistorium), whose members are appointed by the king. The (lower) Consis tory of Ansbach includes the westem portion with 33 conferences (" Dekanate ") and 538 min isters, that of Bayreuth the eastern with 20 con ferences and 396 ministers ; the Dekanat of Mun ich is directly under the direction of the Ober konsistorium. The General Synod, composed of lay and clerical delegates and members ap pointed by the king, meets every fourth year ; its resolutions must be approved by the king. Since 1850 there are vestries to represent the congre gations. The parishes are arranged geograph ically and include all Lutherans in the district. The total Lutheran population is 1,668,000 Lutherans over against 3,750,000 of Catholics. The salary is raised by taxation and paid by the state ; it is inadequate. But there are (both private and public) funds to assist superannu ated pastors, vridows, daughters, students, etc. Until 1825 rationalism dominated ; we find only a few traces of religious life, these especially among the laity. The positive rallied after 1825 and rapidly increased in number and influence. The ministers became the leaders in the relig ious revival and thus all unsound tendencies were avoided. The greatest disturbances arose (1849-52), in consequence of the course of the consistorium, presided over by a la-wyer (von Arnold) . For some time the separation or ex pulsion of the most positive Lutheran portion headed by Loehe and Wucherer seemed inev itable, but was prevented by the king's interfer ence (advised by the Lutheran queen), who pensioned von Arnold and recalled Harless from Saxony as president of the Oberkonsisto rium. His influence was of untold blessing, and many reforms were introduced, though some were frustrated by liberal elements. Of promi nent men may be mentioned : Professors — Krafft (Reformed), Hoefling, Schubert, Thom asius, Schmid, Frank, Koehler, Zezschwitz ; Oberkonsistoriah-aete — Burger, Harless, Staeh- lin, Buchrucker ; Ministers— Caspari, Loehe, Wucherer, Stirner, Sommer, Schlier. The influence of Bavaria's Lutheran university at Erlangen has been unlimited. For a longer or shorter time it had as teachers besides those named above, Delitzsch, Hauck, Seeberg, T. Hamack, Luthardt. It now has : Zahn, Caspari, Kolde, Ewald, Wiegand. A few select candi dates may pursue a post-graduate course at the seminary in Munich. At first the Bavarian friends of missions co operated with Basle ; but after the revival of Lutheran consciousness they supported the so cieties of Hermansburg and Leipsic. Bavaria took the lead under Loehe in assisting the Lutheran settlers in Ohio, Indiana, and Michi gan (since 1843) through the Neuendettiesau Becli 45 Bells society. There are also branch societies of the Gustav-Adolf-Verein and the "Gotteskasten." The Neuendettelsau society carries on Foreign Missions, since 1878 in Australia and New Guinea. Bavaria has two deaconess motherhouses : Loehe's (1854) at Neuendettelsau -with (1891) 334 sisters at 102 stations ; and that at Augsburg (1855) -with no sisters at 33 stations. — ^There are three currents in the Bavarian Church : the unionistic, the positive (Lutheran) and the con fessional Lutheran. G. J. F. Beck, Johann Tobias, b. Feb. 22d, 1804, in Balingen, Wuertemberg, became pastor of a vil lage church near Crailsheim, in 1827, and after wards in the to-wn of Mergentheim, where he taught in the Lyceum, a higher Latin school. During the seven years spent there he became prominent as a -writer of a ntmiber of valuable theological essays. In 1836 he was called to a theological chair at the University of Basle. He entered upon his work with an inaugural ad dress " On the scientific treatment of Christian Doctrine." He endeavored to construct a posi tive system of Christian Doctrine, not on the tra ditional Unes of the confessions and dogmatics of the Church but directiy from the Scriptures, as an independent biblical theologian. In 1843 he was caUed to the Univ. of Tuebingen, chiefly through the influence 9f Dr. Ferdinand Christian Baur, the head of the modern negative Tuebingen School who cast his deciding vote in the Faculty in favor of Professor Beck. The man whose life- effort it was to break up the New Testament canon into atomistic fragments, leaving only four Pauline Epistles and the book of Revelation as genuine and authentic -writings thus became the instrument, in the hand of God, to call the man who with his thorough scholarship and his powerful and impressive personality, was to stand up for the whole Scripture as the divinely given organism of saving truth. His idea of what was to be expected of a professor of the ology was frankly and happily stated in his inaugural address (May 11, 1843), when he de clared, he meant to be a " Confessor, in order to be a true Professor." His great stiength was in the field of Christian Ethics. In his lectures as well as in his powerful sermons he always knew how to touch the conscience, and to im press upon his hearers the absolute authority of God's revealed tmth. But his strong individu ality was not without narrow and one-sided peculiarities. His inner world of Bible study and theological speculation was kept in a certain isolation and seclusion, without proper sym pathy with the work and development of his church and his nation around him. He never overcame his indifference, if not aversion, to the work of modem Home and Foreign Missions, as also to the recent national reconstruction of Ger many which he was utterly unable to appreci ate. His dogmatical position is most unsatis factory with regard to Infant Baptism, and par ticularly to the doctrine of Justification, which he would never accept as a purely forensic act. With all his defects he deserves to be consid ered, if properly studied and understood, as one of the most suggestive and stimulating theo logians our Church has had in this century. D. in Tuebingen, Dec. 28th, 1878. A. S. Becker, Cornelius, b. at Leipzig, Oct. 24th, 1561, d. May 24th, 1604, as Professor of Theol ogy, and Pastor of St. Nicolai in his native town. In times of great trial and distress he undertook the work of rendering the Psalms of David in German verses (1602). Over against the version of the Psalms by the Reformed Lobwasser, B. chose for his German Psalms such meties and tunes as were most popular in the Luth. Church. A number of them were harmonized by Seth Calrisius. The famous Heinrich Schuetz who had found much comfort in Becker's Psalms, composed 92 new tunes for them. "Der Herr ist mein getreuer Hirt " (German Church Book No. 373) has been trans lated by Miss Dunn (1857) "My Shepherd is the Saviour dear." A. S. Beckman, And. Fredrik, b. 1812, d. 1894, as Bishop of Skara, for many years Professor of Theology and Dean of Upsala, a learned phil osopher and theologian, a very prominent de fender of the Godhead of Christ in a sharp con tioversy that shook the literary community of Sweden, the milestone of the change of the Theol. Faculty of Upsala from neology to evan gelical theology, a pietist and orthodox in most beautiful blending, kind and humble as a true disciple of Christ. ' ¦ O. O. Behm, Martin (Bohemus, Boehm, Boeheim, Behem, Behemb), b. 1557, in Lauban, SUesia, where he was chief pastor for 36 years, d. 1622, one of the best German hymn writers of the sixteenth century ; plain, objective, yet of deep feeling, especially in his passion hymns. His finest hymns are the following : " O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht " (14 stanzas). Lord Jesus Christ, my Life my Light, tianslated by Miss Winkworth and others ; " O heUige Dreifaltig- keit " (8 stanzas), revised in the Hanover Hymn Book of 1659 (5 stanzas), translated by Dr. C. H. L. Schuette, " O Holy, blessed Trinity," also by A. T. Russell " O Thou, most holyTrinity;" " O Koenig aller Ehren " (6st.), translated by Miss Winkworth, in Lyra Ger- . manica, " O King of Glory, David'sSon ; " "Das wait Gott Vater und Gott Sohn," O God Al mighty, Father, Son, translated by H. J. BuckoU (1842). A. S. Behme, Da-\dd, b. 1605, d. 1657, German pas tor and hymn writer, author of " Herr, nun lass in Friede," Lord now let Thy servant, translated by Miss Winkworth (1858). A. S. Bells, Church. The derivation from Paulinus of Nola (1431) is uncertain. In times of per secution a messenger announced the serrices. Afterwards a metal instrument {Hagiosider- on) and in parts of Africa a trumpet was em ployed. Church bells appear in sixth century ; first are heard of in Europe in ninth ; smaU hand bells were used before the large ones. There were no towers on Christian churches before the use of bells. — BeUs are used to call the con gregation, to make music, and to admonish to prayer. The bells ring a half hour before sun rise and a half hour before sunset that all the members of the congregation may unite their spirits in thanksgiving and praise to God. At noon the Bet-glocke or Tiirken-glocke rings (so ordered by Calixtus III. in 1457), to remind Benediction 46 Beneficiary the faithful of our Lord's sufferings, and to admonish them to pray for peace {pro pace), against the arch enemy and also against the enemies of Christendom. See Brunswick K. O. 1543. Bells are used also to announce the death or burial of a. member of the congrega tion. In a capitulary of Charlemagne (787), the baptism of bells is forbidden. Consecrations are found in eighth century, and names were given them in the tenth. The baptism of bells is re pugnant to Protestant principles. — In the time of Charlemagne, abbots and priests filled the office of bell-ringer ; and at a later period the bell-ringer had to clothe himself in an ecclesias tical vestment. — Bell-metal is composed of two parts of copper and one of tin. The hammer is of iron. E. T. H. Benediction, see Liturgy. Benedictus, see Liturgy. Beneficiary Education. By the term B. E. is meant the systematic aiding of young men in their preparation for the office of the ministiy. It has been urged that as other professional men are not systematically assisted during their years of preparatory study it is not necessary to extend aid to young men ha-ring the ministry in view. The two cases are however, not, really parallel. For (i) all will admit that faithful labor and genius on the whole receive in the ministry a far smaller return in material com pensation than in any other profession and es pecially in mercantile pursuits and manufactur ing enterprises. (2) It is a fact, that those who have the means to study prefer one of those professions which require less personal sacrifice and yield greater earthly reward. (3) It also follows that poor young men, if talented, more readily find persons of means to aid them in their preparation for the other learned profes sions or in establishing a business than in study ing for the ministry, presuming that the returns for the capital invested will in the latter case be less certain than in the former. It is neverthe less true, however, that a young man upon leav ing the Seminary is generally certain of a posi tion and of a fixed income, be it ever so small ; whUst the man of the medical or legal profes sion is, after being admitted to practise, as a rule, without patients or clients, and must often toil for a number of years before receiving a competency. — The support of indigent but able, and worthy young men in their preparation for the ministry is a duty laid upon the Church, as the larger part of those who feel an inward call are unable to meet the financial demands and for reasons stated receive less encouragement from men of means than those who intend de- ¦yoting their time and strength to pursuits offer ing larger rewards, and so the Church would thus be deprived of many faithful and efficient laborers. Some claim that a poor young man who has a divine call will find the necessary ways and means, and that the extending of sys tematic aid tempts unworthy men, who simply seek to enter the ministry for the sake of a sup port. To this it may be repUed, that whilst it IS, indeed, true that some poor young men do get along without systematic support, still not all have the same gift of adaptability to circum stances and equal talent for making ends meet, and many of the most worthy and gifted men of our church, as far as can be judged, would not have graced the Lutheran ministry in case they had not received assistance. Thus, whilst cau tion is certainly necessary and whilst notwith standing the exercise of diligence and prudence unworthy men are sometimes supported and thus get into the ministry, nevertheless the Church has in the long run not had occasion to regret the system of B. E. It has proved capi tal -wisely invested. The history of B. E. in the Lutheran Church in North America is briefly told. During the first century and a half of the existence of the Luth. Ch. in this country the Church of Swe den, Amsterdam and Germany provided the churches in the New World with ministers. Be fore the breaking out of the war of the Revolu tion an effort was made by Dr. H. M. Muhlen berg and J. C. Kunze to open a theological seminary in Phila. for the education of pastors for the Lutheran churches in America. The war frustrated the plan. When, however, to ward the close of the i8th century no more ministers were sent over from Halle, the educa tion of young men at home became a work of necessity. Those among the fathers who seemed best fitted for such work privately instructed worthy and talented young men, often provid ing them with food and clothing. They m turn taught in the parochial school and made them selves useful in other ways. In 1815 Hart-wick Seminary was opened, and it has given the Church many able and faithful workers especially for the Dutch and German churches in New York which were fast becoming English. At ¦the beginning many students at Hart-wick— an institution especially endowed for this purpose by the Rev. J. C. Hart-wig — were gratuitously provided not only with tuition but also with board and lodging. This system of supporting students is still in vogue in a number of our in stitutions, notably in the West, the institutions being in turn generously remembered not only with money but also with various kinds of pro ducts of the soil, etc. The first step towards carrying out the plan of B. E. systematically was taken by the General Synod when in 1835 "The Parent Education Society of the Evan geUcal Lutheran Church " was estabUshed. A constitution was adopted and signed by six Synods. At the next meeting of the G. S. in 1837 the society reported that it had received 14,449, and aided 41 young men. During the first 15 years of its existence it received $41,440, and assisted 321 young men in their prepara tion for the ministry. From this time on the individual Synods began to take up and earnestly prosecute the work of B. E. They entmst it to separate boards who give such as sistance as may be found necessary in the indi vidual case and they now generally require that the aid thus extended be refunded as soon as the income of the beneficiary shaU enable him to do so; this is also required in case he does not enter the gospel ministry in the Lutheran Church, or the general body with which the particular Synod is con nected. J. N. Beneficence 47 Bengel Beneficence, Systematic. AU Christian law is summed up in good- will (benevolence, love); all Christian exercise in good-work (benefi cence). "For it is God which worketh in you both to will and to do of his good pleasure" (Phil. 2 : 13). All intelligent doing must have some system. To render it most effective it must be wisely ordered. Naturally we see the necessity for doing, before we see the necessity for system. The true Church has been vigor ously active in beneficence, before it has become carefully systematic in ordering its beneficence. It is only as the loud appeals to the Christian heart came from every branch of human need, that the imperative demand for system in gathering stiength and distributing it is fully realized. It stands to reason that in the large work of a great active church there has been some system at all times. There was a recognition of duty to missions, to education, to kindly provision for the orphans, the sick, the helpless, the needy, the blind, the deaf. All of these works of Christian love received attention, but in these later days of larger survey of the whole field, of more general information of the whole world's condition and needs, it is everywhere felt, we must make our beneficence more effective, we must lay hold of the work with a complete grasp of all its parts. Therefore all the church bodies appoint committees or agents who gather the facts (1) first concerning the specific needs of each branch of beneficence, ( 2 ) then the efforts that each congregation is making to meet these plain demands of Christ's work, then, (3) they suggest what each church should in simple fair ness raise, and (4) how it should distribute its gi^*^®- ... While there is no authority in these bodies to dictate or tax, there is the much higher authority to persuade and instruct and lead, and its in fiuence is felt in wider circles every year. In no part of the church has the sy.stematic ordering of beneficence reached any high degree of per fection, but in almost every part there is a keen and growing perception of its necessity and a readiness to consider plans. The results as gathered so far may therefore fairly be stated as follows : I. In the general work of the Lutheran Church the fruits bear testimony to the faith not only in the numerous works of Christian beneficence, but in the large variety that is presented : missions in all parts of the earth, every branch of rescue work in the home field, every form of asylum, home, refuge, hospital, deaconess work, leper-colonies, besides a great educational work for the church. 2. While this general work has developed the church, there has been serious loss to the indi- -ridual members in the fact that there has not been the proper proportion in each Christian's effort. The heart needs stirring up over every part of Christ's great kingdom. 3. The introduction of the systematic plan, by apportionment method, is having the double effect of securing larger funds, and of distribut ing more generally and wisely the efforts of all. 4. By this method each one is realizing the blessedness of carrying out the Lord's com mand which it formerly seemed impossible to fulfil : " Go ye into the world, and preach the gospel to every creature." F. A. K. Bengel, Johann Albrecht, b. June 24th, 1687, in Winnenden, Wuertemberg, a descendant, on his mother's side, of the great Wuertemberg reformer John Brentius. After completing his theological course in Tuebingen he tiavelled through North Germany and visited most of its universities and prominent schools, returning, as he said, with the impression " thus far I have been a Christian to myself, now I have learned to know what it is to have a Communion of Saints." In 1713 he was appointed Prof, in the Proseminary at Denkendorf, near Esslingen, serving at the same time as pastor of the village congregation. In this comparatively humble position the great theologian and scholar re mained for 28 years of his life. In 1734 he pub lished an edition of the Greek New Testament with a critical apparatus which presented his careful studies of the New Testament text, com paring a great number of printed editions and some twenty manuscripts. He was the first to trace certain features of similarity in different groups of manuscripts, and to arrange them ac cordingly into different " families," such as the African and the Byzantine, an idea which was taken up and further developed by later scholars in the field of New Testament text-criticism. Valuable as Bengel 's labors were for ascertain ing the correct text of the New Testament they are far exceeded by what he did for a sound and thorough elucidation of the meaning of the New Testament Scriptures, in his celebrated . Gnomon Novi Tesiamenii (1742), the most comprehensive and suggestive commentary of the New Testament since the Reformation Era. It was his endeavor to show ' ' from the original meaning of the words (ex nativa verbomm -vi) the simplicity, profundity, harmony (concinni- tas) and salubrity of di-rine revelation." This book has been constantly republished in new editions to the present time. John Wesley gave the essence of Bengel's annotations in his Ex- posito-ry Notes upon ihe New Testament (1755)) vyith the honest confession that "he believed he would much better serve the in terests of religion by translating from the Gnomon than by -writing many volumes of his own notes." The Gnomon, originally written in terse, concise Latin, was translated into Ger man by C. F. Werner (1853). English ed. first appeared in Clark's Library (1857-58), re-rised by Profs. Lewis and Vincent (Phila. 1861-62). The latest is that of Blackley and Hawes (Pref ace by Dr. Weidner) . The relation between the Church and the Scripture is summed up by Bengel in the follow ing statement. The Scripture sustains (susten- tat) the Church, and the Church holds the Scripture in safekeeping (custodit). Bengel's -writings on eschatological themes, such as his interpretation of the Apocalypse (1740), his Ordo Temporum. (1741) and his Discourses on ihe Apocalypse (1747), undertook to fix the chronology of the last times and things, taking the year 1837 as the beginning of the millen nium. Though frequently erratic and chiliastic they show in many details a surprising spirit of Bennett I>a\ir. Bertling truly prophetic divination, and were for a long time favorite books among the pietistic circles, especially in Southern Germany. But with all his appreciation of Spener, Francke, and the Halle Theologians Bengel was, in principle, a sober and sound Churchman, who had no sym pathies -with those separatistic tendencies which began to show themselves on all sides during the eighteenth century. He became a severe critic of Count Zinzendorf's extravagancies and wrote his "Sketch of ihe Uniias Fratrum (Mora-ri- ans) " in 1751, which greatly helped to correct some of the mistakes and abuses which, at the time, threatened that communion. In 1741 Ben gel was appointed " Prelate " of the cloister of Herbrechtmgen, and in 1749 Prelate of Alpirs- bach and Consistorial Counsellor, with residence in Stuttgart, taking an active part in the govern ment of the Lutheran Church of Wuertemberg during the few remaining years of his life. Only in 1751, when he had reached the age of 64, did the Theological Faculty of Tuebingen honor him with the degree of Doctor of Divinity. Bengel also wrote a few hymns, of which three are found in the Wuertemberg hymn-book of 1843. One of his hymns was translated into English, " I 'U think upon the woes " (American Bap. Psalmist 1843, No. 579). Bengel died on November 2d, 1752. The statement ascribed to him, ' ' I shall be forgotten for a while, but I shall again come into remembrance, " is a perfectly true prophecy concerning his theological impor tance for coming generations. A. S. Bennett La-w. This is the name given to chap. 519 of the laws of Wisconsin of 1889. It is to all intents identical with the compulsory education law of Illinois that went into effect July ist, 1889. The chief provisions were : (i). Compulsory attendance excepting only pecun iary (clothing), or physical (sickness, condition of weather and roads) inability ; thus depriv ing parents of needed serrices. (2) Attendance is limited to school in the district in which child resides. (3) Only such a "school" is recog nized in which all elementary branches, includ ing U. S. history (in 111. also geography) are taught in English. The Lutherans having 380 parochial schools with 20,000 pupils in Wise. and 350 p. sch. -with 22,000 ch. in 111. vigorously protested against this law as interfering with parental relation, personal liberty and matters of religion and conscience. Parents had been fined and imprisoned for sending children to church schools outside the district and to cate chetical instruction. It was a political measure and after the overwhelming defeat of the party at the elections in 1892, the law was repealed. J.N. Berckenmeyer, Wilhelm Christoph, or as he later -wrote himself, Berkenmeyer, b. at Bodenteich in the duchy of Lueneburg in 1686, studied theology at the orthodox university of Altorf, where he heard Dr. Sonntag whose maxim was, " The nearer to Luther the better a theologian." Haring been called to the pas torate of the Dutch congregations in the Hudson valley by the consistory of Amsterdam on Octo ber 6, 1724 he was ordained May 24, 1725. He arrived at New York September 22, 1725, bring ing with him a library of orthodox theological works by Calov, Balduin, Huelsemann, Broch- mann, etc. He took charge of all the Dutch and some of the German Lutheran churches and barns in the Valley, at New York, Hackeo- sack, Uylekil, Ne-wton, Rhinebeck, Albany, Schenectady, Coxsackie, Schoharie, Loonen burg, etc. , to all of which he ministered till 1731, spending half a year in the southern and half a year in the northern part of his parish. From 1 73 1 he lived at Loonenburg, leaving the south ern congregations to his successor. Knoll. In 1734 he with Knoll and Wolff, then lately in stalled at Raritan, and the congregations at Albany, Loonenburg, Newton, New York, Hack- ensack, Rockaway, Uylekil, and Raritan, formed a Lutheran Synod, which was, however, of short duration, the only meeting of delegates of which we have a record being convened at Raritan, August 20, 1735, with B. as president. B. was married to Benigna Sibylla, Joshua Kocherthal's daughter, October 25, 1727. He d. in 1751 and lies buried at Loonenburg, now Athens, New York, where his epitaph in Latin and Greek may be seen. A. L. G. Bergian Book. See Concord, Formula of. Bergmann, John Ernest, pastor of the Salz- burgers in Georgia from 1785 until his death in 1824, the last of the ministers sent by Dr. S. Urlsperger of Augsburg. Learned and devout, yet unequal in his isolation to his charge. His unwillingness to introduce English services hastened the decline of Lutheranism in Georgia. The church at Savannah, which he served untU 1804, and occasionaUy afterwards, was saved from extinction by Dr. Bachmann in 1824. A. G. V. Bergmann, Christopher F. (1793-1832), son of the preceding, b. at Ebenezer, Ga. , educated by his father, entered the Lutheran ministry under the influence of Dr. John Bachmann, ordained in 1824, by the newly-formed Synod of South Carolina, secretary of this body from 1825, until his death. He succeeded his father at Ebenezer, introduced English services, and brought the decUning church out of its isolation into connection vrith other Lutheran churches. A. G. V. Berkemeier, Wilhelm Heinrich, b. in Oerlinghausen, Lippe-Detmold, Oct. 18, 1820, school-teacher (1841-47), emigrated to America (1847), was at first colporteur, studied theol. at Gettysburg (1849-51), licensed (1853), became pastor at Pittsburg (1858), founding the present St. Paul's Church, at Wheeling, W. Va. (1858- 67), at Mt. Vemon, N. Y. (1867-77), every where erecting new churches. During the stay at Mt. Vernon the emigrant mission was begun (see Emigrant Mission), which he carried on for 25 years, untU his death, March 7, 1899, at first vnth great sacrifices but later -with great suc cess. "Father B.," as he was known, was an earnest, devout, warm-hearted Christian pas tor, whose memory is blessed by thousands of Luth. emigrants. Bertling, E. A., Prof, at Hehnstedt and pas tor at Danzig ; d. 1769. He wrote on ethics, but IS chiefly known for his maintenance of the power of the Holy Spirit in the Word in a tieat- Besold 49 Biblical History ise on Heb. 13 : 21, in which he refuted the rationalistic moralism of his colleague Schubert. Besold, HieronymUS, a friend of Luther and Melanchtiion, also closely acquainted with Veit Dietrich, was a guest of Luther at Wittenberg in 1542. A native of Nuremberg he held eccle siastical offices there, edited Enarrationes Lutheri in Genesin (1552); d. Nov. 4, 1562. Besser, William Frederick, b. at Wam- stedt, Saxony, in 1816, received his theological education at the universities of HaUe (Tholuck) and Berlin (Hengstenberg). In 1841 he entered upon his first pastorate at Wulkow, Branden burg. During the disturbances attending the effort of the Pmssian king Frederick William IV. to forcibly intioduce the union of the Lu theran and Reformed Churches ( Cabinet order of 1845 ) , B. was deposed (1847). In 1848 he took the pastorate at Seefeld, Pomerania, and in 1857 went to Waldenburg, Silesia. At the time of his death in 1884 he was a member of the high consistory at Breslau. His best known literary productions are the Bibehiunden, be gun in 1844. These were issued in 14 volumes treating nearly all the New Testament writings (Acts, however, 1847 by Williger). Two volumes tieat of the Passion and Glory of Christ. Some of these volumes have seen 7 and 8 editions. The work is a popular exposition of the Scrip tures. The tone is that of strictly conservative Lutheranism. The style pure, simple, and elo quent. H. W. H. Betrothal, is the lawful and unconditional mutual consent of a marriageable man and a marriageable woman to be husband and wife. This consent is consent when it was brought about not by duress, fraud, or error personae, but by the conscious and free will of the con tracting parties. The consent is lawful when it does not -riolate any law of God or of the state. Lev. 18 : 1-30 ; 20 : 10-23 ! Deut. 27 : 20-23 I Matt. 14 : 3-4 ; l Cor. 5 : i (prohibited degrees) ; I Cor. 7 : 36-38 ; Deut. 7:3; Gen. 29 : 21 ; Ex. 22 : 17 (parental consent) ; Rom. 13 : i, 5 ; I Pet. 2 : 13 (laws of the state). The consent is unconditional when given vrithout a condi tion, or after the fulfilment of the condition or conditions under which it was given. It is mutual when the consenting parties have brought to each other's knowledge their co-ex isting willingness to be to each other husband and wife. The parties are marriageable when they are physically able and legally free to marry. According to the maxim that "consen sus, non concubitus, facit matrimonium," be trothal is the very essence of marriage and is, therefore, binding upon the parties, making them essentiaUy husband and vrife before God, though the state, prescribing certain forms and Evidences of marriage, may not recognize them as such. See Gen. 29 : 21, and Matt, i : 18-20 ; where the woman after betiothal and before the consummation of marriage is called "-wife." The dissolution of betrothal is, therefore, admis sible only for the cause which justifies the dis solution of marriage (Matt. 19 : 9 ) ; not for any other cause nor by mutual consent (Gen. 2 : 24 ; Matt. 19 : 5,6); and the abandonment of one party by the other is desertion from the bond of marriage, and must be so adjudicated by the Church (i Cor. 7 : 10, 15). Espousals between parties prohibited from intermarriage by the laws of the state are void, since marriage as a civil status is governed by the laws of the state in which the parties are domiciled and a " compact to perform an unlawful act is void. ' ' Clandestine espousals are those contracted without parental approbation, while the parents are living and of sound mind, and such espousals are void, unless the objection of the parent be tantamount to an absolute prohibition of marriage, against I Cor. 7:2; but the withdrawal of the parental consent after the espousal does not affect the latter. The parental consent should be obtained before the compact of the parties proper, but may be subsequently supplied and renders the betiothal valid when thus supplied. The compact en tered into before the parental consent, while it does not by itself superinduce the bond of mat rimony, imposes a vinculum conscientics, bind ing the parties conditionally, the condition be ing the subsequent parental consent to, or ac quiescence in, the betiothal, which is thereby made valid ; but the parties are free when such subsequent consent or acquiescence is definitely denied. In the absence of carnal knowledge the prohibition of marriage with a deceased wife's sister or a deceased husband's brother does not apply to a brother or sister of a bride groom or bride, the betrothed having not yet become one flesh. The Lutheran custom of enacting espousals. with religious solemnities and in the presence ot the minister should be encouraged. A. L. G. Beweis des Glaubens, a religious monthly- " for the establishment and defence of Christian tiuth," founded 1867. It is now edited by O.. Zoeckler, Prof, of theology at Greifswald and E. G. Steude, Licentiate of theology at Dres den. The tone is strictiy positive. While not purely devoted to theological science it treats all theological questions of the day. The paper is intended for cultured readers. H. W. H. Beyer, Hartmann, b. Sept. 30, 1516, in Frankfurt-on-the-Main, studied at Wittenberg from 1534-1545, when he was called as pastor to Frankfurt. Arriving there in 1546 (April 11), he at once defended Lutheranism against Re formed tendencies, sought to introduce the Lutheran sendee, but was hindered by circum stances. When in 1548 the Augs. Interim was to be introduced, Beyer strenuously opposed, preaching with directness and power, asserting that over his body the city council had power, but not over his conscience, and in doctrine he would obey God rather than men. With the same fidelity Calvinism was long kept from Frankfurt by Beyer, who was in constant corre spondence with all the leaders of Lutheranism. His sermons (49 MSS. vols., still in the city library at Frankfurt) are characterized by depth of thought, beauty and force of language. Learned, reticent, active, a devoted pastor, a true friend and benefactor of the poor, he died, much loved, Aug. II, 1577 {Realency. (3d. ed.) 2, p. 675). Biblical History. The Scriptures are not only a revelation but also the history of a reve- BibLcal History 50 Bible Revision lation. God did not unfold Himself and His plan of redemption primarily in the form of abstract dogmas and instructions but revealed them step by step in connection with the providential and educational guidance of His people. The his tory of this gradual development of God and His truth constitutes the contents of the Scriptures. There is but one tiuth revealed in the Bible, but this is unfolded in two historical phases or periods, one of the Old Testament dispensation, the other of the New Testament dispensation ; the one is preliminary and preparatory for the advent of the Redeemer, who is the centre of revelation both in fact and in history, the other is the consummation on earth of the establish ment of the Kingdom of God through the life and death of Christ, and between these two dis pensations or covenants there is only a differ ence of degree, caused by their representing two historic stages in one and the same process of development, and not a difference in kind. Herein lies the generic difference between the history of God's people of both Testaments and the history of the Romans, or Greeks, or any other nation. Biblical history deals with other factors and forces than the merely natural, which, vrith the exception of the general provi dential guidance of God, prevaU exclusively and alone in the ups and downs of secular history. In Biblical history the unique factor that is operative and that constantly and materially influences the outward and the inner develop ment of the people of Israel and of the Church is the hand of God directing all things for the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth, first among the chosen people and then spread ing it to the four corners of the globe. For this reason He made a covenant first with Adam, then with Noah, and later -with Abraham and his seed exclusively, giving them the law, separat ing them from all others, establishing in their midst the priesthood, the kingdom, and the prophetic office, all to the one end of training this chosen nation for the fulness of time when the promises should become realities and facts. Biblical history is then not the record of the natural development and unfolding of the na tional peculiarities and endowments of the people of Israel, as current Old Testament criticism would have us believe, but it is the record of God's special pro-ridential guidance of His people -with the one end in -riew of the founding of His Kingdom among men through His only- begotten Son Jesus Christ. This history, in its more scientific aspect, as the gradual unfolding of the revealed truths and teachings is now generally termed " Biblical Theology," and has in late years become a fixed branch of theology containing in substance the material found in Dogmatics, but giring these in the shape in which they were gradually unfolded in the Scriptures. In its more popular aspect and as a part and portion of general Christian instmc- tion, it is termed Biblical History, or else Sacred History, although the latter term is usually employed for a deeper presentation of this subject, as is the case in Kurtz's well-known work. Of popular Biblical Histories there are many, the most popular being that of Huebner. G. jj. S. Bible Revision, Lutheran, in 1883, the great Luther jubilee year, the Canstein Bible Society, the oldest and most influential society of its kind in Germany, published the so-called " Probe-Bibel," which upon its title-page was described as the first edition of a revision of the Luther Bible prepared under the auspices of the Eisenach Conference of the representatives of the various church governments of the Father land. This work presented the results of the studies and deliberations of various committees of German scholars, who had been at work for several decades, preparing this re-rision. The need of such a revision of the Luther text had been long felt, and its character frequently dis cussed. During Luther's own life the various editions of his translation had shown the evi dence of a constant revision and improvement at his hands. After the Reformer's death the various societies and editors that brought out the Luther version introduced changes consisting chiefly in adapting the language of the transla tion to that then current. This state of affairs also produced a variety of Luther texts, which lack of agreement was keenly felt bj' the German Church. August Hermann Francke, in his day an advocate of a re-rision of this kind, draws at tention to more than 300 passages in the Luther Bible in which since Luther's death changes had been introduced. The -wishes in this direc tion finaUy took tangible shape and form in 1857, at a General Conference of the German churches held in Stuttgart, and Hamburg (1858), during which -the representatives of the various Bible societies of Germany, influenced largely through an article published a year before by Dr. Moenckeberg, of Hamburg, proposed meas ures that eventuaUy led to the re-rision as now completed. The Conference voted by request (i) The various Bible societies to publish as far as possible a uniform text of the Luther Bible ; (2) The Canstein Bible Society to undertake the work of re-rising the Luther text ; (3) The Revisers to publish the changes they propose as foot-notes. The intentions originally were to revise only the New Testament. The Eisenach Conference in 1863 took official charge of the work of revision and directed it to the end. At its suggestion the various church governments of Germany appointed committees to whom the work of revision was entrusted. The New Tes tament committee consisted of ten men, selected from the ranks of theological professors and pastors. Prussia appointed Nitzsch and Twes ten of Berlin ; Beyschlag and Riehm of Halle ; Saxony, Ahlfeld and Briickner ; Hanover, Meyer and Niemann ; Wurtemberg, Fronmiiller and Schroder. The two HaUe men undertook the revision of the Synoptic gospels ; the Berlin men, the Johannine writings ; the Saxon men, Romans and Corinthians ; the Hanoverian men, the lesser Episties of St. Paul ; the Wurtem- bergers the rest of the New Testament. The work was done in an exceedingly conservative spint, a change of the Luther text on the basis ot the onginal being made only by two-thirds vote of aU revisors. After the entire work ot revision had been examined three times, the New Testament was finally published in Bible Translation 51 Bible Translation The expansion of the re-rision to the Old Tes tament dates from 1869, when a General Con ference, again held at Stuttgart, requested the Eisenach Conference to undertake the task. Again the various church governments ap pointed members of the Revision Committee of whom there were in all seventeen. Three of these had also worked on the New Testament, namely, Ahlfeld, Riehm and Schroder. The leading Old Testament scholars of Germany co-operated in the undertaking. The work was parcelled out andthe results of the sub-committee's studies dis cussed in plenary conference. These were held in Halle, and the entire committee met eighteen times, each session lasting eleven days, the con vention being held every spring and fall. The final meeting was on the 7th of October, 1881. Professor Schlottmann usually presided. The first section of the Old Testament re-rision, con sisting of the book of Genesis and Ps. i to 40, was definitely settled upon in the spring of 1871. Not only the canonical books, but also the Apo crypha were included in the revision. The " Probe-Bibel " was submitted for examination and suggestions to the Church at large. These were then considered by the committee and the entire re-rision published in final shape. Owing to the wonderful hold which the Luther version has on -the German mind, the work of re-rision has been exceedingly conservative. Not one-tenth as many changes have been in tioduced as are found in the English rerision. The revisers were instructed to revise the read ings of Luther on the basis of Luther's Greek text. Critical questions they were instructed to ignore. The foUo-wing rules were adhered to : ( I ) To make no unnecessary changes, and es pecially not to change merely to make the ren dering more literal. (2) When introducing a change, the committee is not only to be certain that Luther's translation is incorrect, but also that the proposed revision is an improvement on the old. (3) Expressions from Luther's Bible that have become fixed in the hjrmnology. Lit urgy, ascetic literature, etc. , of the Churcli, are not to be changed. The leading changes were made in the language of the text and not in the translation. The German Church has not taken kindly to the revision. The conservative sec tions think that too many alterations have been made, the more advanced sections want a more radical revision. The revised text has been adopted by the Canstein and other German Bible Societies. G. H. S. Bible Translation (Luther's). Most promi nent among the achievements of the Lutheran Reformation of the sixteenth century stands the work of Luther's Bible Translation, and the in fiuence it exerted upon the first attempts towards an English tianslation of the Holy Scriptures by Tyndale and Coverdale. From the invention of the art of printing, in the middle of the fif teenth century, to the year 15 18, at least four teen different editions of the German Bible ap peared at Mayence, Stiassburg, Nuremberg, and Augsburg. They seem to be chiefly based upon the Codex Teplensis of the latter part of the fourteenth century (for the first time pub lished in 1881 and 1882) . They are not made from the original text, but are slavish reproduc tions of the Vulgate. Its Latin is, in many places, sadly misunderstood and, as a rule, most clumsily rendered by the German translation. (Examples : Matt. 22 : 42, Quid vobis videturde Christo ? — ^Was ist euch gesehen von Christo ? — Mark 8 : 6. Gratias agere, Gnade vrirken. Luke 15 : I, and other places, Publicani-Offensuender). In i486 Archbishop Berthold of Mayence (Count von Henneberg) one of the most influential and scholarly statesmen ofthe German Empire, and by no means inaccessible to the demands of Church-Reform, forbade the publication of the German Bible, and the German translation of de votional books in general, unless approved by certain commissioners, because the German lan guage was not flexible and rich enough to render faithfully the deep thoughts expressed in Latin or Greek, and because the common people were not able to understand the meaningof the Holy Scriptures. During the years 1517-1521, before Luther undertook the great work of translating the whole Bible, he had published tianslations of certain sections, such as the seven penitential psalms, and some other psalms, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, the Magnificat, the prayer of King Solomon (i Kings 3), and a few of the Sunday Gospels. In his "Patmos," on the Wartburg, where he was hidden from May, 1521 to March, 1522, he translated the New Tes tament into German from the second edition of Erasmus' Greek Testament (1519), ha-ring hardly any literary apparatus with him that he could use in this work. He completed it in the incred ibly short time of about three months. After his retum to Wittenberg (March, 1522), he re vised the translation with the assistance of Me lanchthon, and in September, 1522, he was able to send the first copy of the German New Testament to his friend Berlepsch, the commander of the Wartburg. The book was sold for one florin and a half, at that time rather a high price, being equal to f 1.50 of our present currency. While the New Testament was still going through the press Luther commenced the translation of the Old Testament, using the Hebrew Quarto edition of Gerson Ben Moscheh, Brescia (1494). The whole German Bible appeared in Wittenberg (i534)- Melchior Lotter and Hans Luft were the printers and publishers of the original editions. The latter is said to have printed and sold, from X534 to 1574, not less than 100,000 copies, Luther himself never taking a single penny for his work. All through his life Luther continued to re-rise and improve his translation, untU 1545, when the last and standard edition of Luther's German Bible appeared. There can be no dispute as to Luther's peculiar fitness and call for the work of translating the Word of God into his native tongue. It is true, he was not the foremost linguistic scholar of his age. There were men, like Erasmus, Melanch thon, and Reuchlin, who surpassed him in their knowledge of Greek and Hebrew. But Luther was sufficiently equipped in the knowledge of those ancient tongues, to see for himself and to form an independent judgment. What he may have lacked in philology, was compensated for by his eminent exegetical feeling or instinct, and by the fact that he had lived himself completely Bible Translation 53 Bible Translation into the spirit of the Bible. His devout and pious soul was in true affinity with the Spirit that gave the li-ving Word of God. " And these gifts and graces as a translator found their chan nel in his matchless German. In this he stood supreme. The most German of Germans, tow ering above the great, yet absolutely one of the people, he possessed such a mastery of the tongue, such a comprehension of its power, such an ability to make it plastic for every end of language, as belonged to no other man of his time, — to no other man since. His German style is the model of the scholar, the idol of the peo ple. The facility in his choice of words, the exquisite naturalness and clearness in the con struction of his sentences, the dignity, force, and vivacity of his expressions, his affluence of phrase, his power of compression, and the rhyth mic melody of his flow of style have excited an admiration to which witness has been borne from the beginning by friend and foe ' ' ( Dr. C. P. Krauth). His marvellous success as a trans lator is all the more remarkable, if we remember that at the time when he undertook this work there was reaUy no recognized standard of Ger man language, as in the days of the Hohenstauf- fen Emperors, when the Suabian dialect ruled as classic in the national literature. In Luther's days the language, as he complained, was broken up into various dialects without one having pre ponderance over the others. He had to choose an idiom that would be understood by both South-Germans and North-Germans ("Ober- Isender and Niederltender " ) . This he found, to some extent, in the diplomatic language used at the Saxon Court ( ' ' Ich rede nach der Ssechsi- schen Kanzlei "). Up to the beginning of the fourteenth century aU the official documents in Germany had been -written in Latin. Since 1330 German began to take its place chiefly through the influence of Ludwig of Bavaria. In Austria Maximilian introduced the German as the offi cial diplomatic language. In Saxony this was done by Elector Ernest, the father of Frederick the Wise. But for the purposes of Luther's translation the choice of this Saxon Court lan guage did not, after all, entirely solve the diffi cult problem. The religious and devotional language of the German Mystics, and the popu lar idiom of the common people among whom he was living, had to be consulted, studied, and assimilated, in order to produce that pithy, forcible, dignified, and classic German of whicli Martin Luther is properly and justly called the author. He was, as Erasmus Alber said, ' ' a true German Cicero. Not only did he show us the true religion, but he also formed the German language, and there is no writer in the world that equals him in this respect." Luther had the singular pleasure and satisfaction of seeing his work on the New Testament translation unscrupulously appropriated by his enemies. "Emser," he said, "took my New Testament almost word for word as it came from my hand, removed my preface, notes, and name from it, added his name, his preface, and his notes to it, and thus sold my New Testament under his name." Without any formal or official action of any Church or State government, Luther's German Bible was at once commonly accepted for church, school, and family use, and all the German agenda, catechisms, and hymns adopt ed its language. But as there had never been one generally accepted and critically established standard form of the text in all its details, it was nattual that in the course of time many inac curacies and variations crept into the different editions. Since the eighteenth century the commonly received text was that of the Can stein Bible Institute (Halle, 1712), which was adopted by the British and Foreign, and most of the German Bible Societies, and used in mil lions of copies in Germany, Russia, and America. But there were at least six other recensions in use with many discrepancies in the form of the text. The desire to agree upon one standard text of Luther's German Bible led to the re vision (see Bible Revision). A. S. Bible Translation, English. A fuU cen tury before Luther was born John Wicliff had given to the English nation the Bible in their native tongue. But the storm of persecution which arose after his death swept away almost every vestige of his work ; and 150 years after wards, at the time when Luther's German Bible appeared, the English people were practically without the Scriptures. The first attempts to restore to the English the New Testament in their own tongue, came via Wittenberg under the influence of Luther's German tianslation. To William Tyndale, b. 1484, the English Bible owes more than to all the other laborers. He left London for Hamburg in 1524. In 1525 he returned to Hamburg with an English New Testament ready for the printer. It is most likely that in the mean time he sat at Luther's feet at Wittenberg. Certain it is that " he met Luther in Luther's works," aud that " whether by personal or by spiritual contact, or by both, he drew the inspiration of a Biblical translator from the greatest of translators " {Dr. C. P. Krauth). From Hamburg Tyndale had gone to Cologne, and there the Romanist Cochljeus found out that his English New Testament was going through the press in an edition of 3,000 copies. The Senate interdicted the continua tion of the work, and Tyndale and his assistant fled to Worms, to finish it there in two different editions, one Quarto, the other Octavo. Of the latter several thousand copies found their way to England. Tyndale's dependence on Luther appears clearly not only in many passages of the text, but also in his introductions and glosses. (For iUustrations see Dr. H. E. Jacobs, Lutheran Movement in England, pp. 25-32.) Tyndale was burned in 1536. The work on the EngUsh Bible translation was carried on by Miles Cover- dale who had neither the creative power nor the Biblical learning of Tyndale. He freely admits that his translation is not made from the origi nal text but "out of five sundry interpreters, not only in Latin but also of the Douche (Ger man) interpreters." In 1537 the so-called Mat thews Bible appeared, a combination of the labors of Tyndale and Coverdale, revised and published under the assumed name of Matthews, by J. Rodgers, the friend of Tyndale. This was loUowed, in 1539, by the " Great Bible," edited by Coverdale, and printed at Paris, with the per- Bible Translation 53 Bible Translation Jiission of Francis, I. a very imperfect revision of the Tyndale-Matthews Bible. In 1540 ap peared the " Cranmer Bible," a revision, in part, of the Great Bible of the previous year. The " Geneva Bible " followed in 1560, the work of a number of refugees on the continent, and the first complete English tianslation from originals throughout. Coverdale had taken a prominent part in it. But its Puritan origin and the char acter of its notes prevented its universal accept ance. The "Bishop's Bible "of 1572, was a revision of the Cranmer Bible, made under the direction of Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, by ' ' able bishops and other learned men. ' ' But in popularity it could never compare vrith the Geneva Bible which passed through more than one hundred editions. At the Hampton Con ference of 1604, when the Episcopalians and Puritans discussed the points which divided them, the Puritan leader. Dr. Reynolds, pro posed that a new version of the Bible should be prepared. Fifty-four learned men were ap pointed by King James for this work, under an excellent code of instructions defining their mode of procedure. The tianslators, among whom were the greatest English scholars of the time, did their work in six parties, two in Ox ford, two in Cambridge, two in Westminster. The result of their work, the " Authorized Ver sion," or "King James' Bible" was issued in 1611, as " The Holy Bible— -newly tianslated out of the original tongues : and with the former tianslations diligently compared and revised." ' ' The tianslation according to this title, is new, but its newness is not that of a wholly independ ent work, but that of a revision, in which there has been a diligent comparison of the former English tianslations. With much that is origi nal, -with many characteristic beauties, in some of which no other tianslation approaches it, it is yet, in the main, a revision. Even the original beauties are often the mosaic of an exquisite combination of the fragments of the older " {Dr. C. P. Krauth). If the German Bible was the work of one genius, the religious hero of his nation, everjTvhere marked by his stiong indi-riduality, taking its place, as a matter of course, in the hearts, the churches, the litera ture of his people, — the English version is the result of careful, well-balanced committee work, often a compromise and yet of wonderful unity in spirit and style, at once commanded and ap pointed by royal decree "to be read in churches." The two great Protestant tongues, the German and the English, have given to the world the two most perfect versions of the Bible, both national works, which have entered into the very life, the thought, the language, and literature of their people. For it is true of both versions, what Dr. Krauth said of King James' Bible: " It is now, and, unchanged in essence, -will be perhaps to the end of time, the mightiest bond, — inteUectual, social, and religious, — of that vast body of nations which girdles the earth, and spreads far towards the poles, the nations to whom the English is the language of their hearts, and the English Bible the match less standard of that language. So long as Christianity remains to them the light out of God, the English Bible -will be cherished by millions as the dearest conservator of pure faith, the greatest powerof holy life in the world." For more tiian 250 years the Authorized Ver sion held its ground undisputed. Even now it is admitted that " no book can be written more fitted in style and expression to do its work, more truly English, more harmonious, more simply majestic." (Dr. Theodore D. Woolsey). But a few years after the revision of Luther's Bible was undertaken in Germany, the demand for a revision of the English Bible became general among scholars and theologians in Eng land and America. It was based chiefly upon the following reasons : 1. — ^The gradual change to which languages are subject, old words drop ping out of use, or losing their meaning, or ac quiring a certain ambiguity. 2. — The inaccura cies of the Authorized Version. 3. — ^The scanty knowledge of the state of the original text which was accessible at the time when that version saw the light, and the progress made by skU ful textural critics in determining the original reading, -with the use of important manuscripts, such as the Vatican, Alexandrine, Sinaitic, that of Ephrem, and that of Beza, which were inaccessible to the translators of the Authorized Version. At the Convocation of Episcopal clergymen in Canterbury, May 6th, 1870, a Committee was ap pointed consisting of eminent Biblical scholars "with power to revise, for public use, the authorized English version of 161 1," and " to in vite the co-operation of any eminent for scholar ship to whatever nation or religious body they may belong." The English Committee divided itself into two companies, one for the Old, the other for the New Testament, holding regular meetings at the Deanery, in Westminster, Lon don. The American Committee was organized in 1 87 1, on invitation of the British Revisers, and chiefly through the efforts of Dr. PhU. Schaff, who became its President. It was com posed of scholars selected from different denomi nations. Dr. Charles Porterfield Krauth repre senting the Lutherans, in the Old Testament Company. They began active work in October, 1872, holding monthly meetings in the Bible House, New York. The whole number of scholars connected with the work of revision was one hundred and one, sixty-seven of Eng land, and thirty-four of America. Their object was " to adapt King James's Version to the present state of the English language, without changing the idiom and vocabulary," and further to adapt it "to the present standard of Biblical scholarship." The relation between the British and the American Committee was determined, in August, 1877, as follows : " The English Revisers promise to send confidentially their Revision in its various stages to the Ameri can Revisers, to take all American suggestions into special consideration before the conclusion of their labors, to furnish them before publica tion -with copies of the Revision in its final form, and to allow them to present in an Appendix to the Revised Scriptures, all the remaining differences of reading and rendering, of impor tance, which the English Committee should de cline to adopt ; while, on the other hand, the American Re-risers pledge themselves to give Bible Translations and Versions 54 Bible, Pictorial their moral support to the authorized editions of 1815 issued the Bible in 1824 and this tiansla- the University Presses, with a view to their tion is still used in Denmark. freest circulation in the United States, and not III. Nor-wegian. — The Danish Bible was to issue an edition of their own, for a term of used in Norway up till 1814. A committee was fourteen years." The Revised New Testament appointed in 1871 and has recently issued a Re- was published in 1881. In rapid succession over vised Version. thirty reprints appeared in America. It is esti- IV. ICELANDIC. By Oddur Gottslakson, and mated that within less than one year three mil- his translation of the New Testament was lions of copies were sold in Great Britain and America. The Old Testament was finished in 1885. Upon the whole the Revision is more popular in America than in England, but at the same time public opinion seems to favor the readings and renderings of the American Ap pendix as more consistent and of greater intrin sic merit. "The Anglo-American Revision," says the enthusiastic chairman of the American Committee, ' ' is not the best possible, but the best existing version, and as good as the present printed in Copenhagen 1540, and the whole Bible at Holum 1584. Thorlak Skuleson revised the edition now used in 1644. C. A. B. Bible, Pictorial. The first Latin Bible whose printed pages were iUustrated with woodcuts, was published at Augsburg in 1477. The first German Bible -with illustrations was printed at Cologne, the woodcuts of which reappeared in the Nuremberg edition of 1483. The Passion History and the Revelation were favorite sub jects of artists like Albert Duerer and Lucas In all Luth. Mission- been done in many generation of scholars haihng from different Kranach the elder. Some of the woodcuts of churches and countries can produce.'- Its prin- the Nuremberg Bible are found inserted in the cipal service will be that it furnishes to the text of the Re-felation in Luther's version of the student of God's Word ; especially to the layman New Testament printed at Wittenberg in 1522. who cannot compare the original text, the xhe presses at Strassburg and Augsburg pro- highest standard of accuracy and fidelity m the duced Ulustrated editions of Luther's NT in rendenng of the original But as long as the 1525 ^nd 1527. A new edition of the Passional great Bible Societies continue to print and to appeared at Wittenberg in 1529, which not only Eww t^l"l J?'^f^'!,7^>^^i°". tlif^ q^e^tion, contained the original ten woodcuts, but also 50 whether the Revised will supersede the Author- „ew woodcuts illustrating as many BibUcal T J^'t^J^V ' ^"^^^^-^i" *^^ °^g,^t'^ (1577)- (See art. Concord, Form. of). Another attempt was made by the Philippists in Saxony to Calvinize the Church, favored from 1586, by the Elector Christian I., who was in fluenced by the Calvinist CreU. The attempt ended unsuccessfully in 1591, and in 1592 Hun- nius drew up the Visitation Articles. (See Crypto-Cai,v. Controversy.) The efforts to Calvinize other Lutheran lands were crowned with more success. In the Pal atinate Hesshusius, a violent Lutheran, had re ceived a professorship at Heidelberg in 1558. He soon became involved in a hot dispute vrith the Calrinist Klebitz in the course of which both behaved themselves in such an unseemly manner that the Elector Frederick III. ex pelled them (1559). Having then gone over to the Reformed Church, Frederick appointed Cal- -rinistic teachers throughout his country (1560). At his direction Ursinus and Olevianus pre pared the Heidelberg Catechism for use in the schools (1563). An effort of the Elector Levris VL (1576-1583), to re-establish Lutheranism failed, and his successor John Casimir banished all Lutheran preachers. (On the Chvirch in Zweibriicken, see Candidds, P. ) Caspar Peucer, who had been expelled from Wittenberg, carried on a lively agitation for Calvinism in the Lutheran Anhalt. After abol ishing the form of exorcism and introducing a Reformed directory, Luther's Catechism was set aside, and in 1597, a copy of 28 Cal-rinistic arti cles was laid before the clergy for acceptance. All who refused were banished. The Landgrave PhUip of Hesse-Cassel re garded the differences between the Lutheran and Reformed Churches as non-essential and did not hesitate to appoint the Reformed theologian Hyperius to a professorship at Marburg (1541.) William IV., who inherited Hessen-Cassel, (1567), decUned to accept the Formula Con cordiae, and his son Maurice completed the work when, in 1604, he embraced Calvinism, for bade the use of Luther's Catechism, intro duced Reformed worship and expelled resisting preachers. When Marburg came under his rule in 1604, he forcibly introduced Calvinism there. The professors fled to Giessen where a Lutheran University was founded ( 1607) . In Upper Hes- sen Lutheranism was able to hold itself beside Cal-rinism ; in Lower Hessen the Reformed Church has remained. Dreckmeyer began to quietly introduce Cal vinism into Lippe-Detmold, favored in his effort by the Earl Simon VI. In 1602 already Luther's Catechism was forbidden. Resisting clergymen were banished and Calvinists ap pointed in their stead. In the Mark Brandenburg, the elector John Sigismund, though with an oath he promised his father Joachim Frederick to remain loyal to the Lutheran Church, broke faith in 1613, when on Christmas day he formally entered the Re formed Church. The Augsburg Confession (variata) was retained, but in 1614, the Elector intioduced a Calvinistic Confession of his own, the Confessio Marchica, in which the doctrine of absolute predestination was omitted. He could not however get his people to follow him and when radical measures were resorted to, a violent uprising of the masses occurred, which resulted in bloodshed (1615). In 1616, the pro fessors at Frankfort-on-the-Oder vvere forbidden to teach the communicatio idiomatum and ubiquitas corporis. He also forbade students foing to Wittenberg, and finally ordered the formula Concordics to be stricken from the col lection of Lutheran symbolical books. The failure to Calvinize Lutheran countries in this manner, suggested another slower, but surer way, that of Union. An agreement was to be reached by means of colloquiums. These were not new. The Wittenberg Concord of 1536, which favored the Lutheran -riew of the Lord's Supper, was the result of such a colloquy. It never was effective. In 1570, the Synod of Sendomir effected an agreement between the Church parties of Poland in which the Luth eran doctrine of the Lord's Supper was recog nized but in such an indefinite way that the article was capable of an interpretation in the Calvinistic sense. When at the Synod of Thom (1595)1 Paul Gerike, a Lutheran preacher, stood up for the Lutheran view, one of those present placed a sword at his breast and he was sus pended from office. By the Pax dissidentiu-m of 1573, a sort of religious peace had been tem porarily secured, but -without agreement on dividing questions, as has been shown. The four Synods called in Hessen (from 1577-1580) , under the Landgrave William IV., but paved the way for the later Calvinizing of the land already described. The great Colloquium of Leipzig in 1631, was a private discussion and brought no general results, and the Colloquium of Thom in 1645, only widened the dirisions because of the participation of Calixt, leader in the Syncretistic controversy. It was the con tinuation of this controversy, too, which pre vented beneficial results from the Colloquium of Cassel iu i56i. From (1630-1680), John Dury travelled through all Protestant countries seek ing to effect a Union on the ground of the es sential Christian truths accepted by all evangel ical Church parties. There was no practical result. The Synod of Charenton, France, in 1631 conceded the right to the Lutherans to commune in Reformed churches, because " in the chief doctrines of Christianity they were without error." In Brandenburg Frederick William, the Great Elector, issued two edicts in 1662 and 1664, in which he sought to bring about a union between the Lutheran and Re formed Church parties. The utter indifference shown to the points of diversity, however, caused them to be ineffective. The zeal of the Elector is shown in the story of the persecuted Paul Gerhard. Though Spener in 1686 had wamed against any effort to abruptly set aside religious differences, Frederick I., King of Pmssia in 1703 called a college for a discussion of points of controversy, vrith the ultimate view of Union. Lutheran theologians, however, gradually -with drew, except Winkler, who published a plan for a union in which the Lutheran Church was given over to the Reformed. The indignation of the people caused the project to be abandoned. A futile attempt at union through the introduc tion of the Anglican form of government into the Church of Pmssia was made in 1704. The CalTinlzing liUtheran Churches 73 Canada efforts of individuals like Pfaff (1719); Turretin (1706); Heumann (1764), were unsuccessful as well. Thus ended the eighteenth century. The beginning of the nineteenth century found conditions more favorable to a union in which distinctive Lutheranism must necessarily be lost. The Supernaturalism of the Lutherans had accepted Reformed principles, and Pietism had shown an indifference to doctrines and creeds, while on the other side harsh Calvinism, which had never been at home in Prussia, had ap proached Zvringlianism more and more. When therefore Frederick William III. called for a Lutheran-Calvinistic Union upon occasion of the 300 anniversary of the Reformation in 1817. His summons was met vrith great sympathy. (See Union, Prussian.) While this Union did not, it is tme, require the change from one church to another, it refused to recognize the essential importance of distinctive doctrines. By this the Reformed position was subscribed, which had sought a union on this ground for nearly 300 years. Cal-rin had even signed the Unaltered Augsburg Confession in 1539. Na turally as the religious consciousness of the church was again awakened, the Lutherans op posed the Union. In his eagerness to carry through his plan the king resorted to strict measures. Men like Scheibel, Steffens and Guericke were deposed and even banished, and in the village of Hoenigern, Silesia, recourse was had to force of arms (1834). Frederick Wil liam IV. considerably modified these measures and in 1845 even recognized the independent church which had been formed at Breslau. While the Union was intioduced into nearly every German country, a Lutheran reaction every where soon foUowed, ending in the separation of clergymen and sometimes large portions of their congregations from the State Church, notably Harms, in Hanover (1878). As the efforts to intioduce the Union have not ceased, so the opposition of the Lutherans and their withdrawal from the State Church stUl goes on. H. W. H. Calvisius, Seth, prominent chm-ch musician and scholar, b. 1556 in Thuringia, from 1594 cantor of St. Thomas in Leipzig, d. in 1615. He was a master in the theory of the counter point, and thoroughly at home in the old church tunes. His settings of some of the old chorals are models of pure harmony. Schoeberlein, Schaiz. des liturgischen Chor-und-Gemeinde Gesangs gives a number of them. A. S. Camerarius, Joachim (German, Ca-mmer- meister), b. at Bamberg, Apr. 12th, 1500. At tended school in his native city. Matriculated at Leipzig in 1512. Studied Greek under Rich ard Crotus and Peter Mosellanus. Became Bachelor of Arts in 15 16. Matriculated at Erfurt in 1818, where he taught Greek, and was made Master of Arts in 1520. Driven thence by the plague and the religious contentions he went to Wittenberg where he matriculated, Sept. 14th, 1521. Heard Luther and formed an abiding friendship vrith Melanchthon. At the recom mendation of Melanchthon he was appointed Rector and Professor of History and Greek in the Nuremberg Gymnasium in 1526. Attended the Diet of Augsburg (1530), and made notes at the reading of the Papal Confutation. Was called to Tubingen in 1535 to assist in reorganiz ing the University, and to the University of Leipzig in 1541. Described by Melanchthon as " peaceable, quiet, veracious, and so learned in eloquence and philosophy as to be surpassed by few in Germany or elsewhere. ' ' Favored the Leipzig Interim. Promoted the Reformation by attending diets, and by publishing many edi tions of the classics and several works on the ology. Wrote a standard life of Melanchthon. D. at Leipzig, Apr. 17th, 1574. J. W. R. Campanius, John. Swedish American pas tor and missionary, b. in Stockholm about 1601; came to America, with Gov. Printz, 1643, re tumed to Sweden, 1648. His home in America, was at Tinicum Island, nine miles south-west of Philadelphia. D. Sept. 17th, 1683. Beside a most honorable record for fidelity, Campanius is particularly distinguished for his tianslation of Luther's Small Catechism into the language of the Delaware Indians. The translation ante dates Eliot's Indian Bible ; but was not pub lished until 1696. It is a very free paraphrase. An account of his labors among the Delawares and the great interest enkindled among them, has been given by his grandson, whose book has been translated under the title : Descrip tion of the Province of New Sweden, by Thomas Campanius Holm. Translated from the Swed ish, by Peter S. Duponceau, PhUadelphia, 1834. Much of the credit generally ascribed to the pacific policy of William Penn probably belongs to the Swedish missionary who prepared the way for Penn's negotiations by his missionary labors. Canada, the Lutheran Church in. it num bers 26,500 communicant members, organized in 203 congregations, and is served by S3 pas tors, publishes two church-papers and supports 79 parochial schools with 2800 scholars and 127 Sunday Schools vrith about 1000 teachers and 10,000 scholars. Of this number 133 congregations with a total of 15,800 communicant members and 47 minis ters belong to the General Council, to the Can ada Synod, Manitoba Synod, and Nova-Scotia District of the Pittsburg Synod ; 50 congrega tions with 6,500 members and 27 pastors are connected with the Synodical Conference, viz., the Canada District and the Minnesota and Dakota District of the Missouri Synod. To the Pittsburg Synod of the General Synod belong two small congregations served by one minister. The Synod of Icelanders is represented in Canada by 11 congregations vrith 1200 members, and the Buffalo Synod by three pastors minis tering to five congregations. Two Lutheran churches at Montreal and Ber lin with a membership of respectively 450 and 2,300 communicant members are independent of any synod. The three oldest Lutheran congregations in the Dominion — considerably older than the Dominion itself — were organized in the eight eenth century : at Lunenburg, N. S., in 1752, in Dundas Co., along the St. Lawrence, in 1774, and in the neighborhood of Toronto in 1792. Candidate 74 Canonical Age These old congregations and their daughters, 25 in all, vrith 2,800 communicant members, are now entirely English. One small congregation in Assiniboia wor ships in Lettish ; the Icelandic churches serve their fathers' God in their native tongue, and aU the other churches are German. If, considering the above statistics, we recall the vast area of Canada (3,500,000 sq. miles), itis only too evident that Lutherans are but thinly scattered over Great Britain's largest colony. A relative stronghold of Lutheranism, is the southern part of Ontario, the peninsula extend ing between Lakes Huron and Erie, south of the Georgia Bay and the city of Toronto. Another extensive Lutheran settlement is found in the Ottawa basin; and the most promis ing of aU, which undoubtedly has a great future, are the German and Icelandic colonies in the Great Northwest, with the city of Winnipeg for their southeastern basis. G. G. Canada Sjmod. See Synods (II). Candidate, from Latin " Candidatus," i. e. one clothed with a white toga, the garment of aspirants for office, is used specially for theol. students in Germany from the time of leaving the university until they are pastors. Their first examination is pro canditura or pro licentia concionandi (permission to preach); the second examination is pro -ministerio (for the ministry) and confers the title candidatus reverendi -min- isterii. In many state churches a limit of at least a year is fixed between the two examina tions, and additional examinations are required. In America a candidate is one examined for the ministry but not yet ordained because without a call or under the proper age. Candidus, Pantaleon. B. Oct. 7, 1540, at Ips in Lower Australia. At ten years shared imprisonment and exile of the evangelical pas tor of Weissenkirchen, Cupitz. Afterwards fied with his patron Vitus Nuber, Abbot of Seisel- stein, to the protection of Wolfgang of Zwei briicken. N. became the court preacher ; Can didus went to the school of George Agricola. 1558 was sent to Univ. of Wittenberg, where Paul Eber and George Major were teaching, and came into close relations -with Melanch thon. Master in 1564 ; called back to Zwei briicken 1565 ; and, after serving as country pastor, and teaching in the Latin school, (1571) succeeded Flinsbach as city pastor and general supt. The church of Zweibriicken, reformed by John Schweblin, was closely related to that of Strassburg. It subscribed the Augsburg Con fession and the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 ; and the Church Order of Wolfgang 1557 (influ enced by Brenz, Marbach and Mel.), was of a mild Lutheran type. John I. republished this in 1570, and in 1574 renewed measures against Z-winglians and Cal-rinists. Candidus, although suspected of " Philippist " leanings, conformed, and subscribed the Lutheran formulas. Signed the Torgau book in 1576, complaining only that it taught a mixture of the two natures in Christ and needed a further explanation of the spirit ual content of the Sacrament. At this point the prince, urged by John Casimir of the Palat inate, hesitated, and Candidus and Heinrich Schwebel, son of the reformer and a pupil of Bucer, led the church of Zweibriicken back to a decided Reformed position. 1583, published under an assumed name, a Dialogue on the Two Natures and an explanation of Luther's Catechism, which was put into the hands of the ministers, and 1588 was enlarged into a "Christian and Necessary Explanation, etc.," pretending to explain Luther's Catechism but deriving both its language and doctrine from the Heidelberg Catechism. He described the change from the Lutheran to the Reformed Serrice of Worship as a purification from the remnants of popish leaven. He -wrote much, not of a popular sort, for the most part in Latin, and was famous as a Latin poet. Vain, he ad dressed a poem to Rudolph I., and praised Philip II. of Spain without stint, and even re frained from disapproval of the persecutions of the Hussites. D. Feb. 3, 1608. See Herzog P. R. E= III. 126. • E. T. H. Candles (Lights) in the Lutheran Church. There is no trace of a ceremonial use of can dles in Christian worship before the fourth cen tury, They were introduced into Rome as an ornament of worship, probably from the Greek Church, through Spain and Gaul. Yet the cus tom of having lights held before the reader at the Gospel and placed upon the altar at the Holy Supper reminds us of the time when Chris tians assembled for worship in hidden places and before dawn. Various symbolical mean ings of the lights in the service have been sug- fested. Luther allowed the use of them, in his ^ormula Misses and the Deutsche Messe. How ever, they appear to have been disused at Wit tenberg. Other Orders retained them in the Communion. The S. W. German Orders for bade them. Two candles on the altar, lighted in the liturgy of the Holy Supper are usual in Saxony and in the Prussian Church and in some churches in America. Kliefoth says the cus tom of lighting the candles at the Gospel is not retained in the Lutheran Church. E. T. H. Candler, Da-vid, one of the earlier pastors in Pennsylvania and Maryland. His home was at Conewago, near Hanover, and his parish ex tended from the Susquehanna to the Potomac. D. December, 1744. Canitz, Friedrich Eudolph Ludwig, Baron von, b. 1654, d. 1699 iu BerUn, a prominent German statesman who executed many import ant missions under the Brandenburg Elector Friedrich Wilhelm and his successor ; a friend of Spener, author of several hymns which were published after his death, among them "Seele, du musst munter werden " (14 stanzas), " Come my soul, thou must be waking," translated by H. J. BuckoU, 1841, and by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. a. S. Canonical Age. The pre-reformation Canon Law forbade the ordination of any one to the diaconate before he had reached the fuU age of twenty-two years ; to the priesthood before he was fully twenty-four; and to the episcopate before the completion of his thir tieth year. Edward VI., is the only six teenth century order in which this mle is re peated. Meusel's Handlexikon says that the Canstein 75 Carlstadt older Church Orders left the decision of each case to the ecclesiastical authorities, and that at a later period the time fixed by the law of the land for being ' ' of age ' ' was accepted by the authorities of the Church. This would make the "canonical age," to vary from the twenty-first to the twenty-second year. In this country a candidate must be at least twenty-one years old. E. T. H. Canstein, Karl Hildebrand, Freiherr von, b. Aug. 4, 1667, at Lindenberg, Brandenburg ; studied law at Frankfort-on-the-Oder ; tiaveled extensively through Europe, and there became chamberlain to the elector Frederick IIL, at Berlin. Weary of court-life, he resigned, and joined the Brandenburg tioops sent to Flanders. Here he became seriously ill, and promised ¦that, if the Lord would spare him, he would serve God throughout life. He recovered, and faithfully kept his promise. Returning to Ber lin, he became acquainted with Spener, and through him with A. H. Francke of Halle. In 1710, he published his plan for supplying the poor vrith the Word of God at a low price, by printing from types kept permanently standing, and soldered together at the bottom. Two years later he founded the Canstein Bible Insti tute [which see]. In 1718, he issued a "Har mony and exposition of the Four Gospels." He is also the author of a biography of Spener. D. at Berlin Aug. 19, 1719. F. W. W. Canstein Bible Institute. Canstein in 1710, moved towards publishing the Bible at a low price. Queen Sophia Louisa of Pmssia, and Prince Charles of Denmark contributed 1,000 thalers each. Canstein made the total, 11,285 thalers, nearly $8,500. In 1712 the N. Test. was issued, and in i6 years 37 editions N. T., 35 eds. i2mo. Bible, 21 eds. large Svo. Bible. In 1735, the Bible Institute was connected with the Francke Institutions at Halle. Including 1897, 7,134,000 copies of Scripture were sold, mostly under cost price, — 100,000 of these in Bohemian, Polish, Lithuanian, Lusatian and Wendish. Since 1890, in German, a revised Luther version is used. F. W. W. Cantate. See Church Year. Cantionale, a collection of church music for the full liturgical service of the Church, fur nishing the material for the ofiiciating pastor, the choir and the congregation. Such coUec- tions were peculiar to the Lutheran Church, es pecially of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen tury, and to the Bohemian Brethren. Most prominent among them are those of Johann Spangenberg (1545) ; Lucas Lossius (1561) ; Johann Keuchenthal (1573); Matthseus Lude cus (1589) ; the Kralitz Cantionale of the Bohe mian Brethren (1576) . Of recent works of this character the Mecklenburg Cantionale, (4 vols. 1868-1887), edited chiefly by Kliefoth and Kade, is the most complete and churchly, based alto gether on the classical cantionales of the six teenth and seventeenth centuries. Schoeber- lein's comprehensive work, Schatz des litur gischen Chor-und Gemeinde-Gesangs (3 vol.) might also be called a cantionale. Sometimes the name was also used for a hymn book like the Lueneburg H. B. of 1647. A. S. Cantus Pirmus, the firmly established un changeable Gregorian Chant. Later on this name was given, in a special sense, to the lead ing tune in contrapuntal settings, also called Cantus Planus, in distinction from the artistic figurated tieatment of the other voices. A. S. Capital University. See Colleges. Capito, Wolfgang (Kopflein), b. 1478 in Hagenau, Alsace, became doctor in the three faculties, came into touch with Oecolampadius while preacher at Bruchsal (1512), formed friendship with Erasmus and Zwingli in Basle ( 1515), wrote to Luther after the appearance of the 95 theses. From 1520-1523, he was chan cellor of Albrecht of Mayence, was made pro vost of St. Thomas of Strassburg by Archbishop of Leo X. and a nobleman by Chas. V. He sought to mediate between Luther and the Romanists, and counselled moderation, but later saw in Luther not a "raging Orestes" but an Orpheus. At last separating from Rome he occupied an intermediate position, com posed the Confessio Tetrapolitana, with Bucer, worked for the Wittenberg Concord, sought to unite all the churches of Germany, France and England. He was fond of music and poetry, and wrote several hymns, based on latin orig inals, " Die Nacht ist hin, der Tag bricht an " (5 St. ) Jam lucis orto sidere ; "Gib Fried zu unsrer Zeit, O Herr " ( 3 st. ) Da pacem Domine, " Give peace in these our days, O Lord," Engl. Tr. in Psalms of David (1560), by E. G., prob ably Edmond Gindel, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. D. 1541. (Baum, Capito u. Butzer). i860. A. S. Carlson, A. B. , missionary of General Coun cil in Samulcotta, b. in Sweden, d. in Madras March 19, 1882, aged 36 years, from a sunstroke after laboring but a year. He was earnest, zeal ous and devoted. Carlsson, Erland,^D. D. (Augustana Col lege, 1892), b. in Smaland, Sweden, 1822, or dained 1849, served as pastor in the diocese of Vexio until 1853. Through the agency of Drs. Fjellstedt and Hasselquist he then received a call to the Swedish congregation in Chicago and at St. Charles, 111., and, having accepted the call arrived at Chicago the same year. His faithful ministry during twenty-two years at the Immanuel Church in Chicago was rewarded with rich and -risible fruit by his pious zeal and perseverance and his excellent organizing talent. Having been pastor at Andover, IU. (1875- 1887), he served at last as business manager of Augustana CoUege until 1889, when, owing to ill health, he was obliged to withdraw from active work. He was president of the Augus tana Synod 1881-1888 and one of the directors for Augustana College from its organization un til 1889. D. in 1893 at his pleasant residence at Lindsborg, Kansas. N. F. Carlstadt, Andrew, whose real name was Andrew Rudolf Bodenstein, b. about the year 1480, at Carlstadt, Franconia, traveled in search of knowledge, from school to school, even to Rome, where he applied himself to the study of scholasticism. He had already obtained the de gree of bachelor of di-rinity, when he came to Wittenberg in 1504, entering the philosophical Carpenter 76 Cassel Colloquium faculty. In 1510 he received the degree of Doc tor of Theology, and became arch-deacon of the Collegiate Church and in 151 1 rector of the University. Boasting that he had disputed at Rome concerning the authority of the Bible, he acknowledged not having even seen a Bible before his promotion to the doctorate. Thomas Aquinas was his favorite. In 1515 Carlstadt proceeded to Rome to appeal to the pope be cause of a petty claim against the town of Wit tenberg, which at best meant the loss of one- half guUder to him. — At Rome he conceived the idea of studying jurisprudence, but still held on to his Wittenberg chair and did not retum to resume his duties until the elector withdrew the emoluments of the office and threatened his removal. His negligence con tinued after his retum. But Luther attacked the schoolmen, — and Carlstadt with Luprinus, fuU of -wrath, assailed Luther and was defeated. Nay more, he adopted the reformatory spirit to such an extent as to publish theses, in the spring of 15 17, which pleased Luther very much. Carlstadt's weak spot was his vanity. This led him to provoke Eck to the famous Leipzig disputation. Dur ing Luther's stay at the Wartburg his reforma tory zeal degenerated into headlong fanaticism. Iconoclasm became the order or rather disorder of the day. Hasty violence marked the pro ceeding led by Didymus and Carlstadt. When Luther had restored order, Carlstadt kept him self down for a few years, and then began to attack Luther, in particular assailing the latter's teaching concerning the Lord's Supper. This was at Orlamuende in 1524. Banished from Saxony, he turned to Strassburg and endeavored to influence Bucer and Capito. He then pro ceeded to Basel and succeeded in impressing the Swiss reformers. At Luther's intercession he was permitted to return to Saxony, having retracted his errors, but again recanted. After spending about a year in Holstein and East Frisia he went to Switzerland and d. as profes sor and preacher at Basel in 1541. G. F. S. Carpenter, William, b. near Madison, C. H.. Va., May 20, 1762 ; d. near Florence, Ky., Feb, 18, 1833. In 1778 joined the Revolutionary Army and served to the end of the war. Studied theology under Christian Stieit at Winchester, Va. Licensed by the Ministerium of Penna. in 1787, C. at once became pastor of Hebron Church, in Madison (then Culpeper) Co., to which he ministered for 26 years. In 1813 he removed to Boone Co., Ky., where belabored efficiently for 20 years more. D. M. G. Carpov, Jakob, b. 1699 in Goslar ; studied philosophy and theology in Halle and Jena ; lectured on Wolffian philosophy (1725). Left Jena (1736), at Weimar (1737), d. 1768. He sought to demonstrate dogmatics by the mathe matical method ; and wrote Theologia Revelata Dogmatica Methodo Scientifica Adornata. Carpzov, a family of influential scholars and teachers, i . Benedict I. , Prof, of Law, Witten berg, b. 1565, d. 1623. 2. Benedict II., son of preceding, b. 1595, Prof, of Law, Leipzig, and for 40 years a judge, and as such concerned in no less than 20,000 cases in which the death penalty was involved ; a man of deep religious convictions, particularly dUigent in Bible read ing. In his Jurisprudentia Ecclesiastica, 1649, he gave scientific form to the Episcopal System of Lutheran Church Polity, d. 1666. 3. John Benedict, son of No. 1, pastor, archdeacon and Professor of Theology at Leipzig. In the Syn cretistic Controversy, he occupied a mediating position, agreeing with the principles of the more rigid Lutherans, but standing in friendly relations vrith Calixt ; author of the best com mentary on the Symbols, viz., Isagoge in Libros Symb., 1665 ; d. 1657. 4. John Benedict IL, son of the preceding, b. 1639, Prof, of Oriental Languages and Theology, and pastor at Leip zig ; a prominent opponent of Spener, d. 1699. 5. Samuei, Benedict, brother of preceding, b. 1647 ; court preacher and supenntendent, Dresden, a personal friend of Spener, but wav ered through the influence of his brother in his public attitude towards Pietism ; d. 1707. 6. John Gotti,ob, son of preceding, the most learned member of the family, b. 1679, Prof, of Oriental Languages, Leipzig, Superintendent, Luebeck ; author of Introduction io the O. T. and of controversial tieatises against the Pietists and Moravians ; d. 1767. 7. John Benedict IV., nephew of preceding, b. 1720, d. 1803, Prof, of Philosophy, Leipzig, and of Greek and Poetry, Helmstedt, an opponent of Rationalism, author of Co-mmentaries on Hebrews, Romans, the Pastoral Epistles, father-in-law of the his torian Henke. Carstensen, C, catechist in the School-teach er's Seminary at Kiel, who -wrote a much-used handbook of catechetics, espec. of religious in struction. (1821-1823.) Caspari, Carl P., 1814-1892 ; b. in Germany of Jevrish parents ; studied at Leipzig and Ber lin, and was baptized in 1838. His strict Lutheranism led him to refuse a call to Konigs berg University. He became Lector in 1847 and Professor of Theology in 1857 at the Uni versity of Christiania, Norway, remaining here till his death. His influence in the Church of Norway was great as a popular teacher, and as a theological -writer, especially on Old Testament subjects. E. G. L. Caspari, Karl Heinrich, b. Feb. 16, 1815, in Eschau,_ Bavaria, d. May 10, i86x, Lutheran pastor in Munich. His characteristic was a dignified popularity, evidenced in his preaching as well as in his writings. His best known works are: Geistliches und Weltliches (1853), a collection of anecdotes, proverbs, and selec tions illustrative of Luther's Small Catechism ; Sermons on, and Explanation of the Catechism (1856), and posthumously collected sermons on the Gospel lessons, entitled : Von fenseits des Grabes. g. C. F. H. Cassel Colloquium, first took place 1534 be tween Bucer and Melanchthon upon instiga tion of Landgrave Philip. It aimed vrithout result to unite Lutherans and Zwinglians on the Lord's Supper. In 1661 (June 1-9) Landgrave Wm. IV. arranged a conference between the Lutheran theologians, P. Musseus and John Henichen,and the Reformed S. Curtius, J. Hein. They discussed the Lord's Supper, predestina- Casuistics 77 Catechism tion, the two natures in Christ, baptism. A con sensus was found, and the differences wrongly declared non-fundamental. Casuistics (Casuistry), the science how to tieat and decide certain cases of conscience, as they may arise in the life of the Christian, is really a part of Christian ethics, and has some times been treated by Romanists as a substitute for ethics. Its traces can be discovered already in Stoic philosophy. The Talmud, -with its numberless rules and decisions for possible and impossible cases, is a rich illustiation of the absurdities in which casuistry may lose itself. The practice of private confession, penance and absolution, as it was in vogue in the Mediaeval Church, naturally tended to introduce a regular system of Casuistry. The " Libri Pceniten- tiales," vrith their lists of sins and corresponding penalties, with their suggestions, rules and decisions gathered from the -writings of promi nent fathers, were in reality so many handbooks of casuistiy. Mediaeval Scholasticism natu rally helped to develop these casuistic schemes. In the fourteenth and fifteenth century we find, after the manner of Raimond de Pennaforti's Su-mma de casibus consdentice, a number of similar "Summse," sumrharies of special cases, -srith instructions how to tieat them, such as the Artesana, Pisana, Pacifica, Rosella, Angelica (burned by Luther, together with the Pope's Bull), and also one by Sylvester Prierias. In the sixteenth and seventeenth century the Jesuits were the chief representatives of casu istry in their systems of Christian Morals. They furnished handbooks for the guidance of the priest iu the confessional, treating the outward act in every case of sin, -with all its surround ings, in the most minute manner, without really entering upon the attitude of the heart and the personal responsibility of the sinner. The main point was not the great principle of right or ¦wrong, but the question, how far a man might possibly go in each case. Not the conscience, enlightened and sanctified by the Word of God, but a dialectic sophistiy was the real standard of decision, with the unavoidable result, that the moral instinct and judgment of men was greatly debased. In the Reformed and Lutheran Churches of the seventeenth century there was indeed, for a time, a tendency to intioduce a system of cas uistry also into the tieatment of evangelical Ethics. Among the former may be mentioned Perkins (Cambridge), Amesius (Holland), and Alstedt (Germany). Among the Lutherans, besides the Consilia of Melanchthon, Bal duin, Olearius, Dannenhauer, Koenig, J. Andr. Osiander, and the Consilia Theologica Wit- tenbergensia (1664) ; also the Theologische Bedenken by Spener, the father of German Pietism. But these were based on sound evan gelical principles, and mostiy opinions on ques tions of pastoral theology or on points of doctrinal controversy. The great principle of Luther's Reformation, faith as the one center of the new Christian personality, especially as set forth in Luther's tieatise, De Libertate Chris tiana strikes at the very root of medieval casuistry. The organic unity of God's work of grace in the regenerate man, the formation and development of a Christian character, who, as the child of God, delights to know and to do the Father's -will, does away -with the atomism of endless cases and questions of conscience. Henceforth it is the task of Christian ethics, not to give a specified answer to the question what is to be done in every case that may arise, but to teach and train the Christian that he may know how to answer the question for himself. A. S. Catechism, Dr. M. Luther's Larger and Smaller Catechisms. The word Catechism was used in the Pre-Reformation Church to desig nate the oral instruction of Catechumens in the main points of Christian doctrine. Thus Luther himself understands the term in his Deutsche Messe (German Mass, 1526): "Catechism is called instruction by which those that intend to become Christians are taught and informed what they are to believe, to do and to leave un done, to know as Christians." The examina tion of sponsors in the baptismal service, the questions addressed to them and their answers, are also called ' ' Catechismus. ' ' In the sense of a book, -written for instruction in Christian doctrine, the term Catechism is first used iu Luther's letter to Hausmann, in 1525, " lonae et Islebio mandatus est Catechismus puerorum parandus." The urgent necessity of making such provision for the churches had long been e-rident, and is fully stated, as the result of the -risitation of the Saxon Churches, in 1528, in the Preface of Luther's Small Catechism, in the fol lowing language : " Alas, what misery I beheld ! The people, especially those that live in the villages, seem to have no knowledge whatever of Christian doctrine, and many of the pastors are ignorant and incompetent teachers They all maintain that they are Christians, that they have been baptized, and that they have received the Lord's Supper. Yet they cannot recite the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, or the Ten Commandments, they live as if they were irra tional creatures, and now that the gospel has come to them they grossly abuse their Christian liberty. ' ' But long before Luther went to work to compose his Catechisms of 1529 he had been active in the field of catechetical literature. From the year 1515 we have from his pen ex positions of the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer. In 15 19 he states that he was daily going over the commandments vrith chUdren and laymen (pueris et rudibus pronuncio). In 1520 he published a. Short Fo-nn of Meditating on the Ten Command-ments, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer. "Three things," he says, "a man must needs know to be saved. First, he must know what to do, and to leave undone. Secondly, seeing that he is unable, by his own strength, to do it and to leave it undone, he must know where to seek and to find strength. Thirdly, to know how to seek and to get it Thus the Law shows man his dis ease ; . . . . the Creed tells him where to find his medicine, the grace ; . . . . the Lord's Prayer teaches him how to seek it and to appro priate it. " The tiuly conservative, catholic and churchly character of Luther's Reformation stands out most prominently in his catechetical work. He built on the old soUd and popular Catechism 78 Catechism foundations, knovring " no better form for a Christian Catechism than those three parts which had been preserved from the very begin ning in the Church of Christ " {Deutsche Messe, 1526). In some details of his exposition, especially in the third part of the Catechism, we recognize almost literal reminiscences from the catechetical literature of the Church, as far back as Tertullian and C)^rian. It may be claimed that the whole catechetical work of the first fifteen hundred years of the Church reaches its climax and consummation in Martin Luther's Small Catechism. But with all the conservative features which characterize Luther's catechet ical work, there are others which are new and original vrith him, and for which he deserves full credit as the first great restorer of Pauline Theology in the Church. Most important and characteristic in this respect is the order in which Luther arranged the three parts. Com mandments, Creed, and Lord's Prayer, giving the first place to the Law, as the schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ, and the central and dominating place to the Creed. All other Catechisms, Roman, Greek, and Reformed, in their final shape, differ from Luther's arrange ment in this respect. Again, by diriding the Creed into three Articles, not into twelve as heretofore, and as even Brentius retained it, the second Article, with its confession of Christ, the Redeemer, becomes the very heart and soul of the whole Catechism. The first part of the Catechism, then, treats of the Law under the form of the Decalogue. In this also L. differs from the medieval Church which had used various other schemes for the instiuction in the dirine mandates. The De calogue, however, is modified in the spirit of the New Testament, so that its transient Israel- itic features which belong to the Mosaic dis pensation are omitted, as in the form of the first, the third, and the fourth commandments. Luther's principal aim in the treatment of the Law is the so-called second use (Usus elenchthi- cus), to lead men to a knowledge of sin. — ^The second part of the Catechism takes for its text the Apostolic Symbolum, which, except in the Greek Church, was always used ' ' ad fidei in structionem," (The Nicene Creed "Ad fidei explicationem " ; the Athanasian "Ad fidei de- fensionem "). Luther's treatment most beau tifully and practically combines the objective and the subjective side of faith, the "Fides quae creditur, " andthe "Fides qua creditur." The great works of God, creation, redemption and sanetification, are set forth as the funda mental facts of our salvation ; not, however, as purely objective, abstract, doctrinal statements, but with all the fervor of personal conviction and appropriation. It is the spirit and lan guage of personal religion, in the fullest and best sense of the word. Its very text can and ought to be -used in devout prayer from day to day, by the living, and, particularly, the exposi tion of the second article, that crown and jewel of the whole Catechism, in the last hour of the dying Christian.— In the third part Luther treats the Lord's Prayer as the fmit of justify ing faith, and as the demonstration of the new life, in the spirit of sanetification and adoption. It sets forth the life of the Christian as the life of the child of God, vrith all its privileges and duties, its needs and dangers, its hopes and resources. — To these three fundamental parts are added the fourth and fifth, on Baptism and the Lord's Supper, with the connecting link, on Confession and Absolution, " conceming which a Christian must also be properly instructed." Here the language of the Catechism, otherwise so simply objective and thetical, becomes of necessity more antithetical and controver sial, over against the fanatical and Roman izing perversions of sound doctrine on these points. But even here everything culminates in simple living faith. With the requirement of "truly believing hearts " the fifth part of the Catechism closes. The Church has always been unanimous in her testimony on the priceless value of Luther's Catechisms, particularly the Small Catechism. An interesting collection of testimonials of prominent theologians on this point is found in Dr. C. P. Krauth's Conservative Reforma tion, pp., 286-288. The great historian Leo pold Ranke says of it : "It is as child-like as it is profound, as easy of grasp as it is unfathom able, as simple as it is sublime. Happy he who nourishes his soul vrith it, who clings fast to it ! For everj- moment he possesses a changeless consolation, ... he has under a thin shell that kernel of truth which is enough for the vrisest of the wise. ' ' In our Book of Concord the Catechisms have their place only after the Smalcald Articles, owing to the date of their formal acceptance as Confessions of the Church. But in the time of their composition they precede aU the other Symbolical Books, having been written as early as 1529. The general opinion among Lutheran theologians hitherto has been that the Large Catechism was written first, in the spring of 1529 ; and that it was followed, in July or August of that same year, by the Small Cate chism. But recently the question of priority is being disputed in favor of the Small Catechism. No copy of the original edition of Luther's Small Catechism (1529), has thus far been dis covered. It is only known from reprints and from an imperfect Low German translation. In the edition of 1531, for the first time, the exposition of the intioduction to the Lord's Prayer is found, and the questions on Confes sion are inserted. No material change was madein the later editions of the Catechism not even in those of 1539 and 1542, the last that was superintended by Luther himself. The section on the " Office of the Keys " which is found in many later editions of the SmaU Catechism never formed an integral part of Luther's own editions. Through the influence of Superin tendent Knipstro this section was adopted by the Greifswald Synod in 1554. It appears first in the appendix to the Brandenburg-Nuern berg Agenda of 1533, the " Kinderpredigten, " wntten, at the suggestion of Brentius, by the Nuernberg pastors, Geo. Beslerof St. Sebald, and Hector Poemer, of St. Lorenz. The questions (Fragestuecke) for those who intend to come to the Lord's Supper have been included in the Catechism since 1568 (Tetelbach). They are Catechist 79 Catechism Controversy generally ascribed to Luther's friend. Dr. Johann Lange of Erfurt. But they are based on an almost literal reproduction of sentences from a Latin sermon of Luther, Exhortatio ad Sacramentum, of Maundy Thursday (1529). (See Kawerau, in Zeitsch-rift fuer Kirchliche Wissenschaft und Kirchliches Leben (1885), pp. 49. 50.) Luther's Small Catechism has been tianslated into many languages. As early as 1548, Arch bishop Cranmer translated it into English, in his " Catechismus," published by Gualterus Lynne, which is nothing but a translation of the sermons on the Catechism (Kinderpredig ten), attached to the Brandenberg Nuernberg Agenda of 1533, summing up each sermon -with the respective part of Luther's Catechism. (See Dr. H. E. Jacobs, Lutheran Movement in England, pp. 314-322.) The Swedish pastor and missionary John Campanius, who from 1643 to 1648 was preaching the gospel at Tinicum, near Philadelphia, translated it into the lan guage of the Delaware Indians (the ' ' Ameri can-Virginian language"). The translation was published in Stockholm, at the expense of King Charles XL, in 1696, and brought to America in 1697. (See Dr. H. E. Jacobs, His tory ofthe Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United States, p. 82.) In Pennsylvania, Count Zinzendorf caused the first publication of Luther's Small Catechism in German, printed by Christoph Saner (1744). The first edition issued with the approval of the Lutheran pas tors was edited by Peter Brunnholtz, and printed by Benjamin Franklin and J. Boehm in 1749. The first English translation, on American soil, was also made by Peter Brunnholtz, possibly with the assistance of Peter Koch, a prominent Swedish Lutheran in Philadelphia, in 1749. The second was made under the auspices of Provost Wrangel in 1761. In 1816, Rev. Phil. F. Mayer, pastor of St. John's Lutheran Church in Philadelphia, issued an English edition of the Catechism which more than any other de termined the text of the accepted English tianslation. It was carefully revised by Dr. C. F. Schaeffer, and a Committee of the Minis terium of Pennsylvania (C. P. Welden, A. T. Geissenhainer, B. M. Schmucker), in 1854. This translation was adopted by the General Council. A more liberal reproduction of the original is given in Dr. Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, and in the English Catechism of the Synod of Missouri, and the Joint Synod of Ohio, translated by E. Cronenwett and revised by the Columbus faculty. (See Dr. B. M. Schmucker's Articles, on the editions and translations of Luther's Small Catechism, pub lished or used in America, Lutheran Church Re-view, April and July, 1886.) Later on a joint Committee of the General Synod, United Synod of the South, Joint Synod of Ohio, Eng lish Synod of Missouri, and General Council united on a revised English translation, which is given in its final shape, in the Lutheran Churvh Review, January, 1899. A. S. Catechist (Catechet). The Lutheran Church, in her missionary operations, has always and most successfully employed so-caUed catechists. We find them first in the field of Foreign Mis sions where catechists, as a rule, are native assistants and co-workers of the missionaries. As far back as 1706, Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg, the great Lutheran missionary in East India, appointed such catechists, and since then they have everywhere been used in missionary work. Their work is a kind of diaconate, assisting in the public serrice, reading sermons in the ab sence of the missionary, accompanying him on his preaching tours, interpreting his discourses to the native hearers, helping him in his pas toral work, and preparing the way for the sys tematic catechetical instruction of the mission ary, by a plain exposition of the words of the Catechism which they make the natives com mit to their memory and recite. — Henry Mel chior Muehlenberg and his co-laborers found themselves constrained to adopt a similar in stitution for their missionary operations in America. Everywhere they appointed cate chists to assist them in the gathermg and build ing up of Lutheran congregations on this Western Continent. Their position is fully defined in the Constitution of the Pennsylvania Ministerium of 1792. They were formally licensed for their work by resolution of the Ministerium. They had to work under the general supervision of the Ministerium and in particular under that of a neighboring ordained clergyman who was recognized as their in structor. They were permitted to preach, to catechize, to baptize, visit the schools and the sick, attend the funerals, and instruct the cate chumens ; but were not allowed to administer Confirmation or the Lord's Supper. They were expected to attend the Ministerial sessions, but had no right of vote. (See Documentary His tory of the Ministe-riu-m of Penna., p. 251 sq.) As a rule, these catechists were, frequently, at the request of the congregation whom they served, promoted to the position of ordained ministers. A. S. Catechism Controversy in Hanover, in the kingdom of Hanover the excellent Celle Catechism, by Michael Walther, of 1653, had been in general use until the year 1790, when it was replaced by a modem and rationalizing exposition of Luther's Catechism, which, with its use of the Socratic method, found great favor at that time. But after the revival of a more positive Christianity during the first half of the nineteenth century it became more and more objectionable and offensive to the faithful pas tors and members of the Lutheran Church in Hanover. In 1851, in a paper presented to the Lutheran pastoral Conference, at the sug gestion of its president. Dr. Petri, a moderate reconstruction of the Catechism was advocated by Dr. Albert Luehrs, Superintendent in Peine. This reasonable request was fully approved by the Hanover Consistory, and in 1856 a Com mittee was appointed consisting of several Con sistorial Counsellors, school inspectors, super intendents and pastors, to whom was afterwards added a representative of the theological faculty in Goettingen, to consider this important mat ter more fully. The committee unanimously recommended the restoration of the old Celle Catechism of Michael Walther as the official Catechism of the Lutheran Church of Han- Catechismus Sermons 80 Catechization over. A sub-committee was charged vrith pre paring an exposition of the Walther Catechism on the principles which had been agreed upon. The result of their work was, in 1859, submitted to the Consistories and the theological faculty at Goettingen. After all the criticisms and opinions that were offered had been fully con sidered and the whole had been finally revised by a new commission, a royal decree of April 14th, 1862, ordered this Catechism to be intio duced into the Lutheran churches and schools of Hanover. But the liberal and infidel press of the day, influenced chiefly by Archdeacon Baurschmidt (d. 1864), raised such a storm against this sound Lutheran Catechism that popular disturbances took place, especially in the towns, culminating in acts of violence against the clergy and in riots which had to be put down by military force. The government finally desisted from its efforts to restore to the Lutheran people of Hanover that purely Lu theran Catechism. It was republished by Stohl mann, New York, in German, 1873, in English, 1883, and is thus made accessible to our pastors and people, in both languages. A. S. Catechismus Sermons, in the catechetical work of the Lutheran Church, especially of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, regular lectures or sermons ou the Catechism, to be de livered at stated times, held a prominent posi tion. They were generally appointed for week day services, but also for Sunday afternoon, as for instance in Saxony, 1535. They were not meant to take the place of the regular catecheti cal instruction of the young, but were rather for the edification and doctrinal training of the adult members of the Church. Some of the more prominent coUections of such Catechismus sermons are those of Johann Arndt (1620), re published in 1858 ; Christian Scriver, repub lished in 1861 ; Ph. J. Spener, who used to ex plain a part of the catechism, as the introduc tion (Exordium) of his regular Sunday sermon on the gospel. These discourses on the Cate chism were collected into a volume of sermons, caUed Catecliismus-Predigten, republished by L. Volkening, St. Louis, Mo., 1867. In recent times the old good practice of sermons on the Catechism has been re-rived by some of the most gifted and popular preachers of the Lutheran Church in Germany, such as Claus Harms, W. Loehe, Ludvrig Harms, Caspari, Seeberg, Ahl feld, Koegel and others. Dr. Chas. Porterfield Krauth made a beginning in this direction in our English Lutheran Church in America. (See letter to B. M. Schmucker, Feb. 17, 1849, in Dr. Spaeth's Biography of C. P. K., vol. i., p. 184.) A.S. Catechization (Catechetical Instmction, Expositions of the Catechism) . From the very first years of the Reformation movement the Lutheran Church showed the greatest acti-rity in the field of catechization, gi-ving her mem bers, young and old, a thorough and systematic training in the trath of the gospel. No other Christian denomination has ever pro-rided such abundant material for catechetical instraction. Even before Luther's two Catechisms appeared a number of his co-laborers, partly at his request and with his encouragement, undertook the preparation of popular manuals for religious in straction, such as Justus Jonas {Buechlein fuer die Laien und Kinder, 1525, 1528), Urbanus Rhegius {Erklaerung der zwoelf Artikel des Glaubens, 1523), 'Q-agenhagen {Christliche Lehre, 1524) Agricola, and others. These first attempts in this field seem to have been more or less unsat isfactory to Luther. Much more prominent and valuable were the following works : Brentius {Fragestuecke des Christlichen Glaubens 1527), Althamer and Ruerer {Catechism, Onolzbach, 1528), and Lachmann (Catechesis, Heilbronn, 1528). Next to Luther, John Brentius was rec ognized as the greatest catechetical writer of our Church, not only in his Swabian home, but also throughout Northern Germany. He exercised a lasting influence on the later catechetical de velopment, especially in the line of a didactic exposition of the principal parts of the Christian faith. His catechism, in the revised form which he gave to it after the appearance of Luther's classical works, was received into the Wuertem berg Kirchenordnung of 1536. In 155 1 he wrote a fuller exposition of the same, a model of practical, theological and catechetical instruc tion, Catechismus pia et utili explicatione illus- tratus, translated into German by Beyer, pastor in Frankfurt, republished by Schuetz, Leip zig, 185 1. Luther himself laid down the foUovring prin cipal points for the method of catechetical in struction : Catechetical instraction must be at tended to in the family, the school, and the church. The same text and form of words should be retained without unnecessary changes. There ought to be a proper and regular grada tion in the course of instruction, first the text of the principal parts, then the explanation, then the progress from the SmaU to the Large Catechism. The aim of such instraction must be, not simply a knowledge of doctrine, but a personal confession of faith. The Catechism was to be a life-book, a prayer-book. In an Easter sermon of 1533 (Hauspostille) he admon ished his hearers: " Now ye have the gospel pure and free, ye have the Catechism, the Ten Commandments, the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, Baptism and the Holy Sacrament, in a brief and fine explanation. Take good care that fanatics and false teachers shall not come and pervert everything, for I fear that the pure Word may be lost by shameful ingratitude and contempt For my own person I am excused ; for with all diligence to the best of my abiUty I have preached and exhorted, entreated and prayed, so that I stand before God -without blemish, in this matter." In the use and application of the catechetical material during the Reformation era two differ ent tendencies can be distinguished, the practi cal churchly interest, aiming at the develop ment and preservation of personal faith in the members of the Church, and the didactic peda gogical, aiming at the tiaining of the young in Chnstian knowledge and doctrine. The former we find represented in the majority of the best Agenda and Kirchenordnungen of the sixteenth century, after the manner of the Kinderpredig ten in the Brandenburg-Nuernberg Agenda, of Catechization 81 Cellarius I533-. This treatment of the Catechism does not intend that the course of catechization should be completed with the time of the first communion. Instraction and examination in the principal parts of the Christian faith are to be continued and repeated at each communion up to the twentieth year or even to the time of marriage. (See Augsb. Conf., Art. 25.) Thus Christian faith is to grow constantly both in depth and in breadth, and is to become more and more mature in personal consciousness. On the other hand, the pedagogical and didactic inter est predominates in the treatment of the Cate chism, and the principal aim is a proper devel opment of Christian knowledge in the young. This feature of catechetical instraction is par- ticularty represented by the following writers : Erasmus Sarcerius (1537), Lucas Lossius (1541), Nuernberg Catechisin (1549), translated and highly recommended by Melanchthon, ^pinus (1549), Chytrseus (1564), Tetelbach (Gueldenes Kleinod, 1568) . In all these the doctrinal theo logical interest predominates, and some of these expositions were written for pupils of Latin schools and for young pastors and theolo gians. The prosperous free cities of the German Em pire where the Reformation had found such ready entrance distinguished themselves par ticularly by the intelligent and enterprising care which they bestowed on the cause of catechiza tion by the organization of regular catechetical institutes, among them Stiassburg, Frankfurt, Danzig, Magdeburg, Hamburg, Luebeck, Nuern berg (N. Kinderlehrbuechlein, 1628). Towards the seventeenth century, however, a gradual degeneration is to be noticed. The interest in personal living faith -with its confession and ex amination is vanishing. It is supplanted by a purely doctrinal knowledge, a mechanical mem orizing and reciting of the text of the Catechism. The utter rain and desolation which resulted from the Thirty Years' War called for renewed efforts in behalf of the catechetical instraction and religious education of the people. The aim is once more the development of a personal liv ing faith on the basis of the pure objective faith of the Church. The following expositions of the Catechism are most prominent during this period : Gotha Catechism, prepared by order of the pious Duke Ernest (1660) ; C. of Justus Gesenius (1635) ; Quedlinburg C. of Joh. Hoefer (1641), most highly commended by Spener; Danzig C. ( 1648 Abraham Calovius) ; Celle C. (1653, Michael Walther), afterwards famous as the Hanover Catechism which caused the con tioversy of 1862 ; Catechismus-Milch by Dann hauer, the teacher of Spener (1642). A new period in the history of Lutheran cate chization begins -with the Pietism of Spener and his school. In the first place we notice a decided progress in the form of catechization. It is no longer considered sufficient that the young peo ple should be able to recite the words of the Catechism, they must be tiained to understand its meaning and give a satisfactory account of it. Moreover they are taught to prove the doc trine of the Catechism with Scripture passages. It is the aim of Spener, as he expresses it, "to make the knowledge of the head a matter of 6 theheart." Personal feelings and experiences are now being stiongly, and, in the later devel opment of Pietism, unduly emphasized at the expense of sound and solid indoctrination. Conversion and Confirmation are now the aim of catechetical instiuction. The latter becomes now the universal practice, which had by no means been the case in the early history of Lutheranism. The principles advocated by Spener were most fully introduced into the practical life of the Church by A. H. Francke in the Orphans' Home at Halle where he or ganized a famous catechetical seminary. The whole theological and religious life of Germany was made to feel the strong impulses that went forth from that institution. The period of Pietism was followed by that of Rationalism which showed its disastrous and destiuctive influences also in the field of cate chetical instruction. The proper method of formulating the question is now considered the main thing for the Catechet. Dinter developed it into an artificial system. But Mosheim al ready had paved the way for it by recommend ing the intioduction of the Socratic method. The human mind was now considered as the source of all knowledge, not excluding religion. Thus the positive contents of revealed Chris tianity were radically set aside. ' ' Lutheran ' ' teachers complained that the introduction of Luther's Small Catechism had been the cause of the decline of practical Christianity ! The revival of a positive faith and a churchly life^ in the nineteenth century, produced many andl precious fruits in the field of catechization. On. the theory of Catechetics valuable works were- written by Palmer, Th. Harnack, R. Kuebel, and the most learned and comprehensive of all, by Zezschwitz. Practical expositions of the: Catechism were prepared by Nissen, Luehrs,. Caspari, Bachmann, Loehe, Seeberg and many- others. At the same time some of the best ex positions of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen tury were republished, such as Dietrich, Walther, Nuernberg K. L. Buechlein, Pontoppidan and others. In the English language thus far, very little has been done in the field of catechetical literature. It is greatly to be regretted that Dr. C. P. Krauth's plan of writing a " Popular Theology " based on the Small Catechism has never been carried out. A very full list of "Explanations of Luther's Small Catechism prepared for use in America," by Dr. B. M. Schmucker is found in the Lutheran Church Review of July 1886. A. S. Catenhusen, Chas. Fr. Wm., b. Aug. 24, 1792, in Ratzeburg, Lauenburg, studied phil ology, but was moved by reading Luther's com mentary on Galatians to become a theologian. 1816 he became pastor at Lauenburg, 1831 in Utersen, 1834 Supt. of Lauenburg. The princi ple of his work was return to Luther. The whole church actirity of Lauenburg was made consistently Lutheran. D. April 24, 1853. Cellarius, John, b. 1496, in Kunstadt, Fran- ken, Hebrew Prof, at Heidelberg 1518, 1519 in Leipzig, 1522 in Wittenberg, 1529 preacher in Frankfurt, where he introduced the proper ad ministration of the Lord's Supper in German. Cellarius 83 Ceremonies Unceasing in the maintenance of the Luth. doctrine, he d. April 21, 1542. Cellarius, Martin, really Borrhaus, b. 1497, in Stuttgart, a friend of Melanchthon (1521), graduated under Eck, after a dispute left him, and moved by Luther's On the Liberty of a Christian Man he became evangelical. Again he left Luther for the fanatic Stiibner, roved through South Germany, came to Prussia, was kept under surveillance for his theological errors, conferred with Luther (1526), and, after various changes from wealth to poverty, d. 1564. He accepted anabaptistic theories, predestination in the Reformed interpretation, and was an un settled individualist. Census Eeports. The Decennial Reports made by authority of the United States, have been giving increased attention to religious organizations. Those of the census of 1890 are particularly full and complete. Dr. Henry K. Carroll, the Religious Editor of the New York Independent was charged with the collection of the data, and the editing of the book. The report is illustrated with numerous charts, dia grams and maps, most of them colored, exhibit ing at a glance the proportion of denominations. The only defect of which Lutherans complain is that organizations are counted as denomina tions, while the Lutheran Church makes unity in the faith the determining factor. By the application of this principle, the Lutherans are reckoned as comprising no less than seven teen denominations, although it is difficult to see upon what principle the utterly isolated in dependent churches are counted as one denom ination. The statistics gathered are those of number of organizations, church edifices, halls, seating-capacity, etc., value of property, com municants and ministers. These are given by States, cities and counties. Each denomination receives special treatment. A brief historical sketch introduces the tables. Following this, the chapter on the Lutheran Church gives, first, statistics by languages, viz. : English, 198,997. Norwegian, 190,154. German, 461,706. Danish, 13,674. German-English, 232,512. Icelandic, 1991. Swedish, 88,700. Finnish, 1385. This is followed by statistics by States and Territories, by General Bodies and by Synods. The number of congregations and communi cants in every county belonging to each Synod, is noted. Under the head of each particular State, a summary of these Statistics will be found in this volume. Central Illinois Synod. See Synods (I). Central Penna. Synod. See Synods (I). Centuries, Magdeburg, a work in thirteen folio volumes, elaborately defending the histo rical continuity of Lutheranism. Each volume treats of a century, and is di-rided into sixteen sections, on the General History, the Extent and Propagation, the Persecutions, Doctrine, Heresies, Rites and Ceremonies, Government, Schisms, Councils, Lives of Bishops and Teach ers, Heretics, Martyrs, etc., of the Church. Matthias Flacius was the chief editor, assisted by Wigand, Judex, Faber, Corvinus and Holz- huter, with a well-organized corps of clerks. In spite of its Procrustean methods, it laid the foundations of Protestant Church History. Published at Basle, 1559-74, it bears the name of Magdeburg, because projected there. The Annals of Baronius ( 1508-1607) attempt an an swer on the Roman Catholic side. Ceremonies in the Lutheran Church. See Agenda ; Consensus of Agenda ; Liturgy ; Church Usages ; Administration of the Sacraments. See also Horn, Luther on ihe Principles and Order of Christian Worship ; Jacoby, Liturgik der Refor-matoren. Luther struck the keynote in his essay, Von der Ord- nung des Gotiesdiensies der Gemeinde (see Luth. Ch. Rev. v. 59): "The worship of God now in use has a fine Christian origin, just as the office of the ministry has. But as the latter has been corrupted by spiritual tyrants, so has the worship of God been corrupted by hypocrites. And as we do not destroy the office of the ministry, but wish to bring it to its proper function, so it is not our intention to remove the worship of God. There have been three great abuses in our worship : first, God's Word has been silenced, and they have done no more than read and sing. This is the worst of all abuses. The second, that since God's Word has been silenced, so many un christian fables and lies have been introduced in the legends, songs and sermons, that it is honible to think of them. The third is, that such worship has been considered a meritorious work, deserving God's grace and salvation. Faith has vanished." In his For-mula Missce he laid down the principles, that changes must be gradual, the old service must be the basis of the new, the pure parts of it should be retained, the expiatory sacnfice in the mass must give place to the Sacrament, and proving all things, we must "hold fast to that which is good." These principles were observed by the Lutheran Reformation, in the confessions, the Church Orders of that period, and the practice and arguments of all our teachers. In the year 1548 Charles V., having tiiumphed in war, en deavored to enforce upon the Lutheran states a reformation of his own, and in the distress of the times Melanchthon and others were ready to yield to the utmost in the matter of ceremon ies if only an acknowledgment of trae doctrine would be left them. The strict Lutherans, how- ever,_ under the leadership especially of Flacius Illyricus, argued that such a thing was no longer indifferent (an "adiaphoron ") when imposed upon the conscience. The solution of this Adi aphoristic Controversy is thus stated in the For mula of Concord : "Ceremonies neither com manded nor forbidden in God's Word, but in stituted alone for the sake of propriety and good order, are not even a part of the service of God. The Church of every time and place has the power to change such ceremonies, as may be most useful and edifying. In time of persecu tion, we should not yield to the enemies in re gard to such adiaphora. No church should con demn another because one has less or more ex ternal ceremonies not commanded by God than the other, if otherwise there is agreement among them m doctrine and in the right use of the Ceremonies Charters Holy Sacraments." (See also Preface to the Common Service.) A notion of the extent to which the Lutheran Church retained and purified olden ceremonies may be got from the following description of its usages so late as the eighteenth century (Ro- choU, Gesch. d. ev. Kirche in Deuischland, 300) : "According to the Bmnsvrick Agenda of Duke Augustus, 1657, the pastors went to the altar clad in alb, chasuble, and mass vestments. Sacris tans and elders held a fair cloth before the altar during the administration, that no particle of the consecrated Elements should fall to the ground. The altar was adorned with costly stuffs, -with lights and fresh flowers. ' I would, ' cries Scriver, ' that one could make the whole church, and especially the altar, look like a little Heaven. ' Until the nineteenth century the min isters at St. Sebald in Nuremberg wore chasubles at the administration of the Holy Supper. The alb was generally worn over the Talar, even in the sermon. Herberger calls it his natural Sae- tuch, from which he scatters the seed of the Di-rine Word. The alb was worn also in the Westphalian cities. At Closter-Liine in 1608 the minister wore a garment of yellow gauze, and over it a chasuble on which was worked in needlework a ' Passion.' The inmates and ab besses, like Dorothea von Medine, were seen in the costume of the Benedictines. The ' Lu theran monks ' of Laccuna until 163 1 wore the white gown and black scapular of the Cistercian order. Still later they sang the Latin Hours. The beneficiaries of the Augustinian Stift at Tiibingen wore the black cowl until 1750. The churches stood open all day. When the Nurem berg Council ordered that they should be closed except at the hours of service, it aroused such an uproar in the city that the council had to yield. In 1619 all the churches in the Arch bishopric of Magdeburg were stiictly charged to pray the Litany. In Magdeburg itself -there were in 1692 four Readers, two for the Epistle, two for the Gospel. The Nicene Creed was in toned by a Deacon in Latin. Then the sermon and general prayer ha-ring been said, the Deacon ¦with two Readers and two Vicars, clad in Mass garment and gowns, went in procession to the altar, bearing the Cup, the Bread, and what pertained to the preparation for the Holy Sup per, and the Ciister took a silver censer with glowing coals and incense, and incensed them, while another {the Citharmeister ?) clothed and arranged the altar, lit two wax candles, and placed on it two books bound in red velvet and sUver containing the Latin Epistles and Gospels set to notes, and on festivals set on the altar also a silver or golden cmcifix, according to the order of George of Anhalt in 1542. The Preface and Sanctus were in Latin. After the Preface the communicants were summoned into the choir by a beU hanging there. The Nuremberg Offdum Sacrum (1664) bids all the ministers be present in their stalls, in white chorrocken, standing or sitting, to sing after the Fruhmesse, ' Lord keep us steadfast.' The minister said his prayer kneeUng with his face to the altar, with a dea con kneeling on either side. He arranged the wafers on the paten in piles of ten, like the shew- bread, whUe the Introit and Kyrie were sung. The responses by the choir were in Latin. Up to 1690 the Latin service still was said at St. Sebald's and St. Lawrence's. Throughout this (eighteenth) century we find daily Matins and Vespers, -with the singing of German psalms. There were sermons on weekdays. There were no churches in which they did not kneel in con fession and at the Consecration of the Ele ments." These ceremonies yielded finally to the attacks of the Reformed and the influence of Rationalism. — In our own age we feel an in creased respect for the dignified worship of the Reformers. But in the work of liturgical amendment their principles must be respected. Only that should be retained in the Church or restored to the Church which serves to edifica tion. The clear proclamation of the Word of God and the application of it should be an aim, and all ceremonies, whether venerable or recent, which hinder it, should be done away. E. T. H. Chant. See Gregorian Chant. Charleston, Lutheran Church in. in May, 1734, John Martin Bolzius, pastor of the exiled Salzburgers, administered the Holy Communion to a few German Lutherans whom he had found here in March, when touching at this port en route for Georgia. In 1742, Henry Melchoir Muhlenberg landed in Charleston, and in October of that year gathered the children of the German residents for instruction in the Catechism, while he preached to old and young on the Sundays. This seed-corn has yielded the following corn in the ear. Name. Pastor. Commu nicant Member ship. Value of Church Property. St John's (1734)... St. Matthew's (Ger man, 1840) St. Andrew's (iS66) John -W. Horine. . . Wm. A.C. Mueller. Robert C. Holland, D D 400 530 470300 JS4,ooo 00 50,000 00 25,000 00 St. Johannes (Ger man, 1877) CarlBoldt 12,000 00 1700 J. W. H. Charters in Various States. I. Incorpo rated and Unincorporated Churches. In corporation means, as the word implies, the for mation of an organized church into a body politic, or body corporate, i. e., an ariifidal in contradistinction of a natural person created by law. Before such incorporation a church is simply an association similar to a partnership, formed for certain ends. The State certainly does also hold cognizance of such an unincor porated church in a certain manner, not indeed as a person, for as such it does not exist, but as individuals, as natural persons who are individ ually held to fulfil the terms of the contracts made by such unincorporated church. The members are personaUy and individually liable for the debts of the church, for the pastor's salary and all other obligations entered into. And Charters 84 Charters they will not be released from this obligation by withdrawing or resigning from the organization. They may have -withdrawn or resigned, but they are stiU obliged to pay their share of the obli gations entered into by the association whilst they were members. This holds good also in the case of unincorporated beneficial societies. Such an association can, of course, hold no real estate. If such is purchased it must be done in the name of indiriduals. When such an organ ized church, however, is incorporated a "per son " is created by law, and this person, the incorporated church, may own property, and is alone liable for all its obligations, and the indi ridual members are no longer responsible for its debts. — II. Incorporation oe Churches. The manner and mode of incorporating churches varies greatly in the different States. In some States, as in Pennsylvania, upon application to the court and submitting the principal articles of the constitution, a charter is granted. Some times the application is made directly to the Legislature, and a church is incorporated by special act. This, however, is becoming the exception. The more usual way and the one pursued in most states is the incorporation under general laws. In Kansas a majority vote of all the members of the congregation is necessary. The number of members must not be less than five, a name is selected and the number of trus tees determined, which must be not less than three. A document is drawn up, stating these facts, and maintaining as the purpose of such organization the worship of God in accordance with the confessions of the Lutheran Church, also naming the place of residence of most members, as weU as the number of years during which the church is to continue, viz. , 25 or loo years. This document must be signed by at least five members, acknowledged and sent to the Secretary of State, who will return a certifi cate of incorporation. — In Minnesota there are several methods. The most common one is : Any congr. consisting of not less than eight members ma)' be incorporated and in the following manner : A constitution must be adopted, stating name, purpose, plan of oper ation, location, conditions of membership, elec tions, filling of vacancies and the manner of government. This constitution must be signed and acknowledged by eight members, recorded in the county clerk's office, and deposited -with the Secretary of State. — In Nebraska a congr. may resolve at any meeting to incorporate. A majority of all the voting members must, how ever, be in attendance. A majority vote is then sufficient. Not less than three trustees must be chosen for a specified term of years. Also a. clerk must be elected. The name of the con gregation is agreed upon. The clerk prepares a careful minute of this meeting, attaches his certificate to it that the minute is a correct record of the proceedings, and records it in the county in which the meeting was held. — In New York there are two ways of incorporating Lutheran churches, viz. : According to the old law, now known as Art. V. of chap. 723 of the Laws of 1895. But incorporation under this Art. is not desirable, as the State not only pre scribes who is a voter, and thus seriously inter feres with the rights of the church, but creates also, besides the church council, a second board of officers, to whom the secular affairs of the church are intrasted, and denies to the church council competency of administering the tem poral affairs. Incorporation under Art. IV. of the above-mentioned act is, however, com mended, and churches incorporated under Art. V. may at any time change to Art. IV. Pro ceedings under Art. IV. for churches not already incorporated are : Call of congr. meeting and announcement of object of meeting at least two Sundays before, a copy of said notice signed by six members, must be posted conspicuously on the outside of the main entiance of the place of worship, meeting (and at least six members must be in attendance) resolves to incorporate under Art. IV. and gives the church a name. A certificate is then drawn up, reciting the facts just stated, the place of worship, the name of the minister, the elders and deacons, and the date of annual election. This is acknowledged by the ministers, elders and deacons and recorded in the office of the county clerk, whereupon these spiritual officers are also the board of trustees, and authorized to attend to the temporal affairs. — In Ohio incorporation is effected in the follow ing manner : At least five persons, three of whom must be citizens of Ohio, adopt a constitution which must state the name of the church, loca tion of place of worship and object, acknowl edge and present it to the clerk of the Court of Common Pleas, who certifies to its character, and forwards it to the Secretary of State, who in turn sends the congregation a certified copy. — In Texas a congregation may resolve at any regular meeting to become incorporated, select a name and elect trustees. The next step is the drafting of a charter which must contain : i. Name of corporation ; 2. Object ; 3. Location of place of worship ; 4. Number of years of life of corporation ; 5. Number, names and residences of trustees elected ; 6. Amount of real and per sonal property of the congregation. This docu ment must be signed by three members, two of whom, residents of the State of Texas, acknowl edged and tiansmitted to the Sec'y of State, who returns a copy to the congregation. — In Wisconsin the mode of procedure is : the three principal officers of the organized congregation, to wit : the president, secretary and treasurer, present to the judge of the Circuit Court of the county a petition for incorporation accom panied by an English tianslation of the consti tution. If the court grant the petition the con gregation is incorporated. This mode, which is more expensive than that pursued in most other States, is also generally that followed in Penn sylvania. — III. Churches Bound by their Charters. Whilst in States where churches may be incorporated under general laws they are at liberty to change their constitution at wiU, provided the confessional basis and general char acter of the church is not disturbed, churches incorporated by means of a charter granted by the court to a great extent lose the character of free churches, and are subject to the provis ions of the charter. If the charter says that the language of the church shaU forever be the German, or that the church shall be connected Charters 85 Charters with a certain synod, the congregation cannot changethat provision by any act of its own, be the majority ever so large. But it may pursue the same course pointed out in originally secur ing the charter and petition the court for leave to intioduce services in some other language or join some other synod. This matter is fully set forth among others in the Leechburg, Pa., church case (8i Pa. Rep. 183 ff .),. where the charter had been amended by the court so as to require the pastor to belong to a certain synod. Subsequently a large majority caUed a pastor who was not a member of that synod. The minority withdrew with their pastor who was ho-wever a member of the synod mentioned in the charter and held services elsewhere, relin quishing for a time the church building to the majority. The minority brought suit, petition ing court to be put in possession of the church property held by the majority. The Supreme Court of Pa. decided that the petition be granted, as no majority could override the charter. (For cases see Courts, Luth. Church in.) — IV. Free Churches and Churches Not Free. A free church is, (i) a church which is not bound by act of incorporation or charter to a particular synod, language or to anything apart from its general character as an Evangel. Lutheran Church and the confessions of said Church ; and (2) a church which has not accepted land or money or any other valuable thing for any consideration or upon any condition whatso ever. In such a church the majority is, under its constitution, absolutely free to connect itself with any synod and -withdraw from such con nection at any time. It is not an article of faith nor an essential matter in church govern ment in the Lutheran Church, that a Lutheran congregation must be in connection with some synod as a governing body. This is, however, the case in the Presbyterian, the Methodist, the Episcopal, Roman Catholic and a few other churches. In these communions there is not one really free church. They are subject to the articles of church polity of these denominations, and the courts justiy support them in this. But it is a great mistake to conclude that, be cause courts indorse the action of bishops, presbyteries and annual conferences in recog nizing a minority in a congregation as the right ful congregation, the courts vrill also decree that, in a Lutheran congregation, the church property belongs to a minority, if such congr. be a free church, because conference and synod have voted that in a given case the minority is the rightful congregation as it adhered to the principles and usages of some particular synod, whilst the majority did not. There are many cases of this character on record, notably in Pennsylvania, and they have been decided invariably in favor of the majority, the resolu tions of conferences and synods notvrithstand- ing. The courts have so far not recognized any essential differences in doctrine between the various synodical organizations and general bodies of the Lutheran Church in this country. They recognize differences in teaching, practice and usages ; but they do not attach such im portance to them as to make them a test of Lutheranism. As long as a synod accepts in some manner the more fundamental confessions of the Lutheran Church, if we may call them such, viz. the Augsburg Confession and Luther's Smaller Catechism, the courts wiU not adjudge it unlutheran. If, however, a synod repudiate essential parts of these confessions as the Franckean Synod did by publishing a new confession of faith, materially differing from the Augsburg Confession, the courts will inter fere, as they did in this case, and declare that such synod had forfeited all title and claim to the name Lutheran. Hence, all efforts to secure a decree of court giving possession to a minority which remains faithful to conserva tive Lutheranism and dispossessing a majority which joined a more liberal synod of Lutheran name, have failed and must fail, provided, of course, that such church was a free church, and not bound to any synod by either deed, gift, or charter, and that such synod at least formally accept the Confessions of the Lutheran Church. If there is a constitutional provision from beginning requiring the church to be a member of a certain synod, and if the property is acquired under that pro-rision and vrith that intention, such provision may create a trast, and it may be claimed that the money for pur chasing ground and building the church was given for a specific purpose, and that the courts are bound to enforce the trust. Still, another view may be taken of the situation. If this constitutional prorision was not made a part of the charter, and no money contiibuted vrith the expressed intention that it should be used for building a church which forever should be in connection with a certain synod, then, it may be claimed, there is no trast, and no church members can bind their successors by any con stitutional provision. Constitutions are sub ject to change, and a majority should always be free to make such amendments and alterations as in the nature of the case preserve the orig inal character of the organization. If, how ever, a church has accepted property under certain conditions, the courts will hold the church to the fulfilment of these conditions. And if these conditions are that the church shall belong to a certain synod, and an over whelming majority withdraws and joins an other synod, the courts will promptly declare that the small minority is the proper church body and that the large majority are seceders from it. The same would be done if such pro vision were contained in the charter granted or amended by the court. The proper remedy in the former case is to seek relief from the legislature, and in the latter to petition the court.— V. Various Matters. It is essential that proper notice be given of aU meetings at which important business is to be transacted. A congreg. meeting ought to be published on two Sundays, and the object of the meeting clearly stated. — At the meeting the usual par- lia-mentary rules and the constitutional provi sions must be carefully observed, and no business transacted for which the meeting was not called. If the meeting is for the pur pose of hearing amendments to the constitution "read," they cannot be "adopted," at that meeting, however unanimous the sentiment Chemnitz Chicag^o may be. — The trustees are the agents or execu tive officers of the church. They are responsi ble to the congregation, and cannot go beyond their instructions. Formerly it was different in many States. Their relation to the church was similar to that of bank directors to the stockholders. There are many old decisions of this character, but they are no longer con sidered good law. Some States have now ex press provisions subjecting the trustees to the -will of the congregation. — A call, if not limited in time, is an absolute contract for life, unless the pastor teach contrary to the Word of God and the Confessions of the Lutheran Church, or be adjudged by his conference or synod as unworthy of the office of the ministry. Any change in the amount of salary must be vrith mutual consent. Although in most States there is no law declaring the transaction of business by a congregation on Sunday iUegal, still it is advisable to have all business matters transacted on other than legal holidays. If contracts are made, trustees elected, etc., on Sunday, complications might arise which may prove exceedingly unpleasant. A short time ago a court in New York refused to grant a char ter to a congregation which proposed to hold its corporate meetings on Sunday. The judge declared such to be "against public policy." — All contracts made between the church and a second party ought to bear the signature of the trustees as the legal representatives of the cor poration. Hence, the call to a pastor-elect should be signed by them. J. N. Chemnitz, Martin, one of the most eminent theologians of the Lutheran Church, b. in Treu- enbrietzen, Brandenburg, Nov. 9th, 1522, of a noble family that had become impoverished. His early education was much interrupted by the death of his father, the failure of means and the necessity of resorting to a trade for support. He studied for a while at Magdeburg, and after earning the means for his support for a brief period as a student, attended first the University of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and then Wittenberg, where, however, his studies were mathematical and astiological, and, although he heard Luther preach and lecture, he was not his pupil. The Schmalkald war drove him from Wittenberg. In 1547 he visited his cousin. Dr. George Sa binus, Melanchthon's son-in-law, and Professor at Konigsberg, through whose kind offices he ob tained a start for his future career. His theo logical studies were prosecuted privately, while he was tutor and private teacher. In 1550, he became librarian to Duke Albrecht, a situation that gave him both the leisure and the appa ratus for theological researches, while the friend ship of Melanchthon that he had gained through Sabinus furnished him with the most needed advice. The Osiandrian contioversy caused him to leave Konig.sberg, and in 1553 to make Wit tenberg his home, where he began to lecture on Melanchthon's Loci Communes, Melanchthon himself sometimes being present. In December, 1554, te became coadjutor to Morlin, Superin tendent of Bruns-wick. Among his duties was that of delivering theological lectures weekly in the Latin language, thus enabling him to con tinue the course he had begun in Wittenberg. In 1567, he became superintendent, and was in stalled by Bugenhagen, the reorganizer of the Bransvrick Church. The closing years of his life were clouded by the enmity of the Duke of Branswick, which had been excited by the fidelity of Chemnitz in protesting against his distribution of church livings in the interest of his sons. In 1584, he retired from his office, and d. April 8th, 1586. Chemnitz is distinguished as a theologian for his clear and transparent style, his mild but de cided spirit, and his sound and discriminating judgment. To the discussion of every subject, he brings the mature fruit of most extensive reading. He belonged to the school of the stricter Lutherans, at the same time always re taining the highest respect for his preceptor, Melanchthon. His theological lectures are in complete, and were not published until after his death. {Loci Theologici, Frankfort, 1591.) His most distinguished work was his criticism of the decrees of the Council of Trent, a book which later discus.sions have not rendered ob solete {Examen Condlii Tridentini, Greifs wald, 1565-73, and often reprinted). The frait of his exegetical studies and predominantly practical character of his theology appear in the Harmony of the Gospel, which, however, is a commentary on the Harmony, begun by Chemnitz, continued by Leyser and completed by John Gerhard. His contribution to the Formula of Concord (see Concord, Formula of) was most important. H.E.J. Chemnitz Conference, founded 1878 in the Saxon city of Chemnitz, -ivhere it generally meets annually, by such Saxon Lutherans as empha size the full Lutheran Confessions as scriptural and normative for church life, and oppose the Prussian union, Lutheran separatists, the sects, and the Protestantenverein. Chicago, Lutheran Church in. The be ginnings of the Lutheran Church in Chicago date back a little more than half a century. In 1844 Norwegian services were held here. In 1846 the German work was organized under the care of the Missouri Synod. In 1853 the Swedes organized their parent congregation, Immanuel. The English work was begun in 1856, the Dan ish about fifteen years later, and more recently small Finnish and Icelandic congregations were organized. Although the General Synod has a smaU Theological Seminary, and the Iowa Synod and the joint Synod of Ohio are represented, the German work is mainly Missourian, -with thirty congregations and 43,408 souls in 1896. The Swedish Augustana has some fifteen con gregations, mostly large, and valuable church property. These bodies, as well as the Nor wegian, Danish and English Synods at work here, own, or are interested in, extensive hos pitals and homes for the aged ; while all of them, and many synods besides whose territory lies remote from Chicago, have representatives in the General Council's Theological Seminary. Chicago has ever been a difficult field for the planting of the seed of a pure gospel, and pio neers might be named m each of the great Lutheran bodies who were abundant in labors and sacrifices. The English work has been Chicago 87 Cliiliasm peculiarly trying in this great centie of Ration alism .and Materialism, and here the name of the late Rev. Dr. W. A. Passavant must be mentioned as of one whose unceasing efforts for the future are even now coming to the day of their realization. The well-equipped and efficient hospital that now bears his name and the seminary that stands on the ground that he secured for it are increasing in strength and usefulness. The field for the Lutheran Church in Chicago is a vast one indeed. The number of congrega tions is ninety, of which twelve are wholly Eng lish. The barriers of language, nationality and synodical division still stand and they are high. W. A. S. Chicago Seminary. See Seminaries. Chicago SjTiod. See Synods II. Chiliasm, a vague theological term, referring to the 1,000 years of Rev. 20 : 4, 5. It is em ployed to designate certain doctrines respecting the future of the kingdom of God on earth, the personal coming again of the Lord Jesus, the millennium, and the final consummation. It is frequently used as an opprobrious term, denoting errors to be condemned and rejected ; but what is included or excluded is not clearly defined, and, on that, opinions greatly vary. That there have been teachings and beliefs put forth, and usually called Chiliasm, which are heretical and subversive of the true gospel, there can be no question. That Jesus and his apostles, as well as the great body of primitive Christians, held and taught what some call Chiliasm, or Millennarianism can as readily be substantiated. And that there are various open questions touching these eschatological particu lars on which the final word has not yet been spoken, and which may be considered Chilias tic, must likevrise be admitted. On the general subject, the following may be said : I. There is a crass Chiliasm, which contem plates the coming of Christ to establish an earthly kingdom, in which to reign with his saints over all the world for a thousand years, exterminate the wicked, supersede all other gov ernments, and award to his followers great honors and all sorts of bodily pleasures and de lights. Such opinions were entertained among the Jews, and favored more or less by some early Christians. Concerning these ideas St. Augus tine said, they might be tolerated, not-withstand ing the objections to them, were it supposed that the saints would derive spiritual enjoyments from the lord's presence ; but as immoderate carnal feasting and boundless indulgence in meat and drink is what is talked of, on no prin ciple can those things be believed, except by the carnally minded, who for beliering such things are called Chiliasts. The heretic Cerinthus is said to have been of this mind, as were the Miiuster prophets in the time of the Reforma tion, and subsequently the fifth monarchy fa natics in England. These are the opinions noted and condemned in the Augsburg Confession, Art. XVIL, and repudiated by the whole Lu theran Church. II. There is also a subtle Chiliasm, consisting of various shades, but the chief feature of which is, the expectation of a universal blooming time and glory for the Church on this side of the resurrection and the final consummation ; — a time when the whole world will be converted to Christ, the nations be Christian, the highest good, beautiful and true receive crowning reali zation, and peace and righteousness be estab lished from the rivers to the ends of the earth. This golden age, on this side of the judgment, is expected to be brought about by the gifts and evangelistic endeavors of the Church, the pro gress of knowledge, culture and civilization, the enlarged outpouring of the Spirit of God, and the triumph of truth, liberty and union. And this intermediary period of blessedness is regarded as the fulfilment of what is written concerning the Millennium in the Apocalypse, and of the spirit of the prophecies in gen eral. This was the idea of Spener, Martensen, and some other Lutheran theologians, which has become largely infused into the popular religious literature of the present day. It is claimed that this view of things is altogether reasonable and not unorthodox ; but it has not been left altogether unchallenged. The arguments urged against it are : ( i ) that it plays sad havoc with those exegetical princi ples on which the Lutheran Church rests all her doctrines ; namely, that the literal, historico- grammatical sense is the sensus capitalis, legiti- mus, genuinus, verus, solidus ; and that it is sacrilegious to give to the divine Word, without clear reason from Scripture and express intima tions in the Scripture, any other than its natural signification ; (2) that it is totally repudiated and condemned by the leading Lutheran theo logians ; for example, Luther, Walch, vol. xi. cols. 1082-83 ; Melanchthon, Corp. Ref. vol. xxvi. p. 361 ; John Conrad Goebel, Die XXI. Art. Aug. Conf. in Predigten erklart, pp. 1256- 59 ; Quenstedt, IV. 649 ; (3 ) that it cannot be construed consistentiy with the Symbolical Books, Arts. XVII. and XXIII. of Augsburg Confession ; Chap. XI., Art. XXIII. of the Apology, or the conclusion of Preface to the Smalcald Articles ; (4) that it comes athwart many very important passages of holy Scripture which speak of the course and end of the present dispensation and of "the last times," the times that usher in the day of judgment, such as Matt. 13 : 24-39 \ 24 : 37-39 ; 2 Thess. 2 : 3-12 ; i Tim. 4 : 1-3 ; 2 Tim. 3 ; 1-13 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 2-5 ; Luke 18:8; Rev. 13. Nevertheless some worthy men have held it, and laid stress upon it, without hav ing had their orthodoxy called in question. Having been sound on the distinctive doctrines of the Church, their Chiliasm was for the most part ignored. III. The same is the case with regard to other questions involved, on which differences of opinion and belief exist. Among these may be noted : — Whether the Second Coming of Christ is so far to resemble the first, as to extend over a period of time, with different stages and manifestations ; — Whether his Coming for his saints (Luke 17 : 30-37 ; i Thess. 4 : 13-18) is anterior to his Coming with his saints (Jude 14, 15; Rev. 19: 11-16); — Whether the resur rection is twofold, first an eclectic resurrection of saints only, and at a much later period a Chiliasm Choral general resurrection of the rest of the dead (Luke 14 : 14; Phil. 3 : ii ; Rev. 20 : 4, 5); — Whether the judgment is one grand assize, con fined to one ordinary day, and for all that have lived up to that time (i Pet. 4 : 17) , or a series of separate administrations extending through an indefinite period, and affecting different classes, at different times, in different ways ; — Whether the judgment of the living is different from that of tiie dead, or that of the saints from that of the wicked ; — Whether the earth as a planet is to be annihilated, or regenerated and perpetuated as the dwelling-place of generations of some portion of redeemed and righteous humanity (2 Pet. 3 : 13 ; Rev. 21 : i); — Whether or not there shall be a restoration of Israel, and of the ancient Theocracy in some form under Christ (Rom. 11 : and Rev. 7 and 14) ; — Whether there is to be one final and personal Antichrist, "the man of sin," in whom all anti christian elements will become embodied in a veritable incarnation of hell (2 Thess. 2 : 8-1 1 ; Rev. 13), or consist only of such systems of Popery, Mohammedanism and anarchistic infidelity, as are at present to be found on earth. These, and other like questions touch ing the termination and outcome of the pres ent dispensation, the Church as such has never fully examined or formally decided, although they are well deserving the careful study of all believers. J. A. S. {Genl. Council). Chiliasm or Millennarianism, so caUed from the thousand years mentioned in Rev. 20 : 2-4, is the expectation of halcyon times, of a sabbath of peaceful and blissful security and prosperity for the Church on earth before the last advent of Christ. In the later Jewish Church expectations of a temporal Messianic kingdom of glory were based upon misinterpre tations of prophecy, and even the disciples of Christ were hoodwinked by such dreams (Luke 24: 21). In the early days of Christianity Chiliastic ideas were entertained not only by Cerinth and the Montanists, but also by such men as Justin, Irenseus, Lactantius ; but Chili asm was never a generally accepted tenet in the Church. It was combated by the Alexandrian theologians, Eusebius, Jerome, Augustine, etc. In the middle ages Chiliasm was cultivated by various fanatics and their sects, in the age of the Reformation by Anabaptists and other en thusiasts, later by the Weigelians, Labadists, Quakers and many Pietists,the Berlenburg Bible, etc. The modern era of Chiliasm was inaugu rated by Bengel and his apocalyptic chronology, and modern theology is largely permeated by millennarian notions in many and varying forms and proportions. The different types of Chiliasm, properly so called, while the same in principle, _ vary as to the character of the as sumed millennium. While the grosser forms are those which picture the future as an era of sensual pleasure and luxury, the more subtle forms look forward to enjoyments of a more spiritual nature, but also include the expectation of a visible appearance of Christ on earth before his last advent, a resurrection of the martyrs and other saints before the quickening of all the dead, a general conversion of the Jews, etc. All these forms of ChiUasm are incompatible with scriptural ecclesiology and eschatology, es pecially vrith such texts as John 5 : 28 ; i Thess. 4 : 13-17 ; Hebr. 9 : 28 ; 2 Tim. 4:8;' Matt 25 : 31-46 ; I Cor. 15 : 22-24, 52 ; Mark 13 : 32 ; Matt. 24 : 36, 42 ; Luke 12 : 46 ; i Pet. 4:7; 2 Pet. 3 : 12 ; i John 2, 18 ; Luke 18 : 8 ; with the XVIIth article of the Augsburg Confession, and vrith the principle that Christian hope niust be based on the clear and explicit word of Scripture. The chief dangers with which ChUi- asm threatens Christian faith and life Ue in its tendency to engender carnal security, to lift Christian faith from its firm foundation, the written Word, and to divert Christian hope from its proper aim, the kingdom of glory in heaven. What has been termed subtle Chiliasm by Pfeiffer, etc., and distinguished from the types above described, as, for example, Spener's hope for better times in the Church, while also without foundation in Scripture and dangerous, is not heretical and only improperly called Chiliasm. A. L. G. {Missouri). Choir. I. That part a church east of the nave and raised several steps above it in which the altar is placed, and where the minister con ducts the service : the chancel. 2. A body of singers who perform and lead the music of the service. Over against the usage of the Church of Rome Luther restored to the people the right of liturgi cal response, and gave them hymns and tunes for congregational use. By doing so, he did not mean to drive the choir from the church and thus banish the higher forms of artistic music from the service. It is, however, altogether in conflict with the Lutheran conception of wor ship to assign to the choir an exclusive and in dependent place over and above the congrega tion. Its functions are not autocratic, but co operative. It may lead and support, but it must never rale. It may alternate with the congre gation, but it must never take the place of the congregation to the total exclusion of the latter throughout an entire service. To beautify and enrich the service, certain parts of it may indeed be given a more elaborate musical setting for the choir to sing, either as a harmonic accompani ment of the congregational song, or while the congregation for a short time remains passive ; but these must always stand in organic unity vrith the other parts of the ser-rice, and be looked upon and treated solely as aids to edification and devotion. j. y. o. Choral. By this term we now designate the tunes used by the congregations in singing their hymns. OriginaUy the ' ' Cantus Choralis ' ' was that part of the Gregorian music which was sung by the choir of priests {concentus) as distinct from the singing of the officiating priest {accen- tus). _ But the Choral in the present sense of the word is the child of the Reformation, and par ticularly of the Mother Church of the Reforma tion, the Lutheran Church. Its different sources may be summarized as follows : I. — Ambrosian tunes, such as the " Te Deum," " Veni Redemp tor Gentium, ' ' the basis of ' ' Erhalt uns, Herr, bei Deinem Wort," Church Book with Music No. 188; "Verleih uns Frieden gnaediglich," Ch. B. 174a. 2.— The Gregorian Cantus Choralis, parts of which formed the basis for " AUein Christology Christology Gott in der Hoeh sei Ebr," Ch. B. 9 ; " O Lamm Gottes unschuldig." 3. — ^The popular sacred songs (Geistliches Volkslied) of the Middle Ages, such as "Christ ist erstanden," Ch. B. 192; " Gelobet seist Du, Jesu Christ " ; " Nun bitten vnr den Heiligen Geist"; "Komm Heiliger Geist, Herre Gott," Ch. B. 248; " Es ist das HeU uns kommen her," Ch. B. 10. 4. — The secular songs of the German people from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, from which a number of the most beautiful tunes were taken, snchas "Herzlichthutmichverlangen," Ch. B. 176. 5. — A few tunes were taken from the Bo hemian Brethren, like " Gottes Sohn ist kom men," Ch. B. 121 ; " Lob sei Dir guetiger Gott " (Bndlich 2, 160), and from the Reformed Church Song, like " Freu dich sehr, O meine Seele," Ch. B. 119a. 6. — ^The choir music of the six teenth and seventeenth century, collected and arranged by masters like Gesius, Vulpius, Mich. Praetorius, Helder and others, which famished some popular tunes that were soon appropriated by the congregations. 7. — Com positions that were written originally for pri- ¦vate use, such as " Wachet auf, raft uns die Stimme," Ch. B. 580; and "Wie schoen leuchtet der Morgenstem," and those written for the collections of the hymns of certain authors, by such musicians as Schop, Albert, Loewenstem, and others. 8. — ^The tunes com posed directly for congregational use by men like Craeger, Ebeling, Hintze and others. 9. — The more modern and subjective tunes of the Halle hymn books, approaching the form of the Aria. 10. — The Anglican tunes, by such com posers as Dykes, Gauntlett, Steggall, and others. Though they do not attain the massive objec tivity and sublimity of our old chorals, they are characterized by great solemnity and melodious beauty, and are, as a rule, more churchly than the average tune of the Pietistic period. A. S. Christology, is the doctrine of the person of Christ in distinction from his life and work. It presupposes the uniqueness of Christ not merely as human, but as divine — human, according to the teaching of the Bible (cf . beside the total picture of Christ in all the gospels — ^Jer. 23 : 6 ; John I : 1,2; John 20 : 8 ; Rom. 8 : 32 ; 9 : 5, etc. ; I Tim. 2 : 5, 6 ; Gal. 4:4; Heb. 2 : 14, etc.). The confession of his deity occasioned Chris tology, and the maintenance of the reality of his humanity with his deity kept it truthful. These essentials are tmly preserved in Luth. doctrine, in which, as in Luther's, Christology is the li-ring centre, though not the starting-point of the development. The fact that " the Word, i. e. the Son of God took unto him man's na ture" (Art. III. Aug. Conf.) points back tothe Word as real person (Art. I.) implying the Trinity. It makes possible the mediatorial emi nence which militates against the invocation of the saints (Art. XXI. and Apol.). Sin is treated in its depth, and those who extenuate it re jected, "because they lessen the glory of the merits and benefits of Christ " (Art. II.). Free vrill in effecting spiritual righteousness is denied (Art. XVIIL), because it injures the righteous ness of grace through Christ (Art. IV.) ; and the di-rine causality in conversion is emphasized that Christ's word may remain ; ' ' Without me ye can do nothing " (Form. Cone. Epit. II. 6). Election is regarded not in its eternal inscruta bility but only as in Christ (Form. Cone. Sol. Decl. XL 65, 69). The mystery of his person is to furnish the firm foundation for his work. That Christ "hath satisfied our sins" (Aug. Conf. Art. IV.) follows because he, "trae God and trae man," was born, suffered, etc., "that he might reconcile the Father unto us, and might be a sacrifice" (Art. III.) (Explan. of 2 Art. Sm. Cat.). Justification rests on Christ ; it is " for Christ's sake " (Art. IV.). The faith which justifies "is to assent to the promise of God, in which, for Christ's sake, the remission of sins and justification are freely offered " (Apol. IV. 48). Christ is the impulse of new life. The Spirit is the " spirit of Christ," who " brings forth in us new and eternal life " for Christ's sake, who was also " given for this pur pose " (Apol. VI. II). Christ's spirit causes us freely to do new works (Form. Cone. S. D. VI. 17), which cannot be done -without Christ (Aug. Conf. Art. XX. ) . The ministiy is to teach the gospel and administer the sacraments, by which as instruments the Holy Spirit works faith to justification for " Christ's sake " (Art. V.); and the Church is there where the gospel is taught and the sacraments are rightly administered, which are effectual, by reason "of the institu tion and commandment of Christ " (Art. VII., VIIL). Waiting for his return (Art. XVIL) all wrong expectations are warded off. Every where Christ, the Godman, apprehended in his sa-ring power is emphasized (cf. Nosgen, Sym- bolik, p. 442 ff.). Whatever growth Christology had in the Luth. Church has its roots in Luther himself. He, though counting only four great oecumeni cal councils (Er. ed. 25, p. 294), accepted the results of the Church's former christological work, and the Apostolic, Nicene and Athana sian creeds. But everywhere the doctrine of Christ gains new value and is put in new rela tions of thought. Previous to 1517 Luther re gards Christ in his deity and humanity from the practical religious standpoint. All blessings are expected of him. His deity exercises a gracious will to show mercy and help, but is hidden in the Father, who must be known in Christ's humanity. Christ is the temple of God, in him God has come to us. This revelation is that of love and righteousness. In all later changes those features remained : ( i) The his torical Christ is the revelation of God ; (2) in Christ's love his deity is revealed, whose power he concealed. When Luther came to recognize that the Romish theologians, theo retically accepting the Church's doctrine of two natures and one person, were yet bound by a phUosophical conception, which must separate divine and human, and that they lacked the liring desire of the heart for one Saviour, the inward impulse was given to bring forth the more prominently the li-ring scriptural confes sion of Christ. But the strongest occasion for Luther to unfold this doctrine intellectually was given in the position of Zwingli, which came to the foreground in the discussions on the Lord's Supper. Luther did not, however, develop his Christology to defend the doctrine Christology 90 Christology of the Lord's Supper. Inter-related as the two are, the controversy on Communion gave him the opportunity to unfold what his conception of Christ contained before germinaUy. Zwingli, though maintaining two natures and one person, ascribed the various acts rather to the two na tures than the one person. The properties of natures were not communicated ; and when Scripture apparently speaks thus, e. g. God suf fered, it is a figure of speech {alloeosis), by which an exchange of two natures in one person is ex- pres^d so that "when the one is named the other is meant, or that is named which both are, and yet only one is meant." This -riew injured the real oneness of Christ and the value of his personality in the desire to keep the natures intact. It was of Nestorian tendency. Luther could conceive of the deity and humanity of Christ only in such a union, that the man Jesus was the organ of deity iu all his words and works. In him God lived bodily, so that one person is man and God. The two natures are a single person, so inseparable that where one is the other must also be. Christ is seen in his full humanity in the cradle, growing in wisdom and stature, etc., and yet even "the child Christ which lies in the cradle and drinks milk of Mary the virgin has created heaven and earth. ' ' Christ's flesh permeated by God is "pure spirit, pure holiness, pure purity ; " it is a " God- flesh, a spirit-flesh ; " it is " in God and God in it. " Thus closely are the natures united {com munio naturaru-m, communion of natures), that a communion of properties {com-municatio idio matum, which L. originally called presdicaiio identica) must follow. Because since incarna tion the person is not first God, but always God and man in unity, therefore it can be truly said God's Son suffers. God dies is nothing more wonderful than God became man. " To the whole person should be appropriated what hap pens to either part of the person, because both are one person." This person, whether it receives anything from one side or the other, is to be named Son of God and Son of man, God and man. All action and suffering of man is also action and suffering of God. What is seen in Christ is at once human and divine. ' ' Where you can say : Here is God, you must also say : Then Christ the man is here also. And if you would show a place where God is and not man, then were the person already divided, because I could say -with truth : Here is God, who is not man and never became man. But none of that God for me. — No, friend, where you put God for me, you must also place the humanity ; they cannot be separated and divided ; they have become one person. The divine nature gives the human its property, and the humanity also the divine nature " (Er. ed. 3 : 204, 211 ; 47 : 177). Here we find the source of all later doctrine, though Luther does not yet deter mine what the centre of the person is and does not expressly make the divine ego the ego. He keeps the unity in the person of the two na tures, so that deity does not consume humanity, but the latter is the organ of the former. This makes all revelation possible, and is the living centre of L. 's teaching, from which his thought on the knowledge of God and faith arises. Melanchthon added nothing to this doctrine even as formulator. In his Loci he omits the trinity and person of Christ, fearing metaphy sical theories {Cor. Ref. I. 305). When later he introduced the philosophy which he had at first rejected, his mind was not busied with Christology. In the Augs. Conf. he gave the substance of L.'s thought, simply recasting the 3d Schwabach Art. into the simple form ' ' two natures, the divine and human, inseparably joined together in unity of person ; one Christ, trae God and man " {A. C. III.). In the reply to Stancar -{C. R. XXIII. 87 ff.) he added nothing new. The fuller confessional statement was brought about by the attack of the Heidel berg theologians ag. communicatio idiomatum and ubiquity of Christ's body ( Griindl. Bericht vom heil. Abendmahl, 1556), which Brenz an swered {de personali unione duarum natur. 1561 ; divina -maiestate domini nostr. les. C. 1562) , asserting the fulness of divine qualities in Christ's humanity. In Saxony the discussion was begun by the crypto-Calvinists, P. Eber, G. Major, CreU, who also rejected the com municatio idiomatum in Von der Person und Menschwerdung unseres Herrn J. Christi der waren christi. Kirchen Grundfest, (1571). They maintained that the great gifts and glory which the humanity of Christ received are not the eternal, infinite attributes of his dirine nature. Each of the two natures retained its peculiar attributes and acts, not mingling them with those of the other nature. This aberration was answered by Chemnitz, in his De duabis naturisin Christo (1571). He proves with great learning, historical judgment and dogmatic carefulness, that the human nature received of the di-rine infused gifts, qualities and a habitus, which are accepted in the highest measure of which the human nature is capable. Its recep tivity is heightened to embrace the essential divine attiibutes owing to the hypostatic union. There is a real manifestation of di-rine proper ties in humanity, which is heated through by deity, as iron by fire. This is the penchore- sis (interpenetration) of the old Greek Church. The divine power is the energy of the divine vrill. The human nature is the reasonable and willing organ. A co-operation takes place, in asmuch as the power of each nature has a co operating organ in the other. But the will of the Word directs the human will. This -will causes the ubiquity, that the Godman may be present where he desires. It is called " Multi- volipresence." The thoughts of Chemnitz are gathered up in the co-m-municatio idiomatu-m, of which he distinguished three kinds : ( i ) Each of both natures gives its attributes to the one person : (2 ) the action of both natures is always a co-operation ; the person effects salvation according to both natures ; (3) human natiire, not able of itself to exert sa-ring acts, is tians- fused vrith di-rine light. Chemnitz, in preserv ing and classifying the important thoughts of Luther, also largely influenced the formulation of the Form, of Concord on this article, which adopts L.'s conceptions, as they are also indi cated Smalc. Art. i: 4. The Form. Cone. (Chap. VIII. ) states this of the main question ' ' whether, because of the personal union, the divine and Christology 91 Christology human natures, as also their properties, have really, i. e. in deed and trath, a communion vrith one another in the person of Christ, and how far this communion extends." It answers by asserting the unity of the divine and human nature in the person of Christ, without com mingling or change of one into the other, each retaining its peculiar attributes, but maintains not a simple gluing together, where nothing is either given or taken, but the " highest com munion, which God has truly with man, from which personal union and the highest arid ineffable communion that follows therefrom, all results that is said and believed of the human concg. God, and of the divine concg. the man Christ." This highest communion leads to the communication of properties, (i) " First, since in Christ two distinct natures exist and remain unchanged and unconfused in their natural essence and properties, and moreover there is only one person of both natures, that which is an attribute of only one nature is ascribed not to the nature apart, as though separate, but to the entire person, which is at thesame time God and man, whether called God or man " {S. D. VIII. 36). (2) "Secondly, as to the execution of the office of Christ, the person does not act and work in, vrith, through, or according to only one nature, but in, according to, vrith, through both natures, or as the Council of Chalcedon declares, one nature operates -with the communion of the other, in that which is a property of either" (VIII, 46). (3) The human nature ' ' has received over and beyond its natural, essential, perma nent properties, also special, high, great, super natural, inscrutable, ineffable, heavenly prerog atives and excellences in majesty, glory, power and might above anything that can be named, not only in this world, but also in that which is to come (Eph. I : 21) " (VIII. 51). This posi tion was assailed by the Reformed theologian Ursinus in the Neostadiensium admonitio Chris tiana de libro concordies (1581). He claimed that humanity was abolished and transmuted into deity, that ubiquity made the ascension un necessary and unreal, that not the essential attributes of deity, but only the accidental, which do not constitute the very nature, were communicated, and that the Form. Cone, every where contradicts itself. Chemnitz, Selnecker, Kirchner answered in the Apology of the Form. Cone, called the Erfurt Book (1581), defending the Formula as scriptural. The dogmaticians later developed this whole doctrine with systematic precision and proof. They begin with the unitio, the incarnation, which leads to the unio personalis, the personal union, by which the two natures exist in the "one hypostasis of the son of God." The human nature has no hypostasis. The union is close interpenetiation {perichoresis). The first effect of personal union is communio naturarum (communion of natures), which is the most intimate, mutual, inseparable combination and participation of the divine nature of the Word and the assumed human nature. From this follow the propositiones personates (personal designations), by which the concrete of both natures are mutually predicable of each other, e. g. "the man (Christ Jesus) is God" or "God is man." From the personal union and communion of natures result the communicatio idio-matum (communion of properties), in which those attributes which belong to either nature by itself can truly be predicated of the other nature. It has three genera (kinds), given but not named in the Form. Cone, and found in Luther. The dogmaticians rearrange, (i) Genus idiomaticum, by which the properties of the divine or human nature are reaUy attributed to the whole person, according to whatever nature it is called. Its species are {a) idiopoiesis (ap propriation) , when human idiomata are ascribed to the concrete of the divine nature (Acts 3 : 15 ; 20 : 28 ; I Cor. 2:8; Gal. 2 : 20); {b) koinonia ton theion (participation of the divine), when the divine idiomata are predicated of the person of the incarnate Word, designated by his human nature (John 6 : 62 ; i Cor. 15 : 47) ; (c) antidosis (alternation or reciprocation), by which as well the divine as human idiomata are predicated concerning the concrete of the person, or concerning Christ designated by both natures (Heb. 13 : 8 ; Rom. 9:5:2 Cor. 13 : 4). (2) Genus majestaticu-m, by which the son of God communicates majesty to human nature (Col. 2:9; John 3:34; 17:5; Phil. 2:9). (3) Genus apotelesmaticum by which in official acts each nature performs what is peculiar to itself -with the participation of the other (i Cor. 15:3; Gal. 1:4; Eph. 5:2). This construction is thorough and consistent vrith all its abstractness, but it is rather logical and lacks historical perspective, which was partly supplied by the Kenosis (see KenoSis). Nevertheless it served a true religious purpose in maintaining the full unity of Christ, which is so necessary for the true saving power of his work. Pietism laying stress on vital sanctity gradually undermined this intellectual scheme, and rationalism removed it totally. Modem theology began slowly to return to the old faith. In the Luth. Church the impulses of new life have led many like Philippi to adopt again the whole plan of the old dogmaticians, which is virtually the position in most Luth. seminaries in America. Others, influenced by Thomasius, have either dropped all the logical tabulations, conceiving of Christ, however, in the strict unity of person and close communion of natures, but constructing the doctrine along historical lines, sometimes injuring the divine. Still others accepting with von Frank the modern kenosis have combined the full teaching of the communicatio idiomatum -with it, retaining logical definition -with historical development. The influence of Ritschl and his school, to whom Christ is not divine in an essential sense, but only in the judgment of his value by the Church, because he is the bearer of the complete revela tion of God and the founder of his kingdom, is being largely felt, although not -without a re action to the old scriptural position. Literature : Plitt, Einl. in die Aug. II. 75 ff. ; Kostlin, Luth. Theol. 2, 385 ff. ; Frank, Theol. der Konkform. III. 165 ff. ; Seeberg, Dogm. Gesch. II. 212, 310, 365, 376 ; Schmid, Doclr. Theol. of L. C. p. 314 ff. ; the dogma tics of Philippi, Frank, Kahnis, Luthardt ; Thomasius, Christi Person u. Werk ; Dorner, Christ's Baptism 93 Christmas Ckristologie ; Luthardt, Die Chrl. Glaubens- lehre (popular), p. 336 ff. ; Schultz, Lehre von der Gotth. Xtt. (RitschUan), negative ; Har nack, Dogm. G. III. p. 751 ; Loofs, Dogm. G. p. 393 ; Realencycl. (3d ed.) III. p. 55 ff. J. H. Christ's Baptism. See Baptism. Christian I,, Elector of Saxony, d. 1591, in whose reign the Calvinistic party gained power in Saxony (see CrEI,!,), was instryunental in publishing a prayer-book (1589), which con tains a full selection of the best prayers. It was re-edited by Irmischer, Erlangen (1853), and is known as the kursdchsische Gebetbuch. Christian, Duke of Braunschweig-Wolfen- biittel, b. 1599, became Luth. bishop of Halber- stadt in his seventeenth year ; a bold but un fortunate leader of the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War, and lax in disciplining his soldiers. D. 1626. Christian II., king of Denmark and Norway (1513-1523), and also of Sweden (1520-1521). In 1521 he called Carlstadt from Wittenberg to promote the Reformation in Denmark. This he did, however, for political reasons. In 1523, deposed by Frederick I., he fled to Saxony. Here he and his queen were completely won over to the evangelical doctrines ; but he abjured them at Augsburg ( 1530) , in order to secure the aid of his brother-in-law Charles V. against Frederick I. Captured by the latter in 1532, he spent his remaining 27 years in prison, where he repented of his apostasy from the Reforma tion. _ E. G. L. Christian HI., king of Denmark and Nor way (1534-1559), was won over to the Reforma tion while in attendance upon the Diet of Worms (1521). At the Diet of Copenhagen (1536), he had all the Romish bishops deposed and their vast property secularized. At his in vitation Bugenhagen arrived at Copenhagen ( 1537) ) to complete the organization of the Dan ish Lutheran Church, returning to Wittenberg (1542). The Reformation was introduced into Norway by Bishop Pedersson, ordained by Bugenhagen, some time after Christian was acknowledged king there in 1536. During his reign the Reformation was introduced into Ice land and the Faroe Islands, then belonging to Denmark. E. G. L. Christian IV., king of Denmark and Nor way (1588-1648). He became leader of the Protestant forces in the Thirty Years' War, but was defeated by Tilly in 1626. At the Peace of Liibeck he was compelled to withdraw from all interference with affairs beyond his own lands. Under him, first, did the common people of Norway adopt the doctrines of the Reformation, though much papistic superstition still remained there. He provided the Norwegian Church •with a special Constitution (1607). With his aid Bishop Resen succeeded in expelling Crypto- Calvinism from the Danish Church and the Jesuits from Denmark. E. G. L. Christian V., king of Denmark and Norway (1670-1699), was a luxurious but by no means incompetent prince. He waged a war with Sweden (1675-1679), in which he manifested considerable skill and personal bravery, but was finally defeated. His reign belongs to the times of strict orthodoxy in Denmark, where freedom in matters of faith was not permitted till 1688, when a limited freedom was granted and a Reformed church was built at Copen hagen. Important for the Danish-Norwegian Church were the Laws of Christian V., promul gated in 1683 and 1687, and long operative. They include statutes concerning " Religion " and " The Clergy." E. G. L. Christian VI., king of Denmark and Nor- vvay (1730-1746). By his mother he was, at an early age, brought under the influence of Piet ism, and remained a sincere though somewhat gloomy Pietist till the day of his death. The court and county conformed to his example, at least outwardly. He was actively solicitous for the material, educational and religious welfare of his people ; circulated the Bible ; introduced the rite 01^ Confirmation, and enforced a strict observance of Sunday. His ecclesiastical en terprises throughout Denmark and Norway were ably seconded by the notable repre sentatives of Pietism, Bishops Pontoppidan and Brorson. His reign was disturbed by no wars. E. G. L. Christina, of Sweden, b. 1626, known for her conversion to the Catholic Church, which gained no advantage, as she had to abdicate her right to the Crown (1654). She was a vain woman, introducing French manners, and d. April 16, 1689, in Rome. Christina, Fort, on the Delaware, below Philadelphia, was so named when erected by the Swedes in 1638, in honor of the daughter of Gusta-vus Adolphus ; it was later known as Tranhook, and after the English obtained pos session and ever since as Wilmington, Del. It is one of the most important names in the early history of the Lutheran Church in America. A permanent memorial is the " Church of the Holy Trinity " (Old Swedes'), consecrated July 4th, 1699, and still standing. Christmas (see Church Year). " It is in deed right that we shordd celebrate so great grace of God vrith so glorious a festival, and consider well, that this Article of the Creed — I believe in Jesus Christ who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, Born of the Virgin Mary — be not only confessed by all Christendom, but that all sad and troubled souls may be cheered by it and strengthened against the devil and every possible misfortune. — We diligently preach and urge this Article in order that we may be raised above doubt, but may be certain, and ever more certain, that God has sent his Son into the world, that he was made man, and that he was really born of woman. — We celebrate this festival, for the great benefit it brings. . . . For if God had been hostile to us, he never would have taken poor wretched human nature on him. But now he has himself become such a creature as is called and is trae man.— We learn that the Child born at Bethlehem is bom for us and is ours. He is bom not for his Mother only, the Virgin Mary, nor for his brothers and cousins alone, much less for God in heaven, who needed not his birth, but for us men upon the earth.— This Child is as near to us as our own body and soul. O blessed and Christopher 93 Church a hundred times blessed, is the man who in this wisdom is well taught and grounded. If we get no joy nor comfort from it, either we believe not, or our faith is mean and weak. We keep this feast and preach on this Gospel, that all may learn it and be assured of it, that our work may not be in vain, but that it may bring to some comfort and joy." From Martin Luther (1532), 6 : 253 ss. E. T. H. Christopher, Duke of Wuertemberg, the second son of Duke Ulrich and his wife Sabina, a barbarian princess, b. at Urach, May 15, 1515, in the ducal castle, whither his mother had fled for refuge from her husband. The very cir cumstances of his birth seemed to point to a career of vicissitudes. Torn from his home and shorn of his paternal inheritance when he was but five years old, he was reared among strangers. In the year 1530, we find him ac companying the Emperor Charles V. on his journeys, jealously guarded lest he might es cape. King Ferdinand sends him to Neustadt, where for a time he enjoys the instruction of Michael Tiff emus, who proves himself to be an excellent teacher and a faithful friend. It was the Emperor's intention to take him to Spain in 1532, but with the aid of his teacher he was enabled to effect his escape. He now began to oppose the imperial power, which held his inheritance in its grasp. The unfounded suspicion of his father, obliged him to spend some time in France where he was wellreceived by King Francis and prepared to take part in the campaign against the Emperor, but came very near losing his life at the hands of an assassin. At length, in 1541, he was able to return to his native land, and in 1544 mar ried Anna Maria, a daughter of the Margrave of Brandenburg. About this time he began the study of the writings of Luther, Brenz and Melanchthon, compared them with those of Zvringli and the Catholics, and tested them all by the touchstone of the Scriptures. As a re sult he became attached to the doctrine of Luther, and remained so all his life. Soon after he had succeeded to the dukedom on the death of his father in 1550, he began the work of needed reform in Church and in educational matters, in which John Brenz, his faithful and intimate friend, put forth his wise and compre hensive efforts for the church and schools of Wuertemberg (see article on Brenz). Wuert emberg is the first country in the world, in which a genuine public school for all classes and sexes was called into existence. The reign of Christopher also vritnessed the founding of the first Institute for the spread of the Bible and Missions, through the labors of Truber, Vergerius and Baron von Sonneg. The tem poral welfare of his country also received the attention of Christopher, and to this day he is regarded as Wuertemberg's model ruler. He d. Dec. 28, 1568, 53 years, and was succeeded by his son Ludwig. G. F. S. Church, Doctrine of the. Definition. The Aijgsburg Confession carefully avoids in its definition the extremes of the false exteraalism of Rome and of the false spirituality of the fanatics. Against the former, it declares that " the Church is the congregation of saints and tme believers," against the latter, that it exists, wherever "the Gospel is rightiy taught and the sacraments are nghtly administered" (Art. VIIL). The deflnition of the Church as "the congregation of believers" is amplified in the other Confessions. " The congregation of saints who have with each other the fellowship of the same doctrine or gospel, and the same Holy Spirit." " We say that this Church ex ists, riz., the truly believing and righteous scat tered throughout the whole world " {Apology). " Thank God, to-day a child seven years old knows what the Church is, viz. , believers, saints and lambs who hear the voice of their Shep herd." {Schmalkald Articles). " I believe there is on earth a small congregation and communion of saints, composed entirely of saints, caUed under one head Christ, through the Holy Spirit, in one faith, and the same mind and under standing, and, although furnished -with varied gifts, unanimous in love and in all things har monious, -without sects and schisms" {Large Catechism). That the Church is therefore not properly an external government or institution, but only the sum total of believers, is proved : {a) from its being called "the body of Christ" (Eph. I : 22, 39 ; Col. 1 : 18, 24), having an inner life communion with Christ the Head ; and yet only believers can have such communion (John 15 : 6) ; {b) from its being described under the figure of a spiritual temple, composed of liring stones ; {c) from its designation as the Bride of Christ (Eph. 5 : 25 sqq.), to which they who are not Christ's cannot be said to belong (Rom. 8:9); {d) from the contrast in Rom. 2 : 28, 29, be tween the Jew who is such outwardly and the Jew who is sUch inwardly. The Creed, accordingly, in the words, "I believe. . . the Holy Chris tian Church," declares that the existence of the Church is a matter of faith, and the Reformers, Lutheran and Reformed, Calvin excepted, con strued ' ' the communion of saints, "as in appo sition -with " Holy Christian Church" {Apol ogy, p. 163 ; Large Catechism, p. 445, PhUa delphia tianslation ; and the following Re formed Confessions : I. Basle, I. Helvetic, Belgic, II. Helvetic, I. Scotch). Inasmuch as the question as to who are be lievers cannot be accurately answered unless the hearts of men be read, and God alone, therefore, knows who are the Church's mem bers, the Church, in this sense, is_, as Luther declares in his commentary on Galatians, invisi ble. But this is not to be understood as thou^ the presence of the Church cannot be recognized. It is no Utopian conception, like Plato's Re public. "Nor are we dreaming of any Pla tonic state, but we say that this Church exists." " It has external marks, whereby it may be recognized, riz. the pure doctrine of the Gos pel, and the administration of the sacraments in harmony with the gospel of Christ. " Wher ever these marks are, there some trae children of God are found ; and wherever true children of God are, there are these marks. Faith in- e-ritably expresses itself in confession, and even though the majority of those confessing be hypocrites, some sincere believers are among Church 94 Church them. Not all the plants in the wheat field are tares. The Word also is always fruitful ; much of the seed may be lost by the birds, and the stony ground, and the thorns, but a part of it always grows and ripens for the harvest. For this reason the Church may be called at the same time visible and invisible ; visible, because its presence can be discerned, and invisible, be cause the line separating true believers from hypocrites can be dra-wn by no human hand. Instead of distinguishing, as is usually done, be tween a risible and an in-risible Church, and re garding the latter as -within the other, the tieatment by Luther and our Confessions implies that the marks of the Church designate not what is known as "the visible," but actually "the invisible Church." Unbelievers, therefore, who unite in the Church's confession are not truly members of the Church. But as the line dividing the two classes cannot be traced, when they unite in the Church's confession, they are, says the Apol ogy, ' ' members of the Church, according to the external society of the Church, i. e. ofthe Word, profession and sacraments, especially if they have not been excommunicated." As the Word and sacraments are to be administered externally, there must be an external society, or institution for this purpose ; and iu this society or institution, regard can be had only to the confession, and not to the faith itself, unless the hypocrisy be so manifest that the remedy provided in Holy Scripture has been applied. It cannot be questioned that in numerous passages of Scripture the " Church " refers to an external assembly, i. e. to " Church " in a figurative (by synecdoche) and not in the proper sense. (See e. g. Matt. 18:17.) But on this external side, the reference is to local congregations. Common wants, dangers and interests led gradually to the ex ternal association of the various congrega tions, and their union in measures for mutual protection, assistance and the spread of the gospel. Nevertheless, the external association does not pertain to the essence of the Church, although undoubtedly impelled and, in a great measure, controlled by the Holy Spirit. Accord ing to the N. T. conception, the Church is thus, inwardly and essentially, the spiritual organ ism described in 1 Cor. 12 and Eph. 4, and, outwardly, the members of this organism united -with others in a common confession and localized. The distribution current in Modem Theology, between the Kingdom of God and the Church, while embodying a trae conception, sunenders the use of the word "Church" en tirely to the outward organization. Marks. In accepting " the pure doctrine of the gospel and the administration of the sacra ments, in harmony -with the gospel," as the only marks of the Church, those proposed by the Romanists were rejected. The mere name has nothing to do with the Church. If the tme Church, it is just as trae, should another name than " Catholic " be ascribed to it ; if false, the name " Catholic " cannot enforce its claims for recognition. If "antiquity" were a mark, then it was absent when the Church began, and if essential, would exclude all claims until cen turies had intervened, and therefore the Apos tolic was no true Church. The same applies to " long-continued and uninterrupted duration." " Geographical extent and numerical stiength " was not true of the Church at its beginning, and even at the end, prophecy foretells that the unbe- lie-ring -wUl exceed it in numbers, while Bud dhism and Mohammedanism, upon such a plea, could ask for recognition as a Church. " The succession of Bishops " presses its claims as a mark, in the invitations of Anglican bishops for union on the basis of the " historic episcopate." But as the diocesan episcopate did not exist in the Church from the beginning, and its develop ment may be readily traced, it not only cannot be elevated to this position, but to concede it is to revert to the position of Judaism, which could boast of its external succession in op position to Christ and the Apostles. The "consent of the Fathers" contradicts the sole authority of the Holy Scriptures. For sim ilar reasons, " Union under One Visible Head," ' ' Efficacy of Doctrine, " " Holiness of Doctrine, ' ' "Holiness of Lifeof its Teachers, " "Glory of Miracles," " Temporal Prosperity," " Prophetic Sight," "Confession of Adversaries," "Un happy End of Enemies," are rejected as marks. But in the application of purity of doctrine and administration of sacraments in harmony vrith the gospel, as marks, the fact is recognized that there are relative degrees of purity, and that, therefore, even in a community where the teaching has been greatly corrupted, there are true children of God, i. e. the Church. No one can define the limits of the saving grace of God. Luther acknowledges that there were trae be lievers among the adherents of the Papacy. ' ' I am sure that even tmder the Papacy, the true Church remains. . . . Some among the mass are Christians, although they are misled " (Erl. ed. XVIII : 9). So he believed also that the Church included members from among the hearers of the fanatics (Ib. XXVI : 225). But when the external body is to be sought, from which to receive the Word and sacraments, or to which others are to be commended for this purpose, the greatest care conceming the con fession is to be exercised. Defects that may be overlooked in the faith of the private Christian cannot be tolerated in the public teaching, where nothing but the Word of God is to be heard. Attributes. The attributes of the Church are enumerated as Unity, Holiness, Catholicity, ApostoUcity, and Perpetuity. I. Unity. The determination of the marks answers the question as to in what the unity of the Church consists. It must be in the exist ence within a congregation of these marks. The pure doctrine of the gospel is the only bond of union. It is not found in organization into any widely extended ecclesiastical govem- ment, so that all have either one visible head, or are subjected in their ecclesiastical relations to one set of rales. It is not in a common name, or any uniform order of Church serrices. " To the trae unity of the Church, it is enough to agree conceming the doctrine of the gospel and the administiation of the sacraments. Nor IS it necessary that human traditions, rites or Church 95 Church ceremonies, instituted by men, should be every where alike " {Aug. Conf. Art. VIL). Nothing that God has not enjoined, however useful for peculiar conditions of the Church's service or work, can be required as essential to the Church, or to its unity. "We are speaking oftrue, i. e. spiritual unity, -without which faith, i. e. nghteousness of heart before God, cannot exist in the heart. For this we say that the same ness of human rites, whether universal or par ticular, is unnecessary, because the righteous ness of faith is not bound to certain traditions, as the righteousness of the law was bound to Mosaic ceremonies" {Apology). This does not touch the question as to the desirability of uni formity in ceremonies and other regulations, as a pure matter of expediency, for the sake of good order, in the human anangements of the Church, on its external side. But even there, where the faith remains the same, the dissimi larity does not destroy their inner unity. " As differences in the length of the days and nights do not injure the Church's unity, so we hold that the trae unity of the Church is not injured by dissimilar rites instituted by men. ... If the style of German dress is not worship neces sary before God for righteousness, it follows that even those who do not use the German, but the French style, may be righteous and sons of God and the Church of Christ " {Apology). " No Church, on account of dissimilarity of ceremonies, of which some, according to their Christian liberty, use less, and others more, shall condemn another, pro-rided they be har monious in doctrine and in all its parts, and in the lawful use of the sacraments " {Formula of Concord, Part II.,Art.X. 29). On the other hand, where the faith is diverse, no uniformity in ex ternal rites brings unity. The adoption of common adiaphora may conceal, but it cannot remove the diversities. The adoption of the episcopal form of government cannot make Calvinists Arminians. Their common congre gational government does not obliterate the dif ference between Unitarian and Trinitarian Con gregationalists. "The Word and doctrine should effect Christian unity or feUowship ; where it is the same and alike, the rest vrill follow, but where it is not, there is no unity ' ' {Luther, Erl. ed. XIX : 248). 2. Holiness. The Church is holy, in so far as it is in all things directed and controlled by God's Holy Word, upon which faith quickened by the Holy Spirit depends. " This holiness consists in the Word of God and faith " {Schmal kald Articles , Part III. Art. XIL). Its Head, Christ, is holy ; the means of grace through which the Church grows and is maintained are holy ; and its members, by faith in Christ are sanctified, or made "saints," thus constituting it a " communion of saints. ' ' Luther called attention to the fact that this holiness of the Church is entirely a matter of faith, as_, judged according to the outward appearance, it is sin ful, full of faults and infirmities, and stained by many spots and blemishes. 3. Catholicity. The Church rises above all limitations of time or space or ecclesiastical regulations or di-risions. This is a corollary to the doctrine of the unity of the Chm-ch. For as the unity of the Church consists alone in the possession of the one pure doctrine of God's Word, all other restrictions vanish. "The Church is bound neither to place, time, person, nor to anything but the confession concerning Christ" {Luther, Erl. ed.= 3:386). "The temple is now wide as the world. For the Word is preached and the sacraments administered everywhere ; and wherever they are properly observed, whether it be in a ship on the sea or in a house on land, there is God's house or the church " (Ib. 25 :36o). "Wherever, then, you hear or see such Word preached, believed, confessed, practised, have no doubt that there must be the Holy Catholic Church, i. e. a Chris tian, holy people, even though they be few" (lb.). "The creed says Catholic Church, to prevent us from understanding the Church to be an outward government of certain nations, but rather men scattered throughout the whole world, who agree concerning the gospel, and have the same Christ, the same Holy Spirit, and the same sacraments, whether they have the same or unlike human traditions " {Apol ogy, Chap. IV.). 4. Apostolidty, because built upon the foun dations laid by the Apostles (Eph. 2 : 20 ; Matt. 16 : 18). 5. Permanency and Indefectibility (Matt. 16 : 18). "They teach that one holy Church is to continue forever " {Augsburg Confession, Art. VII.). "Infinite are the dangers that we see threatening the destruction of the Church. Infinite is the multitude of the godless in the very Church, who oppress it. Lest, therefore, we should despair, and that we may know that the Church is, nevertheless, to remain, and that however numerous the godless, nevertheless it exists, and Christ gives it what he has prom ised, -viz., forgives sins, hears prayer, gives the Holy Spirit, this article has been framed " {Apology, Chap. IV.). Particular churches are liable to be suppressed or corrupted. There is no divine promise of the immunity of any particular congregation, or of the congregation of any state or land from this process. But God is perpetually collecting for himself a people, if not from one land, then from another. Until the end of the world, there vrill be children of God upon earth, i. e. the Church will remain. Enemies may rage, but the Word of God is at no time completely suppressed ; and wherever proclaimed, it is sure to be fruitful. In the same sense, the Church is said to be infallible. As an external organization, it is constantly liable to error, and fallible. But there will always be those who, while fallible, shall not fail or fall. In every age there vriU be true children of God, -witness ing the pure truth of the gospel, even though they be greatly in the minority when compared with those who corrupt it. As Luther looked back over the past history of the Church, it was the recognition of this principle that made him so conservative. If the Church was to abide forever, and forever to testify to God's pure trath, it was incredible that the voices of -witnesses could ever have been entirely sup pressed ; and, hence, he declared : "It is dan gerous and terrible to hear or believe anything Church Church Book contrary to the unanimous testimony, faith and doctrine of the entire Holy Christian Church " (Erl. ed. 54: 288a). Authority. This the Augsburg Confession defines as ' ' the power or commandment of God to preach the gospel, to remit and retain sins, and to administer the sacraments. . . . This power is exercised only by teaching or preach ing the gospel and administering the sacraments, either to many or to indiriduals." This power deals not -with temporal but with eternal things, not with bodily but with spiritual blessings. " The power of the Church has its own com mission, to teach the gospel and to administer the sacraments. Let it not break into the office of another ; let it not abrogate the laws of ci-vU rulers ; let it not prescribe laws to ciril rulers concerning the form of the commonwealth. As Christ says : ' My kingdom is not of this world. ' ' ' If at any time bishops have exercised civil authority, the Confession continues, they have done this, not as bishops, but, because, in addi tion to their spiritual, they have held a worldly office, and it was by their worldly office that spiritual authority was exercised. " When they teach anything against the gospel, then the congregations have a commandment of God prohibiting obedience ( Matt. 7 : 15 ; Gal. i : 8, etc.)." Regulations concerning ceremonies, and all the externals of the Church, are allowable only in so far as they are urged for the sake of expediency, and not as necessary for salvation or with a view to merit grace, or with the idea that sin is committed when, without offence to others, they are broken. The administration of Word and sacraments is not merely the privilege, but it is the duty of the Church. Without executing this authority, it ceases to be the Church. This authority belongs not only to the Church collectively, but to every congregation or assembly of two or three Christians (Matt. 18: 17-20). The con gregation derives its authority to administer the means of grace, not from the Church at large, but from the Word which it possesses. Wher ever the Word is received by the faith of two or three Christians, there is all the authority of the Church. ' ' For wherever the Church is, is the authority to administer the gospel. Wherefore it is necessary for the Church to retain the right to call, elect and ordain ministers ; and this right is a gift properly given the Church, which no human authority can wrest from it," and then Matt. 18 : 20 is quoted {Schmalkald Articles, Appendix, Part IL ). This right can be surrendered to no rank or class -within the Church. The universal priesthood of believers makes all Christians inherently equal. The ministry is not a self-perpetuating order, but only the executive organ of theChurch, or con gregations, in the discharge of duties belonging to the congregation as a whole, but in which it must have officials through whom to act. Min isters speak in Christ's name by exercising, in the name of the congregations, that authority which Christ has given the congregation or Church. But when called to act thus, in the name of the congregation, according to the in- stractions of Holy Scripture, the responsibility for what is said and done rests upon the minis ter as long as he retains his office, and must not be determined by those to whom he speaks, but alone by the Word. The power thus entrusted to the Church and to be exercised through its ministers is twofold, -riz. power of order, or the administration of Word and sacraments, and power of jurisdiction, or that of excommuni cating and absol-ring. (See Keys, Power OF.) The relation of the authority of the Church to that of Holy Scripture should be clearly under stood. The declaration of Augustine : "I should not believe the gospel, if the authority of the Church did not move me thereto," is correct in so far as the witness of the Church was the providential means of leading him to Scripture, as the Samaritans were called through the woman by the well. If one were to say that he would not have believed the Scriptures, if his parents would not have brought him to Christ, and put the Scriptures in his hands, it would be wrong to assume that he places the authority of parents above that of Scripture. The Church, as Luther says, is not the mother, but the child of Holy Scripture. A prominent feature in the treatment of the doctrine by Lutheran theologians is that of the Three Estates. — Ecclesiastical, Political and Domestic, or the Church in its organized form, the State, and the Family. This rests upon the thought that every divine institution has its end in the eternal welfare of men. The State, or worldly government, is intended principally to protect men in the hearing of God's word, and so to advance their temporal prosperity that the claims of God be not forgotten. The FamUy is for the raising and training of children of God. Only by a diversion from their divinely- intended end, do these two Estates sunder this relation to the Church, or assembly of believers. The goal of the Church is not reached in this world. The Holy Scriptures give many glimpses of its future glory in the world to come, where it will be free from the cross, and the pain and anxiety of battle. On this account the distinc tion is made between the Church MUitant, war ring in this life against the world, the flesh and the de-ril, and the Church Triumphant in Heaven. Literature : Besides the Lutheran Confes sions and Dogmaticians, see Kostlin, Luther's Theology; CEhler's Symbolik, VM-Caypi's Kirch liche Glaubenslehre, vol. v., and the mono graphs of Delitzsch, Hofling, Kostiin, Harless, Munchmeyer, Kliefoth, Walther. H. E. J. Church Book. The Church Book of the General CouncU, in English and German, is in Its main features an outgrovrth of the liturgical and hymnological development of the mother synod, the Ministerium of Pennsylvania. Its first Agenda or Liturgy was prepared by the Patnarch H. M. Muehlenberg in 1747, and ap proved at the first meeting of the Ministerium m Philadelphia in 1748. It is based on the best and purest Lutheran Agenda, particularly those Saxon and North German orders vrith which Muehlenberg had become famiUar in Germany, such as Calenberg (1569), Lueneburg (1643), Saxony (1712), Brandenburg-Magdeburg (1739). For many years this Agenda only existed iu Church Book 97 Church Book manuscript. The first printed Agenda and Hymn Book appeared in 1786, -with some im portant changes from that of 1748, indicating "that the chaste liturgical taste of the Fathers had already become vitiated, and that the ac cord with the Reformation was dying out grad uaUy." The Agenda of 1818, and the Gemein- schaftliche Gesangbuch, approved by the Syn ods of Pennsylvania, New York and North Carolina, fully show the unlutheran character of the service of those days. The Agenda of 1842, in which the Synods of New York and Ohio co-operated with the Ministerium of Penn sylvania, is no great improvement on that of 1818. It was tianslated into English by a Com mittee of the General Synod, and submitted to the district synods for examination. In the Virginia Synod Charles Porterfield Krauth and Beale M. Schmucker presented an elaborate report on this Agenda, proposing a number of important changes which show how far the features of the future Church Book were then already distinctly before the minds of some of those who were afterwards engaged in its prep aration. (See Dr. Spaeth's Biography of Dr. C P. Krauth, vol. i. pp. 154, ,155.) A new hymn book was issued by the Ministerium of Pennsylvania in 1849 (the so-called " WoUen- weber " Book), and a rerised Agenda in 1855, which was chiefly the work of Dr. Demme, and shows a decided growth in churchly and Luther an consciousness, particularly in restoring the responsive character of the service, and contain ing the main parts of the ancient service, mostly in their correct order, though it is by no means free from the unliturgical leaven which had characterized the preceding Agenda. The Eng lish ' ' Liturgy for the Use of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, by authority of the Minis terium of Pennsylvania, i860," though nomi nally based on the German Agenda of 1855, is in reality a new book of a much higher liturgical standard. Much of the objectionable matter contained in the German Agenda is here omitted. And in the parts that were retained many alterations were made ' ' for the purpose of securing a stiicter conformity to the general usage of the ancient and purest liturgies of the Lutheran Church." In 1863, the Ministerium ordered the preparation of a new English hymn book which was to accompany the Liturgy of i860. By this action the future Church Book of the General Council was in reality outlined and created. Drs. C. W. Schaeffer, G. F. Krotel, B. M. Schmucker, A. T. Geissenhainer, F. W. Conrad, C. F. Welden and J. Kohler constituted the committee charged vrith this work. The co-operation of the distinguished hymnologist Rev. F. M. Bird was secured. He was then a member of the New York Ministerium, and af terwards joined the Episcopal Church. In 1865 Drs. C. P. Krauth and J. A. Seiss were added to the committee. After the crisis of 1866, when the Pennsylvania Ministerium withdrew from the General Synod, further action on the hymn book and liturgy was postponed until after the convention in Reading from which the organiza tion of a new general body was expected. But the Pennsylvania Committee proceeded vrith its work and submitted the result of its labors to the Reading convention, which appointed a committee of one from each synod there repre sented, "to aid the existing committee of the Pennsylvania Synod in the perfecting of their contemplated hymn book." At the first meet ing of the General Council in 1867, the whole work of the English Liturgy and Hymn Book Committee of the Pennsylvania Synod was formally tiansferred to and accepted by the General CouncU. The official title of the book was finally determined, and the Committee of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania was authorized and instructed to make arrangements for the publication of the Church Book, the copyright to be in trast for the General Council. At the same meeting of the General Council a German Church Book Committee was appointed in which all the district synods were to be represented. Detailed instructions were given concerning the hymnological part of the book, and it was or dered that the liturgical service be made to conform to that of the English Church Book. At the same time, however, the delegation of the Pennsylvania Synod was excused from ap pointing a representative upon the German Church Book Committee. This was done be cause some brethren seemed to fear that an offi cial participation of the Ministerium in this work might lead to legal difficulties with the publishers of the Pennsj'lvania hymn book of 1849. A few years afterwards, however, the mother synod was well represented in the Ger man Church Book Committee, which consisted of the following members : G. A. Wenzel, A^ Spaeth, B. M. Schmucker, E. F. Moldehnke,. J. Ruperti, S. Fritschel, G. Grossmann, C. F. Hausmann, W. Wackernagel andj. Endlich. In. 1877 the German work was completed as far as. the English Church Book of that time, with. only this difference between the two books, that in place of the " Evening Service " of the orig inal English book the German had restored the beautiful ancient Vespers, and had added the old Matin service, an anangement which was afterwards also adopted for the English book. The two committees were now merged into one and the work on the Ministerial Acts was under taken, a sub-committee (B. M. Schmucker, A. Spaeth, H. E. Jacobs and S. Fritschel) being charged with the preparation of the first drafts, as far as possible based on the consensus of the purest Lutheran liturgies of the sixteenth cen tury. Ample material for this work was fur nished in that excellent collection of all the leading Lutheran Agenda, mostly selected and secured through that eminent liturgical scholar Dr. B. M. Schmucker, which is now in the library of the theological seminary at Mount Airy, Philadelphia. The completed Church Book appeared in 1891. The foremost liturgists of Europe pronounce it "a model book for which our Church might be en-ried, on account of the sound liturgical principles by which it is governed, the richness and completeness of its material, the discrimination vrith which its selec tions were made, and the practical wisdom of its whole arrangement." (Compare Dr. Spaeth's "History of the Liturgical Development of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania," Lutheran Church Re-view, January, 1898.) A. S. Church Discipline 98 Church Extension Church Discipline. The Scriptures give rules for Church discipline. In the parable of the Tares the Lord shows that men cannot separate the children of the wicked one from the children of the kingdom, and therefore the Church cannot at any time be perfectly pure. It is made up of those who are in process of sanetification, and many faults of the members must be bome by the body vrith the charity that covereth a multitude of sins. Thus the Lord bore the malignity of Judas — not, indeed, without faithful admonition — and finally opened the way for him to go out with as little exposure as possible. But he would not forbid all dis ciplinary measures (John 15 : 2) . The end of Church discipline is not the purification and reputation of the body, but the edification of the faulty members. To this end the Lord gave to the Church authority not only to forgive, but to retain sins. Acting in accordance vrith his word, she acts in his name. What she binds ou earth is bound in Heaven. And lest so great a power should be wrongly employed, he gave (Matt. 18 : 15-17) detailed rules. First there must be private admonition ; then the matter must be brought to the offender in the presence of two or three ; and only if he be obdurate may it be told the Church. If he -will not hear the Church, let him be to thee a heathen man and a publican. That there should be discipline in the Church, that the extent of that discipline is exclusion from Church membership (i. e. from the Holy Supper, the right to act as sponsor in Baptism, and the right to Christian burial), that this should be enforced only after a prescribed pro cess, and by the Church, and in such cases only in which she is confident of speaking the mind of Christ in a sentence which will be valid in Heaven, is implied in Matt. 18 : 15-17 and John 20 : 21-23. Such discipline can be exercised on those only who are and desire to remain members of the congregation. It is foolish to condemn the dead, as the Roman Church has done. Irre sponsible persons cannot be subjects of disci pline. The fault punished should be open, clearly proved, an offensive -riolation of the commandments of God, or a contumacious per sistence in false doctrine against conviction. There should be no public accusation until private admonition has repeatedly been fruit less. Every provision of the constitution or rules of the congregation and synod should be observed. The shameful -riolation of law by which our Saviour was put to death should ren der sacred iu our eyes every provision which the law makes for the protection of those under suspicion or accusation. And the final sen tence, after every possible delay, should com mend itself to the conscience of the whole con gregation. The sentence may either be a suspension or exclusion from the Communion ; but inasmuch as the purpose of Church discipline is the amendment and salvation of the offender, every sentence must really be but a suspension, for the Church must welcome the repentance of the guilty, and being satisfied by its fraits of the reality of that repentance, should receive him to the Communion again as publicly as she ex cluded him. Excommunication should not be imposed for a petty offence, or for a failure to comply with a temporary and local requirement. No fault for which the congregation would hesitate to hand its brother over to Satan should be -risited with the punishment of exclusion from the Church, which vrill be registered and respected in Heaven. Such a sentence can be pronounced only by the congregation acting through its officers and according to its laws, and in manifest accord with the Word of God. It is outrageous that even a pastor should have the power for him self to cast a man out of the Church and shut against him the door of Heaven. A fault he only knows of he should privately speak of to the guilty man ; he may refuse private absolu tion to one whom he knows to be impenitent ; he may not reveal to the Church sins which have been confessed to him as pastor ; he may advise one, whom he knows to be sinning with a high hand, not to come to the Holy Supper ; but he may not excommunicate a person with out the action of the congregation. Neither can the congregation proceed to discipline without the pastor. Some of our teachers go so far as to say that the sentence must be unanimous. The protest of a minority should not be disregarded unless the majority is clearly con-rinced that the minority were so rebellious against the deaf Word of God that they should be punished with the offender. One excluded from the Communion should be treated -with all kindness by the Church and by the pastor. They should try to bring him to repentance and confession, that he may be restored to the hope of salvation. See Walther, Pastorale; Horn, The Evangelical Pastor; Daniel, Codex Liturgicus, II. E.T. H. Church Extension in the Lutheran Church. A Lutheran Church Extension Society was or ganized at Frederick, Md., May 19, 1853. ^ few days later the proceedings of the conven tion and the constitution there adopted were laid before the General Synod, and " cordially approved" by that body. While holding its regular meetings at the time and place of the General Synod, this society, like others of a similar character, had no organic connection vrith the latter body. The object of the society was "to establish a fund of at least $50,000 to assist poor and desti tute Lutheran congregations in obtaining houses of public worship. ' ' From this fund loans were to be made -without interest to " congregations destitute of a suitable house of worship, whose pastor is a member in good standing of any regu lar Evangelical Lutheran Synod in the United States," such loans to be repaid in due time " into the common church extension fund." During the first biennium $4,356 were con tributed. At Reading in 1857 the society re ported total receipts, 19,559. and appropriations to the amount of $7,721, made to sixteen con gregations. After an existence of sixteen years, during which its receipts had amounted to Ji2,68o, tiie society was in 1869 merged into a Board of the Church Festivals 99 Chureh Music General Synod, since which time this cause has witnessed a steady and large expansion, the biennial receipts gradually increasing from Is, 927-47. reported in 1871, to $90,032.41, re ported in 1897, and more than 500 congrega tions have enjoyed its beneficent assistance, mostiy in the way of loans, but in numerous cases in the form of donations. The last report of the board showed total as sets to be $350,561.47. Deducting tmst proper ties from which nothing can be realized, the net assets amounted to $264,721.47. Two secreta- ries.one in the East and one in the West, devote aU their time to the management of the work. E. J. W. In the General Council, a Lutheran Mission and Church Extension Society was organized and chartered in 1872, principally for the hold ing of a certain property in Philadelphia until a regular congregation could be organized, but vrith the remoter end of aiding mission congre gations in the securing of church buildings. It has been less than ten years since it has en tered to any extent upon this latter work. It is supported by the voluntary contribution of five dollars annually by each of its members, coUections from congregations, and bequests. In its report to the General Council at Erie, in 1897, the assets were stated to be over $31,000, loaned -without interest to various congrega tions. H. E. J. Church Festivals. In the observance ofthe festivals, the Lutheran Church acted in accord ance -with the well-known conservative and ju dicious principles which distinguished her from the Reformed, who here as elsewhere went to radical extiemes. On the one hand she rejected everything that savored of Romish errors, or burdened the simplicity of evangelical religion ; and on the other, she just as positively refused to discard a beneficial usage on the mere ground of blind prejudice. The Lutheran Church keeps aU those festivals which have their foundation in the gospel his tory. The ultra-reformers, on the other hand, who, in rigorous consistency vrith their princi ples, must refuse to keep even the chief festi vals of the Church, by this ultia-spiritual abro gation, have cut away from beneath their feet the trae foundations of history and anti quity. Festivals have the direct sanction of God in the Old Testament, as useful for keeping before the mind the religious lessons embodied in great pro-ridential acts. Acting upon this example, the Primitive Church instituted the Christian year. (See Church Year for details. ) It is Christo-centric. As the natural world revolves about the sun, gathering light and heat, so does the Christian year revolve about its cential sun, Jesus Christ. And thereby the great facts and cardinal doctrines of his redemptive work are ever duly and proportionally kept before the heart and conscience. The spiritual gain involved in a scriptural and historic observance of the Festivals, presenting Christ's complete redemptive work in sjrmmetri- cal form, within each year, as compared with the fragmentary presentation of a one-sided in dividualism, is inestimable. J. B. R. Church Libraries. The Lutheran Church is rich not only in works of scientific research in all departments of theology and science, but also, and especially so, in books of instraction and edification for the people. Lutheran families usually possess a well-stocked library of de votional and historic literature. Formerly Luth. churches had a library of theological books, and at least possessed the symbolical books. To-day the libraries are usually Sunday- school libraries. A good church and Sunday- school library wUl be an invaluable assistant in fighting pernicious literature and helpful in in structing the people conceming the history of the Christian Church in general and of the Lutheran Church in particular, conceming the work of missions, the educational and charitable institutions, and the lives of our great men. And the better the people are informed upon these subjects the more useful church members they become. J. N. Church Music. The history of Lutheran Church Music, like that of Lutheran Hjmi- nology, begins vrith Luther himself. From the first the great Reformer was concerned to make provision for the active participation of the people in the musical part of pubhc worship, a work for which his acquaintance with the old stores of church music and his training as a chorister especially fitted him. For centuries the congregation had been silent. At certain festivals only was it allowed to join in the Ky-rie Eleison. The serrice was sung by priests and choirs in a tongue unknown to the people, and, since the time of Gregory the Great, to a style of music that could be per formed only by those well trained to it. Over against the false teaching and practice of the Romish Church the Reformation revived the primitive idea of the universal priesthood of believers, distinguished properly between the sacramental and the sacrificial elements in wor ship, re-introduced the vernacular, restored con gregational singing, and thus gave back to the people the rights of which they had been so long deprived. In his For-mula Misses of 1523 Luther says : " As many of the canticles as possible I want to be in the vernacular, for the people to sing after the Mass, or -with the graduals, or -with the Sanctus and Agnus Dei, which now the choir alone chants, or responds to the consecrat ing bishop. For who doubts that of old these were utterances of the entire people ? These canticles might be so arranged by the bishop as to be chanted either directly after the Latin hymns or according to the change of days now in Latin, and then in the vernacular, until the entire Mass became vernacular. But we lack poets, or they are not yet kno-wn, who may sing for us godly and spiritual hymns (as Paul calls them ) which are worthy of being used frequently in the Church of God." In 1524 he wrote to his friend Spalatin : " It is my desire, after the example of the Prophets and the ancient Fathers of the Church, to make German psalms for the people ; that is, spiritual songs, whereby the Word of God may be kept alive among them by singing. Therefore we search for poets every where. Now, as you are such a master of the German tongue, and are so mighty and eloquent Church Music 100 Church Music therein, I entreat you to join hands with me in this work, and to turn one of the psalms into a hymn, according to the pattern (i. e. an attempt of mine) that I here send you. I pray, however, that all new-fangled and court-like {hdfischen) expressions be left out, and that the words be all quite plain and simple, such as the common people can understand, yet pure and skUfuUy handled ; and next, that the meaning be brought out clearly, according to the sense of the psalm itself." To realize his wishes Luther not only trans lated, revised and purified the service, but him self began to write hymns in the vernacular. Altogether he wrote 37. To at least two of these ("Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott" and " Jesaia, dem Propheten, das geschah") it is certain he also composed the melodies, and to a number of others he may have done so. With a full appreciation of the noble dignity and pre eminently sacred character of the ancient Plain Song, Luther and his musical co-laborers did not hesitate to make free use of it in adapting the music to the Hauptgottesdienst or Communion Service, and the Psalms, Antiphons, Responsor- ies, etc. , of Matins and Vespers. The congrega tional hymn-tune (C/^ora/), as we now know it, is however, a distinct product of the Reformation. This was at first in part derived from melodies of Latin hymns and sequences, modified to suit German translations of these ; but chiefly from the large stock of popular national melodies, sacred and secular, to which the people by long usage had become attached. The texts of these were either paraphrased, or new texts were writ ten to them ; and thus the hymns and the evan gelical truth they contained readily flew from mouth to mouth, and became a most powerful agency in spreading the restored gospel. Though competent arrangers (Walther, Rhaw, Senfl, Agricola, etc.) were not wanting, there were few composers of original melodies before the close of the sixteenth century. Besides Luther, may, however, be mentioned Joh. Kugel- mann, Nicolaus Decius, and Nicolaus Hermann. The next century was prolific in new melodies. As Paul Gerhardt was its most gifted hymn- writer, so Johann Criiger (see art.) was its most gifted tune-writer. Both belonged to the period that marked the transition from objec- tirity to subjecti-rity, and reflect it in their works. Upwards of one hundred new melodies are credited to Criiger, many of which are still in use and are of extraordinary power and beauty. Other inventors of new melodies still in use were Melchior Vulpius, Melchior Tesch- ner, Joh. Hermann Schein, Matth. Apelles v. Lowenstern, Heinrich Alberti, Joh. Schop, Geo. Neumark, Ph. Nicolai, etc. To Nicolai are usually ascribed that truly "royal pair" of melodies, "Wie schon leuchtet der Morgen stem ' ' and ' ' Wachet auf, raft uns die Stimme, ' ' though the former is undoubtedly based on a secular melody. Whilst having in view the fullest possible par ticipation of the congregation, and making ample provision for it, it was nevertheless not in Luther's mind to exclude artistic music {Kunstgesang) from the service. We hear him say: "When natural music (simple people's- music) is polished and rendered effective by means of art, then one sees and recognizes, with deep admiration, God's great and perfect wis dom revealed in his wonderful work, Musica, in which that, above all, appears peculiar and remarkable, when one sings a simple tune as tenor (or cantus firmus), while three, four or five other vocal parts move and skip around this simple tune in a joyful mood, and with mani fold sound embellishing and beautifying it in a most charming manner : dancing, as it were, in heavenly sport, meeting and greeting each other heartily and beautifully. The one who is not moved by such an art-work resembles a coarse log, and does not deserve to hear such lovely music." Luther understood thoroughly how art can be, and is, the handmaid of religion. "I am not of the opinion," he says again, "that through the gospel all arts should be banished and driven away, as some zealots want to make us believe ; but I wish to see all arts, especially music, in the service of Him who gave and created them." He accordingly re tained for a time some of the pure Latin hymns and sequences in the original, because they were set to such "fine music and song," and encouraged his musical friends to write motets and arrange choral melodies in four, five and six parts, to be sung by the choir for the enrich ment and beautifying of the service and the musical training of the congregation, the latter on the other hand joining in the briefer re sponses and singing its hymns to the fresh, popular melodies to which these had been -wntten. The important change introduced by Lucas Osiander in 1586 of transposing the melody from the tenor to the treble, also made it possible for composers so to treat the choral melodies that while these were sung in unison by the congregation, the choir accompanied them in simple and appropriate harmonies. Thus the song of the congregation itself was enriched through the co-operation of the choir, and the latter more than ever became what in Lutheran worship it is designed to be, to -wit, the servant and helpmeet of the congregation. (See Choir.) Among the masters in this style of composition were Hans Leo Hassler, Joh. Eccard and Michael Praetorius (see Arts.), -who also wrote many noble works for the exclu sive use of the choir. The classical period of Lutheran Church music extends from the Reformation to the middle of the seventeenth century. During the latter half of this century, through the influence of the Italian opera and the rapid development of instramental music, a process of degeneration began which even the mighty genius and sober piety of a Bach could not arrest. The so-called concert form of church music, transplanted to Germany by Heinrich Schiitz (though Praetorius had already been influenced by it), found an especially congenial soil in Pietism. The fresh, joyful rhythm of the old, popular melodies by degrees gave way to a regular measure and to tunes of a soft, sweet, languishing character, suited to the subjective hymns of the period ; compositions designed to give dramatic expres sion to the words, especiaUy the Aria, obtained increasing favor ; and by gi-ring undue promi- Church Music 101 Church Papers nence to Kunstgesang, the beautiful co-operation between choir and people which Eccard had brought about, became a thing of the past. What the intense subjecti-rity of Pietism thus helped to further the cold intellectuality of Rationalism finished ; and during the second half of the eighteenth and the beginning of the present century the degeneration of German Protestant Church music became complete. ' ' The old chorals were recast into modern forms, by which they altogether lost their ancient power and beauty. A multitude of new, un- national and difficult melodies, in a dry, pedan tic style, appeared ; the last trace of the old rhythm disappeared, and tedious, heavy mon otony gained the ascendency, by which all sublimity and freshness was lost. Preludes and interludes of a secular character were intioduced. An operatic overture generally intioduced people into the church ; a march or waltz dismissed them from it. The Church ceased to foster and to produce music ; the theatie and concert-hall took its place. The operatic supplanted all taste for the oratorio style. Cantatas of a thoroughly secular and effeminate spirit were composed for festival occasions ; and a proper church style no longer existed." About 1820 a reaction set in. Loud protests began to be uttered against the prevailing abuses. Earnest men advocated the restoration of the choral to its ancient honor and simplicity as true people's song, and urged the cultivation of the pure figurative music of the old masters in the true church style. Since then not a little has been done to rerive a pure taste and a correct practice. Most of the earlier music of the Lutheran Church was vmtten for a capella singing, and was therefore purely vocal. The use of the organ throughout the entire service, as also its very frequent abuse, dates from about the middle of the seventeenth century, i. e. from the time that the so-called concert style of church music came into vogue. Summarizing the principles that underlie pure Lutheran worship and worship music, we obtain these results : I. Lutheran worship is congregational and responsive. It pre-supposes the conjoint parti cipation of the officiating minister, the congre gation and the choir, in a service in which all are " priests unto God," and of which as much as possible should be sung, either vrith or with out organ accompaniment. 2. The three forms of music for the Church Service are the recitative (in the Altarweisen, or intonations for the minister, the psalmody, etc.), for which the ancient Plain Song is best adapted ; the melodious as it appears in the uni sonous congregational hymn-tune ; and the polyphonic for the choir. 3. The music, like the poetry, architecture, painting, and other art of the Church, must have a character of its own that differentiates it from the secular and profane. The adoption of sec ular melodies at the beginning of the Reforma tion was purely a matter of necessity and ex pediency, and -with the wealth of noble music that the Church has since acquired, cannot be quoted to justify a like proceeding now. 4. So-called Kunstgesang by a skilled choir has its place in the service, but only as it min isters to devotion. Hence whatever the choir does must stand in closest relation to the rest of the service. It may lead the song of the con gregation, or support it in the form of a rich and appropriate harmonic accompaniment ; it may respond to the officiating minister or alternate -srith the congregation in a polyphonic setting of certain parts of the service itself or of other suitable words ; but it must never claim a place separate from and independent of the congre gation, or presume, either in words or in music, to introduce anything into the serrice that dis turbs its unity or serves only to give sensuous enjoyment. 5. As regards that noble but much abused instrument, the organ, the directions of some of the old K. O., that it shall not be used during service for the performance of flippant and vulgar music, or for mere artistic display, should still have binding force. The strict, pure style of the great masters in organ music should determine the character of the voluntaries ; and in accompanying voices the organ should en courage and support, but it must never, in a noisy way, obscure the words, or attract atten tion to itself by any striving after unusual effects. He only is well qualified as an organist in whom musical and liturgical understanding, pure taste, technical ability and sincere piety are com bined. Sources, Coi,i,ections and Literature : Lucas Lossius, Psalmodia, 1553, 1579 ; Spangen berg, Cantiones ecclesiastices, 1545 ; M. Praeto rius, Muses Sionnes, 1606-16 ; Lyra, Die liturg. Altarweisen des luth. Hauptgottesdienstes, Gottingen, 1873 ; Schceberlein u. Riegel, Schatz des liturg. Chor. u. Gemeindegesangs, 3 vols., Gottingen, 1865-72 ; Tucher, Schatz des Evang. Kirchengesangs, Leipzig, 1848 ; Layriz, Kern des deutschen Kirchengesangs, Nordlingen, 1844, 1849 ; Zahn, Die Melodien der deutschen Evang. Kirchenlieder aus den Quellen geschopft, 6 vols., Giitersloh, 1895 ; von LUiencron, Liturgisch- Musikalische Geschichte der Evang. Gottesdi- enste von 1523 bis 1700, Schleswig, 1893 ; Winter- feld, Der evang. Kirchengesang, Leipzig, 3 vols., 1843-47 ; Zur Geschichte heiliger Ton- kunst, Leipzig, 1850-52 ; Koch, Geschichte des Kirchenlieds u. Kirchengesangs, Stuttgart, 1866- 70 ; Kliefoth, Liturgische Abhandlungen, 8 vols., Schwerin, 1854-68 ; Harnack, Praktische Theologie, vol. i., Erlangen, 1877 ; Kostlin, Geschichte des christlichen Gotiesdiensies, Frei burg in B., 1887 ; Kiimmerle, Encyklopddie der Evang. Kirchenmusik, 4 vols., Giitersloh, 1883-95. J- E O. Church Papers. In the United states and Canada no church papers of more than local interest are published at present. Twenty-four are printed in Pennsylvania, 12 in Illinois, 11 in Ohio, 10 in Missouri, 9 each in New York and Minnesota, 8 in Iowa, 6 in Wisconsin, 3 each in Massachusetts, Michigan and Nebraska, 2 each in California, Kansas, Ontario and Washington, and I each in Louisiana, Manitoba, South Caro lina, Texas and Virginia. Forty-two are in the German language, 36 in English, 12 in Norwe gian, 7 each in Swedish and Danish, 2 in Fin- Church Papers 103 Church Polity nish, and i each in Icelandic, Slavonian, Litta vonian and Esthonian. Officially published by the General Council are the foUovring : The Lu theran, The Helper, Church Lesson Quarterly, Bible History, etc. , Siloah, Missionsbote and Foreign Missionary, all in Philadelphia, Pa. By synods of the council : by the Augustana Synod, or members of the same : Augustana (Rock Is land, IU.), Skaffaren (St. Paul, Minn.), Framat (Brooklyn, N. Y. ) , Barnens Tidning (Rock Is land, 111.), Den Lille Missionoeren (Rock Island, IU.,) Gustaviana {St. Peter, Minn.), and Bethany Budsbarere (Bethany, Kan.), also Augustana Journal (Sxici. Island, 111.), and Bethany Messen ger (Lindsborg, Kans.); by the Canada Synod : Luth. Kirche-nblatt ; by the New York Minister ium : Der Luth. Herold (New York). By the Phila. Seminary Alumni Association : Church i?i?z'zVz£' (Philadelphia, Pa.); by individuals :Jug- endfreund (AUentown, Pa.), Kinderbldttchen (PhUa. Va.) , Jugendbldtter (Reading, Va.), Busy Bee (PhUa. Pa. ), Luth. Kirchenblatt. — ^The Gen eral Synod has no official organ. The Lutheran Observer, published in Philadelphia, has for years been the champion of the liberal party, •rigorously aided by The Luth. Evangelist of Dayton, Ohio. In order to counteract the in fluence of these publications and to serve as the mouthpiece of the increasing and conservative majority in the General Synod, The Lutheran World (Cincinnati, Ohio) was founded about 1892. Other periodicals appearing -within the General Synod are : The Sunday-School Herald, Luth. Missionary Journal, Seed Sower, Augsburg Teacher, Augsburg Lesson Leaf, all printed in Philadelphia, and Lutheran Quar terly, published in Gettysburg, Pa. A German Church paper, Der Hausfreund, formerly Kir- chenfreund, is also printed in Chicago. — ^The papers of the Synodical Conference are : Die Missions-Taube and The Lutheran Pioneer. The former is published in the interest of the foreign mission-work and has 17,200 readers, whilst the latter is the organ of the commission on missions among the negroes. The papers of the Missouri Synod are these : Der Lutheranef , printed in 27,000 copies, is the congregational paper. This contains also the official announce ments of the synod. Lehre und Wehre is a German theological monthly, and Theological Quarterly, an English theological journal. The former has 2,550 readers, the latter 1,200. Magazin fur ev. luth. Ho-miletik (2,200 sub scribers) and Evang. Luth. Schulblatt (1,150 siibsc. ) are monthlies, the latter devoted to the interests of Lutheran parochial schools. The Sunday-school paper, Luth. Kinder-und Ju- gendblatt, has 38,500 readers ; Concordia Maga zin, a journal for the family, 5,000, and Fiir die Kleinen (for the infants) 16,000. Within the synod 24 other papers are published, for the contents of which the synod does not hold itself responsible. Most of them are simply parish papers. The members of the faculty of the Theological Seminary at St. Louis, Mo., are the editorial committee for all publications of the Missouri Synod.— The Wisconsin Synod, though in the Synodical Conf. , prints a sepa rate congregational paper,, the Ev. Luth. Ge- meindeblatt, of Milwaukee,' also a monthly in the interest of its parochial schools, the Schulzeit- ung (New Ulm, Minn.), and a Sunday-school paper, Kinderfreude (Milwaukee, Wise). — The English Synod of Missouri has for its organ the Lutheran Witness, with the publica tion office at Chicago, 111. — The Lutheran Vis itor {'Ne-wherry, S. C.) and Our Church Paper are periodicals published in the interest of the Churches of the United Synod South. The former had been the organ of the General Synod South before it merged into the United Synod, and the latter is the organ of the Tennessee Synod, and is printed at New Market, Va. — The organ of that part of the Norwegians, who are united in the Synod of the Norwegian Ev. Luth. Church, and who are Missourian in doc trine, is the Ev. Luth. Kirketidende ot Decorah, Iowa. Nearly all of the following papers are either published by the United Norwegian Ev. Luth. Church in America or in behalf of its in terests : Luthersk Bosrneblad (Minneapolis, Minn.), Budbcereren (Red Wing, Minn.), Lutheraneren (Minneapolis, Minn.), Bas-me- vennen (Red Wing, Minn.), Bcemeblad (Chi cago, 111. ), Bien (San Francisco, Cal.), Bce-me- budet (Rushford, Minn.), Ungdoms Vesnnen (St. Paul, Minn.), For Lam-mel og Ung (Wit tenberg, Wis. ), Luthersk Missioncsr (Tacoma, Wash.), and Skolen & Hjem-met (Story City, Iowa). — The Danish papers are : Dannevirke (Cedar Falls, Iowa), Kirkelig Samler (Cedar Falls, Iowa), Bcernebladet (Blair, Nebr.), Dans- keren (Neenah, Wis.), Kirkebladet (Blair, Nebr.), Bxrnevennen (Cedar Falls, Iowa) , and Missions Budet (Neenah, Wis.). The Finnish Suomi Synod publishes : Paimen-Sano-mia and Lehli Lapsille, both at Hancock, Mich. — The papers of the German Iowa Synod are : Kirchenblatt (Waverly, la.), and Kirchliche Zeitschrift (Dubuque, la.), the former for Church members and the latter for pastors. Since the union of the Synod of Texas vrith that of Iowa the Ge- meindebote fur Texas (Brenham, Tex.) must also be classed as a paper of the Iowa Synod. — Much is being done by the Ohio Synod. The Luth. Kirchenzeitung of Columbus is one of the oldest Church papers in the Lutheran Church, whilst the Lutheran Standard was established as early as 1833. The other period icals are : Theologische Zeitblatter and Theo logical Magazine, Kinderfreude, Lutheran child's paper, and Little Missionary. All of these are printed by the Synod's publication house in Columbus, Ohio.— The Synod of Buffalo publishes Wachende Kirche, the Synod of Michigan, Synodalfreund, (Saginaw City Mich.), the Augsburg Synod, Sendbote von Augsburg (Middleton, Wise), and the Ice landic Synod, Sameiningin, printed at Winni peg, Manitoba. j. N. Church Polity is that branch of theological science that treats of the principles of church government. The Church is a divinely-insti tuted society for the administration of the Word and sacraments. As a society it has had to provide rales and regulations, in which the re lations of its members to each other and to the society and its executive officers are determined. In determining these rales, the Church has no authonty in any way to transgress, modify or Church Polity 103 Church Polity suspend any inherent rights of the individual believer prescribed in the Holy Scriptures. But, as in all social regulations, general princi ples must be applied to existing relations, and the individual, for good order's sake, must be vrilling to forego many privileges, and be sub jected to many limitations that he is perfectly free to exercise when his social relations are left out of the account. Luther illustrated this by affirming the entire liberty of a man to vrield a sword as he pleased when no one is standing near him, and the limitation that is placed on this freedom by the presence of those who may be injured. Although inherently all Christians are equal, and thus father and son stand on the same level before God, yet, by ¦rirtue of the divine institution, the son is sub ject to his father. The Church is not a human institution, regulated by the suggestions of human expediency ; but its divine origin and sanctions place obedience to it upon the basis of the Fourth Commandment. The object of church organization is not the preservation of the external form and order of the Church, but the efficient administration of the Word and sacraments. The exercise of dis cipline, according to Matt. 16 : 19 ; i8 : 18, is a part of this administiation. In their organiza tion, the Je-wish Christians simply adapted the synagogal organization, with its officers, to the circumstances and requirements of their new relations. Even after Pentecost, as the Apos ties went forth, they always began in the syna gogues to preach (Acts 9 : 20 ; 13 : 5, 14 ; 14 : i ; 17 : 1 ; 18 : 7, etc.) No change was attempted or necessary in the external relations of the syna gogue, the sole aim being to Christianize it, and to infuse the new life of Christianity into its old forms. Where Je-wish Christians were cast out of the synagogues and assembled statedly for pur poses of worship (Heb. 10 : 25), a new organiza tion at once sprang up, following the order and appointment of the Je-wish synagogues in both worship and organization, such elements only being removed that Christianity could not con sistently appropriate. A study of the organiza tion of the synagogue, therefore, becomes an im portant preliminary to that of church Polity. Vitringa {De Synagoga Vetere) has laid exces sive emphasis on this fact in support of the sole legitimacy for Presbyterianism. The synagogal organizations had in -riew mainly the proper ar rangements of divine worship, particularly the reading of the Law and the Prophets, and the prayers of the worshippers. The synagogue was presided over by the presbytery or local sanhe drim, an office rooted m the patriarchal system of the Jews, and recognized as early as Ex. 3 : 18. (See appointment of the seventy elders in Ex. 24 : 1 ; Num. 11 : 16.) The number of elders va ried vrith the size of the congregation, and some times was as high as twenty-three. The presi dent of the body of elders, " chief raler of the synagogue," vrith assistants (Mark 5 :22, 35 sq.; Luke 8 : 49 ; 13 : 14 ; Acts 13 : 15 ; 18 : 8, 17), were the executives of the presbjrtery in selecting readers and superintending the de taUs of the public worship. The almoners or deacons coUected and distributed the alms of the congregation. The "legate" was a temporary appointee of the "chief ruler," for the purpose of leading the service. There were, besides interpreters, the " chazan " or attend ant, in some respects equivalent to our sexton, and the ten "batlanim," or men of leisure, either of independent means, or supported by the congregation, whose duty it was to be present at every service. In addition to public worship, the synagogal organization was di rected to the care of the poor, and the adminis tration of discipline. We have here, then, the ground for the organization of the Jewish- Christian congregations, as well as elements that entered into the government and worship of the entire Church of after times. But the new life of Christianity could not be confined within Je-wish moulds. The syna gogues were intended to cherish the hopes and expectations of a coming Deliverer : the con gregations of Christians were chiefly to com memorate the fulfilment of these hopes. The former were occupied mostly with prophecy ; in the latter, that prophecy had become history, and the chief topics in the assemblies of be lievers were the life, the death, the sufferings, and the words of Christ, as recounted by those who had witnessed and heard them. This ful filment of prophecy was especially proclaimed by a rite unknown in the synagogues. All the service centred around the daily celebration of the Lord's Supper, the epitome of the gospel. The synagogal assemblies were intended to promote the separation of the Jewish people from others ; the assemblies of Christians were centres of missionary efforts, directed towards people of all nations, and of the public preach ing of the gospel, as opportunity offered. The assemblies of Christians were distinguished by the cha-rismata of the Apostolic Age ( i Cor. 14). All these elements greatiy modified the new or ganizations. Before there was any fixed code, or announced form of government, the consti tution of the Church was graduaUy expressed through the voice of its inner life in unwritten laws. We find the Christian congregations under the administration and guidance of elders. They are the overseers or bishops (Acts 20 : 17), the presidents (i Tim. 5 : 17), the representa tives (Acts 15 : 2 ; 16 : 4 ; 21 : 18), the bearers of alms from one congregation to another (Acts 1 1 : 30) , the visitors of the sick (James 5 : 14). Together they constituted a body or council of rulers or administration (i Tim. 4:14), who gave official recognition on behalf of the Church, to those chosen to the ministry. The inevitable precedence of one, as the executive officer of the body of presb}rters, the " pri-mus inter pares," made him its president. In the ApostoUc Church, the public teaching was not exclusively in the hands of the presby ters. Above them were the Apostles, the au thority of whose doctrine was absolute, wher ever it came, except as limited by the appeal they themselves made to the preceding Scriptures (Acts 17 : 11). Prophecy being one of the charis-mata, a class of supematuraUy iUumined and inspired teachers, known as "prophets," was recognized in the Apostolic and sub-Apos tolic Churches (i Cor. 12; Acts 11:28). "EvangeUsts " were deputies or missionaries Church Polity 104 Church Polity acting under the direction of the Apostles (Eph. 4:11; 2 Tim. 4:5; Acts 21 : 8). " Pastors and teachers " (Eph. 4:11) were a more stationary class of officers. When the period of extraor dinary was succeeded by that of only ordinary gifts of the spirit, there was an ultimate merging of these diverse offices into one, viz., that of the local pastor, teacher, preacher, and chief pres byter or president of the congregation. As the early churches were gathered also from GentUe sources, the names of meetings for Christian worship and of officers and of congregations were drawn sometimes thence. Societies of various kinds and for various pur poses, current among Greeks and Romans, gave another framework of organization. The chief executive officer in such associations, as well as in some municipahties, was known as episcopos, or "bishop." (See Hatch, Organization ofthe Early Christian Churches, London, 1888.) As soon, therefore, as Christian congregations were formed from the GentUes, the same officer whom the Jevrish Christians, in accordance with synagogal usage, called " presbyter," the Gen tile Christians designated "bishop." Both Je-wish and Gentile elements being inter mingled in many congregations, the two terms were used interchangeably, "presbyter" or " elder " connoting the dignity, and "bishop " the chief duty of the office. This is seen most clearly in Acts 20 : 17, 28, where those called "elders" in v. 17 are called in v. 28 "bishops." (Cf., also Tit. I :5, vrith v. 7.) The Pastoral Epistles know of only two classes of officers in their enumeration, viz. bishops and deacons, since elders and bishops are one office. So in Phil. 1 : 1, Paul salutes only bishops and dea cons. (Cf. I Pet. 5:1.) The original identity of the Presbyterate and the Episcopate is un disputed among scholars. The diaconate grew out of the presbyterate, as the work of the congregations became more comprehensive. Vitringa, Boehmer, Lechler, Ritschl, and Weiss deny that the seven of Acts 6 were deacons ; they have been answered by Lightfoot. The context shows that the diacon ate was instituted to separate from the presby terate the direct administration of some of the more secular duties of the congregations, for which the Church must have its executives or ministers. The deacons were the assistants of the pastors or bishops, primarily in secularities, but, when occasion called for it, also in spiritual offices which were discharged under the direc tion of the presbyters. Women, as well as men, were at length admitted to the diaconate (Rom. 16 : 1 ; 1 Tim. 3 : 11, and Pliny's letter to Trajan), in order that the administration of the Church might more directly touch also its female members, who, according to Oriental custom, were strictly secluded, as well as to perform other offices, for which women were more particularly fitted. The officers of the Apostolic Churches were designated by the concurrent action of the non- official and official portions of the congregations. In the election of Matthias (Acts i : 15 sqq.), Peter, as the representative of the Apostles, directs that the election be held, while the en tire congregation (v. 23) selects two candidates ; and the choice between the two is made by lot. In Acts 6, again, the Apostles proposed the election of seven deacons ; the congregation made the election, and the Apostles confirmed it. The functions of the two classes are kept distinct. "The congregation, in the normal state, is neither the pastor without the people, nor the people vrithout thepastor ' ' {Fundamen tal Principles of Faith anci Church Polity ofthe General Council, I V. ) . To the one belongs the duty of teaching, of laying down principles, of prescribing qualifications and confirming the election ; to the other, that of electing according to the instractions and submitting themselves to those thus elected (Heb. 13 : 17). as long as they rule according to God's Word. In the administiation of discipline there was a similar concurrence. In 1 Cor. 5 : 3-5, Paul authorizes such administration in a specific case, as though he were present. Where congrega tions failed in this particular, they were liable to censure and reproof from the ministry (i Cor. 5 : I, 2, 9-11 ; Rev. 2 : 14, 15, 20, 21). The Apostolic churches gradually grew into closer and closer external fellowship. At first, the Apostles formed the main external bond, since it is a characteristic of the Apostolate, that it was undirided, and every Apostle belonged to each Christian congregation. The results of Apostolic work were communicated to the several congregations, and became the subject of their deliberations (Acts 1 : 1-18). The church at Jerusalem sent its deputies to Antioch to learn the result of the preaching of the Word in that region (Acts 11 : 19-23) ; and that at Antioch pro-rided for the temporal relief of the church at Jerusalem (Acts 11 : 29, 30). Letters of commendation are given from one church to another (Acts 18 : 27 ; Rom. 16 : 5 ; 2 Cor. 3 : l). Churches in a Province united in appointing a common representative (2 Cor. 8 : 19, 23). In the Synod at Jerusalem (Acts 15), we find dele gates from the churches at Antioch and Jerusa lem, a full report of the discussion, the record of the resolution passed and the letter formulated to be sent to the church at Antioch. The Synod was preceded by a private conference concern ing the vaUdity of Paul's claims to be an Apostle, -with the two other Apostles, Peter and John, and with James, the presiding bishop of the church at Jerusalem. All this shows that in the N. T. we find neither pure Congregationalism, nor pure Pres- bjrterianism, nor pure diocesan Episcopacy, but germs of all three forms of organization, or one, combining features of all three forms. But the Church could no more remain bound to the stage of governmental development it had reached at the close of the Apostolic era, than it did in the spheres of doctnnal definition and worship. Changing relations ever demand new adaptations. As the Apostles, vrith their direct divine commission, departed, the congregations, in which they lived and labored, as the deposi taries of their teaching, were held in particular esteem and enjoyed peculiar authority. The Mother congregation at Jerasalem naturally held an especial place in the regard of its co- temporaries. But when Jerusalem was de stroyed, and the members of its congregation Church Polity 105 Church Polity were scattered, and when the last of the Aposties was taken away, new bonds of union were sought and found. The Church, in its ex ternal -risible form, as an organization of sepa rate congregations, now gradually emerges. Congregations aggregate into dioceses, and dioceses are grouped into sees successively of archbishops, metiopolitans, and finally of the Papacy. This process of centialization was at last accompanied by the claim that the organiza tion was of itself of di-rine origin and aumority, and that obedience was to be unconditionally rendered it under the penalty of the loss of salvation. Whatever the Church, as thus or ganized, decreed, was affirmed to be infallible, the earlier -riew claiming this infalhbility only for CouncUs, and the later and complete develop ment affirming it for the Pope (Vatican Coun cU) . According to this view, the Church is not properly " the communion of saints," or aggre gate of beUevers, but it is an external institu tion, "as visible," says Bellarmin, "as the Kingdom of France, or the Republic of Venice. ' ' this Church, it is claimed, is " catholic," since none can obtain, so it is said, eternal life out side of it, and "infallible," because the Holy Spirit always contiols it, and the truth pro claimed by the Apostles is always in it. As the authority vested in the Church refers to the ad ministiation of the sacraments, or the ruling of the organization, itis divided into the "power of the order " and " the power of jurisdiction." The former rests, in its fulness, in the bishops, from whom it is tiansmitted with limitations to the simple priests ; the latter is in the hands of the bishops and the Pope. The former, every where the same, works by reason of its indelible character received in ordination, and is not de stroyed even by heresy on the part of him who has once received it ; while the efficacy of the latter is dependent upon its legitimate exercise, the Pope being the ultimate authority as to what is legitimate. Thus all power is placed in the hands of the clergy, who, by the sacrament of ordination, become dispensers of the gifts and graces of the Holy Spirit. Laymen are excluded from all such blessings, except as they receive them through the clergy, as well as from all participation in church government. The Reformation shattered to the lowest foundations all such assumptions. It taught the absolute and essential equality of clergy and laity, claimed all power of the Church for the Christian congregation composed of those who have heard and heeded God's Word, and re garded the ministerial office only as the official organ of the congregation. What God commits to the congregation, the congregation, as a whole, in all its public acts of worship, exercises through ministers as its representatives. As in dividuals, all are alike spiritual priests, conse crated as such in Holy Baptism ; but the con gregation, or the Church, must have indi-riduals who act as the organs or hands of the assembly. Besides this, the Reformation affirmed that all power in the Church is spiritual, that it is not a worldly government, but its realm is within men's hearts, and the Word is its only weapon and means of conquest. The Church, there fore, is entirely subordinated to the Holy Scrip tures, and exercises all its authority in the proper application of what is found in Scripture. The outward frame of church government the Reformers would have been content vrith lea-ring as it was, if the grounds of its authority had been properly placed, and no -riolence had been done the pnnciple enunciated in the Second Diet of Spires : " In matters pertaining to God's honor and our soul's salvation, every one must stand and give an account of himself before God." The principles of Lutheran Church Polity are outimed in Art. XXVIII. of the Augsburg Confession and Melanchthon's Appendix to the Schmalkald Articles. The former declares that the Church has no power but " to preach the gospel and administer the sacraments, ' ' and that the jurisdiction of bishops is only that " of remitting sin, judging concern ing doctrine, rejecting doctrine inconsistent -with the gospel, and excluding from the com munion of the Church, -without human force, but by the Word, those whose wickedness is known." "The bishops have no power to ordain anything contrary to the gospel." Nevertheless even in regard to matters not pre scribed by divine authority " the bishops might easily retain lawful obedience, if they would not urge men to observe such traditions as cannot be kept with a good conscience." In the Schmalkald Articles, the inherent right of every congregation to elect and set apart its own pastor, and the absolute right of all pastors, is asserted. But only in an extreme case would the assertion of the inherent right of the con gregation be justifiable, and that case could occur only when the cunent order or the rule of the bishops would be exercised against the gospel. When this extreme case occurred, and the bishops not only would not ordain pastors for the Evangelical Churches, but exerted all their influence to suppress the Reformation, a reorganization of the churches of the various Lutheran countries could not be avoided. Upon the rulers of these countries devolved the respon sibility for providing for this reorganization. They undertook the work, in a crisis where all was confusion, not as rulers, but as "chief members " of the Church, and, therefore, the most competent to assume leadership. In the hope, however, that the bishops might yet be won to the gospel, the rulers were regarded as temporary bishops, until the desired end would be reached. The application of these principles was not equally consistent in all parts of Lutheran Germany. There was a modification caused by the reaction against the Anabaptist movement, while a few exceptional compliances of the bishops rendered the entire former organi zation available. ' ' The institution of the Super intendent is the fundamental feature of Lu theran Church Government" {Th. Harnack). Through the Superintendent, the ruler exer cised his temporary authority. In 1538, at Wittenberg, pro-risionally, and a few years later, permanently, the Consistory or Church Board of theologians and jurists originated, of which the Superintendent became simply the execu tive. This also was generally followed. Polit ical duties soon mingled with spiritual in these bodies, and rendered it difficult to keep their Church Polity 106 Chnrch Polity spheres entirely distinct, not-withstanding the protests and struggles of the Reformers. In some Lutheran countries (Pomerania, Wuertem berg, Saxony, Hesse-Darmstadt, Mecklenburg, etc.), there was a still farther centralization of these functions in a General Superintendent, who was a member of the Consistory, and some times its President ; while, as a rule, Superin- dents are only executive officers, and not mem bers of the Consistory. Three systems of Church Polity have been elaborated in the Lutheran Church in Germany : I. The .ff/wco/a/ System, prevalent during the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy. Its chief ex pounders are Stephani, Reinkingk and Carpzov. It is defended by the chief dogmaticians, partic ularly John Gerhard. With some differences, these -writers agree in insisting that the civil and the ecclesiastical governments are to be carefully separated ; that the sphere of ecclesiastical gov ernment is to maintain pure doctrine, and, to this end, the oversight of the preaching and the settlement of theological contioversies ; that this government belongs to the Church itself, and, therefore, to the ruler, only as a chief member of the Church ; that the ruler has only external authority, i. e. such as belongs to the external administration, while the inner authority, i. e. that of deciding doctrinal contioversies, is entirely in the hands of the "Lehramt," or ministry ; and that the ciril and ecclesiastical functions of the raler belong to him only acci dentally. Carpzov's extensive elaboration of this system was caUed forth by the Pietistic Controversy. Under this system already, the rights of the people were pushed into the back ground by the statement that the raler acted as their representative. 2. The Territorial Sys tem, suggested by Hugo Grotius and elaborated by Christian Thomasius, is contioUed by the thought that the chief end of ecclesiastical government is the maintenance of peace, or reciprocal toleration. Emphasizing the fact that the true Church is invisible, it regards the Church, on its risible side, as a purely human institution, to be governed, like all other cor porations, by the -will of the members, subject to the authority of the ruler. External author ity is allowable only to prevent one from dis turbing the peace of other members. Arrange ments and safeguards for the preservation of purity of doctnne vanish, and, in the end, Caesaro-Papacy, as it is termed, or the absolute control of the Church by the ruler, as such appears. J. H. Boehmer has been the chief ex ponent of this system. It is the system chiefly advocated by Pietism, but vrith rationalistic ten dencies, that appear more boldly in CoUegialism. 3. The Collegial System, of which Pfaltis the founder, which affirms that the visible Church is beneath no other authority than the will of its members ; and by their agreement, every thing is to be determined. A distinctive feature of this system is the line dra-wn between y«ra majestatica and jura collegialia according to which the ruler retains the right to provide for the Church's reformation, its inspection and its defences, and for nothing more. The rights of the congregations are extended in later writers, even to that of changing the doctrine. Everything yields to the supreme wUl of majorities. In the Scandinavian countries, a modification of the original diocesan episcopacy was not hin dered as in Germany. The details must be sought for under the tieatment in this volume of the various countries. The Lutheran Churches in Holland were organized under a Presbyterian form, which has greatiy influenced all tiie Lu theran Churches m America. The mode of organization belonging entirely to the accidents of the Church, the breaking down of systems under peculiar stiess and the resort to new adaptations are only what is to be expected. Lutheranism, by its plasticity in externals, is inclined in strong monarchies to run into Epis copacy; in aristocracies, into Presbyterianism ; and in republics, into Congregationalism. The first Lutheran congregations in America were organized under the authority and subject to the government of churches in Europe : the Dutch in New York, under the Consistorium of Amsterdam ; the Swedes, on the Delaware, with a Provost and pastors reporting to the Church of Sweden. The beginning of an independent development was made by the Palatine pastors in New York. The Pennsylvania congregations originating independently gradually formed an aUiance as "The United Congregations," and placed themselves under the care of the author ities at Halle. The earliest organization, the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, founded in 1748, was upon the principle that all the pastors were pastors of all the congregations, but were dis tributed among the congregations, and assigned places by action of the Ministerium. In the president lay the office of superintendence or oversight ; while everything was reported to Halle, and subject to rerision there. Lay dele gates were present only to report concerning their pastors, and to confer with the ministers. During the first period, the leading features of the episcopal form of government prevailed. But this was much modified in 1792, when lay delegates were admitted, and from that time on have voted co-ordinately with pastors, while the Synod be came entirely independent of Halle. The lead ing features of the Synodical church organiza tion that has resulted have more in common vrith Synodical Bodies of the Reformed, than of the Lutheran churches. The General Bodies were intended at first merely to promote harmony of action between the various synods ; but gradually, as the benev olent work progressed, and the administiation of this work was handed over to the General Body, from the church societies and individual synods, a centralizing process became predomi nant. Conferences at first (1777) were chiefiy for devotional purposes and fraternal encourage ment, but have become local committees of synods for the local administration of synodical interests, and other business. By a confusion with the organizations of Presbyterians, the conference is sometimes regarded as the primary association of congregations, and the synod only as a union of conferences. This, however, is incorrect ; as congregations unite into synods, and then, for convenience, divide into local committees, i. e. conferences. Church Registers 107 Church and State The Church having no power but that of the Word, all synodical power is simply that of ad ministering the means of grace, and testifying to the tiuth. In regard to arrangements for the collection and administration of funds, the ar rangement of parishes, the adoption of uniform measures to advance church interests, the synod has no more power than the congregations unit ing in synod confer, when they accept the syn odical constitution. But here, as in all other associations, obligations thus assumed are to be fulfilled, unless they oppress consciences, when the remedy lies first in protest, and then in regular vrithdrawal. No pastor or congregation can justiy avail himself of the rights and privi leges of membership in a synod, without com plying with its rules, aiding in bearing burdens, and co-operating in aU its interests. Literature : Richter, A. L., Lehrbuch des Kathol. und Ev. Kirchenrechts, 7th ed., 1874 ; Hoefling, Grundsestze der Ev. Luth. Kirchen verfassung, 1850 ; Stahl, Die Kirchenverfassung nach Lehre und Recht der Protestanten, 1840 and 1862 ; Haupt, Der Episkopat der Deutschen Reformation, 1863 ; Hamack, Th.,inZoeckler's Handbuch Theolog. Wissenschaften, vol. iii. ; Kirchenrechi, von R. Sohm. 1892. (See also art. Bishop.) H. E. J. Church Registers, sometimes called Church Records, are books in which pastors enter their ministerial acts, such as baptisms, confirmations, marriages and burials. In Lutheran congrega tions it is customary also to record the names of persons recei-ring the Holy Communion. Some records include a list of pastors and other church officers, vrith dates of service, and a sum mary of important facts in the history of the congregation. 1. History. The custom of keeping church records is very ancient. From the fourth cen tury down we find allusion to them. At first they were caUed diptychs, from the circum stance of heing folded together, and contained Usts of those receiving baptism, and those who had died in the faith. The Lutheran Church has always enjoined upon its pastors the duty of entering their min isterial acts in books specially provided for this purpose. In the Brand. Nitrn. K. O. of 1533, it u stated to be "the duty of the pastors or church officers in every place, to record care fuUy in a special register, the names and sur names of chUdren whom they baptize, and of persons whom they join in marriage, and upon which day and in which year these were done." Similar directions, sometimes including the item of burials, are found in the Saxon General Articles, and numerous other evangelical .STiVcA- enordnungen of the sixteenth century. Fortunately most of the pastors who organ ized Lutheran congregations in this country realized the importance of keeping such records, and upon these we are dependent for many items of valuable information conceming the early history of old congregations. Some of these records or registers were kept in fuller detaU than is now customary ; e. g. giving the names of the parents of parties joined in mar riage, and adding brief biographical sketches of persons who were buried. Some of the earUest are recorded in Latin, and the columns giving the dates of birth and of baptism of children have the significant heading Natus and Renatus. 2. Vai,ue and Importance. The value of these church registers is very great, and increases as the years pass on. In some congregations they are the only historical records whereby may be known who were the pastors, and what families were connected with them. By means of these records many persons have been able to trace their genealogy and family history ; while in numerous instances heirship to property and claims for pensions have found their best proof in these books. It is therefore of the greatest importance that pastors be prompt and exact in entering their ministerial acts in these registers, which should be made of strong paper in stout binding, and kept where they are secure from injury by fire or other causes. 3. Contents AND Entries. A separate book or set of books should be kept for each congrega tion. If a pastor, who serves more than one congregation, enters all his acts in one book, it causes great confusion, and positive loss of record to some congregations when the pastoral district is divided. There should be at least two books for every .large congregation, a Register of Membership and a Record of Ministerial Acts. The first should contain a list of members -with date of connection, and vrith sufficient space after each for further entries of marriage, removal or death. It should also contain lists of officers elected, and of members received by confirmation or transfer, on each occasion. The communicant list in this book should be ananged by families in alphabetical order, leaving space between each for further entries from the same family. A simple mark after each name, under the proper date, vrill show who were present. The other book should contain the usual record of baptisms, marriages and funerals. Baptismal entries should give the names of the parents, also of the child (-with dates of birth and baptism), and of the sponsors. Marriage entries should give the full names of persons married, their residences and the date of the marriage. Burial records should give the name and age of the deceased, the dates of death and of burial, and, in cities, the place of interment. In the burial record of young persons the names of the parents, and of married women the name of the husband, should also be given. In all these records the entries should be written distinctly, and Unes of separation be tween each be drawn. J. Fr. Church and State are both ordinances of God. That the Church is such we need not prove here ; that the State also is appears from Romans 13 : 1 sqq. and 1 Pet. 2 : 13 sq. But there is a specific difference between these two ordinances. Hence Christ (Matt. 22 : 21) makes a clear distinction, and declares (John 18 : 36) his kingdom, i. e. his Church, not to be of this world, as the State is. During the time of his humiliation, whUst being the head of the Church, he disclaimed the office of a judge or a divider in temporal things (Luke 12 : 13 sq.). The Confessions of our Luth. Church accord vrith this. The Augs. Conf. (Art Church and State 108 Church and State XXVIII.) declares: "The epclesiastical and civil powers are not to be confounded. . . . Our teachers distinguish between the duties of each power, one from the other, and do warn all men to honor both powers, and to acknowledge both to be the [highest] gift and blessing of God" (Jacobs' Transl. p. 62 ; comp. the Apology, Art. XVI. p. 227 sq.). But the question of dis tinguishing between them is practically not an easy one. The Augs. Conf. in the same article (XXVIII.) states that ecclesiastical power is "a power, or commandment from God, of preaching the gospel, of remitting or retaining sins, and of administering the sacraments ; " that it " concemeth things eternal, and is ex ercised only by the ministry of the Word ; " whilst the "political administration," or the " magistracy," "defends not the minds, but the bodies, and bodily things, against manifest in juries ; and coerces men by the sword and cor poral punishments, that it may uphold civil justice and peace. ' ' But how easy it is to pass over from the one domain to the other is seen from the Preface to Luther's Small Catechism, where he says that children that refuse to re ceive religious instraction shall be notified "that the government was disposed to banish from the country all persons of such a rude and intractable character " (/. c. p. 360). And whilst this may be regarded as referring simply to a punishment for disobedience to parents, we read in the Appendix to the Smalcald Arti cles that ' ' especially the chief members of the Church, kings and princes, ought to guard the interests of the Church, and to see to it that errors be removed and consciences be healed [rightly instructed] " {I. c. p. 347). To be sure, it is stated that they ought to do this as " chief members of the Church," not as " kings and princes ; " but as merely the fact of their being such dignitaries of the State is the reason that they are called " chief members of the Church," it is very easy to see that this nice distinction might be forgotten and the kings and princes themselves as well as others might come to think that their secular dignity in itself conferred upon them the authority of govern ing the Church also. This actually happened in the Lutheran Church. The judicious John Gerhard expresses himself thus: "The mag istracy has been established by God, no less than the ministry, for the collection, preserva tion and extension of the Church, inasmuch as by -means of it both outward discipline and pub lic peace and tranquillity are preserved, without which the ministry of the Church would not readily perform its duty, and the collection and extension of the Church would scarcely have a place (I Tim. 2 : 2) " (Schmid's Doctr. The ology, trans, by Hay and Jacobs, p. 635). But then he also agrees with Hollaz, who declares : "The magistracy is employed vrith sacred af fairs, by carefully observing and performing those things which ought to be believed and to be done by all men who are to be saved (Psalm 2 : IO-I2), and by directing the Church and the Ch-ristian religion in their external government. {I. c. p. 635 sq.); and with Baier, who mentions as duties and prerogatives of the magistracy : "The appointing of suitable ministers of the Church, the erection and preservation of schools and houses of worship, as well as the providing for the honorable support of ministers, the ap pointing of visitations and councils, the framing and maintenance of the laws of the Church, and the contioUing of the revenues of the Church, and the preservation of church discipUne, the trial of heretical ministers, as also of those of bad character, and all other similar persons be longing to the churches and schools, and the compelling them to appear before a court, pro- -riding for the punishment of those conricted of heresies or crimes, and the abrogation of heresies that are manifest and have been condemned by the Church, and of idolatrous forms of worship, so that the Church be cleansed from them " {I. c. p. 636). It needs no proof that this is doing what the Augsburg Confession warns against, confounding the civil and the eccle siastical powers. But such in substance for centuries was the arrangement in the state churches in Germany and Scandinavia. In the history of the Church we find the fol lowing .principal forms of the relation between Church and State: A. Total separation of Church and State, neither demanding or exer cising any direct influence upon the government of the other, as was the case in the first cen turies of the Church and now is in our United States. B. Union of Church and State, the members, government, and duties of the one being at the same time those of the other : {a) Byzantinism in the East Roman Empire, Cae- saropapism in Germany and France from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century, Territorial- ism of the Protestant princes from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, as also the absolute State Sovereignty ot Louis XIV. in France and Joseph I. in Austria, where secular rulers arro gated also the government of the Church; {b) Papoecaesarism, or Hierocracy, where the re verse is the case, as it was during the universal monarchy of the Popes from the eleventh to the fourteenth century. C. Legal Co-ordina tion of Church and State, where a mutual agree ment has been reached concerning the spheres common to both, as now is the case between the R. Cath. Church and the modem states. D. Ecclesiastical Sovereignty of the State, where legislation and discipline in purely religious matters are left to the Church, the State, how ever, lending its power to enforce them, subor dinating the Church, though allowing it some influence, in matters common to both, and sup porting it by dotations and the like, granting at the same time liberty of conscience and wor ship to every citizen, as at present is the rule in Protestant (Germany. The ideal of a strictly Christian state, alto gether based on the fundamental truths of the Christian religion, without any compulsion and tyranny in religious matters, can be realized only where all the subjects of the State are pro fessing Christians, and is at present realized nowhere. Under the present circumstances, which -will hardly ever change for the better, the total separation of Church and State, as in substance we have it in our United States, is the only anangement that is just and fair to all citizens. Its strict and perfect execution would, Church Usages 109 Church Year of course, do away -with official prayer in Con gress and Legislatures, vrith the reading of the Bible, or any religious book, in the public schools, and the like, and also render impossi ble any interference on the part of the State with the education of children demanded by the conscience of parents, as long as those chU dren learn what the State has a right to demand its citizens should know. Luther entirely agreed with this principle of total separation between Church and State, but held that circumstances at his time were such that out of love to the Church the civil government had to take hold of the government of the Church also, and hoped the time would come when the conect pnnciple could be carried out fiUly. This time never camie. The princes assumed as right what was given them at first by necessity, and later Luth. theologians justified this as normal. According to Biblical principles any relation between Church and State is tolerable that leaves intact the pure administration of the means of grace, the Word and the sacraments ; for these contain aU that is necessary unto sal vation. Comp. Meusel, Handlexikon, V. pp. 370, 399. F. W. S. Church Usages, it is impossible to give a catalogue of the usages of the Lutheran Church. Some, like Exorcism and the Churching of Women, may be obsolete ; some, like Beichte, or personal confession before communion, after having been in abeyance are reri-ring ; some are emphasized in some place as a protest. They are non-essential, and in some cases have lost their meaning, but in others involve a con fession of the truth. They deserve study as historical monuments, often are significant, and give color and -rividness to our Church Ufe. But usages which long have been obsolete should be restored only when this -will be for edification ; and the usages of recent years which seem less practical should not be dis carded without patient consideration of their claims. (See Ceremonies.) E. T. H. Church Year. {Christian Year ; Ecclesias tical Year.) Our Lord and his disciples kept the Jewish feasts, and after his Ascension his followers continued to observe them. It was impossible for them to keep the Passover and the day of Pentecost without commemoration of the fulfilment of these Old Testament observances. Accordingly we find the records of the uni versal observance of Easter and Pentecost in the Christian Church as early as the second century. Dr. Schaff coUates i Cor. 16 : 8 vrith 1 Cor. 5 : 7, 8, to prove that Paul refers to the Christian celebration. Paul kept Pentecost -with the Gentile Christians of Ephesus (Acts 20: 6), "spent Easter of the year 58 -with Gentile Christians at Philippi, not departing until the feast was over. He then hastened on his jour ney and even sailed by Eptesus in order to keep Pentecost in Jerasalem " (Acts 18 : 21 ; 20 : 6, 16). In the later paschal contioversies, which re ferred to the time and not to the propriety of keeping Easter, the Ephesian bishops appealed to the authority of St. John. Polycarp of Smyrna said he had kept the Passover vrith John at the time for which he was arguing, and that other Apostles agreed with him ; while the Roman Church appealed as confidently to the example of its oldest bishops and to the order of Peter and Paul. Easter. Until the fifth century Easter was the beginning of the Church year. There was a dispute at the end of the second century between those who always celebrated it on a Sunday and those who thought it ought always to fall on the 14th of Nisan at the same time with the Pass over of the Jews, whether that were a week-day or not {Quariodedman Controversy). The CouncU of Nicaea (325) ordained that the first Sunday after the Spring Full Moon is to be kept as the day of the Resurrection. The Council did not decide by what means the proper day should be determined. Alexandria gave the law to the Eastern churches and, in the sixth century the Alexandrine calculation was adopted at Rome. At first the week preceding Easter was ob served as a fast. On Friday was commemorated the death of our Lord, and on Wednesday his betrayal. The fast gradually was lengthened and was marked by various degrees of severity. Finally, after the analogy of our Lord's Temp tation, the forty years' pilgrimage of the Israel ites, Moses' fast, and Elijah's, it was recognized as a forty days' fast. Sundays being festivals, the fast includes six weeks plus four days. This anangement was completed in the fifth and sixth centuries. St. Jerome speaks of the forty days' fast as an Apostolic tiadition, and Leo (ob. 461) declared it to have been instituted by the Apostles. The Greek fast begins nine weeks before Easter, on Septuagesima Sunday, keeping the Saturdays as well as the Sundays as festivals. In the Roman Church the priests begin their fast on Sept. Sunday. — The time of Easter fixes the date of Ascension Day and Whitsunday, the latter on the seventh Sunday, the former on the fortieth day, after. Observance of these days in the Evang. Luth. Church : Septuagesima (seventieth), Sexagesi- ma (sixtieth), and Quinquagesima{fdtieth) Sun days are so-called as counted backwards from Easter. In the Luth. Church, days are observed for the sake of the Word of God given on them, not as if one day were in itself holier than an other. Therefore, from the lessons and other Pro pria we may learn the significance of a day or season in the Church year. These three Sundays strike the keynote for the season of Lent. On Sept. the Gospel calls us to work in God's vine yard and the Epistle exhorts to strenuous en deavor that we be not cast-aways ; on Sex. the parable of the sower and the assurance that God's strength is made perfect in our weakness are given. (See the Collect.) On Quinq. almsgiving and charity are taught and enforced by our own dependence on the mercy of God. We would therefore gather that the object of keeping the fast of Lent {Fastenzeit) is {1 ) increased diligence in the serrice of the Church ; (2) more frequent hearing of the Word of God ; and (3) the bestowal on the needy of that which we may spare by self-denial. Ash Wednesday is the beginning of Lent. The Reformers objected to the law of fasting. They taught that one ought not to fast to the detri- Church Year 110 Church Year ment of his health, but should use and defend Christian liberty. But they did not overlook that by bodily exercise a man may be made fitter for all good and especially for prayer. (See Fast ing.) By many Lutherans Good Friday is ob served as a strict fast. The lessons on Ash Wednesday emphasize the proper idea of the fast. The Sundays in Lent receive their names from the first words of their Introits in the Latin serrice, Invocavit, Reminiscere, Oculi, Lestare, Judica. The lessons portray the vic torious humiliation of Christ in contrast with the story of our Lord's Passion, which is read and re-read in the week-day services. On the first Sunday, Christ overcomes Satan, and the Ep. shows how we also may approve ourselves in temptation ; on the second our Lord casts a demon out of the Canaanitish woman's daughter, and we are assured that (Jod intends our sanetification ; on the third he demon strates his triumph over the deril. It was cus tomary in ancient times, as it is in our churches, to use this season for the instruction of the catechumens. On these Sundays the catechumens are made ready to renounce the devil and all his works. On the fourth Sunday the Prophetical office of our Lord Jesus Christ is illustrated ; on the fifth, his Priestly ; and on the sixth, his Royal; and thus the cate chumens are prepared to confess his name. Meanwhile, the history of our Lord's passion is read in the minor services in such a way that, having been read through once, it is begun again on Judica (hence called Passion Sunday, and the week foUo-wing is called Passion Week). From Septuagesima Sunday until Easter Hal lelujah is not sung in any of the services. The altar in Lent is covered vrith violet ; in some places -with black. And many of the old orders forbade marriages at this time. It is contrary to the genius of the gospel to lay down strict rules for the observance of this season. It is enough that the Church should make use of increased opportunity for instraction, that we should abstain from distractions, that we should exercise ourselves in self-denial both for our own sakes and the edification of others, and that all diligence should be given to prepare the catechumens for confirmation and all for the Easter Communion. To this end the constant subject of meditation is the volun tary humiUation of our Sa-riour. Holy Week begins on Palm Sunday. Every day has its introit and collect. Wed. commemorates the betrayal of our Lord, and Thurs. the institution of the Holy Supper. Good Friday receives special observance. It formerly was the cus tom to recite the Passion of our Lord in solemn and dramatic song. The Bidding Prayer (see article) is said on Good Friday. It was an old custom then to pray for the Jews especially. The altar is clothed -with black. — Easter is the chief of festivals. The altar is clothed -with white. Hallelujah is heard again. It is the chief day of Communion. (The Reformers tried to prevent a too numerous communion, pro fessing that communicants should be present every Sunday.)— 7%^ Fifty Days after Easter {Quinquagesima) all were festivals. The Gos pels are taken from the Gospel of St. John and refer to the appearance of our Lord after his resurrection, the foundation and nature of his Church, and his promise of the Paraclete to continue his work in the world. The names of the Sundays from their introits are : Quasi- modogeniti, Misericordia, Jubilate, Cantate, Ro- gate, Exaudi.. The week from Rogate (Ask) Sunday to Exaudi (Hear, O Lord) was called the Betwoche (the week of prayer) , and on the days immediately preceding Ascension Day prayers were offered for God's blessing on the fraits of the earth. Ascension Day has its own serrice. Whitsunday (German Pfingsten, Greek Pente cost, Fiftieth Day) is the completion of the Easter Cycle. It celebrates the fulfilment of our Saviour's promise of the Paraclete and his estab lishment of the Church. As Easter is a memorial of the feast in which the firstfruits of the harvest were consecrated in the temple as well as the celebration of the resunection of Christ, the firstfruits from the dead, and also of our re demption, of which the deliverance from Egypt was a type ; so Whitsunday is both a memonal of the Hebrew feast of the completed harvest, celebrated in the actual beginning of the Church the fruit of redemption, and also answers to the giving of the Law on Sinai, which occurred on the fiftieth day after the Passover. It commemorates the adop tion and organization of the new covenant people of God. The altar is clothed -with red. Both Easter and Whitsunday received a two days' observance. Trinity. Trinity Sunday has been observed since the beginning of the fourteenth century. It is proper to sum up the festal half of the Church Year -with the celebration of the com pleted revelation of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. The Roman Catholic Church numbers the foUovring Sundays tiU Ad vent, from Pentecost. The Lutheran Church, adhering to the custom of German churches be fore the Reformation, numbers the Sundays after Trinity. At first (600-850 A. D.), the Propria for these days were ananged for six Sundays after Pentecost, five after Peter and Paul's day, June 29, and five after St. Law rence's, Aug. 10. This ancient anangement helps us to understand the scheme of the Sun days after Trinity. Ananged around Peter and Paul's day are lessons which refer to the Gath ering of the Church and the Formation of the Chnstian Life. The lessons grouped around St. Lawrence's day teach of the Life of the Church and the Progress of Christian Character. And those which follow St. Michael and All Angels' day, Sept. 29, refer to the Church Triumphant and the Goal of Christian Faith. No doubt other considerations modified the choice of these lessons. (For instance, the Gospel for the 4th in Lent may have cor responded with seedtime in Eastern lands, while that for the 7th after Trinity marks har vest time in Europe ; and the loth after Trinity keeps tiie traditional anniversary of the destrac- tion of Jerasalem). Our present system of Gos pels and Epistles got its final shape in the Carohngian period. Our Lutheran books agree with the Missals in use in Germany before the Reformation. Since the CouncU of Trent the Church Year 111 Claudius Roman Church has in some measure disturbed the old system. The Christmas Cycivangelical Lutheran College — ^this being the official name of this institution — was founded by the first German Evangelical-Lutheran Synod of Texas in 1S91, at Brenham, Texas, and was opened in Septem ber of that year. It affords an opportunity to acquire a thorough education. The institution is Dased on a religious (Lutheran) foundation. CoUegialism 133 Commentaries and the whole instruction and application of discipline grows from the principle that godli ness IS useful unto aU things. The courses of the college are six ; a Classical, a Normal, a Literary, a Commercial, a Preparatory and an Elementary. Enrolment from 50 to 60. Profes sors E. J. Romberg, Principal ; J. Haefner, Secretary ; W. J. Martin, Librarian. J. Hf. CoUegialism. See Church Polity. Collin, Nicholas, D. D., Swedish American pastor. Arrived, 1778. Pastor (1778-86) at Racoon and Pennsneck, N. J., and 1786-1831, of Gloria Dei Church, Wicacoa, Philadelphia. His later assistants and successors were Episco palians. D. 1831. Colloquium. A conference of theologians for the discussion of points of difference, with a view to remove the difficulties, and to unite those who formerly disagreed. Many famous conferences of this kind occurred in the history of the Lutheran Church, such as the Marburg Colloquium of 1529, between the Wittenberg theologians and the Swiss Reformers, the former led by Luther himself, the latter by Zwingli. Duke Wilhelm of Saxony arranged the colloquy of Altenburg (October, 1568), be tween the PhUippists (P. Eber and C. Cruciger, Jr.) andthe strict Lutherans (Wigand, Coeles- tin and Kirchner) , to restore peace in the sadly divided Lutheran Church, but without success. Later on, coUoquia were held at Leipzig (1631), Thorn (1645), Cassel (1661), to bring the Lu therans and the Reformed together. In our Lutheran Church of America now and then coUoquia were held for the purpose of uniting different parties or synods, and putting an end to the controversies by which they were sepa rated. Thus, in 1866, a colloquium was held be tween the Synod of Buffalo and the Missouri Synod. Of special importance was the col loquium held in Milwaukee Nov. 13th to 18th, 1867, between the Synods of Iowa and of Mis souri. The binding authority of the Symbolical Books, the so-called " Open Questions" (Theo logical Problems), the Lord's Day and the Last Things were discussed. The ' ' Official Pro- tokoU ' ' of this colloquium was published at St. Louis, 1868, but severely criticised by the Iowa Synod as inconect and unreliable. Between the Iowa Synod and the Joint Synod of Ohio a colloquium was held, July 19, 1893, in Michi gan City, Indiana. The following points were discussed : The Doctrine of the Church, the Ministry, the Authority of the Symbolical Books, Sunday, Open Questions, Chiliasm, Antichrist, Predestination and Conversion. If we search for direct practical results it must be admitted that these coUoquia, as a rule, have not been successful. In answer to a communication from the General Synod, " inviting interchange of correspondence and fraternal greetings," the General Council, at its seventh convention, in Erie, 1873, recommended the holding of a col loquium to which all Lutheran Bodies that un reservedly accept the Augsburg Confession should be invited. A committee was appointed to make the necessary anangements ; but the colloquium was never held. The term Colloquium is also used, especially in our American Lutheran Church, whenever an ordained minister who applies for admission to a synod or ministerium appears before the examining committee of that body, to satisfy them concerning his personal character, his theological tiaining and his confessional stand ing. CoUoquia Philobiblica was the name give to exegetical conferences between professors and students, instituted by the Pietists A. H. Francke, P. Anton, J. C. Schade, at the Univer sity of Leipzig in 1686. Spener highly approved of these " CoUoquia," as a means to stimulate the study of the Word of God. A. S. Colorado, Lutherans in, statistics for 1890. General Synod . . General Council . . Synodical Conference Norwegian Church Congrega Communi. tions. cants. • 7 220 • 7 519 . 6 394 . 1 75 1208 In Den-ver, there were six congregations and 540 communicants. Colors, ecclesiastical. See Church Year, ParamenTic. Commemoration of the Departed. See Dead, Prayers for. Commendation of the Dying, a form of prayer to be used at the bedside of the dying, in the nature of the case, cannot be stiictiy adhered to. But a form is useful, as a guide to a pastor and to other Christians. Loehe, while owning that our old Church Orders offer less material for this office, refers particularly to Joh. Schrader's Neu verbessertes und vollstdndiges, ganz aus- fu-hrliches Kirchenformular (1660) ; also to Braunschweig-Luneburg (1709), and Liibeck { 1585) . He gives the following brief form from Veit Dietrich (1544): "Let all kneel. Ad monish all to prayer. Say the Lord's Prayer ; then : Lord God, heavenly F'ather, through thy Son Jesus Christ thou hast promised that if two or three of us agree as touching anything they shall ask, it shall be done for them by my Father in heaven. Upon this promise we pray for this N., thy servant, for he has indeed been baptized in the Name of Jesus, and before our eyes has publicly confessed Thee : we pray thee graciously accept him, forgive his sins, mercifully keep him in all temptation, and bring him to everlasting salvation, through Jesus Christ, thy dear Son, our Lord." E. T. H. Commentaries, Lutheran, had then: rise in Luther's early lectures on the Psalms. His works from these early annotations, through the comments on the minor prophets, the power ful exegetic-dogmatic exposition of Galatians, remarks on the gospels, to the ripe and full work on Genesis, contain much, which in form lacks scientific precision, is sometimes too allegorical and dogmatic, but surpasses in spiritual insight and living power. (For list of L.'s exegt. works see KostUn's fuU catalogue of L.'s works, II. p. 723.) More scientific is the tieat ment of Melanchthon, who foUows, however, the dogmatic and polemic-apologetic aim, but IS cautious, popular in a nobler sense, though not free from aUegorizing and lacking the depth Common Service 133 Common Service of Luther. He commented on Genesis, Psalms, Proverbs, Daniel, etc. His best work is seen on Romans, publ. by Luther vrithout his knowl edge (1522), in Colossians with the many ex- cursi, and in the annotations on John. Bugen hagen wrote comments on Deuteronomy and the books of Sam. , on the Pauline letters and Acts in German, which gained him fame. Justus Jonas also lectured on biblical books. In short, all the early leaders of the Reformation have done much exegetical work, which deserves careful collection and study, and is marked by spiritual grasp and truthfulness, if not by brev ity and pure exposition without application. The best known scientific work of the next cen tury is the Biblia Illustraia of Calov, a re-elabo ration and criticism of the annotations of Grotius, which shows immense learning, great skill, and the tiuthful balance, that comes from obserring the analogy of faith ; but it is dogmatically colored. It was surpassed by the Gnomon of Bengel, vrith its excellent grammat ical judgment and devotion to biblical truth, presented in pregnant comments, as thorough and deep as they are brief. In our century, among the many works by Lutherans, especial notice is tc be given less to Klostermann's criti cal work than to PhUippi's clear commentary on Romans, Harless' exact work on Ephesians, Luthardt's li-ring grasp of John, Delitzsch's peer less exposition of Hebrews, von Hofmann's minute, but sometimes fanciful work, on the N. T. episties, beside the Keil-Delitzsch commen tary on the O. T., sober and thorough, but now antiquated, though not replaced by a conserva tive Luth. commentary. The Stiack-Zockler comm. on the O. and N. T. are conservative, but not sufficiently full. Of a more popular character are the Weimar Bible (1640), andthe Altenburg Bibelwerk (rev. St. Louis, l856) , vrith their doctrinal reliability, the pious W-urttembergerSummatien, far super ior to the Calwer Auslegungen, the invaluable Synopsis of Starke, scientific and practical, con taining extracts from Luther, Brenz, Osiander, etc., the Bibelwerk of von Gerlach, leading to a fuller knowledge of the indi-ridual passage and the Bible as a whole, the plain and preg nant Collegium Biblicum of Vilmar, the useful synthetic work of Dachsel, vrith its extracts from sermonic literature, the meditative Bibelstunden of Besser, unsurpassed in popularizing the best exposition, the more critical work of Gran, giv ing the educated laity some of the positive results of modem exegesis, but sometimes injur ing the analogy of faith. In America the first independent work of more permanent value after the translation of Tholuck's John by Dr. Krauth, were comments in the American Lange by Dr. C. F. Schaeffer, and in the American Meyer by Dr. Jacobs, Weidner's Com. on Mark, Stellhorn 's on the gospels, and the Luth. Commentary, generally practical but in part con servatively scientific and critical. J. H. Common Service, The. The titie of The Common Service for the Use of Evangelical Lutheran Congregations, prepared by a Joint Committee of the General Synod, General Council and United Synod of the South, first pubUshed 1888, and often since, is adopted in the book of the English District of the Missouri Synod ; translated into German, and also into Japanese. (See Liturgy; Agenda, Consen sus OF ; Agenda. ) In a letter of Nov. 5, 1783, Hy. Melchior Miihlenberg expressed the opinion ' ' that it would be a most delightful and advan tageous thing if all the Evangelical Lutheran Congregations in North America were united with one another, if they aU used the same order of service," etc. The EngUsh Liturgy of the Synod of Pennsylvania (i860), the Church Book (1868), and the Kirchenbuch (1877), and the Book of Worship of the Southern General Synod ( 1864) were steps towards the realization of this pious wish. In 1870 the venerable Dr. Bach man of Charleston urged upon the General Synod in the South consultation with other synods in order to secure a greater uniformity in our Books of Worship than at present exists. In 1874 that body appointed a com. to revise its ritual, which, in 1876, was instracted to confer vrith the General Synod and the General Coun cil on this subject. The project was urged at each subsequent convention, and meanwhile the Book of Worship was revised to accord with the Lutheran Service of the Reformers. In 1879 the General Council resolved to co-operate in the preparation of an Order of Service . . . " pro- -rided that the rale which shall decide all ques tions arising in its preparation shall be, the com mon consent of the pure Lutheran liturgies of the sixteenth century, and when there is not an entire agreement among them, the consent of the largest number of greatest weight." In 1881 an article was published on the feasibility of the project, explaining the proposed rule, and demonstrating that there is a normal Lu theran service. This article first contained the name, A Common Service for all English-speak ing Lutherans. The General Synod acceded to the proposition and to the rule in 1881. In 1882 the General Synod South adopted the changes in its service proposed by the com mittee, and stood committed to the Serrice afterwards ananged. In 1883 the General Synod took further action, and in April, 1884, repre sentatives of the three bodies met at Charleston, S. C. The way was prepared by the adoption of the rule proposed by the Council, and by agree ment upon the following principles : i. The re sult of the committee's labors must be re fened to the bodies they represent. 2. No ser vice dare be made binding on the congregation. 3. We are to provide the full Lutheran Serrice vrith all its pro-risions, for all who -wish to use it, and leave the congregations free in the use of it. Thereupon the Committees unanimously agreed upon the whole outline of the Commu nion and the Evening Service. Except as to the relative position of the I/Ord's Prayer and the Words of Institution in the former, there was nodifference of opinion. May 12-14,1885, all the representatives of the bodies met in Joint Com mittee at PhUa., the report of the work done at Charleston was amended and adopted, fixing the outline of the Normal Lutheran Service and in dicating the additions to it which the three com mittees -wished. To the preliminary principles was added : " If at any time or place the use of the f uU service is not desired, it is in entire con- Common Service 134 Concord, Book of formity -with good Lutheran usage that a simpler serrice may be prorided and used, in which only the principal parts of the serrice in their order are contained. ' ' The vote on every proposition was by committees ; and nothing was adopted in which all three committees did not concur. The consensus of the standard liturgies was recog nized as arbiter. The action of the Joint Commit tee was adopted by the General Synod and Gen eral Council in 1885, and by the General Synod South and its successor, the United Synod, in 1886. The sub-committee (Rev. B. M. Schmuck er, D. D., chairman. Rev. G. U. Wenner and Rev. Edward T. Hom, Sec'y.) met June, 1886, at Roanoke, Va., Aug. 31, Sept. 4, and Nov. 2-5, 1886, at Pottstown, Pa., to revise the MS., and for careful study of the proper Intioits and Col lects. The whole MS. containing all the pro- -risions of the service was completed, and sub mitted to the com. of each body separately, with the following result : Dec. 7-10, 1886, the General Synod's Com. adopted the MS. with certain amendments (all but two or three of which were subsequently accepted by the others), March, 1887, the General Council's Com. adopted it. And by Feb. 17, 1887, the approval of United Synod's Com. was received. The Joint Committee met in Phila. , March 22, 23, 1887. The points still at issue were fully dis cussed ; the difference as to the place of the Lord's Prayer in the Communion could not be reconciled ; but the final result was so satisfac tory that it was refened to the separate com mittees, who were directed to report to the sub committees, and it was directed thereupon ' ' to arrange the books, unless such differences shall have developed as require another consultation of the Joint Committee." The Com. of the General Synod met in N. Y., April 19, 1887, and adopted the MS. , and at its meeting in Omaha, Neb., the Gen. Synod adopted it and ordered it to be published. The same year both of the other bodies took the same action. Ac cordingly two editions came out, that of the United Synod (Duffie, Columbia, S. C, Holy Week, 1888) , and that of the Genl. Synod (Luth. Publ. House, PhUa., Whitsuntide, 1888). As the latter differed in a few non-essential re spects from the former, the Joint Committee (Rev! Dr. Valentine, chairman, Dr. Schmucker having departed this life) met in PhUa., Nov. 30, 1888, and reviewed and re-adopted the Ser vice and the record. The book of the United Synod was recognized as an accurate presenta tion of the standard MS. ; while it was conceded that the place of the Lord's Prayer had not been fixed by unanimous consent, and that each body was at liberty to use its own method of indicat ing the sense of the rubrics. The Secretary was directed to prepare a copy of the Standard Manuscript for each committee. The copy for the United Synod is deposited in the library of Newberry College, S. C. ; the General Council's, in the liturgical library at Mt. Airy, Phila. ; the General Synod also had a copy. It is to be regretted that the new edition of the Church Book used some liberty in its edition of the Common Service. Into the debates which fol lowed the publication of the Common Service, we cannot enter. Thousands of copies of it are in use, and its success is assured. The three bodies are now in consultation to secure a stand ard tianslation of Luther's Small Catechism and Common Orders for Ministerial Acts, as well as a common collection of Hymns. We may quote from Dr. Schmucker's preface {Southern [Standard] edition): "The Common Serrice here presented is intended to reproduce in Eng lish the consensus of these pure Lutheran Litur gies. It is therefore no new Service, such as the personal tastes of those who have prepared it would have selected and arranged ; but it is the old Lutheran Service, prepared by the men whom God raised up to reform the Service, as weU as the life and doctrine of the Church, and whom he plenteously endowed vrith the gifts of the Holy Ghost. . . . This Common Service is in its newest parts as old as the time of the Ref ormation ; in its order, and in the great body of its contents, it represents the pure Service of the Christian Church of the West from the earliest times ; it embraces all the essentials of worship from the establishment of the Christian Church on earth ; and it has given expression to the devotions of countless miUions of believers, throughout many generations. It can lay claim, as no other Order of Service now in use can, to be the Common Service of the Christian Church of all ages. It can reasonably be tendered to all Protestants, who use a fixed order, as the Service of the future, as it is of the past." See Jacobs, Lutheran Movement in England; Hom, Lutheran Sources of the Common Ser vice. E. T. H. Communicatio Idiomatum. See Chris tology. Communio Naturarum. See Christology. Communion. See Lord's Supper. Communion Books. The devotional litera ture of the Lutheran Church is particularly rich in books written for communicants, to aid them in their preparation for the service of Confes sion and Absolution, and for a proper reception of the Lord's Supper. These Communion Books are a combination of catechetical, homiletical, hymnological and ascetical elements. Luther's Betbuechlein (Little Prayer Book) of 1522, "A plain Christian form and minor, to help us to a knowledge of our sins and to right prayer, according to the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, and the Creed," to which was added, in 1527, his sermon on Confession and the Sacrament of the Altar, may properly be called the first Communion Book of the Lu theran Church. Among the most prominent writers of Communion Books of later times we mention Caspar Melissander (i58i),Andreas Osi ander (1590), J. Gottfried Olearius (1682), Chris tian Scriver (1658), Ahasvems Fritsch (about 1700), L. W. Marperger (1710), A. H. Francke (1720), Johann Lassen (1739), J. Ph. Fresenius (1746), J. Christian Ston (1755), J. Gottfried Scheibel (1827), W. Loehe (1836), S. K. Kapff (1840), Franz Delitzsch (1844). A. S. Concord, Book of. The coUection of Creeds and Symbolical Books, comprising the three oecumenical Creeds, -riz. the Apostles', the Nicene and the Athanasian, and the six partic ular Confessions of the Lutheran Church, viz. Concord, Formula of 125 Concord, Formula of the Augsburg, the Apology, the Schmalkald Articles, and tiie Formula of Concord, published in 1580, and replacing a large number of collec tions of Lutheran Confessions in various states of Germany, known as Corpora Doctrines. The term is occasionally applied to the Formula of Concord alone. The chief editions are : Ger man, Dresden (1580); Piping's, Leipzig (1703) ; Baumgarten's, HaUe (1747); Schoepf's, Dresden (1826-8); Koethe's, Leipzig (1830); Detzer's, Nuremberg (1830) ; Bodemann's, Hanover ; Ludwig's, New York (1854); St. Louis Jubilee edition (1880). Latin: Dresden (1580I ; Re- chenberg's (1678); Pfaff's, Tuebingen (1730); Weber's, Wittenberg ( 1809) ; Tittman's, Leipzig (1817) ; Hase's, Leipzig (1827) ; Meyer's, Goet tingen (1830); Francke's, Leipzig. German- LaT. : Reineccius', Leipzig (1708) ; Walch's, Jena (1750); Mueller's, Stuttgart (1849), and frequently since. Swedish : Nordkoeping (1730) ; Chicago (1870). English : Henkel's, New Market, Va. (1851) ; Revised (1854) ; Jacobs', PhUadelpHa (1882). H. E. J. Concord, Formula of. The amplest and most explicit of the Lutheran Confessions. It origi nated in the attempt to settle a number of con tioversies that distiacted the Lutheran churches of Germany for a number of years, from 1540. Some of these, as the Antinomian and Osian drian, involved the fundamental principles of the Reformation. Others, as the Adiaphoristic, Majoristic and Synergistic, were occasioned by the Leipzig Interim of 1548, and the conces sions made in this document to the demands of the Roman Catholics. StUl others proceeded from the desire, on the part of some theologians, to reduce the points of contioversy vrith the Reformed, and from the use of the Variata edition instead of the original Augsburg Con fession, in order to enable the Reformed to unite in a subscription. Particularly bitter was the controversy between the Philippists, or adherents of Melanchthon, and the so-called Gnesio-Lutherans, as Amsdorf and Flacius, who charged their opponents with a sunender of the Lutheran faith. Political complications, such as the jealousy between the two branches of the electoral House of Saxony, were mingled in the contest. As one or the other side predom inated, conflicting collections of Symbolical Books, known as Corpora Doctrines, were in tioduced into various states. Everything in the Lutheran churches was running into separa tism and particularism. In the attempt to bring an end to this confusion, Jacob Andres, ChanceUor of the University of Tuebingen, was most active. The Formula of Concord is due most of aU to his persistent efforts, frequent and extensive journeys, remarkable patience under attacks from both sides, between vvhich he undertook to mediate, his sound learning and devout spirit. After some years, he gained the earnest co-operation of Martin Chemnitz, Super intendent of Bransvrick, at once the most learned and most moderate of Lutheran theologians, whose strictness was tempered by his persMial admiration for his master, Melanchthon. The Formula was the matured result of the revision and re-elaboration of a series of theological documents. In 1573. Andrese pubhshed Six Sermons concerning Divisions among the The ologians ofthe Augsburg Confession (reprinted in Heppe's Geschichte der Luth. Concordien formel, as Appendix to Vol. I.). These were re-elaborated the next year, at the suggestion of Chemnitz and Chytrffius of Mecklenberg, into an Exposition of Existing Controversies, and after considerable revision, were subscribed in 1575, by the churches of Lower Saxony and Wuertemberg as the Swabian-Saxon Formula of Concord, jfiarly in 1576, this document was refened to its author, together -with another, known as the Maulbronn Formula, prepared by Luke Osiander and Balthasar Bidembach, and specifying various doctrinal enors, in order that the two might be combined into a new docu ment. The result was the Torgau Book, which is mainly the Swabian-Saxon Formula, and an article found in neither, on the Descent to Hell. The Torgau Book was then sent by the Elector of Saxony to the various countiies for the criti cism of theologians, and when the criticisms were sent in, Chemnitz, Andreae and Selnecker of Leipzig, met, in March, 1577, at the cloister of Bergen, near Magdeburg, and made a reri sion. ' This was followed by a second revision the next month, and a final re-rision in May, in which Musculus, Comeras and Chytraeus were added to the commission. All changes from the Torgau Book were purely verbal. The ultimate revision, first known as the Bergen Book, afterwards was called the Formula of Concord. Thus completed, the book was circulated for subscriptions, and received the signatures of 8,000 pastors and teachers, three Electors, 21 Princes, 22 Counts and 35 cities. Many states, however, -withheld their approval, some for theological, others, for political, and still others, for personal motives. Some countries, as the Palatinate, Brandenburg and Branswick, after wards -withdrew their subscriptions, while others that -withheld them at the beginning afterwards added theirs. In countries where the contio versies that called forth the Formida were never agitated, its adoption was unnecessary. The book has two main divisions, -viz. the Epitome and the Solid Declaration, both com prising the same material, the former simply gi-ring definitions and results, whUe the latter enters into arguments. Each consists of an Introduction, concerning the Rule of Faith, in which is found the only explicit confessional statement of the Lutheran Church conceming the Holy Scriptures, and 11 chapters tieating of I. Original Sin ; II. The Free WiU ; III. The Righteousness of Faith before God ; IV. Good Works ; V. The Law and the Gospel ; VI. The Third Use of the Law ; VII. The Lord's Sup per • VIII. The Person of Christ ; IX. The Descent of Christ to HeU ; X. Church Cere monies ; XI. God's Eternal Predestination and Election ; and an Appendix : Of Other Heretics and Sectarians. It is the office of the Formula in some par ticulars only to restate, -with reference to cur rent discussions, the doctrines taught by Luther and his associates, and in others to give them an ampler development. It clearly defines its own relation to the Augustana, of which it says : Concord, Formula of 136 Conferences "This Confession we -will retain to our latest breath, when we shall pass from this to the heavenly country, in order to stand before the tribunal of our Lord Jesus Christ." Of the Variata, it declares that "we have never re ceived it vrith the meaning that, in any part, it differ from the former Confession." The Cate chisms of Luther it calls "the Bible of the laity." Symbols and Confessions are declared to be valid only as testimonials " how the Holy Scriptures were understood and explained in controverted articles by the teachers who then lived. It guards the doctrine of Original Sin from extreme statements made by Flacius in the heat of controversy and wrong infer ences from the statements of Luther, and shows how doctrinal misunderstandings may readily occur from an ambiguous terminology. Adding nothing on the Free Will to Arts. II. , XVIII., of the Augsburg Confession, it only un folds and amplifies what is there taught. On the Righteousness of Faith, in view of the Osiandrian contioversy, it guards Art. IV. of the Augs burg Confession, from an interpretation against which Melanchthon had undertaken to fortify it in his much fuller and admirable statement of Justification in the Variata edition. On Good Works, it again settles a confusing controversy by showing the ambiguity of the terms em ployed by the contesting parties. On The Law and the Gospel, and the Third Use of the Law, it brings to confessional expression matters that Luther often put just as sharply and distinctly. These two articles, the American Cal-rinist, Dr. Shedd, reprints in full in the supplementary volume to his Dogmatic Theology as " an ex cellent statement ' ' (III. 458, sq. ) . The chapter on Predestination and Election is most moder ate and guarded, based chiefly on what Luther says in his Introduction to the Epistle to the Romans, stating eight incontrovertible proposi tions concerning the Plan of Salvation, which are revealed in the gospel, and must, therefore, have been included m God's gracious will. The same moderation is shown in the articles on the Descent and Church Ceremonies. The former warns against ' ' useless and curious ques tions." "How this occurred we must not curiously inquire, but reserve the knowledge of this for another world, where not only this mystery, but many others believed simply by us in this life, and which exceed the reach of our blind reason, shall be revealed." On Church Ceremonies, the position of Art XV. of the Augsburg Confession is re-enunciated, and the declaration made that ' ' one Church ought not to condemn another, because the one or the other have more or less ceremonies. ' ' The one article of the Formula which has occasioned the most controversy, and as to which its op ponents are most pronounced, is that on the Lord's Supper, which involves that also on the Person of Christ. Two points are particularly attacked, viz. the use of the Latin word " ore," " -with the mouth," thus emphasiring the ob jective presence of the Body and Blood of Christ, and its reception by all communicants, worthy and unworthy, and thus excluding entirely the thought of Calvinistic theolo gians of a sacramental reception only by faith ; and the other, the severity of the language against opponents. As to the latter, the writers of the Formula cannot be justly judged, unless the words of their opponents be read. The Formula reflects here the heat of the con troversy. To guard against all misconceptions on this account, the Preface declares : " It has been by no means our purpose to condemn such as en from simplicity of mind, and do not blaspheme the tmth of the heavenly doctrine." FoUo-wing the historical line of Arndt and Spener, both of whom were cordial subscrib ers to all the Symbolical Books, Muhlenberg and his associates, in laying the foundations of the Church in this country, embodied subscrip tion to the Formula in the first constitution of the first synod, and in the constitutions of many of the congregations. It is at present accepted by the majority of Lutheran synods and pastors in America. Of General Bodies, the General Synod alone does not officially in dorse it. Literature : Hutter, L. A., Concordia Con- cors (1614) ; Libri Christianes Concordies Ex- plicato (1608) ; Carpzov, J. B., Isagoge in Libros Symbolicos {-l6Ss) ; Schliisselberg, Cata- logus Hereticorum (1597-9) ; Anton, J. N., Geschichte der Concordienformel (1779) ; Goschel, C. F., Die Concordienformel (1858) ; F. H. R. Frank, Die Theologie der Concordi enformel (1858-1865) ; and the monograph of Walther ; the introduction to the editions of the Symbolical Books by Franck and Miiller ; the Dogmengeschichte of Thomasius ; the works on Symbolics by KoUner, Oehler, von Scheele and Nosgen. Cf. also Krauth, Conservative Refor mation, and Distindive Doctrines and Uses of General Bodies of the Lutheran Church, Phila delphia (1893). Adverse criticisms by Planck (1781), Heppe (1858), Dorner (1871), and Schaff (1877) ; also by the Roman CathoUcs, Bossuet in Variations of Protestantism, and Mohler in Symbolism. H. E. J. Concordia Colleges and Seminary. See Colleges and Seminaries. Concupiscence. See Original Sin. Conferences (of Synods). The term Con ference seems at first to have been somewhat vaguely and indiscriminately applied to meet ings of the Synod itself, when assembled for the purpose of consultation vrith congregations and their officers, or, to the coming together of a fe-w ministers and laymen -with a similar object in -riew. It is frequently used in both senses by Muhlenberg himself. In course of time, however, it was more generally restricted to the latter and more limited sense. Apparently the first meeting of the pastors of a certain limited territory caUed a conference was that held at New Holland in the fall of 1771 . The plan had been proposed to the Synod by Dr. Helmuth and adopted by it. The pastors in the immediate -ricinity came together for the purpose of mutual edification and consultation. The celebration of the Lord's Supper was gener ally connected vrith these gatherings. There was no permanent organization. The term of the officers elected expired with the adjoum- ment of the meeting. The Synod itself gener- Conferences 137 Confession of Sins ally fixed the time and the place of meeting, and always reserved to itself the right to do so. They might perhaps properly be called localized standing committees, which needed to complete their organization whenever called together. At first they were named after the town or the congregation most prominent in the district in which they were to meet : Yorktown, Lancaster, Macungy, Philadelphia, and New York. After wards, when New York had been formed into a separate synod, Baltimore, and Westem Vir ginia were added, — seven instead of five. Subsequently, when their sphere and func tions had been considerably modified they were designated by numbers : the first, the second, the third, the fourth, the fifth and the sixth. Under the most recent arrangement of its terri tory, the Ministerium of Penna. has retumed to the original mode of designation. It now has the PhUad. Engl. ; Philad. German, the Nonis- town, the AUento-wn, Reading, Lancaster, Potts- ville, Wilkes-Barre, Danville and Rajahmundry. They are now permanent organizations, the officers being elected for the entire year. It would be difficult to say whether this change has been entirely due to regular devel opment, or whether it is, in part at least, the result of outside pressure. For some of the synods which had come into existence between the time of the bringing together of the first conference and the time when these changes were made, had their own conferences, which were as permanently officered as was the synod itself. In some instances at least, some of these conferences assumed the rights and functions of synods. Whether their own synods in dorsed these assumptions need not be discussed here. Through the growth and the development of the synod some of the conferences have become very stiong, the AUentown and the Reading numbering nearly 24,000 communicants each and the Norristo-wn over 16,000. The Wilkes- Barre, Lancaster, Danville and Philada. Ger man range from io,ooo to 12,000. The PottsviUe and Philada. English are considerably smaller and number only from 7,000 to 8,000, only one- third of the AUentown or Reading. Within late years their rights and immunities have been considerably enlarged. They can now receive congregations into connection vrith synods. In various other ways they are made more important factors in the synod's work. These statements apply specifically to the conferences of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania. Those of the New York Ministerium, however, differ very little from them in general detaU. These, however, are not allowed to admit con gregations. They are the New York, the Albany, the Rochester and the English. This latter was organized speciaUy to care for the interests of the English congregations. The number of communicants belonging to a single conference here is naturally not as large as are the larger ones of the Ministerium of Penna. The conferences of the Augustana Synod, -riz. the New York, the Illinois, the Minnesota, the Iowa, the Kansas, the Nebraska, the Columbia and the California, although stiU designated as conferences, are-virtuaUy sub-synods, not only because of their very large membership, which in some instances almost reaches 50,000, but also because of the duties and functions assigned them. They attend to the mission work in their own bounds, they receive congregations, they maintain their own institutions of learning, etc. The synod proper has absolute control and care of only the one institution, Augustana College and Theological Seminary at Chicksland, Illi nois. The representatives of the conferences, elected by the conferences, on the basis of one pastor and one layman for every 1,500 communi cant members, constitute the synod, which meets once a year. J. W, E. Confession of Sins and Absolution. The Reformation found it necessary to thoroughly revise the current teaching on these topics. Confession of sins was taught to be either before God, or before one's neighbor or before a pastor. Confession before God should be both a habit, un derlying the entire Christian life, as the acknowl edgment of sin must underlie all trae prayer ; as well as the constant bringing to God the confes sion of all particular acts of sin which man dis covers he has committed. Of this, i John i : 8 speaks. This confession before God may occur either privately, as in Luke 18 : 14, or publicly where an entire congregation unites with one voice, as in Lev. 16 : 21 ; Joel 2 : 17. Confes sion to one's neighbor is either where one ac knowledges a sin he has committed to the one he has wronged, and begs his forgiveness (Matt. 5 : 23, 24 ; James 5 : 16), or where one publicly acknowledges to a congregation some great sin that he has committed. The latter is especially called for where the sin is connected -with pub lic offence. Confession to a pastor is a church usage, whereby consciences burdened with sin find relief and comfort in confiding to him their sense of guilt, as a preparation for the applica tion of the promises of the gospel. Such con fession, our Church has always taught, must be carefully distinguished from the confession to a priest demanded in the Mediaeval and Roman Church, {a) It was not compulsory or required as a condition of the assurance of forgiveness. {b) No enumeration of details or complete con fession to the pastor of particular sins was re quired, {c) " No one should privately confess to a priest, as a priest, but only as an ordinary brother and Christian " (Luther, Von der Beichte, 1521, Erlangen ed. 27: 378). Private confession, thus understood as not commanded in God's Word, but as the free and spontaneous privilege of the Christian, can be employed vrith great profit. If at times in some of our theo logians, the term ' ' auricular ' ' is used, this refers simply to the confidential character of the confession, as opposed to one that is public ; but, as the ordinary usage of the term has come to designate the feature of the constrained enu meration of sins among the Roman Catholics, its application is no longer allowable without a sacrifice of trath. The Confessional statements are found in Augsburg Confession, Arts. XI. and XXV. ; Apology, close of Chap. IV. ; Schmalkald Articles, Part IIL, Chap. VIIL; Small Catechism. It may also be observed that " Private Con fession " has also a vrider sense than "secret." Confession of Sins 128 Confession of Sins While often used of the confidential acknowl edgment of particular offences, it sometimes means the individual general confession of sin, as where an indi-ridual apart from all others clothes his confession in the general form em ployed by the Church. The great thought is that of the individualizing the sense of guilt, preparatory to receiving the Absolution. The confession of sin pervades all trae wor ship, from beginning to end. It blends -with the sublimest hymns, as the Gloria in Excelsis. But it is found particularly in two places. The first is where it introduces the full Sunday Morning Service, as expressing the inevitable sense of sinfulness awakened by the approach into God's presence. In the majority of the " Orders of Service " of the Reformation period, its omission is explained by the fact that such confession was made in a preceding Serrice. The form of confession pref ened was individual : " I, a poor sinful man, confess." A great con- tra.st with Pre-Reformation confessional prayers is in the fact that, instead of attempting to enumerate particular offences, it lays the great est stress upon natural depravity and the sinful habit of which every sinful deed is only at once the symptom and the exponent. The public confession before the Lord's Supper came into use in many Lutheran churches when the practice of private confession was omitted. The distinctive feature of the private confession may be in a measure retained where the confession is made indiridual, and where, as in some cases, the Absolution is im parted indiridually, although publicly, while the pastor's hand rests upon the penitent. The confessional prayer, in the public confessional service, is generally made -with the pastor lead ing; but the custom has often been for a layman, sometimes a woman, to lead, in order to prevent confusion as to the office of the pastor in the Declaration of Grace or Absolution. In various parts of the Lutheran Church of the nineteenth century, the restoration of private confession has been favored. As this can rest only upon the principles laid down in the Con fessions, it can never be very generally adopted ; but the right to it as a privilege must be mair tained. Absolution is defined by the Apology as "the promise of the forgiveness of sins, " "the voice of the gospel forgiring sins and consoling con sciences," " the word of God, which the power of the keys, by divine authority, pronounces concerning individuals." In other words, itis the application to the indi-ridual of the divine promise in Christ concerning the forgiveness of his sins. It is the exercise of the loosing key of Matt. i6 : 19 ; John 20 : 23. Its distinguish ing characteristic is its indiridualization of the promise, differing in this from the general preaching of the Word to the congregation as a whole. It differs from a sacrament, in that in the sacrament the promise, while indi-rid- ualized, is sealed by an external element and a special heavenly gift. It was not strange that in the formative period of Lutheran Theology, absolution was reckoned by Luther in his Baby lonian Captivity, and by Melanchthon in the Apology, as a sacrament ; for the absolution is. as Luther's Catechism declares, the chief thing in the sacrament. The place of the absolution in Lutheran is very different from that which it holds in Ro man Catholic and Reformed Theology. In neither can there be a true absolution. With the Roman Catholics, there can never be in this life a complete forgiveness of sins, since only those are forgiven which are known, lamented, confessed, and for which full satisfaction has been rendered. The priest forgives the sins thus provided for ; but the rest remain as a burden, many of them never recognized in this life, but to be satisfied for in Purgatory. No person can, therefore, be absolved, or receive the assurance that all God's thoughts of him are of love. There is no real absolution until Purgatory is passed. The Reformed system limits the atonement, and by declaring that Christ died only for the elect, and declaring that only God knows who are included in his purposes of love, prevents, in so far as it is con sistent with its principles, the assurance from ever reaching a soul that Christ has actually died for its sins and provided for its salvation. Lutheranism, with its doctrine of the univer sality of the atonement and the provision for complete justification made on God's part, can freely impart it upon the conditions stated in the gospel. The absolution thus given is not a prayer or wish, but the solemn affirmation of the divine promise. The doctrine of the efficacy of the ab solution is determined by that of the efficacy of the Word. As the Word is not merely declara tive, but conveys that which it declares, so vrith the absolution. As the Word, however, is offered only to faith, and -without faith does not save, so with the Gospel promise individualized in the absolution. "God requires faith, that we believe the absolution, as a voice sounding from Heaven " {Augsburg Confession, XXV.). The power of the keys being given to the church, i. e. the assembly of believers, the pastor, in administering the absolution, acts as the representative of the people through whom his office has come, in discharging a duty author ized and commanded them of God. In case of necessity, any Christian may absolve his brother {Smalcald Articles, Appendix, Part II. ); as the efficacy depends not upon the office, but uixjn the Word itself. ^ In a -wider sense of the term, a "General Absolution " is sometimes spoken of. A con troversy arose upon this subject in 1533, when Osiander aud Brenz in the Brandenburg-Niim- berg Order discontinued the practice hitherto prevalent at Niirnberg, where the pastor, after the sermon, read a general confession of sins followed by an absolution to the entire congre gation. Brenz and Osiander urged that such an absolution to a mixed assembly " in which are unbelievers, fanatics, impenitent persons, adul terers, Ucentious usurers, drankards, murderers, none of whom wants the absolution, and much less has an earnest purpose to reform his life," -was -without scriptural wanant or precedent in the Ancient Church. Such could be given either conditionally, i. e. "If you have faith, I ab solve you," or unconditionally, i. e. "I absolve Confessionalism 139 Confessionalism you, whether you have repentance and faith, or no." The former is no real absolution ; the latter is a falsehood and blasphemy. The gen eral feeling at Niirnberg opposed the two theo logians mentioned. The city councU interfered. AU the pastors but Osiander yielded. Never theless the chief burden of stating the grounds of the contioversy fell on Brenz. ' ' Absolution, ' ' he says, " is an application of the general preach ing to a particular person, who, because of the burden resting on his conscience, is not suffi ciently assured by the general preaching, . . . who always thinks : ' The preaching refers not to me but to others, viz. to saints. ' . . . Hence to the preaching, which is a general absolution, private absolution has been added, that the burdened soul may know that the forgiveness of sins belongs to it. But if after the sermon, the absolution be declared not to a particular person, but to the great mass, and pearls be thrown be fore svrine, a burdened soul finds no relief there in." Upon an appeal tothe Wittenberg theolo gians, Luther and his colleagues advised a compromise, allowing the use of both the private and the so-caUed ' ' general absolution ' ' (De Wette's Luther's Brief e, IV. 480 sqq. ) . The conespondence shows that Osiander's excessive controversial spirit had led to extravagant positions, and that Luther felt not only that the cause of the gospel was being disgraced by the bitterness that was prevailing, but especially that Osiander's course involved the necessity of private absolution, which Luther could not ad mit. "We cannot and will not burden con science so heavily as though, without private absolution, there were no forgiveness of sins. For from the beginning of the world to the times of Christ, they did not have private abso lution, but had to console themselves with the general promise and build their faith thereon. Although, because of his fall, Da-rid had private absolution, nevertheless vrith respect to other sins, before and afterwards, he had to hold to the general absolution, and preaching, as also Isaiah and others." The question, however, is one of the use of terms. It is not as to whether the forgiveness of sins is confened through the general preaching of the Word, but as to whether that can be called in the proper sense an " ab solution." The Common Service uses " Declar ation of Grace," instead of " Absolution," in the Church Book of General Council, prior to the Morning Service. The change was made upon the principle just noted. See especially Klie foth, Th., Die Beichte und Aosolution; Lit urgische Abhandlungen, II., Schwerin, 1856. H. E. J. Confessionalism, Lutheran. Confessional ism is a strict adherence to the confessions of some particular church or sect ; it is the conforming in teaching and preaching vrith scrupulous fi delity to the letter and spirit of the confessional ¦writings of some particular division of the Christian Church. Lutheran C. is the strict ad herence to the Lutheran confessions in letter and spirit. It is e-rident that, from this defini tion, two kinds of C. result, or are at least pos sible, to -wit : 1. A conservative, healthy, and evangelical C, which, whilst carefully guard ing the letter and terms of the confessions, 9 lays no less stress upon their spirit and their historic interpretation ; and 2. an extreme, un healthy, and imevangelical C, which, whilst it may claim to interpret the confessions in the spirit of their authors and in their historical connection, lays, however, greater stress upon the terms used, and gives to the documents an interpretation that is neither wananted by the context nor intended by their authors. Extreme confessionalists are apt to go beyond the conf es- sionsand draw illegitimate inferences from them. 1. Conf. presupposes the existence of a confes sion. The confessions of Protestant Churches have been called a "paper-pope," a tyrannical yoke placed upon the necks of theological pro fessors, pastors and churches. But apart from the historical necessity of confessions it is forgotten that, without confessions as a norm, the young men in institutions of learning and the members in the churches would have no protection against dangerous errors and wild fancies. " It is one of the greatest sins and calamities of the Church of our day, that there is widespread and utter carelessness in regard to doctrine, or a fixed aversion to it ; in some a contempt for it, in many an ignorance or an ignoring of it. Men sometimes array the gospel against itself by urging that they want the gospel ; they don't want doctrine ; as if there could be any real gospel which is not doctrine" {Krauth). 2. The Luth. Church owes its existence to the conviction that its confessions depart in no par ticular from the faith taught in the Word of God. We are Lutherans because we are con- -rinced ' ' that the doctrine of our Confession is. drawn from the Scripture " {A. C. 35, 8) ; that in "the summary of doctrine which is in our churches, there is nothing which conflicts with the Scriptures " (ib. 49 : i) ; that "touchingthe Articles of Faith, nothing is taught in our churches in conflict with Holy Scripture " (ib. 69 : 5). Comp. Krauth, Theses on the Galesburg Declaration, 44 and 55. 3. A sound Lutheran C, con-rinced that the confessions of the Lu theran Church contain nothing which conflicts -with Holy Scripture, and that they are fuUy grounded in the Word of God, interprets these confessions in accordance with the great central doctrine of justification by faith, the Augsburg Confession m the light of the remaining con fessions, and the terms and sentences in their literal meaning and in the sense which the au thors desired to convey. Compare Doctrinal Basis of General Council, Articles VIII. and IX. : " We accept and acknowledge the doctrines of the Unalt. A. C. in its original sense as through out in conformity with the pure truth of which God's word is the only rale. ... In thus for mally accepting and acknowledging the Un. A. C. we declare our conviction that the other confessions of the Ev. Luth. Ch., inasmuch as they set forth none other than its system of doctrine, and articles of faith, are of necessity pure and scriptural . . . and all of them are, with the Un. A. C, in perfect harmony of one and the same scriptural faith." A sound Luth. C. strives also to conform its church service to the model services of the purest periods in the Lutheran Church ; it does not admit to the pul pits of the Lutheran Church ministers, bound to Confessionalism 130 Confirmation systems which in whole or in part conflict with the Word of God (see Pulpit Fellowship) ; it cannot invite to the altar persons belong ing to communions which reject the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's Supper (see ALTAR Fel lowship) ; but it does hold that, wherever the Word of God is preached and the sacraments are administered in accordance therewith, salvation is possible in spite of the errors found in such communions ; it does not teach that salvation is found only in the Lutheran Church ; and heart ily extends the hand of fellowship to all who fully and unreservedly -will accept the Augsburg Confession. 4. A sound Lutheran C. must repu diate any movement which disparages the con fessions, repudiates the Augsburg Confession, and supplants it by a new confession ( Franck ean Synod and Definite Synodical Platform), rejects certain articles and statements as unscrip tural, the introduction and use of all literature in churches and schools which does not accord with the teaching and practice and spirit of the Lutheran Church, and all movements of whatever name which openly and secretly undermine the Church, the only dirinely appointed institution of salvation, alienate its members, and thwart its influence. 5. At different periods in the his tory of the Lutheran Church we also find an extreme, unhealthy, and unevangelical C. Stiange as the position of these ultia-confes- sionalists is at times, it would be unfair to charge them -with a desire of teaching views which are at variance with Scripture and the confessions. They have no such desire. They are sincere in their conviction that the doctrines taught in the confessions of the Lutheran Church are thoroughly scriptural. It is in the heat of the battle against enor, or what they suppose to be enor, that they permit themselves to take extreme positions, and state and defend propositions which are not always in strict ac cordance with gospel teaching. Most of them, however, when shown their enor and the dan ger attending it, retreated from the extreme position. When, after Luther's death, George Major claimed that good works were necessary to salvation, Nic. von Amsdorf, seeing the sola fide endangered, maintained that good works are injunous to salvation. When, in the synergistic discussion, Victor Strigel taught that man, to some extent, co-operated with the Holy Spirit in his conversion, Matth. Flacius went so far in the discussion with Strigel at Weimar, in 1560, as to declare that original sin is not something " accidental," but an element in the constitution of man, something " essen tial " in man, and a part of man, vrithout which man could not be complete. FI., shortly before his death, seeing his enor, retracted it. A good deal of the agitation and bitterness against the Pietism of Ph. J. Spener and Aug. Herm. Francke on the part of the faculty of the Uni versity of Leipzig, led by J. Benedict Carpzov II., and the faculty of the University of Witten berg, under the leadership of Joh. Deutschmann, who, in 1695, published a brochure in which he charged Spener with 264 heresies, must be laid at the door of extreme confessionalism. Since the publication, in 1817, of the 95 theses by Cl. Harms of Kiel and the giving out of the parole "back to Luther," an appreciation of the Lu theran confessions which, during the period of the regime of rationalism, had been almost for gotten, began to re-assert itself in many quar ters. And the attempt on the part of the king of Prussia to introduce -with force of arms his " union agenda " in Lutheran Churches caused many Lutherans to prize their confessions still more. The formation of a distinct organiza tion, the Ev. Luth. Church of Prassia, was the result. From this subsequently separated the "Immanuel Synode " of Germany. Other smaller bodies have been formed in recent years, cutting loose from Lutheran State Churches in Germany, and all of them defend ing their right, yea urging the necessity, for their existence hy an appeal to the confessions, It is easy to see that it was not always a sound C. which led to this extreme step ; neither were the relations of these parties to each other, and to the state churches, always char acterized by that moderation and charity which is the mark of a conservative C. The founders of the Luth. Ch. in this country were faithful adherents to the confesssions of their Church. In 1638 the Lutheran Swedes settled at Wil mington, Del. The instructions to their gov ernor were, " that divine service be zealously performed according to the Unaltered Augs burg Conf." At the time when the Church at Amsterdam sent pastors to the Dutch Lu therans along the Hudson the consistory at Amsterdam required every Lutheran pastor in Holland to preach annually a sermon on the Augsb. Conf. When, in 1748, the first Lutheran Synod was organized by Muhlenberg and his co-laborers, all men from Halle, it re quired of every minister received ' ' that he fully accept the Word of God and our Symbolical Books. ' ' But an age of deterioration followed, caused by the great indifference -with reference to religious matters prevalent towards the close of the last and at the beginning of this century. About the middle of the present century a vig orous reaction took place. A sound C. began to assert itself both in the East and in the West, in the North aud in the South. But before a score of years had passed one extieme party unchurched the other. Contentions arose con cerning the doctrines on the ministiy, the Church, chiliasm, and more recently on predes tination or election. J. N. Confirmation. Confirmation in the Evan gelical Church, however different its conception, IS historically the outgrowth of the rite known by the same name in the Roman Catholic Church. Considered a continuation and de velopment of the symbolical laying on of hands and anointing -with chrism practised by the ancient Church in connection -with baptism, confirmation came to be regarded as a sacra ment. As such it was administered by the bishop and was supposed to confirm and in crease the grace received in baptism and to con fer a character indelebilis. Like the Novatians and the Donatists of old, all the reforming ten dencies opposed the Romish Confirmation. The Waldenses held that C. should be adminis tered by the imposition of hands only, and that every layman was privUeged to administer it. ConHrmation 131 Congregation The 'Reformers are unanimous in rejecting the sacramental character of C. Thus Luther in his Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520), though he is vrilling to retain it as an ecclesiastical rite. Owing to its exclusive ad ministiation by the bishops and the stiess laid upon its ceremonial, the Reformers strongly opposed its existing form. In the A. C. it is implicitiy, in the Apology expressly, relegated to the position of an ecclesiastical rite. In the Ratisbon CoUoquium (1541), and in the Witten berg Reformation (1545), it is recognized as per missible and expedient, stress being laid on the instraction preceding it. In the Augsburg and the Leipzig Interims of 1548, C. was enjoined and accordingly retained in the Saxon Agenda of 1549- Accordingly, in all evangelical countries, in struction of the youth in the Catechism, being regarded as the essential of C, was zealously practised, whilst with regard to the act of C. itself, the performance or non-performance of which was considered a matter of evangelical freedom, some, especially the gnesio-Lutheran churches, did not, whilst others did, adopt it, though in a purified form. Luther's Order of Serrice and Formula Missae (1523), makes no mention of it. But here, as well as in the various articles of visitation and agenda of the period, stress is laid on an examination in the Catechism before a communicant is admitted to the Lord's table. The Saxon General Articles of 1557 pro- -ride for an annual examination in the Catechism for those who are of such age that they may be admitted to communion, andthe Agenda of 1580, after a similar provision, adds that this is the trae Christian confirmation. A transition to a formal act of confirmation is found in the Church orders that pro-ride for a public examination of the youth and appoint certain days for their first communion. The act of C. itself was earliest in use in the Evang. Church in Pomerania, in tioduced by Bugenhagen. In the second half of the sixteenth century the act of C. was not ob served in central Germany, but is found, though not universally, in the northern and also in the western and southwestern provinces. C. again very generally fell into disuse. The chief causes were the unsettled state of affairs brought about by the Thirty Years War, and the dis inclination to the adiaphora occasioned by the adiaphoristic controversy. Yet it was not every where discontinued, and was during this period recommended by Heshusius, JB^. Hunnius, L. Hutter, Gerhard, Calixt, and others, and was introduced in Frankfurt in 1650 by Heinsius. It was Spener's activit}' and influence, however, that brought about the re-introduction of the rite and its general adoption in the Luth. Church. His conception and application of C, however, differed somewhat from that of the pre-rious period. He looks upon C. as the re newal of the baptismal covenant, the public personal repetition of the confession and the vovvs made by the sponsors. He and the pietistic school after him emphasize the act over against the preceding instraction, and lay stress on the emotional and awakening feature. This pietistic conception was indeed itself a reaction, but it paved the way for the rationalistic conception. where the emphasis is again on the act of C, which is exalted at the expense of baptism, and becomes an act of the individual, who tries,by the stirring up of his emotions, to be awakened to the fulfilment of his baptismal duty. C. has since become an established fact ih the Luth. Church everywhere, and with the reawakening of Chris tian life and confessionalism has been purified of much of the pietistic and rationalizing concep tions clinging to it from the former period. Usually an extended special instruction — ^in the English-speaking Churches in America often only a course of lectures — precedes C. The act itself consists of the confession, the benedic tion, -with laying on of hands, and the prayer of the congregation. The Confession, however, is generally separated into the elements of public examination, which often is held on another day previous to C, and the confession of faith and the vow of faithfulness in C. itself. The time is usually Palm Sunday, Quasimodogeniti, or Whitsunday. — LiT. : Bachmann, Die Con firmation der Catechumenen in der evang. Kirche, 3 vols. Berlin (1852) ; W. Caspari, Die Evang. Konfirmation, vomdml. in der luth. Kirche. G. C. F. H. Confiteor. See Liturgy. Congregation is originally a Latin word {con- gregatio) , denoting a gathering, an assembling together ; a union, a society, an association. In the English translation of the Bible it stands in the Old Testament especially for edah, an appointed meeting, and kahal, an assembly called together, both expressions as a rule refer ring to the people of God ; in the New Testa ment it occurs only once (Acts 13 : 43) for " Synagogue," a bringing together, a meeting, a place for meeting. The word that in the LXX. translation of the Old Testament is mostly used for kahal is ekklesia, according to its ety mology and classical use "properly a gathering of citizens called out of their homes into some public place, an assembly" {Grimm-Thayer) ; and this is the word that in the New Testament as a rule denotes what we call a congregation, ' ' a number of persons met for religious worship, or the organized body of persons worshipping at one place " {Standard Dictionary) . The Eng lish translation of this New Testament term is " church " (comp. e. g. 1 Cor. 11 : 18 ; 14 : 19, 35 ; Acts 13 : i), a word that, like the German form kirche, is a modification of the Greek kuriakon{somethingthat belongs to the kurios. Lord) and means "the house of the Lord," i. e. of Christ, both in its proper and in its figurative sense (comp. i Tim. 3 : 15 ; 2 Tim. 2 : 19, 39). The New Testament ekklesia and the English " church " have this in common, that both de note the Church universal, that is, the whole number of those that through the means of grace, the Word of God and the sacraments, have be come believers in Christ, scattered as they are all over the world, as well as a local church, or congregation, consisting of a greater or smaller number of such believers (e. g. Matt. 16 : 18 ; Eph. 5 : 23 sqq. ; I Tim. 3 : 15 ; Acts ii : 22 ; 13 : I ; 14 : 23 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 2 ; 16 : 19). We do not find that a distinction is made in the New Testament between the pri-rileges and the authority of the Church universal and its local Congregation 133 Consecration branches. If there should be any doubt whether, e. g., in Matt. i8 : 17, the local church or congregation is meant, or at least included, this doubt must vanish when we see that the apostle rebukes " the Church of God which is at Corinth " (i Cor. 1 : 2)for not having done what, in Matt. 18 : 17, is stated to be the prerogative and duty of the " Church," namely, to take the last step in the discipline of impenitent sinners and, if need be, put them out of the Church (i Cor. 5 : 4). This proves that the local church, or congregation, is, as already the same name applied to both indicates, the local repre sentative of the Church universal, possessing, in its own sphere, all the benefits and powers granted by Christ to the Church universal ; and that this includes the office of the keys, the ex ercise of church discipline is proved by the passages just cited. But from this follows also that a local church, or congregation, ought never to forget that it is a constitutent part of the Church universal, a member of the same body of Christ (cf. Rom. 12 : 5 ; Eph. 5 : 25 sqq.), and not an entirely isolated body, with out any connection with other bodies of the same character. Because there is only "one body, and one spirit, one hope, one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all," therefore not only every individual Christian but also every local church, or congregation, should be "giving diligence to keep the unity of the spirit in the bond of peace " (Eph. 4 : 3 sqq. ) . This in the first place and necessarily refers to the pure doctrine in which every con gregation ought to be united with the Church universal ; but then also external, and hence in no way essential, matters, e. g. form of govern ment and Liturgy, should not be adopted, re tained, and abolished -without due regard to the probable influence upon the unity of the spirit. Not only episcopal and papal centralization and usurpation of power, but also selfish and licen tious ignoring of existing ties and obligations is in conflict with the biblical conception of a Christian congregation. If a congregation is what, on biblical grounds, we have stated it to be, a local representation of the Church universal, possessing in its own sphere all the privileges of this Church, includ ing the means of grace and the office of the keys, it certainly cannot be denied that it also has the inherent right and authority to call its own minister who is publicly to administer those means and to exercise the functions of that office. That this logical deduction is correct is proved also by the usage of the primi tive Church, not even the apostles appointing ministers of the Church without the decisive co-operation of the Church or the respective con gregations (cf. Acts I : X5sqq. ; 6 : 1-6 ; 14 : 23 ; 2 Cor. 8 : 19. Cp. also LaiTy) . Hence our Con fession says: " Wherever theChurch is, there is the authority [command] to administer the gospel. Therefore it is necessary for the Church to retain the authority to call, elect, and ordain ministers. And this authority is a gift exclu sively given to the Church, which no human power can -wrest from the Church. . . . Where there is therefore a true Church, the right to elect and ordain -ministers necessarily exists" {Smalcald Articles, Appendix, P. II. s. 67; Jacobs' Transl. p. 349 sq.). "The CouncU of Nice determined also that bishops should be elected by their own churches, in the presence of a neighboring bishop or of several. The same was observed also m the West and in the Latin churches, as Cyprian and Augustine tes tify. For Cj^rian says in his fourth letter to Cornelius : . . ' The bishop should be chosen in the presence of the people, who have kno-wn most fully the life of each one, which we also see was done among us in the ordination of our coUeague, Sabinus, so that by the suffrage of the entire brotherhood, and by the judgment of the bishops who had assembled in their pres ence, the episcopate was conferred and hands imposed upon him.' " (Ibid., P. I. s. 13 sq., p. 340 sq.). And Luther says in his Refutation of the XII. Articles of the Peasants : "A whole congregation shall have the right to choose and depose a minister. This article is right, if it were only executed in a Christian manner" (Walch's ed. XI. p. 84). F. W. S. Connecticut, Lutherans in. According to the census of 1890, there were in the state 37 congregations and 5,762 communicants. Of these the General Council had 24 congs. and 3,767 comms., di-rided between the Swedish Augustana and New York Synods. The Synodi cal Conference had eight congs. and 1,405 comms., and the General Synod two congs. both in Hartford Co., -with 190 comms. Conrad, Frederick William, b. in Pine- grove, Schuylkill County, Pa., Jan. 3, 1816. Studied theology in the Seminary at Gettysburg from 1837 to 1840. In 1841, was called as pastor of the Lutheran churches at Waynesboro, Frank lin County, Pa. ; in 1844, as pastor of St. John's Church, Hagerstown, Md ; and in 1850, was elected Professor of Modern Languages and Homiletics in Wittenberg College, Springfield, O. In 1855, became pastor of the First Lutheran Church in Dajrton, O. In 1862, he removed to Lancaster, Pa. , was pastor of Trinity Lutheran Church. In 1864, was called to the church in Chambersburg, Pa. Extensive revivals of reli gion occuned in all the churches which he served as pastor. In 1863, he became part owner and editor of the Lutheran Observer at Baltimore, and on its removal to PhUadelphia, in 1866, became its chief editor, in which position he continued to the time of his death on April 10, 1898. Dr. C. was prominent in all the work of the General Synod. He aided largely and successfully in the founding and the endow ment of her colleges and theological semi naries, and in all missionary endeavor. He was a frequent contributor to the Evangelical Re view and Lutheran Quarterly. His edition of Luther's Catechism has had a large circulation, and the Lutheran Annual and Guide, of which he is joint author, is a work of permanent in terest and value. v. L. C. Consecration of a Church. The custom is generally retained in our churches, although none of the older Orders contain forms for the act. In the Romish sense of sanctifying that vvhich before was unholy, the Lutherans rejected the doctrine of the consecration of inanimate thmgs {Smalcald Articles 15). The evangeU- Consecration 138 Constitutions cal basis for the service is found in i Timothy 4 : 4-5> and in this sense Luther himself conse crated a church in 1546. His sermon on that occasion is a classic exposition of the evangeli cal doctrine on this question. The ceremonies of consecration as they are now found in most Lutheran Agenda have symbolical significance, and -with the procession and musical accompan iment may be made popiUar and edifying. (See Hasse, Zeichensprache, p. 152. ) G. U. W. Consecration of the Eucharist is a setting apart of the bread and vrine for sacred use by re citing the words of the institution. It is based upon I Corinthians 10 : 16, "The cup of blessing which we bless," etc., and is retained as an es sential part of the celebration. The plural form, " -which we bless," marks it as an act of wor ship on the part of the whole congregation, and its validity is therefore not dependent upon the worthiness of the minister. Cf. Schmid, Dog- ¦matik, ? 53, 8 ; Formula Concordies, s. v. ; Zezschvritz, Praki. Theol., s. v. ; KUefoth, Liturg. Abh., vol. v., s. v. G. U. W. Consensus Patrum. By this is meant the consentient teaching of the church Fathers of the first five Christian centuries, though per fect consent of teaching does not exist in the writings of the Fathers. The Fathers are to be regarded as vritnesses, not as authoritative judges, of revealed trath, and their -writings are to be subordinated to the Scriptures, the sole decisive rale of faith. "The Consensus Patrum is not an apodeictic and fundamental source of theology, nor, strictly speaking, a secondary source of the Christian faith, but is to be esteemed as a ground of credibility " {Hollaz). (See also Patristics.) J. W. R. Constitutions, Congregational. The va rious provisions for congregational organiza tion made in the first period of the Lutheran Church in Germany may be learned from the Kirchenordnungen. See especially the collec tion of A. L. Richter (2 vols., Weimar, 1846). The beginning was made by Luther in his draft of the Leisnig Kastenordnung, of 1523. These various constitutions, however, are under the episcopal scheme of church government (see Church Polity) , and are not adapted to con gregational independency. The Lutheran Church in Holland developed a congregational constitution under certain limitations fixed by William of Orange that has had much influence upon Lutheran congregational constitutions in America (see B. M. Schmucker, The Organi zation of the Congregation in the Early Lu theran Churches in Ame-rica ; Lutheran Church Re-view, VI. 188 sqq.). The earliest written constitution in this country, of which we know, is that of the Salzburgers in Georgia, which dates from 1733. It is translated and printed in Strobel's History of the Salzburgers, pp. 94-99, but with it are incorporated a number of amend ments made by Muhlenberg in 1774, so that the original document cannot be certainly traced. In History of the Ev. Lutheran Church in the United States (New York, 1893), the de pendence of this constitution on that of the Lutheran congregations at Amsterdam (1597) and the Savoy in Loiidon ( 1694) is shown. The confessional basis is declared to be the Augs burg Confession and the other Symbolical Books : the office of lay elders is established, in whose hands rests the government of the congregation, according to mles therein speci fied. In 1746, Muhlenberg and Brunnholtz drew up a tentative constitution for the congre gation in Philadelphia. The six rales vrith a preamble, proposed by Muhlenberg in 1747, for the church at Monocacy near Frederick, Md., are substantially a constitution {Luth. Ch. Re view tot April, 1898). The constitution of the Trappe Church (1750) is much fuller {Luth. Ch. Review, VL 213 sqq.). In 1762, however, the congregational constitution assumed a more mature and elaborate form, as prepared by Muhlenberg, after his residence in New York in contact with the Dutch congregational organization. After a preamble, it enumerates : I. Duties of Pastors ; 2. The external govern ment of the Congregation, including duties of Elders and Deacons ; 3. Duties of Members. This has formed the basis of the congregational constitutions of most of the churches which Muhlenberg and his associates served, and of those which proceeded from them . The pastors were bound to teach according to the Unaltered Augsburg Confession, to exclude from the Lord's Supper and from sponsorship improper persons, were charged vrith the -risitation. of the sick and the supenntendency of the schools, were con stituted presidents of meetings of the Church Council and the congregation, were required to attend the meetings of Synod, etc. The Church Council consisted of the trustees, six elders and six deacons. The General Synod has provided a constitu tion for its congregations in its "Formula of Government and Discipline," originating in a similar " Formula " prepared for the Synods of West Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia. The General Council for a number of sessions carefully considered and, in 1880, finally adopted a constitution for congregations, prepared by Dr. C. P. Krauth, which is recommended as a model, while it is not imposed on its congrega tions. The distinctive feature of this constitu tion is the abolition of the lay eldership. The older congregations, as a rale, have retained their former constitutions, and the General Council has been mainly followed in those of new organizations. The Swedish Augustana Synod recommends another constitution to its congregations. In the Synodical Conference, the Synodal-Handbuch of the Missouri Synod contains the principles and rales for congrega tional as well as synodical organization. Synods as a rale require congregations applying for membership to submit their constitutions for approval, but, as they do not ask that amend ments be also submitted, the intention of this guarantee may be readily defeated. H. E. J. Constitutions, Synodical. The synodical constitution is also a matter of gradual gro-wth. The Fathers of the Lutheran Church in America had no model of similar attempts in Europe be fore them. The constitution had to develop for years before it was embodied in a formal docu ment. It was at first an organization purely of pastors, i. e. a Ministerium, who formed the Constitutions 134 Contrition united pastors of united congregations. Lay delegates appeared only to report concerning their pastors and the affairs of the congregations. Congregations, in accepting the pastors and en tering the union, pledged themselves to sub mission to the judgment of the Ministerium, as long as they would be connected with it. (See Documentary History of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, I. 22 sq.) The beginning of a written constitution was made at Lancaster, Penn., in 1772 (Ib. p. 137), and completed at New Hanover in 1778 (Ib. p. 154) . The Synod is called a ' ' Fraternal Associ ation of the Lutheran Ministers of North America." The president is charged with "the oversight, both during the meetings ofthe Synod and at other times. ' ' The members were pledged to use the Liturgy and carry out the resolutions of the Ministerium, and were liable to discipline for teachings ' ' errors opposed to the plain teachings of the Holy Scrip tures and our Sjmibolical Books." So two classes of ministers are provided for, viz. licensed candidates and ordained ministers. The entire document is thoroughly elaborated and well ananged. (Translated and printed in full in Documentary History, pp. 165-176. ) A petition from Zion's and St. Michael's Churches, Philadelphia, in 1791, in which Gen. Peter Muhlenberg and his brother, Hon. F. A. Muhlenberg, speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives, were the most prominent and active members, led the next year to a complete revision of the constitution. The body became a synod, instead of a ministerium, and the lay delegates were admitted -with equal votes and rights with the pastors. This "constitution" is found in volume above mentioned, pp. 248- 259. It provides for a senior, to advise and re prove, and a president, for three ranks of pastors, ordained ministers, licensed candidates and catechists ; for ministerial sessions, for de ciding ordinations, licensures, etc., and for con ferences on biblical, practical and pastoral sub jects. This constitution, reprinted in 1813, re vised in 1841, and amended often later, remained for three-quarters of a century substantially that of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania. It was adopted with very few changes by the Minis terium of New York, and has formed the basis of the general organization of synods rooted directly or indirectly in the Mother Synod, in cluding the Synods of the General and United Synods, as well as those of the General Council. A thorough revision was made in 1887. The General Synod provides a synodical constitu tion for its districts in its " Formula of Govern ment and Discipline." The constitution of the large and influential Synod of Missouri is found in its Synodal-Handbuch. The Synod is regarded only as an advisory body in matters pertaining to the government of individual con gregations. Synodical resolutions are not in force until ratified by the congregation. Plans for the visitation of congregations are thoroughly elaborated. The Synod is divided into districts, that meet annually, while the Synod itself meets only once every three years. Only pastors in actual care of congregations belonging to the Synod are entitled to membership. The Gen eral Council, after some efforts in that direction, has found it inexpedient to provide a uniform constitution for its synods ; since the varied his torical development of these bodies advises a modification of the organization to their circum stances. A volume containing a collection of synodical constitutions in force at least in the most prominent synods, would be an important contnbution towards greater harmony, and a better understanding. H. E. J. Consubstantiation, a term persistently ap plied against the protests of all reputable Lu theran theologians to the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord's Supper. The term is offensive be cause it conveys the thought that the Body and Blood of Christ are present and received in the same way as the bread and wine. ' ' Consubstan tial " is a Latin ecclesiastical term, the trans lation of the Greek homoousios, around which the Christological controversies of the Ancient Church centred, and means " of the same sub stance. " That the bread and the Body of Christ are the same substance, or that the Body is present, like the bread, in a natural manner, the Lutheran Church has always denied. See table under article Consubstantiation, in Johnson's Cyclopcedia, by Dr. Krauth, sho-sring how the Lutheran doctrine has been misunder stood. _ _ H. E. J. Contrition, According to the teaching of the Lutheran Church, repentance consists of two parts, Contrition and Faith {Aug. Conf.) XII.). Contrition is hatred of sin and grief for it ; " the trae tenor of conscience which feels that God is angry -with sin, and which grieves that it has sinned " {Apology, p. 181). ' ' The two chief works of God in men are to tenify, and to justify and quicken those who are terrified. Into these two works, all Scrip ture has been distributed. The one part is the Law, which shows, reproves and condemns sins. . . . After his sin, Adam was reproved and terrified ; this was contrition. ... So David is reproved by Nathan, and terrified says : ' I have sinned against the Lord ; ' this is con trition " {Apology, p. 185 sq.). "The proper and peculiar instrument, therefore, whereby contrition is -wrought, is the preaching of the Law ; to which belong also public and private calamities, which are real proclamations con cerning the atrocity of sins, and God's wrath against them, as well as meditation upon the passion and death of Christ, which has the place of a most clear minor, from which we can rec ognize the earnestness of divine wrath against sins" (Gerhard, Loci, VI. 235). "Although true contrition is required in all trae and salu tary repentance, yet there are degrees of con trition, since the terrors of conscience are not equal in all, but in some there are more, in others less. The promise of the forgiveness of sins depends not on the dignity and quantity of our contrition, but only on the merit of Christ, who was most perfectly contrite for our sins (Is. 53 : 10); and a contrite heart should not look, therefore, to the quantity or dignity of its contrition, and seek therein the remedy for its sins, but should behold only Christ hang ing upon the cross. The recognition of sin can nsver reach such perfection, as to embrace all Controversies 135 Controversies our sins (Ps. 19 : 13) " (Ib. 254). It is required "not as merit of reconciUation, or as the means of apprehending grace, but as part of the order which God observes in converting men, and of the obedience he requires of them" (Ib. 259). It has to do both with actual and original sm. It includes the hatied of the state of alienation from God in which we were bom and of those remnants of this condition still inhering in our nature. That which we loathe in the stieam, we loathe also in the fountain. Luther, in his Babylonian Captivity, shows the relation of faith to contrition. " A contrite heart can pro ceed only from earnest faith in the divine promises and threats. . . . The trath of the threatening is the cause of contrition, and the truth of the promises is the cause of consola tion, when they are believed." Contrition, therefore, instead of being only the portal to faith, grows with it. The forsaking of sin and the purpose to lead a new life are not properly elements of contrition, but its in evitable accompaniments and results, when sincere. The protest of Luther and his associates was directed against the teaching of the Mediaeval theologians, who laid stress upon contrition as an expiatory act voluntarUy assumed for the pur pose of gaining merit to set over against sins. They speak of it as " an act of -rirtue causing the forgiveness of sins " (Thomas, Summa, IIL, Supplement, Quest. V. : Art. I.). "It has infi nite -rirtue from the cause by which it is ener gized " (Art. II. ). They speak of " sufficient " and " insufficient contrition," and say that " no one can be sure that his contrition is sufficient," and, therefore, not sure of the forgiveness of sin and sonship vrith God. Contrition, they taught, proceeded from love to God ; but attri tion, or servUe fear, came from fear of punish ment, and that by virtue of the absolution one who had been only attrite was made contrite. This servile fear arising from man's natural powers, and without faith, Luther, foUo-wing Rom. 7 : 13 ; 8:9, pronounced as making man only a hypocrite ; although he did not deny that by divine grace it is often made the instrument to prepare for the gospel and filial fear. (See Schmalkald Articles, Part III. Art. III. ; Luther's Babylonian Captivity; Koestiin, Luther's Theology, I.) H. E. J. Controversies. The Luth. Church has of necessity been involved in controversies. Her emphasis of pure doctrine necessitates its main tenance and closer definition, not by self-devel oped systems, but in defence against all enors injuring her possession of trath. She has had to exclude the extremes of Romanism and Rationalism. Roman and Reformed tendencies had to be avoided. Even in questions of church life of apparentiy undogmatic aspect, as the language question, doctrinal position has justiy and unjustiy been the mo-ring power. It really contiols all, and has sometimes led to a refine ment of definition and made separative what the historic confessional foundations and the freedom of evang. trath allow. As all contro versies were regarded in their intimate bearing on the faith, it is but natural that human -rio lence was sometimes stiongly evoked as weU among orthodox as heterodox. But this must not cloud the issue itself. The great controversies, tieated fully under their respective names, are : the antinomian contioversy (1537-1540), about the authority of the law ; the Osiandrian (1549-1567), about the nature of justification and its relation to saneti fication ; the adiaphoristic (1548-1555), about the admission of Catholic forms in the constitu tion and worship of the Church ; the Majoristic (1551-1562), about the necessity of good works ; the synergistic (1555-1567), about the co-opera tion of the human will in conversion ; the crypto cal-rinistic (1552-1574), about the Lord's Supper, resuming the earlier position of the Philippists. — Minor were the discussions on the descent to hell (see .6-ii). A.S. Dachstein, Wolfgang. Before the Refor mation he was organist in the Stiassburg Cathe dral. Having left the Church of Rome in 1524, he devoted his eminent musical and poetical gifts to the cause of the Reformation, furnish ing some of the finest tunes for the German service. ' ' An Wasserfluessen Babylon ' ' is generally ascribed to him. Together with his tiiend Greitter he edited the Kirchenampt of 1525- A. S. Daechsel, Karl August, b. 1818 ; German divine in Steinkirche, Silesia ; author of an ex cellent commentary in 7 vols. The work, begun in 1862, was completed in 1880. It is intended for pastors, for use in school and home, and covers the canonical and apocryphal books of the Bible. A feature of the work is the para phrase introduced into the text, the text itself being in heavier type. A harmony of the gos pels is also offered. H. W. H. Dahle, Lars H., b. 1843 ; Norwegian Luther an missionary and superintendent of missions at Antananarivo, Madagascar, where he arrived in 1870. After several years of very successful labor here he returned to Norway and was made general secretary of the Foreign Mission ary Society. E. G. L. Dakotas, Lutheran Church in. The fol io-wing are the statistics of U. S. census of 1890 : South Dakota. North Dakota. Con Com gregations. municants General Council ... 38 1,582 Synodical Conference . 18 1. 136 Joint Synod of Ohio . . i 70 Hauge's Synod ... 16 576 Norwegian Synod . . 53 Icelandic Synod ... 8 2,784 1,779 United Norwegian Sy. . 162 10,283 Independent Congrega tions 2 68 General Synod .... General Council . . . Synodical Conference Joint Synod of Ohio . . Hauge's Synod . . . Norwegian Synod . . . Danish Church . . . Danish Church Association Suomi Synod .... United Norwegian . . Independent .... Con gregations. 3 100 71 3 3646 II 2 1 148 II Com municants, 64 4,770 3.097 327 2,239 3,030 285 153 120 7,9221,307 298 18,278 432 23,314 The proportion of Lutherans to other Prot estants was as follows: Lutherans. Other Protes tants. North Dakota . . 18,278 24,791 South Dakota . . 23,314 37,457 Dalmata, Antonius, translated the N. T. into the Wendish language (1553) in Tiibingen, together with Primus Truber and Stephen Con sul. Dalmatin, George, Luth. pastor in Ober- krain, driven by persecution from his pastorate in St. Kazaim (1598), d. toward the close of the sixteenth century, is known for his translation of the Bible into the Slavic, which appeared Jan. 1, 1584, in Wittenberg. Daniel, Herman Adelbert, b. Koethen, 1812, d. Dresden, 1871 ; Professor and Inspector at Halle ; hymnologist and liturgist. His chief works are : Thesaurus Hymnologicus, 5 vols. (1841-56), and Codex Liturgicus, 4 vols. (1847- 53). Of this latter work, the second volume is devoted to the Lutheran Church. One chapter is occupied with a statement of principles ; then follow typical formularies from standard litur gies, for I. Morning Service. 2. Baptism. 3. Confirmation. 4. Marriage. 5. Confession. 6. Public Penance and Excommunication. 7. Visitation to the Sick, and Burial Service. 8. Ordination and Installation. 9. Consecra tion of Churches. Danish Evang. Luth. Church in America. The Danes did not come to this country in any considerable numbers as soon as the Swedes and Norwegians, but there were occasional arnvals from an early date. The first Danish minister m America was Pastor Rasmus Jensen, who came to Nova Dania, Hudson Bay, in 1620. In the following 226 years a number of Danes labored in the ministry in this country, but they served Norwegian, German, and EngUsh churches. Among these may be named P. Brunnholti:, J. C. Leps, H. Hayunga, A. R. Rude, and E. Belfour. In 1754, J. M. Magens, a noted layman, came to New York and translated from Danish to English forty sermons on the Augsburg Confession. A stu dent, named C. L. Clausen, arrived from Copen hagen in 1843, aged twenty-three years, and was ordained by the Buffalo Synod, and he was' fol lowed in 1854 by T. Nicolaisen, apious layman, who -was ordained by the Synod of Northern lUinois. In 1862, Dean J. Vahl of Copenhagen Dannhauer 149 Deacon and Deaconess endeavored to awaken an interest in behalf of the religious wants of the Danes in America ; but it was not until 1869 that The Society for the Prcrmotion of the Gospel among the Danes in Ncrrth America was formed. Two years later the first missionaries were sent over in the persons of Pastor A. C. G. L. Rasmussen, lay preacher A. S. Nielsen, and student R. Ander sen. Rasmussen soon retumed to Denmark, but Nielsen and Andersen were ordained, and the latter labored among the seamen in New York. In 1870, the Norwegian-Vanish Con ference was organized, and in 1872 several Dan ish ministers formed The Church Missionary Sodety, and two years later changed the name to The Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. This body maintained close relations -with the Mother Church in Denmark and re ceived aid from it. About this time a son of the famous Bishop Grundtrig of Copenhagen came to this country and proclaimed his pe culiar and enoneous doctrines, introduced pain ful strife among the Danes and formed a party, which retained the name of the organization. The other party assumed the name of The Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in North America. The leading men were the Rev. Prof. T. S. Vig and Paslor T. L. C. Hansen. After a preliminary correspondence these two bodies met in Minneapolis in October, 1896, and vrith entire unanimity dissolved their respec tive organizations and joined in the formation of one body under the name of The United Dan ish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on the basis of the ex animo reception of the Augsburg Confession. The Danish ministers who had remained isolated, and some who had been adherents of the erratic Trandberg, entered the new body. The United Church publishes papers for adults and children, and has a college at Elkhorn, Iowa, a theological seminary at Blair, Nebraska, and orphan homes at Elkham, Iowa, and Waupaca, Wisconsin. The number of pastors is 122, and there are about 20 Danish pastors in the United Norwegian Church, and counting those otherwise connected or remain ing independent, the whole number of Danish Lutheran ministers in this country is about 200. E. B. Dannhauer, John Conrad, b. March 24, 1603, in Kondringen, Baden, the great Luth. theologian of Strassburg, after completing a full academic course studied theology (1624), first at Marburg under Menzer, then at Altdorf under Konig, at Jena under Gerhard and Major, re turned to Strassburg (1628) as inspector ofthe " Predigtstift, " was made theol. prof, and preacher at the " Miiuster " (1633), d. Nov. 7, 1666. D. was thoroughly pious, the teacher of Spener, but also thoroughly orthodox, defending Lutheranism against Romanism, Calvinism and Syncretism with great power but without per sonal animosity. As a preacher he was popular, earnest, and forceful. His three most noted works are : his Dogmatics Hodosophia Christiana si-iie theologia positiva, which sums up doc trine as the wisdom of the way to eternity vrith scientific thoroughness and warm piety ; his Ethics, Liber consdenties apertus, sive theologies conscienties, which treats of ethical life as a con stant cure of the conscience ; and his sermons on the Catechism, eminently thorough and spiritual, called Katechismus-Milch oder Erkldrung des christi. Katech. (10 parts in 5 vols.). Day, David A., D. D., b. near Dillsburg, York Co., Pa., Feb. 17, 1851, d. at sea on a homeward-bound voyage, Dec. 17, 1897. The poverty and -wrongs he endured in his youth ex cited in him a strong determination to extend relief to the helpless, if ever the opportunity ar rived, and in this resolve was laid the basis of a most notable and successful missionary career which attracted the attention and elicited the applause of African travellers and aU Foreign Mission boards that have attempted evangeliza tion in the deadly climate of the West African coast. When but fourteen years of age he enlisted in the 78th regiment, Penna. Vols., serving to the close of the Civil War. Having received his academic and theological training at Selins grove, Pa. , and taken a degree in medicine, he started for the mission at Muhlenberg in the republic of Liberia, where the African fever had already slain a number of devoted men. With the exception of several short -risits to this country he remained at his post twenty-four years, the only case known of one holding out so long against that fateful climate. E. J. W. Deacon and Deaconess, in the N. T.' the terms diakonos, diakonia, and diakondn are used iu connection with any one who renders friendly service to another (Matt. 4 : 11 ; 8 : 15 ; 20 : 26 ; Luke 8:3; 10 : 40 ; Acts 6 : 1, etc.) ; also in connection with the apostles, presbyters and evangelists and their work as the servants or ministers of God (Acts 6:4;! Thess. 3 : 2 ; I Cor. 3 : 5 ; 2 Cor. 3:6; 6:4; 5 : 18 ; Acts 1 : 17 ; 12 : 25 ; Rom. 15 : 25, 31, etc.). In a special sense, however, the deacons were those to whom was officially committed the Church's ministry of mercy (I Tim. 3:8, 12 ; PhU. 1:1; Rom. 16: 1). This ministry (the Diaconate) was the direct outgrowth of the ministiy of the Word (the Apostolate) . The account of its origin is found in Acts 6 : 1-7. At first the apostles combined both ministries in their own acti-rity. But the rapid growth of the Church soon compelled a division of functions. The occasion arose when one portion of the congregation at Jerasalem began to murmur against the other, because their -widows were neglected in the daily dispens ing of the alms. To remove the cause of com plaint and secure more satisfactory results, the apostles directed the congregation to choose from their o-wn number ' ' seven men of honest report, fiUl of the Holy Ghost and wisdom," whom they then proceeded to "appoint over this business " by an act of ordination. Thus the Diaconate was in its original sense and purpose pre-eminently a ministry of mercy. Though Stephen preached and Philip baptized, the deacons were not primarily meant to be evangelists but dispensers of charity, the over seers ofthe Church's temporal affairs, and thus not only the most direct but also the most effi cient helps of the ministry of the Word. How beneficial this anangement proved is e-rident from the further statement that ' ' the word of Deacon and Deaconess 150 Deacon and Deaconess God increased ; and the number of the disciples multiplied in Jerusalem greatly. " " The dea cons, ' ' says Dean Stanley, ' ' became the first preachers of Christianity : they were the first evangelists, because they were the first to find their way to the homes of the poor. They were the constructors of the most solid and durable of the institutions of Christianity, namely, the institutions of charity and beneficence." That from the Church at Jerusalem the new office soon found its way into other congrega tions established by the apostles, is e-rident from the fact that in his First Epistle to Timothy (chap. 3 : 8-13) Paul deems it necessary to give special directions regarding it. Because of the close relationship between the two ministries, and inasmuch as the character of the deacons like that of the bishops ( presb3rters) needed to be of a kind to inspire the largest measure of con fidence, he requires substantially the same moral qualifications in the former as in the latter ; and only after they had also first been ' ' proved ' ' were they to serve as deacons. As by degrees the care of the sick and poor passed out of the hands of the congregation and became the work of institutions, the position and duties of the deacons also changed. Fi nally they came to be regarded as a subordinate order of the clergy, whose chief function it was to assist the superior clergy iu public worship. Practically this is still the office of the deacon in the Roman and Greek Catholic Churches, in the Church of England, and in the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States. In spite of Luther's principles and -wishes in the matter, the Reformation failed to restore the primitive Diaconate. To an extent, in practice at least, though not in its original ecclesiastical form, this has been done by the movement of the present century iu Germany known as the InnereMissiou. (See art.) The example of Wichern of the Rauhe Haus (see Wichern) in entering upon the systematic training of devout men for various branches of Christian and benevolent activity, was speedily followed in other parts of Germany, and to-day there are no less than 13 Diakonenhduser with over 2,000 deacons or " Brothers " who de vote their life entirely to the ministry of mercy, in Germany and other parts of the world. They are employed as house fathers and teachers in reformatories and orphans' homes, as chap lains in prisons, as nurses in hospitals, as di rectors of Christian inns, -risitors amoug the poor, city missionaries, colporteurs, etc. The following is a list of the " Diakonenhauser " in Germany -with the number of "Brothers" at tached to each in 1897 : Rauhes Haus, Ham burg, 305 ; Duisburg, 249 ; Ziillchow, 103 ; Lindenhof bei Neinstedt, 188 ; Johannesstift, Berlin, 159 ; Karlshohe bei Lud-wigsburg, 117 ; Obergorbitz bei Dresden, 73 ; Nazareth, Biele feld, 256 ; Karlshof bei Rastenburg, 71 ; Krasch- nitz, 54 ; Stephansstift, Hanover, 100 ; Niirn berg, 27 ; Eckartshaus bei Eckartsburg, 14. At a very early period women were also ad mitted to the Diaconate. In Rom. 16 : i, Paul mentions Phebe as a deaconess {ousan diakonon, a deacon or servant) of the Church at Cenchrea; and it is the opinion of many of the best com mentators that the directions given by him in I Tim. 3:11 refer not to the -wives of the deacons, but to women deacons. The Female Diaconate spread with the gro-wth of the Church and reached its highest develop ment in the fourth century. According to the "Apostolic Constitutions" faithful and holy women were to be ordained as deaconesses be cause the Church had need of them in many necessities ; the bishop was to induct them into their office by the laying on of hands and prayer, in the presence of the presbytery, and the deacons and deaconesses ; and they were to instruct the female catechumens, render the necessary external assistance at their baptism, minister to women in sickness and distress, re lieve the saints in prison, prepare the bodies of women for burial, be doorkeepers at the women's entrances to the churches, assign women their places at worship, facilitate communication be tween the bishop or presbj'ter and the female members of his congregation, and in general engage in such works of charity and relief as heathen opinion would not allow the men dea cons to do. After the fourth century, with changed con ditions and the growing corruption of doctrine and life, the Female Diaconate began to decline ; and long before the Reformation, save among the Waldenses and the Bohemian Brethren, the deaconess office was completely lost. Though not the first to desire its restoration the revival of the ancient office was, under God, brought about by the Rev. Theo. Fliedner, at Kaiserswerth-on-the-Rhine. Here, on the 13th of Oct., 1836, he opened an institution designed to give Christian women vrilling to become dea conesses the necessary religious and technical training, and in which, as. distinguished from the congregational diaconate of the Early Church, they were to form a closely associated community or sisterhood. This first Deaconess Mother-house, most modestly begun, has had a marvellous gro-wth, and in its fundamental prin ciples has served as the pattern for the many similar institutions that have since come into existence. In 1898 the number of Mother-houses belonging to the Kaiserswerth Union was 80 veith 13,309 Sisters, engaged in 4,745 fields of labor in all parts of the world. In addition to these over 1,000 deaconesses belong to Homes and Houses (Method. Epis., Prot. Episcop., In terdenominational, etc.), in Europe and the United States, that have no connection vrith the Kaiserswerth Union. In the summer of 1849 Fliedner brought four deaconesses to America to take charge of the work begun by the Rev. W. A. Passavant, D. D., at Pittsburgh, Pa. A second colony of German Sisters was brought to the German Hospital, Philadelphia, in 1884, where, through the munifi cent liberality of Mr. John D. Lankenau, the magnificent Mary J. Drexel Home and PhUa delphia Mother-house of Deaconesses was subse quently built, and has since been supported by its founder. Lutheran Mother-houses are now found in the foUo-wing cities : PhUadelphia, Omaha (see Immanuel Deaconess Institute below), Minneapolis, Milwaukee, Baltimore, Brooklyn and Chicago. Since 1896 these meet Deaconess Institute 151 Decalogue in annual conference, and in 1897 reported an aggregate of 196 Sisters. The internal management of a Mother-house is committed to a pastor, who is also Rector or Superintendent, and a Sister Superior as his as sociate. The conditions of admission are, as a rule, these : The candidate must be between 18 and 36 or 40 years of age ; she must be unmar ried, intelligent, and of sound health ; she must have an "honest report," and be constiained to give herself to the work only by the love of Christ. Her application must be accompanied by a sketch of her life, written by herself ; a certificate of baptism ; the written consent of her parents or guardians ; a testimonial of good character from her pastor ; and a certificate of good health from her physician. The course of instiuction includes such branches as are de signed, in connection vrith the life and practical work of the House, to lead to the highest development of Christian character and technical ability. After a period of probation lasting from three to five years, the candidate is consecrated. She makes no "vow" in the Romish sense, but voluntarily promises faithfulness in her calling so long as she beUeves it to be the Lord's will that she should remain in it. Should she at any time become clearly and conscientiously con-rinced of the contiary, she is at liberty to relinquish it. The Mother-house is responsible for the Sister's support, shelters her when dis abled, and affords her a quiet retreat in old age. Deaconess service comprises work among the sick and needy, the ignorant and neglected, the friendless and fallen, in hospitals and infirmaries, in institutions for the feeble-minded, idiotic and epileptic, in day nurseries, orphans' homes and schools for little children, in working girls' homes and servants' tiaining schools, in refor matories, prisons and Magdalen asylums, and above all in parishes under the direct oversight of the pastor. Ecclesiastical embroidery has also become a branch of work in some houses. Lit. : Schafer, Die weibliche Diakonie, Stuttgart (2d. ed., 1887-1894) ; Leitfaden der Inneren Mission, Hamburg ( 1889) ; Diakonik (in Zockler's Handbuch der theol. Wissenschaf ten, vol. iv., Miinchen, 1890) ; Wacker, Der Diakonissenberuf Giitersloh (1890), (Eng. trans.. The Deaconess Calling, Mary J. Drexel Home, Phila., 1893) ; Wichern, Diakonen-und Diakonissenhauser (in Herzog's Real-Encyklo- pddie, 2d. ed., vol. iii.). English readers vrill find much valuable matenal in Roth, Hand-book of Lutheranism, Utica, N. Y. (1891). Wtu-ster, Die Lehre von der Inneren Mission, Berlin, Reuther and Reichard (1895) ; Jacobs, TTie Female Diaconate of the New Testament, Lutheran Church Re-view (Jan., 1892). J. F. O. Deaconess Institute, The Immanuel, in Omaha, Neb., is the only deaconess institution in the Augustana Synod. Its founder. Rev. E. A. Fogelstiom, sent (1887) one young woman to PhUadelphia to be trained for the Deaconess work. In 1888, he sent four more, and in 1889, he sent two to Europe. In the meantime he had, at a cost of ^30,000, erected a hospital, pledged to be ran by Deaconesses. This institution was opened 1890. The first Deaconess was consecrated to her office, April 15, 1891. This institution is a fully organized Mother-house for Deaconesses, and it is officially recognized as a branch of the " Conference of Ev. Luth. Deaconess Mother-houses in the United States," and it is also a member of the European General Conference of Deaconess Houses in Kaiserswerth. The institution is owned by "The Immanuel Deaconess Associa tion," a corporation composed of members of the Augustana Synod. The control is in the hands of a board of 15 members, elected at the annual meeting of the society. The institution has at present 27 Sisters, of whom 13 have been consecrated to the office of Deaconess. Besides the work at the Mother-house it has 5 outside stations : 2 hospitals supplied -with 8 Sisters, I orphans' home with 2 ; and 2 Sisters are engaged in parochial work in 2 congrega tions. The need of more Sisters is sadly felt in the institution, as the want of Deaconess work is constantly growing in the Augustana Synod. E. A. F. Dead, Prayers for the. In the Roman Church, Masses are said, i. e. the Body of Christ is said to be offered as an expiatory sacrificeyo>' the dead who have died in the communion of the Church. The practice was connected -with the doctrine of Purgatory, which has no war rant in Holy Scripture. Of this the Apology (267) says : "Itis not a light sin to establish such services in the Church without the com mand of God and without the example of Scrip ture, and to transfer to the dead the Lord's Supper, which -was instituted for commemora tion and preaching among the living. This is to violate the Second Commandment by abus ing God's name." Luther touches the subject in his Church Postil and in a sermon of 1523 : " For the dead, inasmuch as the Scripture says nothing about them, I hold that it is no sin to pray somewhat on this wise in private devotion (for my friends), Dear God, if the souls can be helped, be merciful to them. And when this has been done once or twice, let that be enough. For vigils and soul-masses and j'ear's minds are of no use, but are an invention of the devil." The Order of Hanover (1536), says: "It is a fine ancient custom, but must be done rightly. We must not first offer for their sins, but should give thanks for the One Sacrifice which aU of us enjoy in this life and after this life." The tiuth which underlay the abuse is the assur ance of the unity of the Church Militant and the Church Triumphant in our Lord Jesus Christ. E. T. H. Decalogue, Division of. The question how to di-ride and to number the Ten Com mandments is one of churchly tradition, in it self a "Res media, — indifferens," as our dog maticians declare it to be. Nowhere does the Old Testament indicate how the command ments were numbered. Nor do we find in the New Testament any basis for a certain system of numbering tiiem or determining their respect ive position in the Decalogue (Matt. 5 : 27, 28 ; 19 : 18, 19 ; Mark 10 : 19 ; Luke 18 : 20 ; i Tim. I : 9 sq. ; Rom. 7 : 7 ; 13 : 9)- The three different systems of numbering the Ten Com mandments are the following : Decalogue 152 Definite Platform I. That of the Jews (which was rejected al ready by Origenes). They speak of the Deca logue as the " Ten Words " (not commandments), and take Exodus 20 : 2 as the first word, Ex. 20 : 3-6 as the second, and Ex. 20 : 17 as the tenth word, combining our ninth and tenth commandments into one. 2. The division advocated by Philo, Josephus, Origen, the Greek (though CritobiUos has the Augustinian division), the Reformed Churches (Leo Judae (1534), Calvin), and the Socinians. It takes Exodus 20 : 2, 3 as the first, verses 4-6 as the second commandment, and verse 17 as one, the tenth. It is sometimes called the PhUonic division, or more frequently the Ori- genistic, though Origen knew also that other system of numbering the commandments, by which Exodus 20 : 2-6 is taken as the first {Nonnulli putant esse unum mandatum). The different ways of numbering are evidently con sidered by him as a matter of freedom. In a controversy which arose on this subject, in 1836, the Origenistic view was stienuously advocated by Geffken and others, and it may be said that the majority of German theologians are in favor of it, among them Oehler in his Old Testament Theology. 3. The so-called Augustinian division, re tained by the Roman Catholics and the Lutheran Church, taking Exodus 20 : 2-6 as the first, and the seventh verse as the second commandment, and dividing verse 17 into two, our ninth and tenth commandments. In favor of this division the following points are urged : In the text of the commandments. Exodus 20 : 5 reads : " Thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them," and this pronoun, in the plural, can only refer to the "gods" (verse 3), not to "graven image" (verse 4). Thus the whole construction of the sentence shows that it is all one continuous thought, from verse 2 to 6. This one commandment against idolatry is summed up in the text of Luther's Catechism, in the words, " Thou shalt have no other gods." All the rest is considered simply as an enlarge ment of that commandment, and an enlarge ment, in part, of a temporary and national character. For ever since the Word was made flesh ' ' he that hath seen him hath seen the Father," and we have in the man Jesus "the express image of his person," the object of our adoration and worship. We maintain the free dom of true Christian art to produce an image or likeness of the Godman, though we do not worship the picture or statue. The ancient Jewish system which determined the reading of the law by certain accents and marks of division unites verses 2 to 6 in one section, thus testify ing in favor of the tradition which finds only one commandment in that whole passage. Again, the division of the sections which, in the Augustinian system, constitute the ninth and tenth commandments is supported by the fact that they are separated by the sign of the Setumah, in the ancient Hebrew manuscripts ; and that the text of Deuteronomy uses dif ferent verbs in these, our ninth and tenth com mandments. But beyond this, little can be said in favor of separating the ninth and tenth commandments according to the Augustinian division. The distinction between concupi- scentia actualis and originalis which some of our theologians have found in the ninth and tenth commandments seems to us utterly un tenable at this point. The anangement of the Ten Commandments on the two tables stands in close connection with the method of dividing and numbering them. Scripture only tells us that there were ten words (commandments) written on two tables of stone (Deut. 4: 13), and indicates that the two principal sections of the Decalogue, the love of God and the love of our fellow-men, in all probability correspond to the two tables. The Jewish and Origenistic divisions, then, have five commandments for each table, the duty toward the parents as the representatives of God being added to the first. Some adher ents of that system, like Calvin, give four to the first and six to the second table. The Augus tinian division which the Lutherans retain has three commandments on the first and seven on the second table, the duties toward God and the neighbor being beautifully divided under these two sacred numbers. A. S. Decisio Sazonica, is the opinion of the Saxon theologians under Hoe of Hoenegg in 1624, about the Kenosis dispute of the Tiibingen and Giessen theologians (see KenoSIS), in which the Giesseners were largely approved of, but it was also decided that, when working miracles the Godman, though in humiliation, temporarily abandoned the condition of kenosis. Declaratio,Solida. See Concord, Formula op. Decius, Nicolaus (vom Hofe, Houesch, a Curia), is first known in 1519, as Probst in the convent of Steterburg, Branswick. In 1522, being favorably inclined toward the Reforma tion, he became master of the St. Katharine and Egidien School in Brunswick. About Easter, 1523, he was called to Stettin as evangelical pastor. He died suddenly in 1541. He was an excellent musician, and to him are com monly ascribed, not only the words but also the tunes of the German Gloria in Excelsis, and the Agnus, " AUein Gott in der Hoeh sei Ehr," and ' ' O Lamm Gottes unschuldig. " A. S. Dedekennus, George, b. at Luebeck in 1564, studied at several universities, served the Lu theran Church as pastor at Neustadt in Holstein, and from 1600 at St. Catharine's of Hamburg, where he d. May 29, 1628. He was the author of a number of theological works, among which the most important is a casuistical compUation in three folio volumes and an appendix, 7%^- saurus Consiliorum et Dedsionum (1623), a classical work of its kind, containing opinions of theological faculties and individual theolo gians on a great variety of cases. A. L. G. Dedication. See Consecration. Definite Platform, an anonymous pamphlet marking an acute stage in the confessional con troversy in 1855, and being an important factor in the events that led to the division in the General Synod in 1866. The conservative ele ment in that body ha-ring been strengthened by the return of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, and the union of other synods of the same ten- Deinzer 153 Demme dency in 1853, a few of the opposition leaders proposed the " Platform," composed by Dr. S. S. Schmucker, as a protection against the growing confessional influence. It was offered "as a more speciflc expression of the General Synod's doctnnal basis, being sunounded by German churches, which profess the entire mass of former symbols." The thought under lying it was that confessions of faith should declare vrith such explicitness the faith of those who subscribe them, that all ambiguity and room for variety of interpretations should be excluded ; and that the General Synod no longer holding to certain articles in the Augs burg Confession in the sense in which they were understood by its authors, should, -without hesi tation or reservation, say so. It charges the Augsburg Confession with five errors, viz. Approval of the Ceremonies of the Mass, Private Confession and Absolution, Denial ofthe Divine Obligation of the Christian Sabbath, Baptismal Regeneration, and the Real Presence. While repudiating the other Symbolical Books, it in corporates several paragraphs from the Formula of Concord, in order to supply the deficiency, in the Augsburg Confession, of a confessional statement conceming the Holy Scriptures, and extols the Schmalkald Articles, as presenting a more satisfactory statement concerning the Mass than is found in the Augsburg Confession. In its Recension of the Augsburg Confession, it suppresses the antithesis of all articles, and parts of the thetical declarations of Arts. II. and VIIL, inserts clauses into Arts. II. and IX., en tirely changes Art. X., and not only suppresses but severely repudiates Art. XI. The Second Part of the document is occupied with quota tions and criticisms from the other Symbolical Books, exhibiting alleged enors. Among the enors of the Platform are its failure to under stand the historical meaning of the word " Mass " in Art. XXIV., where it means nothing more than the Lord's Supper, and its represen tation that there are Lutherans who teach that the Virgin Mary was the mother of our Lord's Divinity, and that the human and divine natures interchange attributes. Wherever the attempt was made to secure for it synodical approval, the " Platform" was almost universally rejected, while stiong resolutions repudiating and con demning it were passed in a number of the larger and older synods. The important posi tion of its author, and the fact that similar criticisms of the Augsburg Confession continued to be heard long after the Platform itself was almost forgotten, alone give it permanent signifi cance. H. E. J. Deinzer, Johannes, b. Sept. 2, 1842, d. Jan. 25, 1897, successor of Dr. Weber as in stmctor at Neuendettelsau Seminary, also assistant of Pastor Loehe (1864-72) ; inspector (1875-97). Sent over 100 ministers to Iowa Synod ; since 1875 foreign missions in Australia and New Guinea. Visited America, 1879 (Iowa Quadro-centennial). Works : Loehe's Leben, 3 vols. ; edited Loehe's Agende, 3d ed. ; Loehe's Da-vid and Salomo ; Weber's Einleitung. Ed itor of Kirchliche Mitteilungen, etc. G. J. F. Dela-ware, Lutherans in. in this state, where the Lutheran Church was planted about the middle of the eighteenth century by the Swedes, all traces of the early Lutherans except the venerable building at WUmington and the graves around it, have disappeared. In 1890, there were but two congregations, both at Wil mington, one German, and one English, with 296 communicants. The next census will show a substantial increase. At least one Swedish con gregation has been founded. Delitzsch, Dr. Franz, b. 1813, d. 1890 at Leipzig, the foremost positive hebraist, was converted through his friend Schiitz and as sociated intimately vrith the circle of students, of which many emigrated with Rev. Stephan to St. Louis, Missouri. He soon became with them an enthusiastic Lutheran, and for this reason declined a caU to a Prussian university. Rev. Loehe intended to call him as professor to Ft. Wayne, Ind. But he was called in 1846 to Rostock as successor to Hofmann, and in 1850 to Erlangen as his associate. In 1867 he became professor in Leipsic, where he labored vrith Luthardt and Kahnis until his death. Few scholars equal his attainments in Talmudic and Rabbinical literature, and for this reason his commentaries wUl always be among the most valuable. Though one of the greatest scholars of his time, he was one of the most modest, and never lost his childlike faith and sincere piety, which made him an exponent of sound Lutheran pietism. His favorite produc tion was his Communionbuch (Book for Com municants) . Of great value is his Apologie. His studies as well as his ancestry made him a patron of Jewish missions. No one was better fitted to translate the New Testament into Hebrew than he, and he lived to see 70,000 copies sold. In the interest of this work he wrote a number of tracts and edited Saat auf Hoffnung. His valuable commentaries were translated into several languages. Though one of the most positive scholars he was one of the most irenical. He is classed vrith the Erlanger (or Hofmann's) school of theolo gians. G. J. ^• Demme, Karl Rudolph, D. D., b. 1795, at Muehlhausen, Thueringen, d. 1863, in Philadel phia. He was educated at the gymnasium in Altenburg, and studied theology at the Univer sities of Halle and Goettingen. In 1818 he came to America, and in 1819 received a candidate's license from the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, to serve the Hummelstown and Maxe churches. In 1822 he was called to St. Michael's and Zion's congregation in Philadelphia, and soon began to take a very prominent position in the Mother Synod. He was a commanding personality, a born raler of men. As a theologian he repre sents the era of transition from the unchurchly and rationalistic spirit of the first quarter of this century to a more positive and confessional attitude. He never identified himself -with the rationalism and Hegelianism prevailing in Ger many during his university days, but steadily grew into a fuller appreciation of sound Luther anism. His hymnological and liturgical work on the Pennsylvania hymn-book of 1849 ^nd the Agenda of 1855 fiUly shows this period of tiansition. There is, on the one side, an honest effort towards the restoration of a sound Luther- Denmark 154 Denmark anism, on the other, a frequent yielding to the modern spirit and phraseology that had been ruling in the hymnological and liturgical liter ature of the first half of this century. Dr. Demme was a prominent and active member of the Philadelphia " Society for the alleviation of the miseries of prisons. " In 1839 he published a revision of Cotta's and Gfroerer's edition of Flavins Josephus in German. A. S. Denmark, The Lutheran Church in. The Reformation was introduced into Denmark, be cause there, too, the Church had become corrupt. In 1517 Arcimbaldi entered Denmark from Germany to sell indulgences. When he re turned again, after having been in Sweden, King Christian II. accused him of having be- tiayed state secrets and took his money from him. In 1520 Christian wrote to Wittenberg for a man of Luther's school to purify religion. Martin Reinhard was sent, but returned -with out accomplishing his purpose. Similarly Carl stadt and Gabler failed, opposed by the power ful Univ. of Copenhagen, the stronghold of Romish doctrine. 1523, Christian had to give his throne to Fredrick, Duke of Holstein, who promised to protect the Romish faith. But in 1526 Fredrick openly confessed Lutheranism. 1530, a diet was called at Copenhagen. Luth. and Romish theologians were invited to pre sent and defend their faith. A Luth. confession of 43 articles was adopted ; followed by an apology against 27 articles presented by the Catholics. Christian III. (1534) took posses sion of the Roman churches, excluded the Catholic prelates from the diets, and in every way favored the Lutherans. 1537, Bugenhagen was called to introduce the new church order, which Palladius translated into Danish (1539). In this order no norm of faith was established but "God's pure Word, which is the law and gospel ; " but in the " Danish law " of ' Chris tian V. the oecumenical creeds, the Augs. Conf. and Luther's Smaller Catechism were adopted. The Formula of Concord was rejected under Fredrick II. (1580). This doctrinal basis st\h. obtains, but the oath upon the confessions has been changed to an ordinatiouTVOw (1870). In general the life of the Danish Church was in fluenced by that of Germany. The period of early confession gave way to orthodoxism, ac companied, however, by earnest orthodoxy, under the influence of such works as Haffen- reffer's Loci. Pietism followed and then ration alism. The reaction against rationalism did not generaUy run in the channels of a milder confessionalism, like that of Martensen, but was more influenced by Grundtvig. (See article.) Even erratic Kierkegaard (see article) was not without power. Up to the present there is no strong doctrinal unity. — the foundation of church polity is given in the law book of 1683. According to it the Danish Church is Lutheran ; the king must be Lutheran ; all the people are members and must support the Church. In 1849 other churches were given rights ; and liberty of faith was guaranteed. But those who joined no other church were to pay the ecclesiastical state tax. In 1866 this law was reaffirmed. In 1851 civil maniage was allowed, when one of the contiacting parties was a dissenter. On April 4, 1855, a law was passed, which permitted any member of the state church to join the church of any pastor, who satisfied the spiritual and churchly desires. This law, instigated by Grundtvig against the ra tionalists, freed the members from their paro chial obligations. Although the proportion of land tax and income tax which was destined for the state church remained, yet every one could give his free--will offerings, and the payment of perquisites to the pastor of his choice. By a law of May 25, 1872, it is even permitted that, in case of a vacancy, another pastor may be called to officiate in ministerial actions in the church of the parish to which the person calling such pastor ought to belong. On May 15, 1868, a law was passed and reaffirmed June 7, 1873, tnat free congregations could be formed -within the state church. Its conditions are that: (1) at least 20 families must join and testify that they have a church-building used for no other purpose ; (2) that this building is no more than a mile distant from the homes of the minimum membership (20); (3) that the petitioners, to gether with an ordained minister of the state church, whom they have elected and who is -vrithout a place, have sought and obtained the royal confirmation of their election ; (4) that every member has personaUy severed his paro chial connection ; (5) that the congregation is able and -willing to maintain its church and pay its pastor. But these free churches are under the bishops and laws of the state church. The bishops are the organs of the king's spiritual jurisdiction. There are seven sees : Seeland, - Fiinen, Laaland with Falster, Aalborg, Viborg, Aarhus, Ribe. Iceland is separate. (See Ice land.) Above the bishops is the ' ' Kultusmin- isterium." Below them are the provosts, who have but little power. The bishops exercise supervision and ordain ministers. — In services there is used the revised " Konvents-Psalme- bog" of 1855, edited by the pastoral conven tion at Roeskilde. There are two authorized additions (TUlaeg, 1873,1890), of which the latter returns to the older hymnology, and counter acts the somewhat rationalistic character of the "Psalmebog." For ministerial actions there was originally used the "ritual" (1681), and altar-book (1688). Confirmation was introduced (1736). The forms later suffered from rational ism. 1895, the re-rised liturgy for baptism and the Lord's Supper was issued ; 1896, a new form for maniage. Much missionary activity has been shown by the Danish Church from the time of its missions in East Indies of the seventeenth century. (See Missions, Foreign.) 1853," aSo- ciety for Inner Mission " was founded, "which does large work, but has a methodistic tendency. Then there is "The Society for Inner Mission in Copenhagen " (founded 1865). There also exist : the Danish Bible Society (1814), the Society for Seaman's Mission, a deaconess mother-house in Copenhagen (237 sisters), a "Society for Danish- American Mission," which has sent many ministers to America. The Dan ish State Church has 2,138,529 members, and the free Luth. churches 10,634, in a population of 2, 172,380. (Cf. F. Nielsen, in Herzog-Hauck, IV., p. 420 ff.) -^ J. H. Denicke 155 Dessler Denicke, David, b. in Zittau, Upper Lusatia (1603), Consistorial Counsellor in Hanover, d. 1680. Together with Justus Gesenius he edited the Hanover hymn-books of 1646 and 1659, which contain a number of his own hymns and revis ions of older hymns. As the names of the authors are not given it is difficult to ascertain in every case which hymns are to be ascribed to him. A partial tianslation of his hymn " Wenn ich die heilgen zehn Gebot," by C. H. L. Schuette, is found in the Ohio Hjrmnal of 1880. A. S. Departed, Commemoration of, Totenfest. In the Roman Church, All Souls' Day, Nov. 2, in the Greek Church the Saturday before Pente cost, or the last Sunday of the Greek Church Year, in the Moravian Church Easter morning, is kept in memory of those who have departed this life during the year. In 1816 the last Sun day of the Church Year was set for this in the Evangelical Church of Prassia, and this has been adopted by many Luth. churches. See Daniel's Codex Liturgicus, II. 68. E. T. H. Deposition from the Ministerial Of&ce, the severest penalty that can be inflicted upon a minister. Canonical Law distinguishes between Deposition and Degradation ; the former vrith- dravring authority for the administration of priestly functions, but the latter absolutely de nying all privUeges. Priests were deposed by bishops, and bishops by the Pope. The Luth. Church holds, that as only God can call to the ministry, so, properly speaking, only God can depose. As in the case of excommunication, the act of the Church is only declarative, and is valid only as it coincides with the di-rine judg ment. In America, the synods are the ordinary bodies that pronounce such sentence. The pres ident of a synod can do nothing more than tem porarily suspend until the action of synod, and even then not usually until after a conference or a special committee have made a preliminary examination. Deposition differs from suspen sion, in not offering the hope of restoration after a sufficient period to show penitence and to re move offence. The earliest synodical constitu tions in this country are sUent as to deposition, and specify " exclusion from the Ministerium " as the severest penalty. The purpose, doubtless, was to avoid judging farther than to decUne all responsibility for the continued indorsement of the offender. Deposition does not necessarily include excommunication or even suspension from communion. It simply vrithdraws the right to administer the Word and sacraments. But as such severe penalty vrill scarcely ever be imposed unless there be a flagrant crime to justify it, the question of excommunication, in connection vrith the deposition or suspen sion, is one that should be kept in mind, and if justice so demand provision shoiUd be made for both sentences. Otherwise a deposed minister has the standing of a lajmian. (See Carpzov, Eccles. Jurisprudentia; Deyling, Prudentia Pas- toralis; Richter, Kirchenrechi, etc.) H. E. J. Derschau, Bernhardt von, b. 1591, at Koe nigsberg, d. there 1630, as professor of the ology and Counsellor of the Consistory, author of the hymn "Hen Jesu, Dir sei Preis und Dank." A. S. Descent into Hell. This phrase, so well known in theological literature, is taken directly from the Apostles' Creed. The place the article holds in that symbol is significant : He (Christ) ' ' was crucified, dead, and buried ; he descended into hell : the third day he rose again from the dead. ' ' After he was quickened, or came to life ; and before his resurrection, i. e. before his appearing in the body to his disciples, "he descended into hell." After death the soul of Christ entered the invisible world, the Sheol or Hades of the Scriptures. That statement, however, does not reach the meaning of this article of the Creed. The hell into which Christ descended between his quick ening and resurrection was the place of the damned. — The leading Scripture passages are i Pet. 3 : 18-20 ; Col. 2 : 16 ; Eph. 4 : 9. The Greek Church held that the descent into hell was in order to offer the sacrifice to the last ; and also to transfer believers to Paradise. The Roman Catholic view is, that the whole divine human personality of Christ went to the place {Limbus patrum) in which the saints of Israel were de tained, in order to deUver them into the full en joyment of blessedness. Reformed theologians m general understand the phrase figuratively, referring it to the extieme sufferings Christ's human soul endured in his -ricarious death. However, the Westminster Confession teaches that it means no more than that Christ died, and for three days remained under the power of the grave. Luth. theologians, as Quenstedt, Hollaz, Gerhard et al., refer the article to the exaltation of Christ. He descended, not for the purpose of suffering, but to manifest his tri umph over Satan. His preaching then (1 Pet. 3 : 19) " was not evangelical, but legal, accusa tory, terrible." It was " a real andftiue depart ure into the place of the damned ; " yet " the movement was not physical, or local, but super natural." This was, moreover, the act, not of the soul only, nor of the body only, but of the entire God-man. The statements of the For mula of Concord are characterized by caution and reverent regard for the very words of Scrip ture. "The article is not to be treated -with acuteness and anxious care, as to how it oc curred, and what the descensus means ; but the most simple opinion must be retained." We believe, therefore, in the language of this Con fession, " that Christ actually descended ad in feros, . . . and that by himself he delivered us from the power of death and of Satan, from eternal damnation, and, therefore, from the jaws of hell. But we are not curiously to search into the manner in which these things have been effected ; but reserve the full knowledge of this for another world." The -riew that the article means no more than that Christ went into the place of departed spirits is unsatisfactory and Ulogical, and fails to reach the deeper meaning of Scripture. (See on the whole article Schmid, Dogmatics ; Weidner, /. Peter, and the Schaff- Herzog Encycl. ) S. A. R. Dossier, Wolfgang Christoph, b. at Nurem berg (1660), Con-rector of the School of the Holy Ghost, in Nuremberg, d. in 1722. He pub lished, in 1692, about 100 hymns, many of them vrith original melodies of his own composition. Deutschmann 156 Devotional L.iterature. Five of them passed into English, among them his finest hymn, " Wie wohl 1st mir, Du Freund der Seelen," of which different tianslations exist. A. S. Deutschmann, John, b. Aug. lo, 1625, in Jiiterbogk, prof, at Wittenberg (1657), d. Aug. 12, 1706, attendant, son-in-law, and blind in strument of Calov, opposed syncretism, charged Spener with 263 heresies, and attempted to prove that the Old Test, and Adam knew all the doctrines of the Form, of Concord. Devotional Literature of the Luth. Ch-urch. Devotion is that habit of the be liever's heart which responds to the means of grace -with a reverent aspiration toward God. The acts of devotion are meditation, prayer and worship. Devotional literature includes all those writings which are adapted to nourish a spirit of devotion, aud to aid the believer in its expression. Inasmuch as the Word of God alone can stimulate and direct true devotion, devotional literature is occupied with the use and application of the Word of God in its par ticular sphere. The whole Bible is adapted to a devotional use, and is pre-eminently the book of devotion. Within it, the Book of Psalms, as an inspired collection of hymns and prayers, is in a particular sense a devotional work. At a very early time in the Christian Church, unin spired books of a devotional character were prepared. Before Constantine, Hermas' Pas tor was the principal work of this kind. The Apocrypha of the N. T. were intended as a con tribution to this class of literature. Another famous example is the Confessions of Augus tine. The "moral tales" of the monks and their legends of the saints had the same purpose in the Middle Ages. Bernard of Clairvaux and the mystics also belong here, as well as Tauler, whose sermons and other writings had great influence in the fourteenth century, and Thomas d Kempis, with his Imitation of Christ, in the fifteentii century. The Reformation under Luther, chiefly known as a re-rival of pure doctrine, nevertheless, find ing its beginning in Luther's own inner ex perience, showed wonderful power in awaken ing and deepening the spiritual Ufe of the people. Luther's -writings were very largely of a devotional type. The Church Postils, the SmaUer Catechism (which has been called the only catechism which can be prayed), the Freedom of a Christian Man, the hymns, the liturgical -writings, the practical and edifying character of his commentaries, not to mention his constant preaching, or the translation of the Scriptures, — all render Luther the chief devo tional writer of the Church. This character istic is so prominent in all his works that many collections of abstracts from his writings have been made purely for devotional use. From Luther to the present time, we find the greatest variety of earnest and practical devo tional books, written, especially, for the use of laymen. Their great number, the spiritual power of most of them, and their remarkable adapta tion to every class of Christian people, and every condition and circumstance of Christian life, furnish impressive proof of the genuine ness and depth of the spiritual life begotten and nurtured under the Luth. type of preaching and teaching. These works might be classed under the heads of liturgies ; sermons, for all preaching has, or should have, reference to the furthering of de votion ; prayer-books, in great number, making provision not only for the observance of devo tion after the order of the Church Year, but for family worship, and for private prayer under almost every conceivable circumstance of the individual's life ; hymn-books, much used for private reading, as well as for public worship, proriding also for the order of the Church Year, together -with much upon the themes of Chris tian life, with its vicissitudes and joys, — hymns in richest variety, of unsurpassable beauty, with deepest and truest power to touch and to in spire, yet drawing their strength and impres- siveness from a presentation of the great truths of the Scriptures, and not from a minute and morbid emphasis upon subjective states of mind, after the fashion of much that is popular at the present day ; and books of meditation, intended for private devotional use, and containing, usually, a passage of Scripture, a meditation based upon it, and a prayer, or hymn, or both, ananged, for each day of the year, or of Lent. Others, without reference to time, are based upon some subject, such as the Passion History, the Preparation for the Lord's Supper, the Christian Virtues, warnings against sins and calls to repentance, examination of excuses often rendered, and many others. Still another class of devotional books of which many are found in our German literature, includes works which seek to present, in a practical and edify ing way, a summary of the elements of our doc trinal system. As illustiative of the variety and fulness of our devotional literature, the classification of it found in the invaluable Handbuch der Theologischen Litteratur, by Winer, is here given. Winer views devotional books : I. With ref erence to the subject-matter, as giving profit able instruction drawn from Nature, the Bible, Doctrinal and Ethical Teachings, History (edi fying examples). Public Worship and Particular Church Usages. II. With reference to different classes of men. III. With reference to calling and station. IV. With reference to peculiar circumstances and spiritual states. V. With reference to special times, e. g. meditations for Sundays and Festivals, as well as Fasts and Lent ; also works prepared on the occasion of unportant events, and periods of time. In the following list of prominent devotional -writers only the chief ones can be given in the vast field which our German literature presents in this class. They are as foUows : J. Arndt, d. 1621, True Christianity, and Paradies-Gdrtlein ; V. Herberger, d. 1627, Herzpostille, Psalter- Par adies, etc. ; John Gerhard, Sacred Meditations, Schola Pietatis, 52 Heilsbetrachtungen, etc. ; J. Val. Andreae, d. 1654 ; Paul Gerhardt, the great hymn-writer, d. 1676 ; H. Miiller, d. 1675, many devotional -works; Christ. Scriver, d. 1693, Seelenschatz , Gott hold's Andachten, and many others ; Ph. Jac. Spener, d. 1705 ; Gottfried Arnold, hymns, Schatzkdstlein, etc. ; A. H. Francke, d. 1727, Dcyllng 157 Dietrich hjmms, etc. ; Joseph Schaitberger, one of the exiled Saltzburgers, Sendbrief, etc. ; J. J. Ram- bach, d. 1735, hymns, Passionsbetrachtungen, etc. ; Benj. Schmolke, d. 1737, hjmins, Morgen u. Abendsegcii , etc. ; C. H. von Bogatzky, d. 1774, Golden Treasury, Tdgliches Hausbuch, Communionbuch, etc. ; Claus Harms, d. 1855, hymns and sermons ; Wm. Lohe, Samen- kontcr, etc. In America, contributions to this class of lit erature have been made by J. C. Kunze, Hymn and Prayer-book, Ein Wort fiir den Verstand u. das H:rz (1781) ; Fried. Stohlman, Gebetbuch fiir die deutsche Jugend (1836); Ambrosius Ilenkel, Eine Sammlniig auserlesener Gebete ll. Lieder (1S24) : J. G. Schmucker, Wdchter- stimme an Zion's Kinder (1838) ; Walther, C. F. W., Predigten, Das walte Gott, etc. ; Grabner, A. L., Herr, ich warte auf dein Heil, etc.; W. J. Mann, Hcilsbotschaft (1881); A. S-paeth, Saatkoriur (1893). In the English language, our devotional liter ature is, of course, small in extent. It was first necessary that our faith should be fitly ex pressed in the language of this new land, before the spirit of that faith could be expected to maniftst itself in practical writings. Some thing has been done, however, and new produc tions are constantly appearing. Exclusive of tianslations, the following works should be mentioned : C. W. Schaeffer, Family Flayer; E. Green- wald, Jesus Our Table Guest ; Meditations for Passion Week ; J. B. Remeusnyder, Heaven ward ; J. A. Seiss, Serrnons (many volumes), The Golden Altar, etc. ; L. A. Gotvvald, Sermons; G. B. Miller, Sermons ; M. Loy, Sermons on the Gospels; G. H. Gerberding, New Testament Conversions ; S. Stall, Bible Selections for Daily Readings; M. Rhodes, 1 heThrone of Grace, ete.\ M. C. Horine, Practical Reflections on Ruth ; C. ArmandMiller, The Wayof the Cross. C. A. M. Deyling, Solomon, b. Sept. 14, 1677, in Weida, Saxony, student at Wittenberg (1697), archdeacon at Plauen (1704), supt. at Pegau (170S), genl. supt. in Eisleben (1716), supt. and pastor at St. Nicolai, Leipzig (1720), d. Aug. 5, 1755, as prof, and senior of Leipzig Univ. Posi tive and Lutheran, he is known for his Institu tiones Prudent iis Pasto rails { 1734) , a classic of Luth. pastoral theology, and for his exeget ical Observationes Sacres and Obscrvationes Exegeticer, directed ag. Grotius, R. Simon, Spinoza, Clericus. Dieckhoff, Dr. August Wilhelm, b. 1823, d. 1896, one of the leading confessional Luth. theologians, commenced his academic career at Goettingen (_iS47-6o), filled the professorship of church history at Rostock from 1S60. As member of the consistory and board of exami nation he was one of the most influential leaders in Mecklenburg. His special line of studies was history of dogmas. He opposed Hofmann's view of inspiration and reconcilia tion ; also attacked Missouri's doctrine of pre destination. G. J. F. Diedrich, Julius, b. 1819, seceded (1847) from the Prussian " Union " to join the Breslau Synod, but soon came into conflict with the hierarchical -riew of Huischke, which ended in his withdrawal. In i860 he organized the Im manuel Synod. (See article.) Whilst Huschke insisted upon the divine institution of church government, Diedrich proclaimed the absolute independence of the congregations. The dis cussion was exceedingly bitter, and great estiangement resulted. Diedrich wrote several popular commentaries and postils. G. J. F. Dieffenbach, Dr. George Christian, b. in Schiitz, Hesse-Darmstadt, December 4, 1822. After the regular course of study became a teacher in Schiitz and afterwards in Darmstadt ; in 1855 assistant pastor in Schiitz. In 1873 1^6 was promoted to the position of chief pastor, an office in which his father and grandfather had preceded him. Besides attending to the duties of his pastoral office, he has been very fruitful in literary labors. His liturgical and devotional books, and his poems for children, give him a secure place among the Church's -writers of the nineteenth century. Well kno-wn are : Evang. Brevier (for pastors) ; Evang. Hausagende (for famUy worship). G. U. W. Dies Irse, Dies nia, the famous Latin se quence of the thirteenth century, generally as cribed to Thomas of Celano, a Franciscan friar, the friend and biographer of Francis of Assisi. OriginaUy a h-yma. on the second Advent, it was usually directed to be sung in the mass for the dead. It has found entiance in the hymn- books of many nations and denominations. There are some 90 German and about 160 English tianslations. One of the finest modern renderings is that by W. J. Irons (1848), which is found in the Church Book, somewhat al tered. A. S. Dietrich, Veit, b. at Nuremberg, Dec. 8, 1506. His father followed the same trade as Hans Sachs. The council of Nuremberg pro- ¦rided the means for his education, and enabled him to spend a number of years at the Univer sity of Wittenberg, where he devoted himself to the study of philology and theology. He be came very intimate with Luther and Melanch thon. This was partiy due to his learning, but still more to the purity and amiability of his character. It is said that he enjoyed the privi lege of being one of Luther's table-guests for more than thirteen years. He accompanied Luther to Coburg in 1530 and cheered the soul of the great reformer during the trials of those days. He also kept Luther's wife and Melanch thon informed of Luther's condition. Inci dentally he had an opportunity to observe how Luther -wrestied -with God in prayer. He re cords that Luther spent three of the choicest hours of the day in his devotions, besides con stantly fortifying his faith by careful medita tion on the Di-rine Word. After his retum from Coburg Dietrich devoted himself for a brief period to private instraction, but soon became a member of the Wittenberg faculty of philosophy, and in 1533 was made its dean. In 1536 he accepted a call" to the pastor ate of the Church of St. Sebaldus in his native city of Nuremberg. The first Luth. preacher of Nuremberg was Andrew Osiander, pastor of the Church of St. Lawrence since 1522. For a Dietrich 158 Divorce number of years Osiander and Dietrich were colleagues at Nuremberg ; but, while Osiander's grandiloquent sermons were understood by only a few, Dietrich's simple discourses attracted so many hearers, that the Church coiUd hardly hold them all. Dietrich bore faithful testi mony for the trath, which caused him consider able trouble, especially his protests against the Interim, which led to the pulpits being closed against him for a time. Beste says of Dietrich's sermons : ' ' They are confessions of a witness who has converted the doctrine of the Reform ers into sap and blood, and who for this reason can speak with the most childlike simplicity. Without the fire of Luther's spirit, they quicken by Luther's light and warmth." Dietrich d. April 25, 1549. A number of his sermons were published, and he himself did the Church a serrice bj' publishing a number of Luther's works. He also wrote several hymns. G. F. S. Dietrich, Franklin S., missionary in India, a native of Berks Co., Pa., was ordained by the Ministerium of Pa., June 5, 1882, and set apart for the work in India in Trinity Church, Read ing, Pa., Oct. 3, 1882. He reached Rajahmun dry, Jan. 2, 1883, where he stayed whilst preach ing at Dowlaishwaram and in the Jagurapad district. In 1888 D. took charge of Samulcotta, continuing at Dowlaishwaram, where he built the mission-house. He d. suddenly June 11, 1889. W. W. Dietrichson, John W. C. (1815-1882) • Luth. pastor, ordained at Christiania, and arrived in America, 1844. Organized many congregations in Wisconsin. He was the first ordained Norwegian pastor to arrive in America. Returned permanently to Norway in 1850. E. G. L. Diets of the Eeformation. See Augsburg ; Nuremberg, etc. Diets, Lutheran, in America. Two free diets were held in Philadelphia, Pa., in the years 1877 and 1878, in response to invitations widely extended to all Lutherans, clerical and lay, without respect to synodical connections. About one hundred ministers, and perhaps as many laymen of divergent views and tendencies from different states and synods, participated in the discussions and proceedings. Each person in attendance appeared only in his own individ ual capacity and not as a representative of any constituency. The papers read were designed to exhibit the one basis of the Luth. faith, the work achieved by it, and the inducements for its per sistent maintenance and extension. The purpose of these diets was purely educational, no attempt being made to affect existing relations or affilia tions. Two volumes containing the papers pre pared and discussions thereon were published. From Dec. 27 to 29, 1898, a third diet was held. It was called "The First Gen. Conference of Lu therans in America." (See its Proceedings, Es says, Debates ; Phila. 1899.) W. B. Dilfeld (Dielefeld) Konrad Georg, b. in Nordhausen, d. 1684, a strict Luth. pastor, who took part in the controversies against &pener and the Pietists, especially by his treatise Theologia Horbio-Spenerana (1679), iu which he attacked Spener and his brother-in-law, Horb, for teaching that only regenerate pastors could administer their office in an efficacious manner. A. S. Dilherr, Johann Michael, b. 1604, in Mein- ingen, d. 1669. He was first pastor of St. Sebald's Church in Nuremberg, and professor in Jena, one of the most learned and eloquent Luth. theologians of his time, a lover of church music and hymn-writer. One of his hymns, " Nun lasset Gottes Guete," is found in an English tianslation in the Moravian Hymn- book of 1808. A. S. Discipline. See Church Discipline. Distribution. See Lord's Supper ; Sacra ments, Administration of. Divorce is the legal annulling of the marriage contract. It always presupposes that a valid marriage has pre-existed. Where a fraud has been practised by one of the parties at the sup- posed entrance into this estate by the other, the separation is not divorce, in the proper sense of the term, but only the legal declaration that such marriage has never existed. All divorces that, according to Holy Scripture, are justifiable, imply that there has been already a sinful break ing of the maniage covenant. The legal act only publicly announces that the covenant has been broken on the one side, and declares the inno cent and wronged party free from all obligations to the one by whom he or she has been wronged. The Roman Catholic Church, regarding marnage a sacrament, taught the absolute indissolubility of its obligations, and that no innocent husband or wife could be separated absolutely from the one who had offended, except by death. The Schmalkald Articles declare conceming this : " Unjust also is the tradition that prohibits the maniage of an innocent person after divorce" (App. P. II.). Two passages of Scripture must be regarded the source of all conclusions on the subject : Matt. 5 : 32 and 1 Cor. 7 : 15. These make adultery and malicious, protracted deser tion the only valid causes. These two causes in fact coalesce, since the essence of adultery is desertion. Within the Luth. Church, two views of di vorce have been held, a stricter and a more lib eral. The stricter has as its chief representa tive Luther, who insisted upon the two causes above given, as the only two that were permis sible. He includes, however, under desertion, the persistent refusal of connubial duties. The subject he has treated in Babylonian Captiv ity, Op. Lat. Erlangen, V. : 100 sq.; Sermon concerning Married Life, Erl. ed. 2d. 16 : 523 sqq.; Onl. Cor. VIL, Eri. ed. 51 ; 38 sqq. ; ijfar- nage Questions, ib. 23 : 143 sqq. ; On Matth. VI. and VIL, ib. 43 : 115 sqq. Bugenhagen, Chem nitz, Gerhard, Calov, etc., take the same -riew. A more liberal position was taken by Melanch thon, upon the basis of the Roman Law, who re gards acts of craelty and the laying of plots against one's husband or wife equivalent to de sertion. Others include under desertion flight from the country because of crime, attempts to force one to commit sin, danger to body or soul, imprisonment for life. The stricter view, how ever, prevaUed in the Luth. Church, until Dogma 159 Dogmatics rationalism entered, and regarding marriage principaUy as a civil contiact, greatly extended the offences that might be construed under de sertion. See Richter, A. L. , Lehrbuch des Kirch enrechts ; Herzog-Hauck, Art. " Scheidungs- Recht," by R. W. Dove ; the books of Carpzov and Boehmer, and Chemnitz, Gerhard and Quenstedt, De Matrimonio. H. E. J. Dogma, in its primary Greek meaning, sig nifies a public decree or ordinance, whether of rulers, or of an assembly. In this sense it is used in the N. T. ofthe decrees of Caesar (Luke 2:1; Acts 17 : 7), of a decree of the Apostles (Acts 16 : 4), and ofthe Mosaic ordinances (Col. 2 : 14 ; Eph. 2 : 15). In its secondary classical usage the word dogma was applied to the cate gorical sentences, opinions, or tenets, of phi losophers. Thus Cicero speaks to the decreta (tenets) "which philosophers call dogmata." The word easUy passed over to the later Chris tian usage of tiie word as meaning doctrine, a doctrinal statement, a precept of the Christian religion believed to be clearly taught in Scrip ture. As the word dogma is so often used in an unfavorable sense, it would probably be better to use the word doctrine instead of dogma, when speaking of the essential doctrines or dogmas of Christianity. A doctrine or dogma of the Chris tian religion is not a subjective human opinion, nor a mere truth of reason which can be proved vrith logical certainty, but a trath oi faith, de rived from the revealed Word, and taught as a positive trath on the authority of that Word. In scientific theology we have various disciplines which have to deal -with dogmas or doctrines, as Exegesis (which seeks to establish the doc trines the Scripture teaches). Biblical The- OLOG-v (which collects and ananges in a purely historical way the teachings or doctrines of each single writer) , History of Doctrines (which aims to trace the unfolding and establishment of the Christian faith in its separate doctrines), Patristics (which develops the doctrinal teach ing of the Fathers), Symbolics (which treats of the distinctive doctrines that separate the dif ferent denominations from one another), and especially Dogmatics (which see) . R. F. W. [A dogma is a definition of doctrine made by church authority, and, therefore, the terms "doctrine" and "dogma" are not synony mous.] H. E. J. Dogmatics, as a theological science, belongs to the division of Systematic Theology, and as its presupposes the truth of Christianity in gen eral, follows Apologetics, which may be re garded as an independent intioduction to Dog matics, and as it lays the basis for the doctrine of Christian Ethics, properly precedes this latter science. As Dogmatics is the highest form and the very centre of all theological science, we may expect to find in it the results of Exegetical and Historical Theology, and so connected as to form a scientific whole, thus laying the basis for the various disciplines comprising Practical Theology. I. Definition. Three different -riews have been held in the Luth. Church conceming the mode of delineating Christian doctrine. ( I ) The aim has been to give a clear and accurate presentation of the doctrines held and taught by the Church, a method which may be called Symbolic, as seen in Schmid {Doct. Theol. of Lutheran Church) and Hase {Hutterus Redi- vivus) ; (2) The Church doctrine is presented as the doctrine of the writer (the philosophic meth od), as in the case of Martensen {Dogmatics) and Frank ( Wahrheit) ; (3) Although the doc trine of the Church is laid as the basis, the greatest stress is laid on the agreement of the Church doctrine with the Scripture doctrine, and the latter is most fully developed, as this is established in the experimental consciousness of the delineator (the biblical-confessional method), as seen in the works of Luthardt {Kompendium), Philippi {Kirchliche Glaubens lehre) , thomasvas {Christi Person und Werk), and Vilmar {Dogmatik). This last is the truly Luth. (Protestant) way, for we may speak of three factors in Dogmatics : (i) the Scripture doctrine ; (2) the Church doctrine ; and(3) the personal consciousness of faith. The defini tion given by Luthardt is probably the best : " Dogmatics is the science which presents, in their connection and mutual relations, the doctrines, which it has as its aim to reproduce from the religious faith of the Christian him self, in harmony with the Scriptures and the teaching of the Church." II. Material Principle. As Dogmatics is a systematic statement of the Christian faith, there must be some great truth which gives shape to the whole presentation of doctrine. As such a genetic principle Luther designates the article of fustiflcation by faith. And all our Lutheran dogmaticians, although at times dif fering in th.eform of statement, agree in this, that the material principle of Dogmatics must be the very essence of Christianity, — the idea of fellowship vrith God mediated through Christ, — whether it is stated as the Atonement, or the Person of Christ, or Justification by faith, — in opposition to the Cal-rinistic theologians, who lay stress upon the absolute causality of God. III. Formal Principle. The formal princi ple of Dogmatics is the sole authority of Holy Scripture, and this imparts to Dogmatics its biblical character. Still our church has not isolated Scripture from the historic development of the Church, as the Reformed churches have, and in consequence more stress is laid on the historic testimony of the Church as the living -witness of the trath. A trae Luth. system of Dogmatics assumes Scripture and its authority as a matter of fact, just as it takes the Church and her doctrines, and justifies both -within its system, as it does the other facts of faith. IV. Di-VISIONS. The anangement of the material of Dogmatics has been made sometimes synthetically, sometimes anal5rtically, some times in accordance -with the tiiree Articles of the Aposties' Creed (Martensen, Marheineke, Kahnis), and sometimes in the historic order of the development of its great leading parts. Philippi, the greatest of our modem dogmati cians, di-rides his system into five parts, and fol lows the order of the historical actualizing of the fellowship of man vrith God : (1) The orig inal FeUowship vrith God ; (2) Its Disruption ; (3) Its Restoration ; (4) Its Appropriation ; (5) Its Completion. So in substance Thomasius, Dorner 160 Diirer Luthardt, and Frank, though otherwise formu lated. The -writer prefers to anange and dis cuss the whole subject-matter of Dogmatics, excluding the Introduction, under the following seven di-risions : (i) Theologia, or the Doctrine of God ; (2) Anthropologia, or the Doctrine of Man ; (3) Christologia, or the Doctrine of the Person of Christ ; (4) Soteriologia, or the Doc trine of the Work of Christ ; (5) Pneumatologia, or the Doctrine of the Work of the Holy Spirit ; (6) Ecclesiologia, or the Doctrine concerning the Church ; (7) Eschatologia, or the Doctrine of the Last Things. V. Select Literature of Confessional Dogmatics. The most prominent Luth. theol ogians who have been the best representa tives in their age of Luth. confessional Dog matics, and whose works deserve the most careful study are : Luther (d. 1546), Melanch thon (d. 1560), Chemnitz (d. 1586), Selnecker (d. 1592), .lEgidius Hunnius (d. 1603), Hutter (d. 1616), Hafenreffer (d. 1619), Gerhard (d. 1637), Koenig (d. 1664), Calov (d. 1686), Quenstedt (d. 1688), Baier (d. 1695), HoUaz (d. 1713), Buddeus (d. 1729), Vilmar (d. i858), Thomasius (d. 1875), Philippi (d. 1882), Krauth (d. 1883), Bjorling (d. 1884), Heinrich Schmid (d. 1885), Walther (d. 1887), Frank (d. 1893), and Lu thardt (1823-). R. F. W. Supplementary Note : Dogmatics is the science of dogmas. It treats of the Church's officially formulated definitions of doctrine, explaining their meaning, tiacing them to their sources, and showing their relation to one an other and to the entire body of revealed trath. While Biblical Theology draws its material directly and entirely from Holy Scripture, care fully excluding all elements derived from the experience of the Church and indi-ridual Chris tians outside of Scripture — an end that can only be approximated, since we cannot absolutely isolate ourselves from historical relations — Dog matic Theology begins with the settled defini tions of scriptural truth, as they have reached their present form through the process described vrith respect to each dogma in Dogmenge schichte. Every Dogma, therefore, has three elements, viz., first, a Scriptural, as the material comes ultimately from Scriptures ; secondly, an Historical, since the definition has been deter mined by historical circumstances ; and, thirdly, a Philosophical, determining the terminology. None of these are to be overlooked in any ade quate treatment. H. E. J. Dorner, Isaac August, b. in Wuertemberg in 1809, educated in the land of his birth, pro fessor at various universities, last at Berlin from 1862 imtil his death in 1884 ; a philosophical theologian of the school of Schleiermacher, -with a strong leaning to Lutheranism. His chief -writings are : The Doctrine of the Person of Christ, History of Protestantism, System of Christian Doctrine, and System of Christian Ethics. All of these have been translated into English. Domer's theology is pervaded by the idea of the union of God -with man in Christ. Incarnation is necessary apart from sin, and was gradual in Christ, being completed in the resur rection. A. G. V. Dorpat. See Universities. Drachart, Laurentius, Danish Luth. mis- sionary in Greenland, who became a Moravian, and founded -with Jens Haven and others the first missionary station in Labrador at Nain (1771). Draeseke, John Henry Bernhard, one of the most briUiant pulpit orators of the nineteenth century, b. at Branswick, Jan. 18, 1774 ; educated at University of Helmstedt, Bruns-wick, under Henke, rationalist ; 1795, deacon at MoUn, Lauenburg ; pastor at Ratzeburg, Lauenburg (1804), Bremen (1814). Upon the death of Bishop Westermeier D. was appointed general superin tendent of Saxony, residence at Magdeburg ( 1832) . Failing to receive support in his disci plinary proceeding against the pastor Sintenis, who spoke of the worship of Christ as ' ' a super stition ; ' ' attacked severely by pastor Konig of Anderbeck in Der Bischof D. und sein achtjdh- riges Wirken im preussischen Staate (1840), he withdrew from office 1843. D. at Pots dam December 8, 1849. Early tendency some what rationalistic, or humanistic-pelagian. Ser mons : Predigten Jiir denkende Verehrer Jesu (1804-1812, 5 vols.). Sermons of Napoleonic period, patriotic. This spirit already in Glaube, Liebe und Hoffnung (1813), addressed to the youth ; Die Predigten Hber Deutschlands Wie- dergeburt (1814,3 vols.). Gradually his tone grew firmer in favor of church orthodoxy. He was not a friend of formulated creeds, however, and naturally favored the "Union." Other sermons published : Ueber die letzten Schicksale des Herrn (2 vols., 1816); Ueber freigewdhlte Abschnitte der heil. Schrift (4 vols., 1817-1818); Christus an das Geschlecht dieser Zeit (1819); Gemalde aus der heil. Schrift (4 collections, 1821-1828), etc. H. W. H. Drese, Adam, b. 1620, in Thuringia, d. 1701, at Amstadt, first musician at the court of Duke Wilhelm of Sachse -Weimar, afterwards Ka pellmeister in the service of Prince Anton Guenther of Schwarzburg Sondershausen. He wrote hymns for the pietistic meetings held in his house, and also composed the tunes for them. His most popular hymn, " Seelenbraeu- tigam, Jesu, Gottes Lamm " (1697), is found in an English translation by Dr. M. Loy in the Ohio Hymnal, 1880. A. S. Duerr, Damasus, b. 1530, in Brenndorf, Transsylvania, near Kronstadt, d. 1585. He studied in Wittenberg (1559), and became pastor in Kleinpold (1570). An interesting collection of his sermons has recently been discovered by Dr. Amlacher. A. S. Duerr, Ehrenfried, b. 1650, in Muehlau, Voigtland, d. as general superintendent in Eis leben, 1775. To him the hymn is ascribed, " Fang dein Werk mit Jesu an," German Kir chenbuch, No. 358. A. S. Diirer, Albrecht, of Nuremberg, b. 1471, d. 1528, the foremost of the old German painters and father of a German line of art, did much to popularize art in Germany. His wood-engrav- mgs are coarse compared vrith modern products ; but masterpieces. Through them especially the educating influence of real art was felt all over Germany. An ardent adherent of Luther, he introduced the portraits of the Reformers ia Dylander 161 Ecclesiastical Mveral of his paintings. Among his best works are illustrations of Revelation and the Pas sion. G. J. F. Dylander, John, Swedish missionary to the settlements on the Delaware, from 1737, to his death in his 32d year, in 1741. He preached in Gloria Dei Church every Sunday in German at Matins, in Swedish at the chief serrice, and in English at Vespers. He gathered the Ger mans at Germantown and Lancaster and sup plied them vrith services ; and also filled appoint ments for Episcopalians, often preaching sixteen times a week. Easter, The Observance of. Easter, as com memorative of the central fact of the Chris tian religion, may justly be regarded as the Church's chief festival. It was the first of the whole cycle of Church festivals to be ob served, and to this day marks the beginning of the ecclesiastical year in the Greek Church. As early as 160, controversies arose regarding the proper time of its observance. The Council of Nice (325) decreed that it should always be celebrated on the first Sunday foUo-wing the full moon, which happens next after the vernal equinox (March 21st) ; but that, if the full moon be on a Sunday, Easter shall be kept on the Sunday after. According to this rule, which determines the practice of the Westem Church, Easter cannot occur earlier than March 22d, nor later than April 25th. In the ancient Church the celebration of the festival began on Easter Eve, and was continued amid great re joicing until the following Sunday, subsequently until Pentecost. The Luth. constitutions at first ordained a three days' celebration, abolished all the superstitious practices to which the Middle Ages had given rise, and made the prop er observance of the festival to consist in the faithful setting forth of the great central fact of redemption, in word and song. J. F. O. East Ohio Synod. See Synods (I.). East Pa. Synod. See Synods (I.). Ebeling, Johann Georg, b. about 1620, at Lueneburg, a prominent musician and composer of Paul Gerhardt's hymns. In 1662 he became the successor of Johann Craeger as choirmaster and organist of St. Nicolai in Berlin, where Paul Gerhardt then held the office of diaconus. In 1667 his compositions of Gerhardt's 120 hymns were published in Berlin. A. S. Ebenezer, the settlement of the Salzburgers in Georgia, on the Savannah River, 23 mUes from Savannah, begun in 1736. The location proved unhealthy and the settlement has long been abandoned ; but Jerasalem Church, erected in 1741, is still standing and in use. A. G. V. Eber, Paul, b. 1511, in Bavaria, d. in Wit tenberg, 1569. From 1532 to 1536 he studied in Wittenberg. He was made professor of Latin in 1544, professor of Hebrew and CasUe preacher in 1557, town preacher and general superintend ent of the electorate in 1558. He was Melanch thon's intimate friend and, for many years, his secretary. Next to Luther he is the best II poet of the Wittenberg circle. A number of his hymns have passed into English, among them "Herr Jesu Christ, wahr'r Mensch und Gott " (Lord Jesus Christ, tiue man and God), trsl. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. (1855), another tianslation by E. Cronenwett for the Ohio Hymnal (1880) ; " Wenn wir in hoechsten Noethen sein " (When in the hour of utmost need), ti. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra, Germ. (1858). A. S. Eberle, Christian Gustav, b. 1813, d. Dec. 9, 1879, a Wuertemberg pastor noted for his Lutherana -.Luther's Glaubensrichtung (1858); Luther ein Zeichen dem widersprochen wird (i860) ; and his excellent Luther's Evangelien- Auslegung aus seinen homilet. u. exeget. Werken (1857). Eberlin, Johann, b. about 1465, in Guenz- burg on the Danube, d. after 1530 in Wertheim, Bavaria. He was first a popular Franciscan preacher in Tuebingen and Ulm, and after wards was gained for the Reformation through Luther's writings. For a time he was in some danger of being carried off into the fanatical ways of Carlstadt and his adherents, but the personal influence of Luther and Melanchthon, with whom he became acquainted in Witten berg, led him to more sober and healthy views. His activity for the cause of the Reformation was chiefly of a literary character, through a number of bright and popular treatises, the best of them, Wie sich ein Diener Gottes Worts in all seinein Thun halten soil (How a minister of God's Word should keep himself in all things) (1525). (Reprinted in W. Loehe,, Der Evangelische Geistliche, Stuttgart, S. G.. Liesching, 1858. 2d. vol.) During the Peasants'- War he did good service for the cause of peace; and order, especially in Erfurt. A. S. Ebert, Jacob, b. 1549, at Sprottau in Upper Silesia, d. 1614 (1615?), as prof, of theology in Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. His hymn, "DuFriede- fuerst. Hen Jesu Christ" (1601), sometimes er roneously ascribed to Ludwig Helmbold, was translated into English by Miss Winkworth, Choral Book for England ( 1863) , Ohio Hymnal (1880). A. S. Eccard, Johann, German composer and organist ; b. at Miihlhausen, Thuringia, in 1553 ; studied under the celebrated Belgian master Orlando di Lasso ; chapel-master at Koe nigsberg and Berlin ; wrote part-songs, sacred and secular, motets and other church music of a very high order ; d. i6ij. His most impor tant works are Geistliche Lieder auffden Choral, Koenigsberg (1597), and Fesllieder durch das gauze fahr mit fiinf, sechs bis acht Stimmen Koenigsberg ( 1598) . In the former he followed the important change first made in a work by Lucas Osiander, of tiansferring the melody from the tenor to the treble, to enable the con gregation to join, and pro-rided it with a rich harmonization, usually in four parts, for the choir, thus securing artistic results without sac rificing congregational singing. The second work mentioned above was a collection of com positions for the exclusive use of the choir on festival days and occasions. J. F. O. Ecclesiastical. See Church. Education 163 Education Education in the Lutheran Church. Throughout the Middle Ages, education was regarded as an exclusive function of the Church. The principal schools of this long period were the monastic schools, cathedral and parochial schools, and during the latter part of the Mid dle Ages, burgher schools and the universities. With the increasing worldliness and corruption of the papacy, the schools of all kinds suffered a great decline. At the beginning of the six teenth century, except where the humanists had infused new life, the schools were few in num ber, defective in studies, and cruel in discipline. Recent Roman Catholic writers, like Janssen, have tried to disprove these facts. It must be conceded that there were exceptions to this general decline. There were enlightened hu manists, like Agricola, Reuchlin, and Erasmus, who displayed great educational activity and pedagogical insight. The Brethren of the Common Life were specially active in the in straction of the poorer classes. But in general there was no adequate provision for the educa tion of the common people, and the schools were defective in studies, method, and discipline. On this point the Luth. Reformers have left us strong testimony. After visiting the churches and schools of Thuringia, Melanchthon wrote : ' ' What can be offered in justification that these poor people have hitherto been left in such great ignorance and stupidity ? My heart bleeds when I regard this misery. Often, when we have completed the visitation of a place, I go to one side and pour forth my distress in tears. And who would not mourn to see that the faculties of man are so utterly neglected, and that his soul, which is able to learn and grasp so much, does not know anything, even of its Creator and Lord ? ' ' Luther wrote in a similar strain after the visi tation of the churches of Saxony. ' ' Alas ! " he exclaims, ' ' what a sad state of things I wit nessed ! The common people, especially in the -rillages, are utterly ignorant of the Christian doctrine ; even many pastors are wholly un qualified to teach." In reference to the uni versities he writes in his ' ' Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen in behalf of Christian Schools ' ' : "Yea, what have men learned hitherto in the universities and monasteries, except to be asses and blockheads? Twenty, forty, years it has been necessary to study, and yet one has learned neither Latin nor German. I say nothing of the shameful and vicious life in those institu tions, by which our worthy youth have been so lamentably corrupted. ' ' The Luth. Church has from the beginning been active in education. The fundamen tal principles of the Reformation, in contrast with Roman Catholicism, naturally and in evitably lead, not only to primary, but also to secondary and higher education. These prin ciples may be briefly stated as foUows : i. The Scriptures are the only rale of faith and prac tice in religion ; 2. Men are justified by faith alone ; aud 3. All believers are kings and priests unto God. These principles, first announced by Luther and his coadjutors, make the Luth. Church the mother of popular education, and the friend of every department of learning. The relation of these principles to education should be clearly apprehended. With the' Scriptures and a sanctified conscience for guide, every man is devoted to the freedom and dignity of ordering his own religious life. Education, therefore. Becomes a necessity. " In_ rendering man responsible for his faith, and in placing the source of that faith in Holy Scripture," says Michel Br^al, an able French scholar, "the Reformation contracted the obligation of plac ing every one in a condition to save himself by reading and studying the Bible. Instraction became thus the first of the duties of charity ; and all who had charge of souls, from the father of a family to the magistrates of cities and the sovereign of the State, were called upon, in the name of their own salvation, and each accord ing to the measure of his responsibility, to favor popular education. ' ' According to the fundamental principles of the Luth. Reformation, our mission in this life is not to fast, to make pilgrimages, and to withdraw into monasteries, but to perform faith fully the duties that come to us in every rela tion. Secular duties are exalted into a divine service. To fulfil the duties of this rich human life, education becomes a necessity. No class should be left in ignorance. " Even if there were no soul," says Luther, " and men did not need schools and the languages for the sake of Christianity and the Scriptures, still, for the establishment of the best schools everywhere, both for girls and boys, this consideration is sufficient, namely, that society, for the main tenance of civil order and the proper regulation of the household, needs accomplished and well-trained men and women." The Luth. Church encourages investigation, welcomes dis coveries, applies new ideas, and favors progress. It is instructive to consider the fundamen tal distinction between Luth. and Roman Catholic pedagogy. The former is concerned with the individual ; the latter with the su premacy of the Church. This distinction has been clearly presented by Schmid in his Pdda- gogisches Handbuch: "The Catholic view does not recognize the individual's right to Christian education and instruction, and there fore it feels no obligation to provide for the culture of all its members. The Church is the supreme object of life, and, therefore, of cul ture ; the school and the home are hence only means to bring up the young for obedience and serrice in the Church. The individual is an object of ecclesiastical activity only so far as the Church has an interest in him for her own ends. ... To this ecclesiastical Christianity the evangelical Christianity of the Reformation is opposed. Here the aim and end of all the activity of the Church is not the institution but the person, not the system but the man ; not the glory of the external church, but the salvation of the individual soul. The Reformation wishes nothing else than what Christianity itself -wi^es—that all be helped, that all come to the knowledge of the truth." Thus every individ ual is entitled to education as a right, for which the Christian community is in duty bound to make adequate provision. Influenced by their fundamental principles. Education 163 Education the Luth. Reformers early began to work for the establishment and improvement of schools. As early as 1524, Luther made an appeal of marvellous energy to the authorities of the German cities in behalf of popular educa tion. If we consider its pioneer character, in connection with its statement of principles, we must regard this address as the most important educational tieatise ever written. In 1525, Luther was commissioned, by the Duke of Mansfeld, to establish two schools in his native town of Eisleben, one for primary and the other for secondary education. Both in the courses of study and in the methods of instmction, these schools served as models for many others. The forms of church government adopted by the various Luth. states and cities in the six teenth century contain provisions for the es tablishment and management of schools. The " Saxony School Plan," originaUy prepared by Melanchthon and revised by Luther, was exten sively adopted. The current abuses of the schools in studies and discipline were pointed out. " In order that the young may be prop erly taught," says the Plan, "we have estab lished this form : 1. The teachers shall see to it that the children are taught only Latin, not German or Hebrew, as some have hitherto done, who have burdened their pupils with too many studies, which are not only useless but hurtful. 2. They shall not burden the children with many books, but in every way avoid a distract ing multiplicity of studies. 3. It is necessary that the children be divided into grades." Except the neglect of the mother-tongue, the whole Plan is admirable. In a few years the Protestant portion of Germany greatly increased the number of schools, which, though defective in comparison -with recent standards, were far superior to any that had previously existed. The Luth. Reformation was no less favor able to secondary and higher education. Town or burgher schools, Latin schools or gymnasia, and universities sprang up in Germany under the religious impulse of the Reformation. Trotzendorf , Neander, and Sturm, all of whom were directors of celebrated Latin schools, were friends of Melanchthon. The University of Wittenberg was the centre of the reformatory movement. Among the Lutheran universities founded during the Reformation period were Jena (1557), Helmstedt (1576), Altorf (1575), Gies sen (1607), Rinteln (1619), Strassburg (1621), Kiel, (1665), Halle (1694). From the foregoing statement of principles and facts, it -will be readily understood why the Luth. Church is active in promoting educa tion. When it fails to foster schools of every grade, it is untrue to its principles and history. Wherever the Luth. Church exerts a strong influence education flourishes. Germany is to-day the schoolmistiess of the world. Its schools are the most thorough ; its popula tion shows the lowest percentage of illiteracy. . It has 569 gymnasia and realschulen, and seven teen universities, in each of which there is a theological faculty. In Denmark, Norway, Sweden (see Educ. in Sweden); and Finland, where the population is ahnost entirely Lutheran, we find an educational system scarcely less complete than that of Ger many. In other countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Oceanica, the Luth. Church main tains numerous schools. The Luth. pioneers in America, true to the traditions of the Church, at once engaged in the work of education. Almost without exception, these early ministers were men of liberal cul ture. Many of them came from the Franckean institutions at Halle. Kunze, Helmuth, Schmidt, Muhlenberg, and others were eminent for their scholarship. Wherever a community of Lutherans was found, the erection of a house of worship was immediately followed by the establishment of a school. This fact is illus trated by the Salzburgers, who settled in Georgia in 1734, and of whom it has been said: "No sooner did they take possession of the wilder ness than a tabernacle is set up for the Lord. This is speedily followed by pro-rision for the education of the children : then an asylum for the lonely orphan succeeds. " In 1773 a Latin school and seminary was es tablished by Schmidt and Helmuth in Phila delphia, for the instruction of candidates for the ministry. In 1787 the legislature of Pennsylva nia established Franklin College at Lancaster, for the especial benefit of the German popula tion. Muhlenberg was the first president. In 1791 the legislature of Pennsylvania donated five thousand acres of land to the free schools of the Luth. Church in Philadelphia. But the educational development of the Church during the eighteenth century was seriously interfered with by the revolutionary war and by an inter nal conflict in regard to language. Since the establishment of public schools in this country, the Luth. Church has generally patronized them. But in recent years, espe cially among the German population of the West, there has been a notable movement in favor of parochial schools in which systematic religious instruction is given. (See Parochial School.) This was the system of our Luth. pioneers. During the present century, the Luth. Church has exhibited remarkable activity in edu cation. No other Church, in proportion to its membership and resources, has established so many colleges and seminaries. (See Semi- NAiaES. For list see Statistics.) The majority of colleges (see COLLEGES) are open to both sexes. But there are a few institu tions devoted exclusively to the higher education of young women. Among these are Kee-Mar Seminary, Hagerstown, Md. , Maryland College, Lutherville, Md., Marion Female College, Mari on, Va., Mont Amcena Seminary, Mt. Pleasant, N. C, Irving Female College, Mechanicsburg, Pa., and Elizabeth College, Charlotte, N. C. According to Lenker's Lutherans in All Lands, the Luth. Church maintains parochial schools as follows : In Europe, 89,764 ; in Asia, 756 ; in Africa, 714 ; in Oceanica, 180 ; in South America, 90 ; in North America, 2,513. These facts exhibit at a glance the widespread charac ter of the educational work of the Luth. Church. F. V. N. P. Education in Svreden. From olden time the beautiful custom has prevailed in Sweden to impart to the children the radiments of in- Education 164 Ehlers struction in the home, the mother generally being the tutor. As to the schools, both ele mentary and secondary, their history dates from the Reformation period in the sixteenth century. The year 1640, however, marks the epoch when a more earnest effort was made to establish people's schools, and it was decreed that a school be established in every city. From time to time the system was improved upon, until 1842, when an entire re-organization was effected which yet prevaUs in its general fea tures. By it popular education was made compulsory in the kingdom, and the result has been most remarkable. At the commencement of the century a person who could not read was rarely met with, and at present illiteracy is al most unknown in Sweden, the very latest data showing that among the conscripts mustered there were only .27 per cent, who were unable to read, while the country coming next ( Den mark) shows .36 per cent, of the class named. The national schools are under the superin tendence of the clerical heads of the diocese ; the management of the schools being intrusted in every district to a board of which the pastor is ex officio chairman. Religious instraction is compulsory in the schools. Besides religion (Bible history and the doctrine of faith from Luther's Catechism), the course of study in the primary schools com prehends exercises in reading and -writing, arithmetic, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. In the higher grades are added geometry, geography, and history, with a connected review of Swedish history, and outlines of general history, natural history, military exercises, horticulture, and manual training. For the education of teachers for the people's schools there are seven normal schools for men and five for women. These also are established and supported by the State, and the required course is four years. Secondary instraction is imparted at seventy- five institutions of learning {hogre allmanna Idroverk), of which, however, only thirty-five take their pupils as far as the demands requisite for entering the universities. The cuniculum comprises nine years. Girls are not admitted to these schools, but they can obtain an equiv alent preparation for the universities at private institutions. The entire number of pupils in 1893 was 15,070, and a yearly average of 650 pass the prescribed examination for admission to the universities. On the whole the amount of study is about the same as in the average American colleges. The plan of instruction is the same for the first three years. Then a bifurcation takes place, some pursuing the Latin (classical) course, others the scientific course, with English. French is taken up in the fifth year, both in the classical and the scientific course. The last four years, the sixth tp the ninth, the pupils of the two courses are separated. The graduation examination is quite a severe one, and the written part of it is conducted under the strictest surveillance by the teachers. University education is imparted at two com plete universities, in Upsala (founded in 1477) and Lund (in 1688), each with four faculties or departments : theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. The department of philosophy is divided into two sections, one for literature, history, phUosophy, philology, and allied branches of knowledge ; the other for mathe matics and the natural and physical sciences. Each faculty confers three degrees : candidate, licentiate, and doctor. The universities are under the charge of a board of council -with the chancellor of the university as its chief officer. The number of students at Upsala varies from 1,400 to 1,900, and at Lund from 600 to 900. Be sides these there are the Medico-Surgical In stitute at Stockholm, and two private high schools recently founded in Stockholm and Gothenburg ; the latter having all the univer sity departments save theology, while the former has departments for mathematics and natural sciences. Technical instruction is given in two high and four elementary technical schools. In cluded under higher grade of instruction are three military, two naval, and ten navigation schools ; also veterinary schools and two agri cultural schools. Art instraction is provided for by the Royal Academy of Music and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, and the Royal Gymnastic Cential Institute, all at Stockholm. (Compare Reports of the Commissioner of Education 1889, '92, '96 ; S-wedish Catalogue, Statistics, World's Columbian Exposition, 1893. ) A. O. B. Egede, Hans, the "apostle of Greenland," b. in Norway, 1686, and d. in Denmark, 1758, when pastor at Vagen on the Lofoden Islands, read of the Norse settlements in Greenland in the Middle Ages. He resolved to bring the gospel to their " descendants who had become heathens." E. and his heroic wife prevailed upon King Frederick IV. of Denmark to permit and promote the sailing of the "Hope" from Bergen to Greenland in May, 1721. Egede ar rived on the West coast, July 3, but found only Innuit (Eskimos). His trials and hardships were extremely severe. He preached his first sermon in the native tongue Jan. 10, 1725. His best helpers were his wife and his sons Paul and Nils. Moravians followed ( 1 733 ) , but rather op posed him ; he always treated them kindly. Smallpox nearly destroyed the native popula tion. E. returned to Denmark (1736); his son Paul succeeded him in the work, and was noted for his linguistic attainments. H. E. was made principal of the Greenland Seminary at Copen hagen, from which he retired in 1747. The fruit of his labor of faith is seen in the Luth Church of Greenland. (See Greenland.) Paul Egede completed the Innuit version of the N. T. in 1766, translated the Small Catechism in 1756, and the Church Book in 1783. He d in 1786. -w. -w Ehlers, L. 0., b. Sept. 1, in Sittensen, Han over, Jewish missionary in Posen, Luth. pastor at Gastini, Polen (1833-1841), and at Liegnitz from 1825 to his death, Aug. 3, 1877, opposed the Prussian union, was a member of the Breslau OberkirchenkoUegium, edited the Breslau church paper (1849-1862). Opposing Husch- ke's doctrine of the ministry, he left, and joined the Immanuel Synod, becoming its senior. Eichelberger 165 Elisabeth Eichelberger, Lewis, D.D., b. Frederick Co., Md., Aug. 25, 1801 ; d. Winchester, Va., Sept. 16, 1859. Dickinson College, 1826, Gettysburg Seminary, 1828. Pastor at Winchester ; subse quently principal of seminary for young ladies at that place ; and, finally, for six years, pro fessor in theological seminary then located at Lexington, S. C. D. M. G. Eichhom, Chas,, b. July 11, 1810, in Kem- bach, Baden, studied at HaUe under Tholuck and Guericke, who led him to faith. As pastor at Bofsheim, influenced by Loehe, he came to be a positive Lutheran, left the Baden Estab lished Church (1850) and joined the Breslau Lutherans. When, despite the union in Baden, a Luth. church constituted itself in Ihringen, E. was called (March, 1851). In his work he suffered persecution and imprisonment by the state church, but strengthened the Lutherans, and later advanced the Luth. churches in Wal deck. Eielsen, EUing (1804-1883), founder of a small body of Norwegian Lutherans in America, now numbering 8 ministersand 50 congregations, generally known as "ElUngianeme. ' ' Early in fluenced by pietism in Norway he became a lay preacher and continued as such till his ordina tion in 1843, four years after his arrival in this country. He was a man of intensely subjective conrictions and of littie education, but labori ously zealous for the spiritual welfare of his people. E. G. L. Einarsson, Gissur (1508-1548), introduced the Reformation into Iceland, after having be come acquainted vrith Luther's doctrines in Germany. He was ordained to the episcopacy in 1539, and became the first Luth. bishop of Iceland occupying the see of Skalholt. (See Iceland.) E. G. L. Ein Feste Burg ist TJnser Gott (A mighty fortress is our God). Conceming the date of Luther's great battie hymn of the Reformation different views have been advanced. The earli est, and possibly the most popular, view was, that the hymn was composed in 1521, at the time of the Diet in Worms. But the simple fact that it is not found in the hymn-book of 1524 refutes this theory. A number of scholars like Aug. Jacob Rambach (1813), Ranke, and others were in favor of the year 1530, the time of Diet of Augsburg, when Luther was at Coburg. Though Hieron3Tnus Weller, Sleidan,Coelestin, Chytraeus and Selnecker are quoted as witnesses, this view was shown to be enoneous by Dr. Geffken in 1857. And in 1788 {Tournalvon und fuer Deutschland) , Geo. Ernst Waldau had found the hymn in Jos. King's hymn-book, Wittenberg (1529). Phil. Wackernagel and others, therefore, were inclined to assign the hymn to the time of the Diet of Sheier (1529}. Dr. K. F. Theo. Schneider (Dr. M. Luther's Geistliche Lieder, nebst einerkurzen Geschich te ihrer Entstehung, Berlin, 1856) suggested November 1, 1227, as the probable date of the origin of the h3Tnn. He bases his opinion chiefly on internal evidence, comparing the language of the hymn -with a number of expres sions used in letters of Luther to Mich. Stiefel (Oct. 22, 1527), and to Amsdorf (Nov. i, 1527). Geffken, Wackernagel and Fischer {Kirchenlie- derlexicon) are not convinced by Schneider's arguments. But in recent times he is strongly supported by J. A. F. Knaake {Zeitschrift fuer Kirchliche Wissenschaft und Kirchliches Leben, 1881), who discovered the hymn in the Leipzig Enchiridion of 1529. The tune, which breathes " a tmly heavenly stiength of mind {Divinum robur animi) and is well fitted to encourage, cheer, and inspire a desperate and sorrowing soul," was Luther's own creation, together -with the words of the hymn itself. This testimony of Chytraeus is still unshaken, in spite of the attempts made by Romanists to show that it was patched together from different musical passages of the Graduate Romanum, and in spite of the suggestion of Kade {Luther-Codex, . 1871) that Joh. Walther was the composer of the powerful melody. A. S. Eiriksson, MagUUS, b. 1806, in Iceland, studied theology in the Univ. of Copenha gen, and passed examinations in 1837, but on account of his heterodoxy he never held any of ficial position in the Church, and never returned to his native countiy, but lived in Copenhagen as private tutor and literary man until his death in 1881. In his religious convictions he was a Unitarian of a very pronounced and polemical type, personally of an amicable and social dis position, being generally known by the Ice landic Colony in Copenhagen as frater, but the author of many harsh controversial books, most of which are in Danish, others in Icelandic, about twenty in number, their titles being too long for enumeration, in many of which he violently attacks Bishop Martensen, the famous Danish theologian, for his trinitarian doctrine. The Unitarian tendencies, perceptible among the Icelandic clergy at the present time, may in some instances be tiaced to the influence of this peculiar author. F. J. B. Eisleben, Magister. See agricola, j. Elders. See Church Polity. Election. See Predestination. Elements. A technical term with reference to the sacraments, always indicating the earthly, visible, tangible sacramental object. Thus, in the Lord's Supper, the elements are bread and -wine ; in Baptism, the element is water. The Body and Blood of Christ, or the Holy Spirit and the Word, in the two sacraments cannot be termed " heavenly elements." Elers, Henry Jul., d. Sept. 13, 1728, in HaUe, the founder of the printing house and book store of the Halle Orphans' Home. Elisabeth, daughter of Elector Aug. of Saxony, b. 1522, was married 1570 to John Cas imir of the Palatinate, whom she hoped to con vert from Cal-rinism to Lutheranism, but failed. Casimir, who just as strongly desired to make E. Cal-rinistic, imprisoned her, having "accused her v^rongly of adultery. Elisabeth of Calenberg, daughter of Joa chim I. of Brandenburg, the second wife of Eric I. of Brunsvrick, converted by a sermon of Cor vinus to evangelical faith, was instrumental, after the death of her Catholic husband (1540), in introducing the Reformation into Brans-wick and Liineburg. Emancipation 166 Engelhardt Emancipation of Slaves, Attitude of Luth. Church tovrard. As early as 1822 the Tennessee Synod, meeting in St. James' Church, Green County, Tenn., unanimously declared slavery to be "a great evil in our land, and it desires the government, if it be possible, to de vise some way in which this evil can be re moved " {Henkel's Hist., ^. $2). The General Synod (North) in 1862, at Lan caster, Pa., hailed "with unmingled joy the proposition of our Chief Magistrate, whicli has received the sanction of Congress, to extend aid from the Genl. Go-vt. to any state in which slav ery exists, which shall seem fit to initiate a sys tem of Constitutional Emancipation " (Minutes, p. 30). In 1866, at Ft. Wayne, Ind., the same body included, among national causes for thanksgiving, " the removal from among us of the cause of slavery" (Minutes, p. 21). Dis tiict synods, connected with the General Synod, took similar action. The Missouri Synod's position on slavery may be found in The Lu- theraner, vol. xix., Nos. 12-15. That of the General Synod (South) in appendix to their Minutes of 1863. Both these latter held that the Church had to do only with the moral rela tions between master and slave. Lehre und Wehre, vol. ix., p. 44, says : "The question is not whether, under given circumstances, it be better for a state, a country, or a nation, to abolish existing slavery, of course in a legal way." H. L. B. Emeritus Pastor is a pastor freed from duty and pensioned because of age or disability. In Germany the churches now generally have a pension fund, and take into consideration the length of service. In America an emeritus is rare, and his pension is only the free-will gift of a congregation. Emigrant Mission, in connection with the meeting of the N. Y. Ministerium, in 1861, a conference was held, at which the protection of Luth. immigrants, especially at the port of New York, was considered. In 1862 Dr. Stohlmann brought the subject to the attention of the Pennsylvania Synod. A committee was appointed, which called the Rev. Robert Neu mann, formerly missionary in China, to under take the work. R. N. began his labors in 1865. The work proved extensive for one man, and in 1866 the Rev. W. Berkemeier was called, who en tered upon his labors the following year. After the organization of the General Council, the E. M. work was intrusted to it. Rev. B. was zealously engaged in the establishment of an in-' stitution, in which the immigrants could lodge, and thus be protected against robbery and fraud to which the helpless immigrant was an easy vic tim. The building, No. 26 State St., was pur chased in 1873, and since then enlarged. In the 25 years of the existence of the Emigrant House 227,035 guests were lodged, 33,048 without pay, and 20,270 emigrants were furnished with free meals. There was contributed for Emigrant Mission ^{17,614.95 and for poor emigrants {^10,389.99. The Synod of Missouri likewise maintains au emigrant mission in New York and Baltimore, as also the Swedish Augustana Synod in New York. J. N. Encyclopaedia, Theological, is an introduc tion to theological science, which views the whole circle of theological studies in their unity and relations. It is not only a convenient bird's eye view for beginners in theological study, but a necessary investigation for the growth of theo logical science. Hence it has been properly designated by Raebiger Theologie. Like every living science, theology has a growth and de velops into an organism. The sytematizing of the cpnstituent parts of this organism, and the determination of the proper place and propor tion, of the connections and distinction of dif ferent branches of theology are essential to good method and scientific progress. The purpose and essential contents of each branch must be fixed. As the articulation of theological science is perfected, the need for the development of new branches becomes evident. But along with this constructive purpose of systematization, theological encyclopsedia also pursues a practical object, namely, to show the student how any branch of theology is best studied and what are its practical uses. In other words, methodology is always joined with en cyclopsedia. Theological encyclopaedia is not a new science, yet in well systematized form it belongs to this century, since Schleiermacher. The name came into use in 1764, when it was introduced by Mur- sinna, a Reformed theologian. Long before the last century there were works introductory to the study of theology, especially since the time of the Reformation. Among the various schemes of di-rision of theological science proposed, that generally accepted is the fourfold division into exegetical, historical, systematical, and practical departments. The best known works are these by Hagenbach (Reformed) and von Hofmann. Weidner's Cyclopedia is also to be highly com mended, espl. I. Introduction and Exeg. Theol. (2ded.). A. G. V. Endress, Christian L. F., D. D. (u. Pa., 1819), b. in Phila., Pa., in 1775. Graduated at the University of Penn., in 1790, and became instractor in the same institution. Licensed, after study under Rev. Drs. Helmuth and Schmidt, by the Min. of Penn., in 1794. Served at Frankford, Pa., and Cohenzy, N. J. ; and taught until 1800. In 1801-1815, pastor at Easton, Pa. ; and from 1815 to his death on Sept. 30, 1827, pastor at Lancaster, Pa. A finished German and English scholar. A participant in the forming of the General Synod, 1820 and 1821. C. E. Hpt. Engelhard, Geo. Veit., b. Nov. 12, 1791, in Neustadt on the Aisch. Prof, of theology at Erlangen from 1822 to his death Sept. 13, 1855. Noted for his historical studies and his Dog mengeschichte (1839), he also exerted a large influence as Oberkirchenrath. He was thor ough, sober, and evangelical. Engelhardt, Maurice, b. July n, 1828 prof, at Dorpat from 1859 to his death, Dec. 5' 1881, known for his monograph on LiJscher his testimony for Schenkel and Strauss, he issued (1878) a study on Justin Martyr, whom he char- actenzed as not Christian but gentile. A. Stahlin answered his misrepresentation (Leipzig, 1880). England 167 English England, Lutherans in. The way was prepared for the EngUsh Reformation by Wiclif, Bradwardin, Colet, and especially by the stim- lUus given by Erasmus, during his professor ship at Cambridge (1511-15), to the study of the Greek Testament. Luther's writings found eager students at Cambridge. Thence the in terest spread to Oxford. Tyndale's tianslation of the New Testament was completed at Wit tenberg, and its dependence on Luther's Ger man is most manifest, the introductions and glosses being scarcely more than translations. Various tieatises of Tyndale are paraphrases of Luther. Cranmer married the niece of Osian der, conesponded with Osiander and Melanch thon, and used the Lutheran formularies as the models for those which he prepared. In 1535, an English commission (Bishop Fox, Drs. Heath and Barnes) were at Wittenberg for weeks, endeavoring to reach an understanding vrith Luther and his colleagues, and discussing the Augsburg Confession. In 1536, an English translation of the Augsburg Confession and Apology, made by the clerk to the Premier, Crumwell, appeared. The X. Articles were compiled from the Augsburg Confession, Apol ogy, and another treatise of Melanchthon. The Bishops' Book of 1537 also draws freely from Lutheran services. Coverdale's Bible (1535), the foundation of those that followed, is more of a tianslation of Luther than of the original languages. Coverdale put Luther's hymns into English. A Lutheran commission to England continued in 1538 the conferences begun several years before at Wittenberg. The XIII. Arti cles, which form the basis of the later XXXIX. Articles, were taken mostiy from the Augsburg Confession. Henry VIII. interfered to prevent the completion of the work of reform on Luther an Unes ; but it was resumed under Edward VI. The First Prayer Book is so closely depend ent ou Luth. liturgies, that it is properly classed among them. In 1548, a Calvinistic reaction set in, due to the condition of the Luth. Church in Germany, owing to the calamities of war and contioversies, as well as to the return of English exiles who had been sojourning at Geneva, Ziirich, and other Re formed centres. Hence the formularies that followed are a continuation of Mediaeval, Luth eran, and Calvinistic elements, that have never been harmonized. The process of Luther- anizing the English Church was thus frustiated, although the leaders of the movement were Lutherans, as Cranmer was until 1548. He published as his Catechism a translation of the Nuremberg Kinder-Predigten, including Luther's Small Catechism in classical English. (See Jacobs, The Lutheran Movement in Eng land. ) The presence of large numbers of Germans in London occasioned the formation of Lutheran congregations, from the close of the eighteenth century. For history of these congregations see London, Lutheran Churches in. H. EJ. English Lutheran Literature. The want of Luth. Uterature in the English language was greatly felt in the development of the English work in the Church. The first at tempts to supply it were connected with the providing of books of worship and for catechi zation. The number of English books that appeared in the eighteenth century can be counted on the fingers of one hand, among them a tianslation of Luther's Catechism (1749), a volume of sermons translated from the Danish, with the Augsburg Confession attached (1755), a reprint of a translation of Psalmodia Ger- manica (1756), the first book used in English services in this country, and a Hymn and Prayer Book, by Dr. Kunze. Little more was done in the first half of the nineteenth century, in which occurred the founding of the first Luth. Publication House, by the Henkel family, in New Market, Va. (1806). In this time (1826) , a tianslation of Ston and Flatt's Biblical Theology was published at Andover, Mass., by Dr. S. S. Schmucker, who issued his Popular Theology, from same place (1834), which reached nine editions. A number of minor histories — by Shober, Loch man, and Hazelius — also appeared, and some Popular Expositions of the Gospels — by Dr. Morris and C. A. Smith. In 1843, Dr. B. Kurtz published a little volume of pp. 227 entitled why are you a Lutheran ? In 1846, Dr. Seiss published Lectures on the Epistle to the He brews. In 1826, The Lutheran Intelligencer was be gun as an 8vo monthly, which became The Lutheran Observer, published first semi monthly and then weekly, first 8vo and then 4to, and then folio, and became a medium of communication for Luth. writers in English. In 1849, The Evangelical Review was begun at Gettysburg, and became the repository of well- prepared articles from all parts of the Church. From this time on fugitive literature, in the form of newspaper and re-riew articles and pamphlets, became increasingly abundant. The Definite Platform contioversy called out many of these. The New Market House issued a tianslation of Luther on the Sacraments, in 1853, and of The Christian Book of Concord, iu 1851, rerised edition in 1854. In 1855, a Publication Society, now known as ' ' The Luth. Board of Publication, ' ' Phila. , was formed, which has ever since been de voted to supplying the English demand for Luth. Uterature and, besides supplying Sunday School papers and books, has issued some very substan tial works, among which may be mentioned The Doctrinal Theology of the Evang. Luth. Ch., by Schmid, Lectures on the Augsburg Con fession, and KostUn's Theology of Luther. After the formation of the General CouncU "The Lutheran Book Store " in Philadelphia became the source of its supply of English publications, from which quite a number of valuable works have issued, among them The Lutheran Movement in England, by Dr. H. E. Jacobs, and the Book of Concord, in 2 vols., by the same. The Joint Synod of Ohio began the publication of English periodicals in 1842, is suing the Lutheran Standard in that year, and about 1880 established a "Book Concern" which has been active in publications. By individual and private houses not a few books have been published by L,utheran authors English Synod 168 Erlangen in the last half century. Dr. Seiss has been the most voluminous writer, the list of his books making quite a pamphlet. The Con servative Reformation and its Theology (1871) was Dr. Charles P. Krauth's most notable work. Dr. Wolf wrote (1889) a popular History of the Lutherans in Ameidca, and Dr. Jacobs (1893), The Lutherans, vol. iv., in the American Church History Series. Roth's Handbook of Lutheranism (1891) and Lenker's Lutherans in All Lands (1893) made the Church more -widely known. Rev. Dr. Weidner published many doctrinal, ethical, and practical works in the last fifteen years. The Christian Litera ture Company finished in 1898 The Lutheran Commentary on the New Testament, in 12 vols., by various Lutheran scholars. Over 60 different periodicals are at this time issued in English. H. L. B. English Synod of the North-West. See Synods (IL). Epiphany. See Church Year. Episcopacy. See Bishop ; Church Polity ; Oversight. Epistolae obscurorum virorum, A series of severe satires against the monks, the first volume of which was published at Hagenau, in 1515, skilfully written in the style of those whom they satirize. Crotus Rubianus and Ulrich von Hutten are regarded their chief authors. Erasmus, Desiderius, humanist, b. Rotter dam, October 7, 1464, an illegitimate son, whose name was originally Gerhard Gerhardi ; studied at Utiecht, Deventer, and Oxford ; a monk from i486 to about 1508, but, by special dispensation, spending little of his time within the monas tery, his enthusiastic devotion to classical studies being favored by his superiors ; profes sor at Cambridge, 1511-14 ; from then, pen sioner of the Archduke Charles (afterwards Charles V.), and thus enabled to devote the remainder of his life to literary pursuits and travelling; d. at Basle (1536). He rendered distinguished service in promoting the study of the Greek language, and in recalling theolog ical science to the Greek text of the New Testa ment, that had been completely eclipsed by the Vulgate. From the second edition of the Greek Testament of Erasmus, Luther made his trans lation into German. Erasmus also, with great severity and effectiveness, exposed the enors of the current church teaching and the faults of the monks ; but being without firm and posi tive convictions has the position only of a culti vated critic. Thirteen years before his death, Luther made this discriminative criticism of what Erasmus had up to that time attained : ' ' Erasmus has fulfilled the mission to which he has been called. He has introduced the classical languages, and -withdrawn us from godless studies. Possibly he will die with Moses, in the wilderness of Moab ; for he does not lead to the better studies that promote god liness. I -wish only he would stop commenting on Holy Scripture." Melanchthon, whose re lations to him were cordial, wrote : " In the ology, we seek two things : one is to be con soled and admonished with respect to death and God's judgment, and to have our hearts strengthened against the .artifices of Satan and the powers of hell ; this is the trae preaching of the gospel, unknown to the world and to all human reason. This is taught by Luther, and is piety of the heart, that immediately bears good works. The other concerns good morals and proper conduct. To this end all that Eras mus teaches is directed. But this was taught even by the heathen phUosophers. . . . Where love does not flow from faith, it is only Phar isaic hypocrisy, a deceptive counterfeit." The most accessible biographies are those of Drum- mond (1873) and Froude (1894). Prof. Emer- ton of Harvard vrill shortly publish another. The English writer, Charles Reade, has based his novel The Cloister and the Hearth upon facts connected vrith his life, and has introduced into it translations of many of the CoUoquia, one of the most famous works of Erasmus. From him, Zvringli, who was an intimate friend and a frequent conespondent, derived the doc trine of the Lord's Supper that was opposed to Luther's. The repeated attempts of a class of English writers to eliminate the influence of Luther from the English Reformation, by giv ing the chief credit to Erasmus, and even to exaggerate Luther's indebtedness, otherwise, to him, justifies this article in a Luth. Cyclo paedia. H. E. J. Erfurt, University of. The fifth German university, founded 1392. In 1455, it had 2,000 students. It was at the height of its in fluence when Luther was a student there. The Theological Faculty remained faithful to the Papacy. It declined until 1816, when it ceased to exist. Erich, Duke of Bruns-wick, b. 1470, d. 1540, an adherent of the Roman Church during the period of the Reformation, who was so capti vated by Luther's heroism at Worms, that, as Luther left the hall, he sent him refreshments, and received the blessing that comforted his last hour : " As Duke Erich has thought of me, so may the Lord Jesus remember him in his last conflict." Erk, Ludwig Christian, b. 1807, at Wetzlar, d. 1883, at Berlin ; music teacher at the Royal Normal School in BerUn (1835), leader of the Liturgical Choir at the Dom in Berlin, after wards the famous Dom-Chor (1836-1838). His Choral Book (Berlin, 1863) is most valuable on account of his careful investigation and restoration of the original tunes, the excellent harmonization, based on the best models of the sixteenth and seventeenth century, and its brief but comprehensive historical annotations. A. S. Erlangen, in Mittelfranken, Bavaria, the seat of a Luth. university, founded 1742, which, after the reign of rationalism, has in this century been the home of confessional Luther anism. Among its noted teachers were von Hofmann, Hofling, Thomasius.Theod. Harnack, V. Zezschwitz, Frank, Kohler, and at present Theod. Zahn and Kolde. They represent the newer Luth. theology vrith its freer conception of inspiration, its cautious kenosis (since Thomasius), its modified doctrine of atonement (since v. Hofmann). Ernest the Confessor 169 Eschatology Ernest the Confessor, Duke of Bransvrick- Lueneburg, one of the signers of the Augsburg Confession, a nephew of Frederick the Wise, b. at Uelzen in 1497, was tiained at the court of his uncle Frederick, and had the opportunity of hearing Luther. When he succeeded to the dukedom he intioduced the Reformation, a step which was ratified by the estates in 1527. He was warmly attached to Urbanus Rhegius, so much so that he said he would rather lose an eye than give up Rhegius, whom he had made general superintendent at CeUe. Duke Ernest took part in the formation of the Smalcald League in March, 1531, and d. 1546. G. F. S. Ernest I. , called the Pious, Duke of Saxe- Gotha and Altenburg, founder of the house of Gotha, was b. in the palace at Altenburg, Dec. 25,1601. His father, Duke John of Weimar, died early, but his mother, Dorothea Maria of An halt, gave him an excellent education. He dis tinguished himself in the campaign of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany, especially in the battle on the Lech, where he was the first to cross the river vrith his regiment, and then forced the enemy to retire. At Luetzen he won a victory over Pappenheim after the death of Gusta-vus. An ardent Lutheran, he took a deep interest in church and school, directed the religious train ing of his chUdren vrith anxious solicitude, re quiring them to commit to memory nearly all of the Scriptures. To promote Christian knowl edge among his people, he arranged for the prep aration of the Weimar Bible, during the throes of the Thirty Years' War. His efforts were not Umited to Germany, as his conespondence vrith the Czar Alexei Michailovritsch at Moscow in behalf of the congregation at that place proves. He established a German Luth. congregation at Geneva, and was interested in the state of religion in Abyssinia, receiving a visit from the Abbot Gregorius of that country and sending Wansleben of Erfurt thither, besides receiving letters from the patriarch of Alexandria. The beneficent traces of his reign are stiU in evi dence. Gelbke as weU as Beck and Kreyen- berg have described his Ufe and reign. He d. March 26, 1675. G. F. S. Emesti, John Aug.,b. 1707, in Tennestadt, Thuringia, conrector and later rector of the ' ' Thomasschule, ' ' Leipzig, and then prof, at the university until his death (1781). He favored the grammatico-historical interpretation of the Bible, sometimes to the detriment of its content. In faith he formally held to the Symbolical Books, but not vrithout wavering. Ernst, J. F., pastor in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, 1779-1791, and 1798-1805, when he died ; pastor in New York, near Albany, 1792-8. He served longest congregations in the neighborhood of Easton, Pa., particularly Greenwich, N. J. Esbjom, Lars Paul, b. 1808, as pastor in Sweden, 1870, was ordained 1832, and came to America 1849, the pioneer and one of the patriarchs of the Augustana Synod and so earned the highest title that can be bestowed by a pil grim church. He was a man well versed in many subjects of knowledge, and therefore qualified to be the first professor in an institu tion of learning for the higher education of the Swedish pilgrims. After years of toil and pri vations, for the good of his dearly beloved countrymen in the New World, he became homesick, and retumed to the land of the Mid night Sun, in the year 1863, followed by the gratitude and well wishes of his brethren in the Augustana Synod. He Uves in the memory of all those who know what it means to be a pioneer. O. O. Eschatology is that department of Christian theology which treats of the Last Things, the termination of the present life, the state after death, the Second Advent of Christ, the Judg ment, and the future of the earth and man. ReUable information on these topics is to be found only in the Holy Scriptures. The sagas, myths, and tiaditional beliefs of heathen nations may contain some broken and distorted rays of primitive revelations, but they cannot be safely accepted. The same is to be said of nec romancy, spiritism, Swedenborgianism, and the like. Inferences from science, and conclu sions reasoned from present conditions or prob abilities are likevrise untrustworthy. Even the Scriptures themselves are less definite, full, and clear on some of these particulars than curiosity would desire ; perhaps for the reason that too much knowledge of these matters would unfit us for the duties of the present life, or because the things involved are of a nature which it is not possible for us to understand, except in heavily veiled outline. It is held by some, that the Apocalypse, the chief prophetic book of the New Testament, furnishes an inspired chart and summation of the entire Biblical teachings on these themes, and also the order in which the momentous things involved are to occur. According to this view, the interval between the first and second Advents of Christ, covering the whole period of the present Church, is described in the first three chapters of the Revelation, the charac teristics of the successive ages being noted in the Seven Epistles. This period is termi nated, aud the judgment period begun, by the Parousia, or coming of Christ for his people, raising from the dead those of them that had died, tianslating those of them then among the living, and catching them up together to him self in the aerial spaces (Jno. 14 : 3 ; i Cor. 15 ; I Thess. 4 : 13-17; Rev. 4). This Parousia is the first stage in the Second Advent, which, like the first, takes in years, and consists of divers presentations. It is the beginning of the judgment period which, like the Advent, runs through years, and embraces various features and administrations, described in the Revela tion, from the fourth to the tenth chapters, and which reach their climax in the Epiphania of the Parousia for the destruction of the Antichrist and his armies (2 Thess. 2 : 8-10 ; Rev. 19 : 11- 21). Then follow the thousand years of ruler- ship and shepherdiring which the glorified saints, the subjects of the first resurrection, with Christ at their head, are to exercise over the nations still remaining on the earth (i Cor. 6 : 2 ; Rev. 5 : 10 ; 20 : 4-6). And, after a brief rebellion, instigated by Satan, and speedily sup pressed by fire from God, all the wicked dead Eschatology 170 Eschatology are raised, judged, and consigned, along with Satan, to the ever burning lake (2 Thess. 1 : 7- 9 ; Rev. 20: 7-15). The mighty changes in earth, air, and sea then reach their climax, completing the new heavens andthe new earth, of which the New Jerasalem, coming down from God out of heaven, is the metropolis, and the home of the glorified (Heb. 11 : 10, i5 ; 13 : 14 ; Rev. 21 : 22). This contemplates the perpetuity of the earth as a planet (Ecc. 1:4; Ps. 78 : 69), changed and renewed indeed (Rom. 8 : 19-23), but not annihilated, and inhabited by a re deemed and holy population (2 Pet. 3 : 13 ; Rev. 21 : 3-5). A full elaboration of these fore- showings is contained in Dr. Seiss' Lectures on the Apocalypse, 3 vols. The central point in Scriptural Eschatology is the coming again of the Lord Jesus Christ, in what is called his Second Advent. This is every where emphasized as the pole star of Christian hope (Matt. 24 : 3, 26, 27, 30, 37-39 ; 25 ; Luke 17 : 22-37 ; 21 : 25-36 ; Acts 1 : 9-11 ; Phil. 3 : 20, 21 ; 1 Thess. 4 : 13-18 ; 2 Thess. i : 7-10 ; i Pet. 5 : 4 ; 2 Pet. I : 16 ; 3 : 1-12 ; Rev. 1:7; 22 : 16-20). It is in aU the Christian creeds and -writings from the beginning. The Incarnation, the Cross, and the Second Advent comprehend the whole substance of Christianity objectively considered. To these its distinctive doctrinal system is adjusted, and neither of them can be put aside without mutilating the Scriptures from end to end, and stifling the voice of prophets, apostles, and Christ himself. This promised coming again of the Lord Jesus is not to be confounded -with his provi dential comings in temporal judgments, as m the destraction of Jerasalem, in special deliverances of his people, or in the ending of earthly life ; nor yet with his spiritual comings in the Word and sacraments, and his presence with his Church. It is a literal and personal coming, in no way distinguished from the first (Acts i : 11 ; Rev. 1:7), except that the first was in great hu mility (Phil. 2 : 5-8) to lay the foundations, while the second is to be in power and great glory (Matt. 24 : 30) to consummate redemption by the resurrection and glorification of his people (Luke 21 : 28 ; Phil. 3 : 20, 21 ; i Thess. 4 : 16, 17), the destraction of Antichrist (2 Thess. 2 : 8 ; Rev. 19 : 20), the binding of Satan (Rev. 20 : 1-3), the forcible suppression and eradication of evil (Matt. 13 : 30, 41, 42 ; Rev. 20 : 10-15), the restitution of the despoiled world (Acts 3 : 21 ; Rom. 8 : 19-21 ; Rev. 21 : 5), and the estabUsh ment of the everlasting reign of righteousness and peace (2 Pet. 3 : 13 ; Rev. 21 : 4, 24). As to the state of the dead, there is much di versity of belief and teaching. Materialists, pantheists, and others hold that the death of the body dissolves the whole being forever. Not so the Scriptures. They plainly teach a contin uity of existence after the dissolution of the material organism. According to Christ, the rich man and Lazarus both were still alive, after some sort, when dead as to their bodies (Ivuke 16 : 19-31) ; those who can kill the body cannot kill the soul (Matt. 10 : 28) ; Christ and the penitent thief were to be together in Paradise, subsequent to their execution (Luke 23 : 43). According to the Apostles, those who have fallen asleep in Christ are not perished (l Cor. 15 : 18); and those slain as martyrs to the trath still continue in conscious existence (Rev. 6 : 9, 10). Yet the condition of disembodied souls is not the same in every case. The Scriptures tell of a Paradise — a place of rest for the good, — while others are in privation and suffering ; neither are any of the dead as yet in their final estate. As there is to be a corporeal resunection for all (Jno. 5 : 28, 29), " some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt " (Dan. 12 : 2, 3) , there necessarily is, and must be, an intermediate state, where the good are com forted, but not yet in their final heaven or re ward, and where the vricked are unhappy, but not yet in their final hell. Just what capacities and opportunities for activity and improvement are possessed in these Hadean worlds is not revealed to us. The doctrine of Purgatory is an invention and fancy of men, mostly main tained for temporal purposes, and ha-ring no sort of foundation in the Word of God. The exact character of the Resunection, es pecially in the points of difference between that of the righteous and that of the wicked, we may not be able to describe or comprehend ; but the Scriptures clearly teach that there is to come, through the mighty power of God, a resunec tion of all the dead, and such a recovery from the mutilation wrought by death as to restore the complete man (Job 19 : 26 ; Isa. 26 : 19 ; Dan. 12 : 2 ; Jno. 5 : 28 ; 11 : 23 ; i Cor. 15 : 12-23 ; I Thess. 4 : 16). It is the body that is to be resunected (Ps. 34 : 21 ; Rom. 8 : 11 ; i Cor. 15 : 53 ; 2 Cor. 5:4; Phil. 3 : 21), not indeed in all its materia], mortal, and corruptible constitu ents, but with new and spiritual qualities (1 Cor. 15 : 35-44), yet essentially identical with the body that died. The resunection bodies of the saints -will be of a nature answering to the spirit ual and heavenly (1 Cor. 15 : 42, 44, 49, 53). They -will be incorraptible and immortal ( i Cor. 15 : 53. 54 ; Rev. 21 : 4) , glorious, like the body of Christ after his resurrection (Phil. 3 : 21 ; i Cor. 15 : 43), and differing in qualities and honor from the resunected bodies of the unsanc tified (Dan. 12 : 2, 3 ; Jno. 5 : 29). The resur rection taught in the Scriptures is not the rising of a spiritual man out of the material body at or soon after the moment of death, as Swedenbor- gians dream, denying all resunection of what dies ; but occurs only, except in the case of some specially favored saints, at the Second Coming of Christ and the final consummation (Jno. 6 : 40, 44, 54 ; Pbil. 3 : 20, 21 ; I Thess. 4:16; Rev." 20 : 11-15). It is held by some that the resur rection in every case is part of a redemptive process ; but the tenor of the Scriptural presen tations seems to be that it is more punitive than restorative in the case of the wicked, and that their recall from death is for the visitation of their sins upon soul and body, as in soul and body they were committed. As to the Judgment, the ideas prevalent in, and derived from, the Middle Ages, of a grand assize, confined to a particular day, when aU men both good and bad, wiU simultaneously stand before the enthroned Christ to have their histories read out and the destiny of each de termined, very imperfectly accord vrith the Eschatology 171 Ethics scriptural presentations, or with the -riews of the early Christian fathers. A final adjudica tion must indeed come, to rectify present in equalities and deal out even justice ; but it is not all reserved for one particular day or scene. The justification of believers, and the condem nation of unbelievers, are things of the present, and are as much a part of the final judgment as any judicial act of God can be, save only that sentence is not yet fully executed. The en trance of some into Paradise, and the privation and suffering of others, immediately after death, implies effective judgment already. The same is true of the resunection, which is dis criminative, — a thing of honor and glory to God's people, and of shame and condemnation to all others. There is, moreover, a judging of the quick, the living, including people and nations orf the earth, which must needs be a thing apart, as to time and manners, from the judgment of the dead. All believers are judged and justified at the time of their believing, and there is no further judgment for them, except the determination of their rewards ; and even that is being determined in the character of their resunection, their taking up to meet the Lord in the air, and the assignment of places and honors, before the judgment of the living world, in which they are to have part, begins (i Thess. 4 : 13-18 ; Eph. 6 : 8 ; i Cor. 2:9; 6:2; Jude 14, 15 ; 1 Pet. 4 : 17 ; Matt. 25 : 31- 46 ; Rev. from chap. 6 to 19 inclusive). The first afflictive stroke of the day of Judg ment upon the quick, i. e. upon those living on the earth at the time of the Second Advent, vrill be the cutting of them off from the first honors, while the ready and waiting are caught up to the Lord in the air (Matt. 24 : 44-51 ; Luke 21 : 34-36). This vrill be the beginning of the great tribulation into which all the un ready and unsanctified then come (Rev. 3 : 10) ; but out of which many wUl subsequently be saved (Rev. 7 : 9, 14). The continuity and ever deepening character of this tribulation, up to the destruction of the great Antichrist and his adherents (2 Thess. 2:8; Rev. 19:11-21), marks and measures the day of Judgment as respects the living world, though in some sort extending through the thousand years also (Rev. 20:4-6), and only finally consummated in the destruction of Gog and Magog (Rev. 20 : 7-10). Then follows the resurrection and ar raignment of all the unholy dead, and their adjudgment to their final doom (Rev. 20: 11- 15), which will be severer upon some than upon others (Matt. 10 : 15 ; 11 : 21-24 ; 12 : 41, 42 ; Rom. 2 : 12-16), although condemnation falls upon all of them. As to the end of the world, the reference is to the termination of the present order of things — the al&v and the Kdafioi — and not to the earth's existence as a planet (Matt. 13 : 22, 38, 39, 40, 49 ; I Cor. 7 : 31 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 5 ; i Jno. 2 : 17). Great changes are foretold (Heb. i : 10-12), as at the time of the flood (2 Pet. 3 : 6, 7), but no more disastrous to the earth's existence than was that cataclysm. Those changes mean regeneration and renewal, not annihilation (Acts 3 : 21 ; Rom. 8 : 21 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 13 ; Rev. 21 : I). J. A. S. Espolin, Jon Jonsson, b. 1769, d. 1836, bailiff in Iceland. He wrote the history of his countiy in the form of a chronicle from 1262- 1832, published in Copenhagen (1821-1855), in 12 vols. From a theological point of view this bailiff is most renowned for his Commen tary on the Book of Revelations, showing famU iarity with all the German and English literature on the subject. He is also the author of some hjTuns. F. J. B. Esthland. See Russia. Estates. Our old Luth. teachers, foUovring Luther, hold that there are three estates ap pointed by God, the ecclesiastical, political, and domestic. "The domestic order is devoted to the multiplication of the human race ; the political to its protection ; the ecclesiastical to its promotion to eternal salvation. The do mestic state has been estabUshed by God ag. wandering lusts ; the political ag. t3Tanny and robbery ; the ecclesiastical ag. heresies and corruptions" {Gerhard). The ecclesiastical includes the ministry and ordination (see art. on) ; the political treats of civil authority, its institution by God, its duty to preserve order, and its ultimate aim to promote the Church's prosperity. The State is given a right in sacred things, and thus the existing state church is justified, though the inner economy is claimed to be the prerogative of the ministers only. (See Church and State.) The domestic state treats of marriage, paternal relation, and the servile state. (See BETROTHAL ; Marriage. ) (For the bearing of the estates on Church polity, see Richter, Kirchenrechi, pp. 124 ff., 156, 256 ff.) J. H. Ethics, Lutheran. Ethics, derived from the Greek Hhos (Ionic ethos), custom, also called morality, from Latin mos, will, is improperly the description of the moral life, and properly the realization of this life. Its Christian character gives it the proper source, authority, and aim. The source is the conscience, which, finding its deepest demands satisfied in communion with God, is purified and assured in its ethical func tion. The authority is guaranteed by impera tive divine justice, and its aim secured by the earnest of the final victory of good. In the assurance of its truth, actuality of its purpose, harmony of its duties, it proves its superiority to all morality which seeks its source, authority, and goal only in man, and gropes for that which Christian Ethics possesses. One vrith Christian religion in being rooted in commun ion with God, in having regard to the divide image of man, in working -within the kingdom of God and looking for its consummation, it yet differs inasmuch as it seeks the realization of good in free personal activity. It finds its possibility and reality in the divine deeds, but in their strength fulfils its mission freely in the complex relations of life, touching the in dividual, the individual in the community, and the community. Sin to it is responsible action, sanetification the ideal to be fulfilled, law the standard of duty, Christ the exemplar, the Church the society of love, which bnngs and aims at the kingdom of God. It unfolds and uses the talents which religion supplies. But Ethics 173 Ethics the Christian ethical life can find its fulness only in the Luth. faith. In it freedom, the essential factor in all morality in its formal aspect, is made actual. Though the moral in cludes obligation and subjection, it harmonizes this with freedom only in the free union of the dirine and human will. This was rightly found in the Reformation and fully maintained by Lutheranism. Romanism, binding the soul to the Church, as a hierarchic organization, and demanding obedience to its dictates, fostered an atomistic activity, outward and imperfect, and kept the conscience undeveloped and en slaved. The Reformed churches, originally in principle emphasizing the divine sovereignty of God and the theocracy, made life legal, not ecclesiastically, but spiritually in an Old Testa ment manner. The growth of Luth. ideas of freedom within them has in part relaxed this principle in the actual life at present, but there remains a spirit of individual prohibitions, and au emphasis of separate actions, combined at times -with reactionar)' independence, which attests the sway of legalism and the lack of the proper centre of freedom and its sound adjust ment. Lutheranism regards at first rather the freedom of personal being than action. Free action is necessarily free by the very condition of the conscience, and good in the very freedom of the new heart. Luther says : ' ' Good pious works never make a good man, but a good pious man does good works. Therefore the person must always be good and pious before all good works, and good works follow and proceed from a pious person. As Christ says : An eril tree bears no good fruits, a good tree bears no evil fruits. Now it is evident that the fruits do not bear the tree. Thus who will do good works must begin not vrith the works but the person. The believing are a new creature, a new tree ; therefore all these expressions do not fit here : A believer should do good works ; as it cannot be rightly said the sun should shine, a good tiee should bring good fmits. The sun should not shine, it does so unbidden by nature, for this it was created ; a good tree also brings good fraits as it is." This condition of the conscience arises from justification by faith, which by sunender makes man lord, and is the power of love in which man, though a servant of all, is so freely. Justification is declaration of freedom, faith is its acceptance, and the new moral principle of love, the bond of perfectness. Faith is the new disposition, the centre and source of all virtue. It interprets the objective moral law of the Scriptures in true freedom, coming into unity vrith the will of God through Christ. The fundamental duty, the proper re lation of man to God necessarily involving the right relation to other men, is acknowledged, and there is no division and confusion of sepa rate duties. But the fundamental duty is joyous desire. Faith alone can love purely. It seeks not its own, not its blessedness, but out of blessedness is altruistic. It leads to new deeds in life, as it includes new life. Necessarily joined with repentance, it avoids sin, loves right eousness, and is filled with gratitude. It seeks the highest good in God, realizes his purpose in every relation, religious and secular, furthers the ethical power of the Church through the con sciousness of spiritual priesthood, and unfolds God's kingdom in the family and State, in learn ing, art, and science. It includes all, permeates all, adjusts all, is subject without enthralment, rules without oppressing, possesses all and is possessed by nothing. The fundamental truths of Luth. Ethics are found in Luther's writings, beginning vrith his epochal The Freedom of a Christian Man (1520), e. g. in sermon on good works (1520), on marriage (1522, 1530), on vows (1530^, on obedience to the government (1522, 1523), on serrice in war (1526), on usury (1519, 1524), and in many of his exegetical works, particularly in "the sermon on the mount" (1532). He dis tinguishes between philosophical and theologi cal Ethics ; the former is the doctrine of law and works, the latter presupposes grace, which makes a new person in the life of faith, which is evidenced in love, the fulfilment of the law. In the three divinely ordered estates, the family. State, and Church, the new life exercises itself (Luthardt, Die Ethik Luther's in ihren Grund- zHgen, 2d ed., 1875). The confessions contain the substance of L.'s ethical advance. The Augs. Conf. treats of new obedience (Art. VI. ), which is excellently, clearly, and unsurpass- ingly unfolded in Chap. IIL, Apology, "Of love and the fulfilling ofthe law;" of good works (Art. XX.) (see also Apology), ciril affairs (Art- XVI.) (cf. of polit. order, Chap. VIIL, y?/o/og-_y), of the distinction between ciril and spiritual righteousness (Art. XVIIL), and of the opposition to Romish morality (Art. XXIIL), -with its full elaboration in the Apol. The first and third parts of the catechisms contain rich ethical material ; and the Form. of Concord in Chaps. IV., V., VI. , defends trae principles in the question of good works, law and gospel, and value of the law. By this con fessional fixation essential ethical truths center ing in freedom were made the Church's posses sion. In their formulation much credit must be given to Melanchthon. It is trae that he com mented on Aristotle, industriously furthered philosophical Ethics, and flavored it -with Chris tian tiuth particularly in his Ethices doctrines elementa (1550) (cf. Epitome philos. moralis, 1538) , so that theolog. Ethics was crowded out. But in his Lod in the exposition of the deca logue, of the law of nature, of the difference of counsels and precepts, of good works, of mortal and venial sin, of penitence, of calamities and of the cross, of prayers, of civil magistrates and the value of political affairs, of human cere monies in the Church, of scandal, of Christian liberty {Corp. Ref XXL, p. 686 ff.), he gives much unsystematized material, which was long used. In the period of dogmatic orthodoxy Ethics was largely treated in the Lod, some times separately, in connection with the ten commandments, as by D. Chytrseus, and ac cording to the three estates by Hieronymus Weller. It was influenced by Mel. 's phUosoph ical Ethics. Through Calixt, who made the "renewed man" the subject of Ethics, it be came scientifically independent. The principle IS the Holy Spirit, to whose enlightening the natural powers are subject. Gerhard stiU foi- Eucharist 173 Evangelist lows the former plan, but Ethics gains a larger place in the compend of Baier and the insti tutes of Buddaeus. The Christian idea of the State is tieated by Seckendorff in his Furst- enstatt. Pietism emphasized earnestness of life, but rather on its spiritual divine side, and with the defect of legahsm and puritanism. It 'caused the rationalistic reaction, which knows of no theol. morality. Modem Ethics is at first under the ban of Kant's philosophy, imtil Schleiermacher again posits Christian morality. Eminently superior are the modem Lutherans, whose works everywhere surpass all others, even though they are as excellent as Rothe. Harless, in his Etiiics, develops the history of redeemed man, from the view of blessing, pos session, and preservation of salvation (Heilsgut, Heilsbesitz, Heilsbewahruug) , in a churchly manner with full citations from Luther. He emphasizes the truth of salvation, which Sar- tonus {Die Lehre von der heil. Liebe) used to combine Ethics and Dogmatics. Wuttke has treated the moral very fully in a historical man ner and gathered immense material. Deep and suggestive is the work of Chr. Schmid, and clear but only embracing duty Palmer's Moral des Christenthums. Culmann has used the di-rine image as the basis, but is not free from Baader's theosophy, while Vilmar has given an evang. treatment in his Theol. Moral, conceiving of moral life as the history of sickness, healing, and sanetification. In Martensen's Ethics, general and special, containing the principles and ap plication. Ethics is shown in its wealth and beauty, v. Oettingen's Sozialethik attempts a ' ' deductive development of the laws of Chris tian life of salvation in the organism of man kind." Simple is v. Hofmann's treatment of ethical life as disposition and acti-rity in all its relations, but original, and showing life in its leading outlines. Luthardt has been influenced by V. Hofmann in thinking of morality as per sonal development {person. Werden), as reality in virtuous disposition ( Wirklichkeit als tugend- hafte Gesinnung), as activity in dutiful action {Bethatigung als pflichtmassiges Handeln). v. Frank conceives of the new life as the free de velopment of a man of God in himself, in the spiritual and natural world. Kahler contem plates the completion of the ethical from the person of Christ. All these impulses ought to be gathered up on the basis of freedom, not simply as the fulfilment of former stages (Domer), nor incompletely as by Wendt {Die chl. Moral vom Standpunkt der chrl. Freiheit), but making freedom the centie of true moral life, and the -rital principle of its acti-rity in every relation. Lit. : In addition to works mentioned, see espec. Luthardt, Geschichte der chrl. Ethik, 2te Halfte, 1893 ; and Compendium der Theol. Ethik, 1896 ; and the new vol. of J. Kost lin. J. H. Eucharist. See Lord's Supper. Evangelist and Evangelization. Evan gelist, euangelistes, " a preacher of good news," IS from the same root as the word tianslated "gospel" {euangelion) and to "preach the Word!^" {euangelizomai). The word, evan gelist, occvirs but three times in the N, T. (Acts 21 : 8 ; Eph. 4 : 11 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 5), being confined to the proclamation of the good tidings and, ap parently, to a special office. The evangelist, according to Eph. 4 : 11, ranked as an office third, preceded by aposties and prophets, and followed by pastors and teachers. The considera tion of the three passages above mentioned leads to the conclusions, that the evangelists were in ferior to the apostles and the prophets ; that they were travelling missionaries, canying the gos pel ' ' to those unacquainted with it, yet some times -with a settled place of abode, as Philip at Csesarea, and Timothy at Ephesus ; " that they were charismatically endowed, yet not to the extent of the apostles and prophets, the apostles being the direct authoritative representatives of Christ, the prophets who spoke in the spirit possessing di-rine revelation, whUst the evan gelists preached and testified to the gospel, pre paring the way for the settled ministry. It must not be overlooked that the distinction is not exclusive, as apostles could be prophets and do the work of an evangelist, and evangelists might be pastors, teachers, or both. " In a word they might be called specially inspired teachers ; the evangelist being distinctively and originally a teacher abroad, aggressive, awakening : the teacher, a teacher at home, quiet and edifying. ' ' The office did not continue. The allusions in the Didach6 are vague and much disputed. Harnack holds that the apostles there spoken of were evangelists ; but, the teachers, there mentioned, are more probably the evangelists, wandering teachers. Theodoret first restricts the term to itinerant preachers. CScumenius appUed it first strictly to the authors of the Four Gospels. It is easy to see how as the evangelist and teacher converged, the titie of evangelist became confined to the writers of the Gospels. It is evident that the modern Church has no office that is the equivalent of the ancient office of the evangelist. It merged in the early Church into the regular orders of the ministry, the bishops and the deacons or priests becoming the teachers. In the Luth. Church, there is no office conesponding to the evangelist. The office of catechist in the early history of the Church in this country has features in common. The catechists were assistants to the regular minis ters. They had begun the work of preparation for the ministerial office, were expected to con tinue their studies under the guidance of the ministry, and were to teach in the schools of the congregations under the ordained pastors. But they also assisted the pastors in preaching, es pecially in the localities beyond the bounds of the regular congregations. The catechist could teach, preach, and also baptize. In exceptional cases, they were permitted to give to the sick in peril of death the Lord's Supper, but the public celebration of the Lord's Supper was left to the ordained ministers who -risited from time to time the congregations served by the catechists. The native helpers of India who are not ordained repeat also somewhat the work of the evangelist. Under tUe general term of evangelization much of the aggressive work of the Luth. Evangelical Alliance 174 Evangelical Review Church may be included. The details will be found under Foreign Missions and Inner Missions. C. S. A. Evangelical Alliance, The, was formed in London in 1846 by 800 brethren from many countries, and of 50 different evangelical de nominations. Its object was not to create unity but to give expression to the trath of its motto, unum corpus sumus in Christo. At first it merely proposed to seek to advance the Christian religion, and to counteract the influ ence of infiielity and Romanism and other forms of error and superstition. But almost immediately appeals came to the Conference in behalf of religious liberty, and thus it was early led into the special field in which it has espe cially labored, that of protecting the -rictims of religious persecution. Among those who have been aided by its work are the Lutherans in the Baltic Provinces, the Nestorians in Persia, Protestants in Spain and Austria, Stundists in Russia, and the Armenians. As its members include many who have access to those stand ing high in authority, it has frequently been able to render aid where the ordinary agencies of politics and diplomacy would have failed. The Alliance is not a union of churches or of representatives of churches, but simply of in dividual Christians who are in sympathy with its aims. It has adopted a number of doctrinal statements as its basis, but this is not to be re garded as a creed or confession, but only as an indication of the kind of people who would be regarded as welcome to membership. It has branches in many countries, and at the Inter national Conferences, which are held at inter vals of about six years, eminent Christians from all lands unite in the discussion of the topics. G. U. W. Evangelical Church. The name "Evan gelical," or "Evangelicals," is as old as, and even older, than the name "Protestants." WhUst this name dates from the second diet at Spires in 1529, when 5 German princes and 14 cities entered a solemn ' ' protest ' ' against the decrees of this diet, the name ' ' Evangelical ' ' had its origin in the stiess laid upon the preach ing of the gospel {euangelion) by Luther and his co-laborers over against the enors, the legal ism, and the fables of Rome. From the fact that the Reformers preached the gospel pure and simple and demanded that it alone be the true and unerring rule of faith and practice, they and their followers were called Evangelische and they accepted the name. As early as 1532 in a sermon on the gospel for the 3d Sunday in Advent Luther speaks of the name as being then of common usage and not recent, when he says : " The voice of this preacher (John the Baptist) they will not hear, and the Sa-riour they -will not accept. The larger part persecute this doctrine, and our own people who are called Evangelische do not value it" (Erlang. ed. 1, 152). Similar statements occur repeatedly about this time in his sermons and other writings (cf . Eri. ed. 9, 351 ; 13, 86 ; 46, 67 ; 17, 45 ; 47, 14; 36, 411 ; 48, p. 404, 408, and many others). Per haps the earliest occurrence of the term in Luther's writings is the reference to the name in his pubUcation and refutation of seventeen articles by the University of Ingolstadt bearing date 1524. Here he says : " I do not desire to give occasion to the frivolous, who vaunt them selves as evangelical and are not, to encourage them in their audacity." And again: "We have such a scandalous and vile name before the world as no one had these thousand years. If they can call one Lutheran or evangelical they think they have called him a de-ril a thou sand times over." From this it is evident that the name Ev. is older than the name Protestant ; that it was not first claimed by the Reformers, but by the Anabaptist or Miinzer party, and that it was used by the Papists as an opprobrious epithet for the followers of Luther. The Lutherans accepted it, for in the preface to the Solida Declaratio (1577) they speak of their churches as "the evangelical churches" (M. 565, 3). The Luth. Church in some countries, notably Wuertemberg, is officially called the Evangelical Church. — In styling itself Evan gelical Lutheran the Luth. Church does not intend to qualify the word Lutheran, as if there were a certain Lutheranism which is not evangelical ; but the term Lutheran qualifies evangeUcal, though grammatically this ap pears unnatural, because many who call them selves evangelical have no claim upon the name, departing in essential doctrines from the gospel. Since 1817, when Fred. Wm. III. of Prussia, as summus episcopus of the Protestant Church in his country, united the Lutherans and Reformed in his kingdom upon a compromise basis — ^the Lutherans in a sense gi-ring up the doctrine of their confessions and the Lord's Supper, whilst the Reformed surrendered their Calvinistic predestinarianism — this union is called the Evangelical Church of Prassia. It only ex tends to the older provinces and does not in clude those more recently acquired, to -wit : Han over, Hesse-Nassau, and Schleswig-Holstein. Nassau-Baden, Rhenish-Bavaria, and parts of Hesse also accepted the union. Much as a compromise in religious matters is to be re gretted, StiU the great mass of the people hold fast to their Lutheranism, the proportion of the Reformed element ha-ring been exceedingly small, and the pastors of the state church as a raleuse Luther's Smaller Catechism in their cate chetical instractions. This Evangelical Church or Prassian Union (see Union) has also been transplanted to this country. It is the German Evangelical Synod of North America and num bers 185,000 communicants. As it does not organize EngUsh churches or provide for Eng lish preaching, its young people are lost to the English denominations about them. Some are gathered into Luth. churches. In the East this synod has been a hindrance to the churchly development of Luth. congregations, as it has catered to and strengthened unchurchly as sociations. It is much less Lutheran than the Prussian Union and rejects Luther's Catechism and the Augsburg Confession. "The United Evangehcal Church " was organized in 1895 by the minority party of the Evangelical Associa tion (Methodist) and numbers 70,000 mem bers. J jsf. Evangelical Review, theological quarterly, published at Gettysburg, Pa. (1849-70). Edi- Ewald 175 Eyster tors : 1849, W. M. Reynolds ; 1850, C. P. Krauth ; 1851-56, C. P. Krauth and W. M. Rey nolds ; 1857-60, C. P. Krauth, W. M. Reynolds, and M. L. Stoever ; 1861, W. M. Reynolds and M. L. Stoever ; 1862-70, M. L. Stoever. The prevailing tendency of the articles was in the direction of a mild confessional Lutheranism, although free expression was allowed also to the champions of the opposite side. Among its chief contributors were Drs. C. P*. Schaeffer, C. P. Krauth, Jr., J. A. Seiss, H. I. Schmidt, F. A. Muhlenberg, S. S. Schmucker, J. G. Mor ris, M. Valentine, J. A. Brown, M. Loy, M. Jacobs, C. W. Schaeffer, E. Greenwald, J. W. Richards, G. A. Wenzel, and the editors. Dr. M. L. Stoever contributed sketches of the lives of 83 Lutheran ministers. A large part of Krauth's Conservative Refor^mation first ap peared as contributions to this journal. The death of Dr. Stoever closed its career. It was succeeded at Gettysburg by the Lutheran Quar terly, first edited by Drs. J. A. Brown and M. Valentine, and still published. H. E. J. Ewald, Geo. Henry Aug., b. Nov. 16, 1803, in Gottingen, prof, of oriental languages and philosophy there, called to Tiibingen 1838, re tumed to Gottingen 1848, where he was pen sioned 1867, because he would not take the oath of loyalty to Prassia, and d. May 4, 1875. Lib eral in tendency, he was one of the most thor ough O. T. scholars and exegetes. Among his numerous grammatical and expository publica tions the most prominent are : The Poet. Books of the O. T. (1835), The Prophets of the O. T (1845), and The History of Israel (8 vols., 3d ed., 1864-1868). Exclusive Particles. The terms employed in the article of justification to exclude all human merits and co-operation. Such are ' ' alone, " "of grace, " " without works, ' ' etc. (See Formula 0/ Concord, Art. IIL, and Chem nitz, Loci Theologici, II. 282 sqq.) Excommunication. The exclusion from the Church rests upon Matt. 16 : 19 ; 18 : 15 ff. ; 1 Cor. 5:2; Eph. 5:11; I Tim. 1 : 20 ; 5 : 20, 21 ; Tit. 3 : 10, etc. In its administration the Luth. Church rejected the greater ban (see Ban), because it was a civil punishment {Smal. Art., Part IIL, Art. IX.). The smaller excommunica tion, exclusion from the Lord's Supper, was maintained as a pastoral means to lead the sin ner to repentance (1 Cor. 5:5). (See Luther's Ser'mon on the Bann, Erl. ed. 27, 50 ff., and In dex, vol. 66, p. 52 ff. ; Augs. Conf. Art. XXVIII. ; Apol. Art. XIV.; Sm. Art. IIL, VII.) (See Keys, Power oe.) The private refusal of the Lord's Supper, -with its deprival of the right of sponsorship, churchly marriage and burial, could be exercised by the pastor. But Luther and Melanchthon would have the congregation approve (Mt. 18 : 17). The public exclusion from all privileges except hearing the gospel was considered as greater, and was later exer cised by the consistories. In the seventeenth century certain civil punishments, as standing at the church door, banishment, etc., were again added. (See Gerhard, Lod, V. 193, 220 ; VI. 131, 193, 469, 470 ff. ; works and article on Church Polity ; Church Discipline.) Exegetical Works. See Commentaries. Exorcism, a solemn ceremony, intended to expel the devil from persons or things of which he has taken possession. The ancient Church shared the Jewish belief, reflected in the New Testament, that many diseases were due to de moniacal possession ; and had the conviction that the whole world lay in the power of the evil one, until he was expelled by the power and name of Christ. The possessed {energou- -menoi) had a place in the Church, were prayed for in the service, and were under the care of exorcists, who laid their hands upon them daily, with prayer ; before death they were admitted to baptism, and, in case of recovery, to the Holy Supper ; but in no case to ordination. This recognition of a special duty to a class which, without doubt, included the insane, led to a betterment of their condition and finally to intelligent methods for their recovery. At a later period exorcism became connected with baptism. In the Roman Service (and the Greek) the unclean spirit is duly exorcised before bap tism. The first three Sundays of Lent preserve in the Gospels a memorial of the preparation of catechumens for their renunciation of the devil, etc. , and their delivery from his power. Luther retained the form of exorcism in his Tanfbiich- lein, and he and Melanchthon defended the custom, and it was consequently admitted into all the Orders of a strictly Lutheran type. Zwingli and Cal-rin condemned it. The Orders of S. W. Germany followed them. It came to be recognized as a mate of Lutheranism and was the subject of heated controversy. When the Prussian Order of 1558 dropped it, the Estates protested against what they rightly judged to be an encroachment of Calvinism ; and when a later Order restored it, it was on the ground that, while they recognized it to be un necessary, yet they wished to conform to Wit tenberg. Our theologians explain that it is an indifferent matter (au adiaphoron) and merely significative. Its only use is to emphasize the natural sinful and needy condition of the child. It has fallen into disuse in the Luth. Church since the seventeenth century. It is remarkable that the Berlin Court and Cathedral Agenda of 1822 revived it, in the words, " Let the spirit of the unclean give place to the Holy Ghost;" but its example has been followed by none. Nor is it to be desired that a merely significative ceremony, useless without explanation, and likely to confuse the simple as to the essentials of baptism, should be i. stored. (See Herzog, P. R. E. ; Daniel, Codex, III. ; Walther's Pas torale ; Diet. Christian Antiquities.) E. T. H. Eyster, Da-vid, pastor, b. Adams Co., Pa., 1802, graduated at Dickinson College, 1824 ; studied theology under Dr. G. Lochman ; pastor at St. Matthew's, Philadelphia, 1825 ; Martins- burg and Shepherdstown, Va., 1826-31 ; Dans- -rille, N. Y., 1831-35; Johnstown, N. Y., 1835- 55. D. Gettysburg, Pa., 1861. Eyster, Michael, an eloquent preacher, b. near York, Pa., 1814, educated at Gettysburg, pastor at Williamsburg, Greencastie, and Greensburg, where he d. in 1853, an influential member of the Pittsburgh Synod. Faber 176 Falckner F. Faber, Basil, b. 1520, in Sorau, Lausnitz, rector at Nordhausen, Tennstadt, and Quedlinburg, where as a strict Lutheran he lost his position opposing Melanchthonianism. He translated Luther's commentary on Genesis into German, and was a co-worker on the first four Magde burg centuries. Faber, Zachseus, b. 1583, at Roecknitz, near Wurzen, 1611 ; superintendent in Chemnitz, author of the hymn ' ' Hen, ich bin ein Gast auf Erden." He d. in 1632. A. S. Fabricius, Friedrich, b. 1642, at Stettin, d. there 1703, as pastor of St. Nicolai Church. Author of the hymn ' ' Zeuch uns Dir nach, so kommen wir, ' ' freely trsl. by Miss Winkworth for the Choral Book for England, " Draw us to Thee, Lord Jesus Christ. ' ' The hymn is some times ascribed to Fr. Funcke (1686), or to Countess Ludaemilia Elizabeth. A. S. Fabricius, Johann Jacob, b. 1618, at Len- nep. Grand Duchy of Berg, studied theology at the University of Rostock, where the preaching of Luetkemann made a deep impression on him. He was a most faithful pastor, preacher, and catechist, serring congregations at Schwelm, ZwoUe, and Sulzbach. He was unjustly sus pected and persecuted as a Weigelian and Ana baptist, especially on account of some of his -writings, such as Egypt, much afflicted and yet hardened ; The Apostate Sham Christianity of the Present Day. He d. in Amsterdam in 1670. (See Dr. G. H. Schubert, The Life of J. J. F., and Goebel, Geschichte des christ lichen Lebens, vol. 2. ) A. S. Fabricius, John Philip, b. at Kleeberg, Hesse, 171 1, d. at Madras, 1791. The son of a godly family, he studied law at Giessen in the days of J. J. Rambach, prof, theol., and in 1736 went to Halle to study theology. A teacher in Francke's schools, he was called to India, where he arrived in Sept. , 1741. He preached his first Tamil sermon. Good Friday, 1742. On Christ mas, '42, he was assigned to Madras, where he re mained until his death. Zealous and successful in his daily preaching and teaching, he excelled in the gift of language. F. retranslated the Ziegenbalg-Schultze Tamil Bible (1758), and issued his own translation of the N. T. (1772). The Fabricius version of the Tamil Bible is still cherished as the " golden." His Tamil Hymn- book (1774) is still popular and "facile prin ceps." F. suffered great hardships in the " Thirty Years' War inS. India." His brother Sebastian, inspector of the Canstein Bible House at Halle, was for long years the secretary of the mission board of the "Fathers at Halle" and the trusted friend of the missionaries in India in every way. W. W. Fabritius, Jacob, missionary to America in seventeenth century. Known first as pastor at Grosglogau in Silesia ; sent by Luth. consis tory of Amsterdam in 1669 to New Amsterdam ( New York) . Many charges against him in the records of that time. Compelled to leave in 1671, he became pastor of Swedish Church at Wilmington, Del. From 1677 to his death in 1693, pastor at Wicaco (PhUadelphia). For many years was blind, and, notwithstanding former life in New York, had the confidence of the Swedes. H. E. J. Faith. See Justification. Falckner, Daniel, was the son of Daniel Falckner, a Luth. pastor at Langenrainsdori, Saxony. He was educated for the ministry and closely connected with A. H. Francke and the pietistic circles at Erfurt and other places. In 1694 he came to America and associated vrith the German pietists in Pennsylvania. He retumed to Europe in 1698, and in 1700 once more set out for America, bringing with him his younger brother Justus and a number of pietistic emigrants. For a time he and his brother acted as attorneys for Benjamin Furley and the Frankfort Land Company ; and part of a tract of land formerly belonging to that company still bears the name of Falckner's Swamp. By the dishonesty of his associates he was rendered penniless, and in later years we find him in New Jersey as the pastor of Luth. congregations at Rari tan, Muehlstein, Uylekil, Remmerspach, Han over, Rockaway. In 1724 and 1725 we find him officiating in the German settlements on the Hudson, formerly served by Koch erthal. In 1727 he sent two collections from his congregations toward the erection of the new Luth. church at New York, his own con tribution being in both cases 12 shillings, and in the dedication of that church he took an active part. In 1731, vrith his consent, a caU was sent to Europe for a minister who was to take charge of his congregations, which he was no longer able to serve with due regularity, since, though still in fair physical health, his mental vigor had declined. After the anival of his successor, Magister Wolff, he continued to reside in his former charge ou the Raritan. He seems to have died in, or soon after, 1741. A. L. G. Falckner, Justus, b. Nov. 22, 1672, at Lan- genrainsdorf , Saxony, where his father was pas tor, was enrolled as a student at Halle in 1693. In August, 1700, he, together with his elder brother Daniel, arrived in Pennsylvania, as attorneys and surveyors. (See art. above.) It seems that Justus had left his native country largely for the purpose of avoiding the ministry, for which he had been prepared and was emi nently qualified. In Pennsylvania he made the acquaintance of the Swedish missionaries Bjoerck aud Rudman, and when the latter, ha-ring spent a short time in New York as the minister of the Dutch Lutherans there, was forced by faUing health to quit the field, he, before his departure, induced the old congrega tion to call Justus F. as his successor in October, 1703. F. accepted the caU, but decUned to preach a trial sermon, and was ordained by the Swedish ministers on Nov. 24, in Gloria Dei Church at Wicaco, being the first Luth. minister ordained in America. On Dec. 2, he arrived in New York and preached his first sermon there on the third Sunday in Advent. His parish extended from New York and Hack ensack, in the south, to Albany, Loonenburg, Khnckenberg, Coxsackie, Kinderhook, Clave- rack and other Dutch settiements in the north. Falk 177 Feuerborn In the course of years the German settlements of Rosenthal, Shawanggunk, Rheinbeck, Queens- bury, West Camp, and Schoharie were also com mitted to his pastoral care. From numerous en tries, not only of names and dates, but also of prayers and supplications, in the record book of his congregation, still preserved in the archives of St. Matthew's Luth. Church in New York, F. appears to have been a most faithful and devoted shepherd of his flock, which comprised not only Dutch and German, but also Negro and Indian souls. To indoctrinate his people the more thoroughly and to provide them with weapons against their Calvinistic neighbors, he, in 1708, published the first book of a Luth. minister printed in America, a tieatise in ques tions and answers on the chief doctrines of the Christian religion, which was highly praised by V. E. Loescher as a " Compendium Doc trinse Anti-Calrinianum." In earlier days he had also written religious verse. His hymn "Auf, ihr Christen, Christi Glieder," probably -written while he was a student in Halle, and published in the Halle Gesangbuch of 1697, was translated into English, ' ' Rise, ye children of salvation." F. d. 1723, having performed his last ministerial act recorded on September 4, at PhilUpsburg, N. Y. A. L. G. Falk, Johann Daniel, b. 1768, at Danzig, of a Reformed father and Moravian mother, studied at Halle (1787), settled in Weimar (1798) as a litterateur, acquainted with Wie- land. Herder, and Goethe. Moved by the dis tress consequent upon the German war for freedom, he founded with Horn ' ' The Society of Friends in Necessity, ' ' from which arose the " Lutherstift," the first institute for neglected boys, which gave a mighty impulse to inner missions. F. was also a hymn--writer. His famous hymn, " O du froehliche, o duselige," for Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, was transl. into English by Dr. Kennedy (1863), "Hail, thou glorious, thou victorious. " F. d. 1826. (Stein, J. Falck, Halle, 1881. ) A. S. Fall of Man. See Original Sin. Family Worship, of value in the study of this subject are : Gen. 18 : 19 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 20 ; Prov. 22 : 6 ; Job 1:4, 5 ; Josh. 24 : 15 ; Eph. 6:4; Acts 10 : 2, 30 ; Acts i6 : 15. The patri archal government involved the priesthood of the father of the family. Among early Chris tians it was felt that the manied relation itself should minister to devotion. Thanksgi-ring at table and daily morning prayer were common. Later, priest and cloister more and more sup planted individual and family worship. The Reformation, vrith its doctrine of the universal priesthood of believers, brought a rerival of devotion in the household. Luther's House Postils (preached to his own household); the Catechism, with its parts, "in the plain form in which the head of the family should teach them to his household ; " the short intioduction to the Larger Catechism, in which Luther says that the house-father is in duty bound to hear and question his children and servants, and earnestly see to it that they know and learn the Cat'm ; together with a multitude of devo tional works prepared for this purpose, show 12 how our Church emphasizes the duty of family worship. Up to the Thirty Years' War the family life of the people was penetrated -with song, prayer (at the ringing of the prayer-bells), and the Word of God. Pietism laid great stress on house-devotions. Spener urged this as a special sphere of the spiritual priesthood. Liberalism and rationalism even did not destroy common morning and evening prayer, table prayer, etc., among the peasantry. A reintro- duction of household worship has also taken place in Christian institutions and associations, and in the homes even of the nobility. In America the Catechism has not had its due place in family devotions, but reading of the Scriptures and prayer have been common. The Morning and Evening Suffrages in the Common Service, and various books of devotion, such as Family Prayer, by Dr. C. W. Schaeffer ; Jesus our Table Guest, by Dr. E. Greenwald ; The Golden Altar, by Dr. Seiss, have offered assist ance in this duty. Among many valuable works in German Lohe's Samen-Korner, the Allgemeines Gebetbuch der Allgemeinen Lu- therischen Konferenz, and Dieffenbach's Haus Agende may be mentioned. C. A. M. Fasting. The value and benefit of fasting has never been denied in the Luth. Church. The teachings of the Scriptures (Acts 13 : 2 ; Luke 21 : 34 ; Matt. 17 : 21 ; Acts 14 : 23 ; Col. 2 : 16 ; Gal. 4 : 9 ; i Tim. 4:1;! Cor. 9 : 27) and of the Confession {Aug. Con. XXVI., XXVIII., Apol. VIIL, Smal. Art. III., Smaller- Cat'm VI., Larger Cat'm V. 37, Form. Cone-.., X.) entirely agree in maintaining that "fasting^- . . . is a good external discipline," useful tc>, " keep the body under," on the one hand ; and,., on the other, that it is not to be required, andl has no merit to ' ' avail for the extinguishing- and prevention of guilt" {Aquinas). Best-! man ( Geschichte der christlichen Sitte, II. 330) descrilses the fasting of the early Christians on Wednesdaj'S and Fridays " as a sign that in eat ing and drinking, as in all things, moderation is to be observed. Yet they certainly knew that the true meaning of fasting is precisely this inner moderation." ( See also LENT. ) C. A. M. Fecht, John, b. Dec. 25, 1636, in Salzburg, Breisgau, prof., supt., and consistorial counsel lor at Rostock, where he d. 1716, a defender of the old orthodoxy ag. pietism in his dogmatic- polemical and catechetical writings. He denied that the departed Spener should be called the sainted. He is noted for the excellent Meck lenburg catechism of 1717, which he published, together with his colleague Griinenberg. Feldner, L., b. June 11, 1805, at Kiegnitz, a Breslau Lutheran, converted from rationalism by Dr. Scheibel. Active in the inner mission, he became the supt. of the Rhine diocese of the Breslauers (1858), where he stiengthened confessional Lutheranism. In spirit he was earnest and decided. Festivals. See Church Festivals ; Church Ye.\r. Feuerbom, Justus, b. 1587, in Herford, a Giessener theologian, who maintained ag. the Tiibingen theologians, that Christ in his hu mUiation completely abandoned his divine attri- Filitz 178 Flacius Illyricus butes, performing his miracles by the power of the Holy Spirit. Filitz, Dr. Friedrich, b. 1804, in Thuerin gen, d. 1876, in Muenchen, a prominent com poser and writer on earlier Luth. church music who was for some time associated with Erk in Berlin. In 1847 he published for Bunsen's hymn-book a choral book containing 223 tunes, of which eight are of his own composi tion. A. S. Finland, Luth. Church in. Christianity was first introduced into Finland in 1157, but it was not until 1293 that Finland was made a Christian province. At the time of the Refor mation, in the sixteenth century, many of the people still lived in paganism and practised their heathen rites. The Reformation was in troduced in 1528 under Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, of which country Finland was then a. prorince. The bishop, Martin Skytte, though an adherent of the Pope, sent seven young men to the University of Wittenberg, among whom was Michael Agricola, who returned to Finland firmly grounded in the Luth. doctrine and be came the first Luth. bishop (1550-1557). Agri cola was the founder of Finnish literature (1542). The Church of Finland has at present four bishops, the bishop in Abo being the arch bishop. The bishops visit each parish every five years, besides making frequent inspection tours with the " Capitolum," consisting of four other ministers besides the bishop. A church convention is held in every diocese at least once every ten years, but the interval is gener aUy from five to seven years. There is at least one ambulatory school in each parish, under the control of the pastor — in some parishes two or more — and from one to ten higher public schools with a four years' course, in which relig ion occupies the first place. There are thirty colleges, called lyceums, with an eight years' course. There is a university at Helsingfors with an able theological faculty. There are a number of sects in Finland, chief among which are the Laestadians, origi nated by provost Lars Levi Laestadius in North ern Sweden about the middle of the nineteenth century. Their principal doctrine is, that man is regenerated by confession of sins to the Laes tadians in meetings assembled, and receiving of them absolution. In Finland they continue to belong to the Luth. Church, but are separate in America, where they call themselves Apostolic Lutherans. Other sects are Free Churchmen, who retain connection with the state church, a few Methodists and Baptists, and the Salvation Army, which has established headquarters at Helsingfors. G. H. T. Finnish Suomi Synod. The Suomi Synod, or "Church ofthe Finns," was organized on the 25th of March, 1890, and incorporated in the State of Michigan. It comprises eleven minis ters and about 5,000 communicants. It estab lished Suomi College at Hancock, Mich., in 1896, with two classes, which is being developed as rapidly as possible. Two periodicals are pub lished, a weekly, Paimen Sanomia, and a monthly, Laslen Lehli. G. H. T. Fischer, Albert Friedrich Wilhelm, b. 1829, in Brandenburg, d. 1896 ; from 1877 chief pastor and superintendent at Gross-Ottersleben, near Magdeburg, editor of the Kirchenlieder- Lexicon (1878-1879), containing notes on some 4,500 German hymns, a work which is indis pensable to the student of German hymnology. He also founded the first German magazine de voted entirely to hymnology, Blcstter fuer Hymnologie {iW2))- -A-t the time of his death he was at work with a continuation of Philip Wackernagel 's great hymnological work, under the title Das Kirchenlied des siebenzehnten Jahrhunderts. A. S. Fischer, Christian, pastor in the Danish Luth. Church on St. Thomas, West Indies, devoted special attention to the spiritual inter ests of the negroes. In 1713 he baptized the first slave on that island. This was 23 years before the Moravians began their missions in the West Indies. E. B. Fischer (Vischer), Christoph, b. 1520, at Joachimsthal, Bohemia, pastor at Jueterbogk, (1544), superintendent at Schmalkalden (1552), in Meiningen (1571), court preacher at Celle (1574), chief pastor of St. Martin's Church at Halber- stadt (1577), d. in Celle as general superintend ent of Lueneburg. Author of the Passion hymn, "Wir danken Dir, Hen Jesu Christ" (We bless Thee, Jesus Christ, our Lord), trans lated by Dr. Kennedy (1863). A. S. Fjellstedt, Peter, b. 1802, in the poorest circumstances, d. 1881, at the Fjellstedt school in Upsala, a remarkable, a wonderful man of God. The missionary patriarch of Sweden in the nineteenth century, a man who preached in more churches of Sweden than any other man, a man known and heard by more people of Sweden than any other minister of the gospel, author of a Bible commentary which is the family treas ure of numberless homes in old Sweden and in this country, the joy of our parents and of us, when we were children ; by one of his dear friends likened unto "pure water without color, taste, or smell ; " a linguist who could preach to many nations on a modem Day of Pentecost, honored by the University of Halle with the title Doctor of Divinity, upon the recommenda tion of Tholuck. After his ordination, he spent the years 1828-1840 as a missionary in India and Turkey. The years 1841-81 were given to Sweden. The most faithful friend and promoter of the Augustana Synod. O. O. Flacius nijrricus, Matthias, in genius and knowledge, the most prominent of the disciples of the Reformers ; leader of the strict Lutherans immediately after Luther's death ; one of the prominent theologians of the age of the Refor mation. His father was a distinguished citizen {vlarict) of Albona, on the southern coast of Istria or lUyrica, hence his name Illyricus. F., ' b. 1520, studied the sciences at Venice. A rel ative of his, the Provincial of the Minorites, directed him to Luther. Flacius shortly after wards quitted his home and continued his studies at Basle, Tuebingen, and, from 1541, at Wittenberg. After long and severe inner strag gles he found peace under Luther's guidance. The doctrine of justification by faith alone, the trath of which since then had become a precious Flacius Illyricus 179 Flattich part of his own experience, remained for him the germ of his life and teaching. Luther, calling him " ingenui sui hominem," expected great things of him, and Melanchthon honored him with his intimate friendship. He was made prof, of Hebrew at Wittenberg in 1544. Very soon, however, he had to exchange his peaceful profession for that of a Gideon. When the evangelical forces were defeated, Emperor Charles V. tried to enforce the Interim every where; and when even the Wittenberg theo logians began to submit, it was Flacius who, kneeling and with tears, implored them to re main steadfast. With holy indignation did he behold the betrayal of the most cherished truths among the inner circle of its confessors. The calamity of the Church urged him to enter the public arena. In order to fight unmolested against the submissiveness of the Wittenberg theologians, and especially that of Melanchthon, he resigned his office and became an exile. He finally found a home in the free, heroic city of Magdeburg. Earning his bread as proof-reader, he meanwhile, with the assistance of Amsdorf, Gallus, Erasmus Alberus, Westphal, Judex, Wigand, Aquila, etc., in his Unsers Herrgotls Kanzld, organized laudable opposition ag. the sunender of evang. truth. From the be leaguered city pamphlet after pamphlet was issued, massive, coarse, but crushing for the defenders of the Interim. North Germany arose unanimously to defend the compromised truth. "At that time Flacius rendered im perishable services to the evangelical truth " (Plitt). Attacking with equal determination both tile Wittenberg pliability and the enors of Major, Osiander, and Schwenkfeld, he verified his device : " God willing, I vrill do nothing contiary to truth, neither for my friends' sake nor on account of mine enemies. ' ' His obdu racy, however, was canied too far, when he de manded of Melanchthon, in order to become reconcUed to him, to publicly confess his guilt and reuounce his errors. Owing to this harsh ness the so-called Coswigk Endeavor of Recon ciliation was unsuccessful. In 1557 he was called to the University of Jena, where he quickly became the leader of the orthodox Lutherans, who had found protection in the duchy of Saxony. Here pushing over-zealously the composition of the Weimar Book of Confu tation, which was to condemn all errors hith erto attacked and to which all ministers should subscribe, he estranged his best sup porters and paralyzed his own work. When Strigel openly advocated synergistic views, the famous disputation between him and FI. took place at Weimar (1560, Aug. 2-8). FI. de fended the orthodox Luth. view, according to which the natural man does not co-operate in his conversion, but he and his companions over shot the mark in stating that all the natural man can do in his conversion is to resist, and in affirming that original sin was to be regarded not a mere accident but as a substance of human nature ; that the original image of God in man had been changed into the tme, living image of Satan. In vain did his friends implore him to abandon such expressions. In 1561 Flacius and his supporters were banished, and when, under a new raler, the orthodox Lutherans were allowed to return, he was excluded from that favor. He now began his wanderings through Germany, seeking in succession refuge at Regensburg, Amsterdam, Frankfort, and Strass burg, persecuted and exiled everywhere, vainly trying to come to a better understanding -with the Church, living by alms, deserted by his former friends, until he, his wife and child, at last found rest in the convent of the Weissen Frauen at Frankfort. Alone and in destitution, he d. March 11, 1575. — "He was an extraor dinary character ; shamelessly abused by his contemporaries, he was, nevertheless, a man of great merits, whose splendid gifts and shining virtues are not overshadowed by his obstinacy and regardless severity ; not inadequately he is called in a literary epitaph ' Lutherus prox- imus.' He is the trae type of a staunch cham pion of the sixteenth century, ever ready for combat, whose lips uttered in the dying hour, together with their last prayer : ' Der fahrende Ritter der Reformation ' (The Knight Errant of the Ref ormation ) " {Rocholl). Of high merit are his contributions to the scientific presentation of the doctrines of the Luth. Church. His works in the department of Church History and the History of Dogma mark an epoch. By proving iu his Catalogus testium veritatis of 1556 that in all ages men had lived who had been attacking the Pope and his errors, he gave historic consciousness to the Church of the Reformation. More comprehensive was his plan to write a Church History, showing how the Church from ancient times had been led astiay but restored again by the Reformation. In this work great stress is laid on the develop ment of doctrines. Surrounded by a roaring cannonade, far from the access to any larger library, assisted by a staff of co-workers, he ac complished his gigantic work : The Madgeburg Centuries, publ. in 13 vol. foi. — Biblical Her- meneutics was also a topic for his classic re search. In 1567, he published his Clavis Scrip tures Sacres, and by laying down the rales of conect exegesis and applying them in his Glossa Compendiaria to the New Testament, he became the father of BibUcal Hermeneutics. The most exhaustive monography of FI. is that of W. Preger, Matth. Flacius and his Time, Eri. (1859-1861). W. P. Flatt, John Fredrick, b. 1759, in Tiibin gen, d. 1821, as prof . at the Univ. there, a su pra-naturalist, who defended the di-rinity of Christ ( 1788) in the manner of Ston, with whom and Siisskind he edited the magazine of dog matics and morals. Flattich, Johann Friedrich, b. at Beihin- gen, Wuertemberg, October 3, 1713. Pupil of Bengel in Denkendorf. Completed his educa tion at Tiibingen in 1737. Preacher at Hohen- asperg (1742), Metterzimmer (1747), and from 1760 at Miinchingen. Died June i, 1797. F. ac quired his reputation as a preacher, but partic ularly as an educator, having educated 300 young men. Very few of his sermons have been preserved, but there are several works and es says on education coUected by Ledderhose in Leben und Schriften von J. F. Flattich (5th ed.. Flemming 180 Formal Principle 1873). F- was a thorough representative of Wuertemberg pietism. H. W. H. Flemming, Paul, b. 1602, at Harkenstein, Saxony, studied medicine and poetry at the University of Leipzig, was made poet laureate in 1631. From 1633 to 1635 he was member of an embassy which Duke Friedrich of Schleswig- Holstein sent to the Czar of Russia, and 1635 to 1639 he accompanied another embassy to the Shah of Persia. The hardships endured on this journey broke his health, and he d. at Ham burg (1640). His poems, among them 41 ofa religious character, appeared in 1642, and in a more complete edition in 1865 and 1866, in Stutt gart. His classical hymn, " In alien meinen Thaten," has been repeatedly translated into English. A. S. Fliedner, Theodor, b. 1800, in Epstein, Nassau, d. 1864, in Kaiserswerth, the founder of the first deaconess mother-house. He studied theology at Giessen, Goettingen, and Herborn. In 1820 he became tutor in a merchant's family at Cologne, and in 1822 pastor in Kaiserswerth on the Rhine. The financial distress of his con gregation caused him to undertake a collecting tour to Holland and England. There he learned to know many institutions of Christian charity which inspired him to undertake similar works of mercy. The condition of the criminals in the Duesseldorf penitentiary first attracted his at tention. He made regular risits there, and in 1826 founded the Rhenish Westphalian Prison Society, in 1833 the Asylum for Discharged Female Prisoners, in the famous little garden house at Kaiserswerth, and on October 13, 1836, the first Deaconess House. He enjoyed the friendship of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. of Prussia, and assisted him in the establishment of " The Bethany Deaconess House and Hospi tal ' ' in Berlin , though he -wisely refused to move to Berlin and to undertake the supervision of the work. At the request of Dr. W. A. Passa vant, who had visited him in 1846, he brought four of his deaconesses to Pittsburg for the In firmary established there, in 1849. On July 17, the Infirmary was publicly consecrated, when Fliedner made a German address, ex plaining the design of the institution, as an in firmary for the sick, and a mother-house for the training of Christian deaconesses for ho.s- pitals, asylums, and congregations in other parts of the United States. F. also presented the Deaconess cause to the Ministerium of New York, being intioduced there by a letter of Dr. Chas. Phil. Krauth, the president of the Gen eral Synod. Tvrice he travelled to the Orient and established stations in Jerusalem, Constanti nople, Smyrna, Alexandria, and Beirut. When he departed this life, the number of Kaisers werth deaconesses had reached 425, working in four continents, on 100 stations. In 1855 the theological faculty in Bonn honored him with the title of Doctor of Theology. He published, besides the regular reports of his institutions, a monthly, called the Armen-und Kranken- freund, and from 1842, a popular almanac, also the Book of Martyrs, in four volmnes (1852- 1860). A. S. Flitner, Johann, b. 1618, at Suhl, Saxony, d. 1678, at stralsund, diaconus at Grimmen, near Greifswalde. The most popular of his hymns, "Ach, was soil ich Suender machen " (1661), is found in an EngUsh translation by- Miss Winkworth (Choral Book for England, 1863), " What shall I a sinner do ? " Thetuneof this hymn was frequently ascribed to him, as he is known to have -written a number of church tunes, but recently it has been discovered to be of secular origin. A. S. Florida, Lutherans in. The census of 1890 showed six congregations and 369 com municants. Three of the congregations be longed to the Synodical Conference, two to the United Synod of the South, and one to the General Council. Fluegel, Dr. Gustav, b. 1812, at Nienburg a. d. Saale, organist and musical director in Stettin, edited the tune-book for the Pomeranian Hymn-book (BoUhagen, 1863) containing about 500 tunes. A. S. Foerstemann, Karl Edward, d. 1847, sec retary of Univ. library at Halle, noted for his Urkundenbuch zu der Gesch. des Reichstags in Augsb., etc. (2 vols., 1833), and several Lutherana. Foertsch, Basilius, b. at Rossla, Thueringen, d. 1619, as pastor in Gumperta, near Orlamu ende. The hymn ' ' Heut triumphiret Gottes Sohn " is sometimes ascribed to him. A. S. Font, Baptismal, the vessel used in the church to hold the water for Christian baptism. In early times the font was placed in the bap tistery, a structure often separate from the body of the church, and mostly buUt in the form of a rotunda or an octagon (such as the beautiful baptistery in Florence, opposite the Dome). As infant baptism gradually became the prac tice in the Church, and permission was given to every priest to administer baptism in his own church, at any time, the baptismal font was placed in the church itself, generally on the left side of the entrance hall. Its material was of stone, its form that of the old baptistery, either rotund or octagon ; the symbol of the Holy Ghost the dove, made of silver or gold, was hovering over it. At the present time the baptismal font is generaUy placed in front of, or inside, the chancel itself. The most appropri ate anangement would be to have it on the (left) side of the chancel, conspicuous from aU parts of the church. A. S. Foreign Missions. See Missions, Foreign. Forensic Act. See Justification. Forgiveness of Sins. See Justification. Formal Principle of the Reformation. This is generally stated as that of the Holy Scriptures as the only source and the only norm of all re vealed doctrine. It is assumed, but not ex pressed in the Augsburg Confession. Confes sional formulation of the principle in Schmal kald Articles, Part II. , Art. IL, and in opening of Formula of Concord. It is opposed to the Roman CathoUc doctrine of the co-ordination of tradition and the authority ofthe Church. Lu ther began with the material principle, justifi cation by faith, and only reached the ' ' Formal " in the Leipzig Disputation of 15 19, where he denied the authority of the Church to frame Formula of Concord 181 France articles of faith. The Luth. Church throws more emphasis on the material, the Reformed Church on the formal principle. Frank, in his System der christlichen Wahrheit (I. 78 sqq.), criticises the ordinary statement of principles, and proposes, instead, the names prindpium essenai, or "real principle," instead of the "material," and prindpium cognoscendi, or Erkenntnissprindp, "pnnciple of knowing," instead of "formal." Other criticisms by Dorner, Kahnis, and Luthardt. H. E. J. Formula of Concord. See Concord, For mula OF. Four Points. At the organization of the General Council, the invitation for the union -with it of all Luth. bodies adopting its fundamental principles of faith and church polity, was answered by several of the larger synods that accepted tiie Council's subscrip tion to the confessions, -with the statement that in certain particulars the synods or some of them, thus uniting, failed to apply consistently the confessional requirements. This was the attitude of the Missouri Synod which was repre sented at the Reading convention by a delegate. These particulars were formulated by the Joint Synod of Ohio in a communication to the first convention at Fort Wayne, in which it asked conceming the Council's attitude to : 1. Chiliasm. 2. Mixed communion. 3. Ex change of pulpits -with sectarians. 4. Secret or unchurchly societies. The German Synod of Iowa mentioned only the second and third of these points. The Council declined to indorse the position of the Iowa Synod, and referred the matter to the district synods. When the ac tion of the district synods was reported at the next meeting a committee on ' ' The Four Points" was appointed, of which Dr. C. P. Krauth was chairman. The main features of the declaration adopted were : " i. As regards Chiliasm. The General Council has neither had, nor would consent to have, fellowship with any S3fnod which tolerates the 'Je-wish opin ions,' or 'Chiliastic opinions,' condemned in the XVII. Article ofthe Augsburg Confession." " 2. As regards Secret Sodeiies. Any and all societies for moral and religious ends, which do not rest on the supreme authority of God's Holy Word, as contained in the Old and New Testa ments — ^which do not recognize our Lord Jesus Christ as the true God and the only Mediator between God and man — which teach doctrines or forms of worship condemned in God's Word and in the confessions of his Church — ^which assume to themselves what God has given to his Church and its ministers — ^which require undefined obhgations to be assumed by oath, are unchristian. " "3. As regards Exchange of Pulpits. No man shall be admitted to our pul pits, whether of the Lutheran name, or of any other, of whom there is just reason to doubt whether he will preadi the pure trath of God's Word as taught in the confessions of our Church. Luth. ministers may properly preach when ever there is an opening in the pulpit of other churches, unless the circumstances imply, or seem to imply, a fellowship with enor, or schism, or a restriction on the unreserved expression of whole counsel of God." "4- As regards the Communion with those not of our Church. We hold that the principle of a discriminating as over against an indiscriminate communion is to be firmly maintained. Heretics and fundamental enorists are to be excluded from the Lord's Table. The responsibility of an unworthy ap proach to the Lord's Table does not rest alone upon him who makes that approach, but also upon him who invites it." This declaration was not satisfactory to a minority. The Wis consin, Illinois, Minnesota, and Michigan Syn ods withdrew, some immediately, and the last years afterwards, because they regarded a more rigid statement necessary. (See GalESBurg Rule ; Pulpit Fellowship ; Altar Fellow ship.) H. E. J. Pox, Eev. A. J., M. D., b. 1817, educated in private schools, ordained 1837, d. 1884 ; a distinguished member of the Tennessee Synod ; pastor in Union County, N. C, Green County, Tenn., in Jacksonrille, Ala., and for thirty years in Lincoln County, N. C. ; a strong preacher and eminentiy successful pastor, confirming one- half as many persons as he preached sermons ; preceptor of a large number of students in the ology and in medicine ; the author of several published sermons. His biography was written by his son. Rev. J. B. Fox. L. A. F. France, Lutheran Church in. in his His tory ofthe Augsburg Confession, under the cap tion, "Lutheranism in France," down to the year 1561, Salig makes the following state ments : "The Sorbonne desired to banish the Luth. doctrine from France as early as the year 1521 by condemning Luther's writings, es pecially his tieatise on the Babylonian Captivity, from which Hussite, Wiclifite, and other hereti cal statements were drawn, which were deemed worthy of recantation or the fire. — The earliest preachers of the gospel in France were un doubtedly converted by the reading of Luther's writings. The confession of the French Church is a closer approach to the Augsburg Confession than the Tetrapolitana. If the question be asked : How did the French Church gradually depart so far from the Augsburg Confession ? our nanative furnishes the easy answer. On the one hand, Geneva was nearer to the French than the German universities. The French did not understand German. In Geneva French books were printed, which frequently came into the hands of the congregations in France, and instilled the Genevan doctrine into the minds of the early p'rench Protestants. Besides, even if ministers had been brought over from Ger many, they would not have been able to preach in French. On this account the French turned towards Geneva." Circumstances were not favorable to the grovrth of Lutheranism in France, until the conquests of Louis XIV. added Alsace to the French dominions. The Luth. Church of Alsace, says Lichtenberger in his article on " France Protestante" in the Encyclopidie des Sciences Religieuses, after the census of 1697, had increased to the number of 169,546 souls. Boimd by treaties, Louis XIV. , according to the words of the sovereign council of Alsace, "not being able to cany out the movements which his piety inspired, was obUged to rest Fran cli. 183 Francke content with waging a spiritual warfare against Lutheranism, and with waging a dogmatic com bat against the errors which his oath did not permit him to proscribe." Thus the Luth. Church escaped the persecutions which befell the Huguenots, because the hands of Louis were tied. During the Revolution the Luth. Church of Alsace suffered considerably, having lost the greater part of its patrons and its supe rior direction, so that the confusion was very great and threatened to result in a veritable an archy. The number of members at this time is stated to be 165,000, i. e. under the Republic. In 1852 the extent of the Luth. Church is indicated by the following figures : Eight in spections divided into 44 consistories, of which seven belong to Strassburg alone ; these are the seven old inspections besides one added for Paris with four pastors. Of these 44 consistories there were only 6 left in France after the cession of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, and of the 278 parishes but 64 re mained in France. The General Synod held at Paris in July, 1872, for the purpose of reorgan ization, divided the Luth. Church into two inspections, Paris and Montbdleard, independ ent of each other. Delegates from both consti tute the General Synod, which meets trienni- ally, alternating between Paris and Montb6- leard. The Augsburg Confession is the basis of the constitution, but an obligation of the min isters to it is not demanded. The first General Synod met in Paris in 1881. G. F. S. Franck, Johann, b. 1618, at Guben, d. there in 1677, lawyer and burgomaster of his native town, one of the prominent Luth. hymn- writers of the seventeenth century, character ized by a strongly personal, subjective tone, and a fervent longing for mystical union -with Christ. Several of his hymns have been translated into English, by Miss Winkworth, among them " Herr Gott, Dich loben wir" (Lord God, we worship thee), " Herr ich habe missgehandelt " (Lord, to thee I make confession), " Hen Jesu, Licht der Heiden" (Light of the Gentile na tions). All these are found in the Choral Book for England, the Church Book, and the Ohio Hymnal. A. S. Franck, Michael, b. 1609, at Schleusingen, d. at Coburg, 1667. Unable to finish his univer sity education, on account of the death of his father, he became a baker and afterwards teacher at the town school of Coburg. He was a friend of the poets Dach and Neumark. His best hymn, " Ach -wie fluechtig, ach wie nich- tig !" was translated by Sir J. Bo-wring (1825), " O, how cheating, O, how fleeting." A. S. Franck, Solomon, b. 1659, at Weimar, d. there 1725, as secretary of the Consistory. He was also curator of the ducal collection of coins and medals, a member of the " Fruitbear ing Society," and a very popular hymn-writer. Prominent hymns, ' ' Ach Gott, verlass mich nicht" (Forsake me not, my God), found in Family Treasury (1859), ^ud in the Church Book ; "Ich weiss, es -wird mein Ende kom men " (I know, my end must surely come), tr. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germanica, 1858, and Church Book, afterwards rewritten in the orig inal metie, " I know fuU well death must befal me," Ohio Hymnal ; "So rahest du, O meine Ruh," tr. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. (1855), also in Church Book, "Rest of the weary. Thou." A. S. Francke, August Hermann, theologian and philanthropist, b. at Liibeck, Germany, March 22, 1663, d. at HaUe, June 8, 1727. His father, John Francke, held an official position at Liibeck, but in 1666 he removed -with his family to Gotha, where he became associated with the government of Duke Ernest the Pious, of Saxe- Gotha. Young Francke was educated at Gotha, at first under the care of private tutors and after wards in the gymnasium. At the age of four teen he was prepared to enter the university, but at the advice of friends continued his studies two years longer at home. He spent some time in the Universities of Erfurt, Kiel, and Leipzig, graduating from the latter in 1685. He was deeply interested in the study of languages, especially the Hebrew, and in order to acquire this language more thoroughly he studied for two months with Rabbi Ezra Edzardi at Ham burg. At the same time he was also diligently engaged in the study of English, French, and other languages. Immediately after his gradij* ation at Leipzig, he was engaged as ' ' privat- docent ' ' at the university, and for two years lectured on biblical interpretation vrith great favor and success. During his last year at Leip zig, he originated the afterwards famous colle gium philobiblicum, at which a number of kin dred spirits were accustomed to meet for the systematic study of the Bible. When he terminated his connection -with the university, he went to Liineburg to pursue his theological studies under the direction of the learned and pious Dr. Sandhagen, spending a few months in his family, under his instruction and as his assistant. Here his religious life was remarkably quickened and deepened. In 1688 he spent some time at Hamburg as teacher in a private school. Later in the same year he spent two months with Spener at Dresden, and it was here that he received the spiritual direction in practical piety which he ever afterwards prac tised in his eminently useful life. In the spring of 1689 he returned to Leipzig and resumed his duties in the university, lecturing on exegetical and practical subjects. He soon became very popular as a lecturer ; but his alleged pietism aroused -riolent opposition, and before the close of the year he was compelled to leave. In 1690 he accepted a call to Erfurt as pastor. Here his fervent and deeply evangelical sermons attracted multitudes, even from among the Catholics, to his church ; but this aroused the jealousy of his less successful colleagues, as well as the enmity of the Catholics, and after a min istry of fifteen months he was banished from the town by the ci-ril authorities. In December, 1691, he accepted a call to the professorship of Greek and Oriental languages in the newly founded University of Halle, where he spent the remainder of his life, and for which, in the prov idence of God, his pre-rious life had been a preparation. His removal to Halle marks a new and im portant epoch in the Ufe of the man who, in a few years of activity, had gained a wide popu- Francke 183 Francke larity both for sound scholarship and a deep practical piety. He was a "Pietist" of the school of Spener, in full accord with the doc trines of the Luth. Church, and was an in timate and cherished friend of Spener. His labors at Halle, from the beginning, were arduous. Besides his labors in the university, he also served as pastor of Glaucha, a small village on the outskirts of the city. Here, dur ing the remainder of his life, he discharged the duties of the twofold office of professor and pastor -with rare energy and success. He be came specially eminent as the founder and manager of institutions of mercy, which have become famous throughout the world. He was led into this work by his pastoral experience at Glaucha, whose inhabitants he found deeply degraded and grossly ignorant. He began by instructing the young, feeding the poor, and trying to raise up the faUen. The work pros pered beyond all expectation. He opened a school for the poor, in a single room, but vrithin a year additional rooms were found necessary. This was the small beginning of the now famous Halle Orphan House, which, by the divine bless ing, has developed into a series of institutions and has accomplished much for Christ and his cause. What is most remarkable in connection vrith his numerous enterprises, is the fact that he never asked any one for money, but im plicitly trusted in God for the supply of the means necessary to carry on the work. In 1695 he began the erection of the Orphan House, without capital, but in faith. Other institu tions were added, from time to time, imtil they formed a regular village of educational and benevolent institutions with which, at his death, several thousands were connected. (See Halle Institutions.) From the Divinity School Muhlenberg and other early Luth. pastors of America came. F. also wrote hymns. Of his few hymns, two have been tianslated into EngUsh, "Gottiob, ein Schritt zur Evrigkeit " (Thank God that towards eternity). Miss Winkworth, Lj^a Germ. (1858), " Was von Aussen und von Innen" (What within one and -without). Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. (1855). Francke's busy life left him little time for purely literfiry work. His principal contri butions to literature are Manducaiio ad Lec- iionem Sc-riptures (1693) ; Preslecliones Her- -meneuticee (1717) ; Commentatio de Scopo Librorum Veteris et Novi Testa-menti (1724) ; Lectiones Paresnetices (1726), besides numerous sermons. S. E. O. Francke, Gotthilf August, theologian and philanthropist, b. at Halle, March 21, 1696, d. September 2, 1769. He was the son of Aug. Herm. Francke, received his early training in the Psedagogium and the university at that place. In the year 1717 he entered the Univer sity of Jena, but retumed to Halle in February of the year 1720, and was ordained to the office of the ministry. In 1723 he became aiisistant pastor of Frauenkirche at Halle, director of the Latin school, and in general lightened the labors of his father in connection with his manifold duties. In 1726 he was elected professor extra ordinary, and in 1727 regular professor of theol ogy in the university, and in the same year, after his father's death, director of the Paeda gogium and the Orphan House. In the follow ing year he was elected a member of the English Society de Propaganda Christi Cognitione. In 1738 he was made deacon and in 1740 arch deacon of Frauenkirche. In 1739 he received the degree of doctor of theology. In 1767 he was elected a member of the Oberconsistorium. At the time of his death he was senior profes sor of the theological faculty and of the minis terium at Halle. Both as the head of the institutions founded by his father and as professor of theology in the university, he exercised a great influence upon the minds of a large number of students by giving them solid information and pointing out to them, by his pious example, no less than by his teaching, the value of personal and prac tical piety. With the men associated vrith him, he made HaUe a. centie for the cause of the orphan, for elementary and higher education on truly Christian principles, for missions in various parts of the world, and for the spread ing of the Bible among the masses of the people. For more than thirty years he delivered exeget ical lectures, t-wice a week, in the great hall of the Orphan House, discharged his duties in connection with the university, and watched over the interests and labored for the advance ment of the noble institutions founded by his father and over which he had been placed. Many of his lectures have appeared in print. He was very conscientious in the discharge of his official duties, and although these were very numerous and demanded much of his time, yet he still found time to take an active interest in the work of missions and labor for their advance ment in different parts of the world, especially the missionary work among the Lutherans in America. In this work he had associated with himself Dr. Ziegenhagen of London, court chaplain of the king of England. Many of the early ministers of the Luth. Church in America were educated at Halle and, beginning with Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, were sent from that institution to labor among the -widely scattered Lutherans in Pennsylvania and other provinces. The Luth. Church in Pennsyl vania, not to mention other portions of our country, owes a lasting debt of gratitude to Dr. Francke for his active and substantial interest in the supply of pastors and other aid in the early years of its existence here. His published works are numerous. For many years he had the supervision of the published reports of missions in India and those from Pennsylvania, known as the " Hal- le.sche Nachrichten." He published 7 univer sity programmes (1729-37) ; 25 sermons and meditations (1724-51) ; 11 theological opin ions (1729-46) ; contributions to the weekly Halle Anzeiger (1746-62). He contributed prefaces to various publications, re-edited older works, and published translations of English works. His whole life was one of intense activ ity as teacher, author, philanthropist, and pro moter of missions, and all in the spirit of trae evangelical piety, as it appeared in the lives of Spener and his sainted father. S. E. O. Francke. Institutions 184 Freder Francke Institutions. See Halle Insti tutions. Franckean Synod. See Synods (L). Frank, Melchior, German composer of church music in the style of Eccard. (See art.) B. at Zittau, 1580. Resided at Niirnberg, 1601-1604. Chapel-master to the Duke of Co burg from 1604 to his death, June i, 1639. The magnificent melody to Meyfart's fine hymn "Jerusalem, du hochgebaute Stadt " (1626), first published in the Erfurt Gesangbuch (1663), is generally ascribed to Frank. Many of his com positions are found in Schoeberlein's Schatz des liturg. Chor- u. Gemeindegesangs. J. F. O. Frank, von, Franz Herm. Reinhold, b. March 25, 1827, in Altenburg, studied at Leipzig under Harless, Winer, Niedner, called to Er langen 1857, where he taught untU his decease Feb. 7, 1894, being the great Luth. systematic theologian after the death of Thomasius (1875). In his Theologie der Concordienformel (1858), he gathered immense dogmatic material, which he discussed thoroughly in the exposition of the consistency of position and thought of the great confession. But his ripest work is his system, whose foundation is the consciousness of the regenerate man, reminding of Schleier macher, but surpassing him in positive truth, pointing to v. Hofmann but excelling in system atization. The system is the System der chrl. Gewissheit (certainty) ; Wahrheit (trath) ; Sitt lichkeit (morality); (2 vols. each). The re generate ego, determining certainty in its cen- tiality, becomes certain ol imminent trntixs (e.g. sin, righteousness, etc.), which presuppose transcendent truths (e. g. personality of God, trinity, etc.), that are mediated by transeunt truths (e. g. church, word, revelation). Cer tainty, the essence of trae apologetics, finally touches objects of natural life. These four classes have, as antitheses, rationalism, panthe ism, criticism, materialism. The system of truth begins vrith God as the principle, who would make a ' ' Menschheit Gottes " (a man kind of God). The phases are (i) generation, (2) degeneration, (3) regeneration. Morality shows the unfolding of a man of God (1) in himself, (2) in the spiritual world, (3) in the natural world. F.'s posthumous publication, Geschichte u. Kritik derneuer. Theol., unfolds the self-criticism of history on modern the ology. J. H. Frankfort-on-the-Main, one of the chief cities of Germany, formerly a free city, on right bank of the river, in Wiesbaden, in Hesse- Nassau, with a population of over 150,000, was prominently identified with the earliest straggles of Lutheranism. Luther stopped here on his way to and from Worms in 1521, and preached from his window to the crowds in the square below. Hartmann Beyer was the leading ad vocate of the movement for Reform. In 1528 the Lord's Supper was administered in German in both forms, and the city subscribed the Pro test of Spires. In 1536 it joined the Schmal kald League. It was the seat of a number of conferences and conventions, and, by its ex tensive book trade, contributed much to the spread of the Reformation. In 1554 it became the place of refuge for exiles from England, un der Queen Mary, and the rupture in the English congregation, worshipping temporarily in the Weissfrauen Kirche, between the liturgical party under Dr. Richard Cox and the anti-liturgical party under John Knox, has been perpetuated m the separation between English Episcopalians and Presbyterians. For twenty years (1666- 1686) Frankfort was the home and centre of in fluence of Spener ; here, too, J. P. Fresenius was pastor (1743-61). Flacius, Gomaras, Gott fried^ Arnold, Zinzendorf, all, for a time, resided here. It was prominently identified also vrith the earlier German emigration to Pennsylvania. (See below.) Frankfort Land Co., an association formed at Frankfort-on-the-Main, in response to the invitations and representations of William Penn, which in 1682 purchased from him 25,000 acres of land in Pennsylvania, and sent the young lawyer, Pastorius, the succeeding year to America, to found the colony at Germantown. A purchase shortly afterwards placed in their possession the entire Manatawny district in the present Montgomery and Berks Counties, where Daniel Falckner was for a time the agent of the company. Frankfort Eecess, a document prepared by Melanchthon at Frankfort in 1558 for the Electors of Saxony, Brandenburg, the Palatin ate, the Landgrave of Hes-se, in which an at tempt was made to settle the controversies that had been agitating the Luth. churches on " Justification," " Good Works," " The Lord's Supper, ' ' and ' ' Adiaphora, ' ' by presenting doc trinal statements, forbidding the publication of farther discussions, and referring all questions that would arise to the decisions of consistories (Synopsis in Gieseler's Church History, English Translation, IV. 444 sqq.). Franklin College, an institution founded at Lancaster, Pa., in 1787, for the education of the Pennsylvania Germans. According to the charter, the board of trastees was to consist of 14 Lutherans, 14 Reformed, and the rest from other Christian denominations. Dr. Henry Ernst Muhlenberg was the first president, and Rev. F. V. Melsheimer was another member of the first faculty. The institution was maintained, the greater part qf the time, in much feeble ness, until the Luth. interest was bought by the Reformed, and the funds accruing from the sale were transferred to Pennsylvania College, Get tysburg, and formed the endowment of the Franklin professorship there, filled 1850-67 by Dr. F. A. Muhlenberg, and 1870-83 by Dr. H. E. Jacobs, as nominees of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania. Freeh, Johann Georg, b. 1790, near Stutt gart, d. 1864, in Esslingen, organist and music director, associated vrith Kocher and Silcher in the preparation of the Wuertemberg Choral- buch of 1828 and 1844, for which he composed a number of tunes. a. S. Freder, Johann, b. 15 10, in KoessUn, Pome rania, d. 1562 as superintendent in Wismar. As a student in Wittenberg ( 1524) he had been living in Luther's house, one of the most prolific of Low German hymn-writers. His name was involved Frederick III. 185 Frederick III. in a famous controversy on ordination. In 1537 he had been called to the position as conrector of St. John School in Hamburg, at the recom mendation of Melanchthon and Bugenhagen. In 1540 he was received into the Ministerium at the Dom, as lector secundus. He had been properly called, approved, and installed with prayer, but vrithout the laying on of hands, be cause at that time there were still some Roman Catholic priests at the Dom {canonid). To avoid offence or conflict this ceremony had been omitted. In 1547 Freder was caUed to Stralsund, as superintendent, vrith the right of examining, ordaining, and installing ministers. Against this Gen. Supt. Knipstrow in Greifswald pro tested, as an infringement of his rights, claim ing that Freder should first be ordained by him self by the laying on of hands. Freder was vrilling to submit, but the fathers of the city of Stralsund opposed this arrangement. In 1549 Freder was called to Greifswald, as professor, and soon afterwards the Duke of Pomerania ap pointed him supt. of the island of Ruegen. In this position he had to be confirmed by the Bishop of Roeskilde, Denmark. This confirma tion was refused, even after Freder had been installed by Knipstiow, unless he should first have received ordination from Bishop Palladius of Roeskilde. To this Freder submitted, and thereby brought upon himself the wrath of the Duke of Pomerania and of General Superin tendent Knipstiow. A violent controversy en sued between Knipstiow and Freder, concern ing the necessity of ordination. In 1556 the decision of the Synod of Greifswald, based upon an opinion of the Wittenberg faculty, was given against Freder. Melanchthon himself testified that there was, in reality, no doctrinal dissensus between them. (See letter to Freder, Nov. 1, 1555.) The laying on of hands was ad mitted to be an adiaphoron. But Freder went too far in extending this idea of the adiaphoron to every feature connected vrith ordination, even to examination, approbation, prayer of interces sion. (Cf. Geo. Rietschel, Luther und die Or dination, Wittenberg, 1883.) A. S. Frederick IIL, "the Wise," Elector of Sax ony, b. at Torgau, Jan. 17, 1463, d. May 5, 1525. He was the elder son of Elector Ernest, succes sor to his father in the electorate (i486), but reigned, together -with his brother, John the Constant, in undisturbed harmony over the other territories. Frederick was the model of a prince and of a pious man of his age. He was carefully edu cated, being sent first to the Dom school at Grimma, which was under the superrision of the Augustinian order, for which order he ever after ward had a predilection. He was carefully stor ing up knowledge ; Seneca, Terentius, and Horace were his special favorites. Frederick not only honored and rewarded his former instruc tors, as Magister Kemmerlin or Dr. Pollich of Mellerstadt, when he became elector, but also sought eagerly the intercourse of learned men ; especially that of Spalatin, who, being court preacher and private secretary, became his in timate counsellor. He continually read and was remarkably well acquainted with classical Uterature and the history of his country. But he was not only a learned man, far sur passing cotemporaneous rulers ; he was also a pious man, who under no circumstances, at home or abroad, neglected to attend the celebration of mass, and in real piety he (1493) undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, not followed by a princely suit, but " incognito " with other princes and counts as a simple pilgrim. Fred erick also piously collected thousands of relics, repardless of price. At an expense of 200,000 guilders he erected a memorial of all saints, en dowed it so as to support 80 canons who were magisters and could teach at the university, be sides spending hundred-thousands for relics, be cause he was given with all his heart to medise- val churchism, in which he had been brought up. When Frederick became elector he was 23 years old, and reigned nearly 40 years with great circumspection, successfully avoiding wars and making his subjects enjoy the blessings of a peaceable rule. He built highways, bridges, churches, castles, promoted agriculture, tiaffic, mining, and arts. For these reasons, and be cause of his standing always on the side of re form in religious and political affairs, he was highly esteemed by princes and people. But the most meritorious and eventful of his actions was the founding of the University at Witten berg, his most favored residence (1502). This he intended to make a place of true science and piety. He loved and endowed it richly as " his daughter." He inquired carefully for learned men for his university, heeding at the same time the advice of trustworthy men, as e. g. Staupitz when Luther, or Reuchlin when Melanchthon was called. It was proridential that Luther and Melanchthon were here brought together as co-workers in the blessed reformation of the Church, and that this union was established under a ruler so vrise and of such reputation as Fred erick. It was of the greatest importance that Frederick was such a pious man, holding the Word of God in the highest esteem, that he stood on the side of reform, that he was proud of his professors, that he would not allow the consciences of others to be oppressed. So he was thoroughly qualified to become protector of Luther, for this was the part entrasted to him ; and should the dream Frederick is said to have had in the night previous to the 31st October turn out to be a myth, it at least shows clearly what Frederick had to do : to grant Luther per mission to live unmolested in Saxony and to protect the young, daring hero. To this tmst Frederick came up fully. He did not allow the germ to be crashed by the mighty foes of Luther. He ananged matters, that Luther had not to go to Rome, but was granted a hearing before Caje tan at Augsburg ; he was the Duke to whom Charles V. was under obligations, because he had refused the crown of German emperor that was offered him and cast his electoral vote in favor of Charles (1519). Thus he was enabled to secure for Luther a hearing at the Diet of Worms (1521). He was the man that took care of Luther, granted him security at Wartburg Castle. All this he did -without being openly a confessor of Luther's doctrine, for it was not until his death that he partook of the Lord's Supper in the true form. F. L. Frederick I. 186 Freedom of the Will Frederick I., King of Denmark and Norway power of justifying faith and evangelical (1523-1533), in spite of the terms of his election, liberty, the solemn proclamation of a fully favored the Reformation. In 1526 he openly matured Christian who had passed through the favored the evangelical doctrines and called deepest experience of spiritual anguish and con- Hans Tausen, the Danish Reformer, to Copen- flict, and, ha-ring found his sure and abiding hagen. At Odensee (1527), he pubUshed an rest at the foot of the cross, was determined edict of religious toleration, and thereby laid henceforth to stand fast in the liberty where- the foundation of the Reformation in Denmark, with Christ had made him free, and not to be During his reign the Confessio Hafnica, drawn entangled again with the yoke of bondage. On up by Hans Tausen, was submitted to the nobles the basis of 1 Cor. 9: 19 (Though I be free (1530), and adopted. E. G. L. from all men yet have I made myself servant Frederick IV., of Denmark (1699-1730), the unto all), Luther lays down two principal points : great patron of missions, who began the East India Mission at Tranquebar (17^), in which Ziegenbalg and Pliitschau labored. The Fin- first, that by faith the Christian is a free lord over all things and subject to none ; secondly, that by love he is servant to all things and sub- nish and Greenland missions were also fostered 1^'=* ^ every one ; the former looking chiefly to by him. In 1714 he founded the " Collegium man's relation to God,in a state of grace and justi- de promovendi cursu EvangeUi. ' ' Just and traly ncation, as a new, regenerate, and spintual man ; pious, he also abolished vassalage. the latter, to his being still m this world, and TfrpdprirTr TTrn-npiH TT r^f T\To^vi=.,K<>,r, under the duties which his calling and condition irederiCJj; JiranciS U.., of Mecklenberg- ^^ jj^g ¦ uponhim. Byfaiththe Christian Schwenn, b. Feb. 28, 1823, d. Apnl 15, 1883 i^ united to Cfirist, and whatevei belongs to noted for hiselevating the peasants, promulgat- Christ belongs to the Christian. Christ's right ing ^Sarnf th^e^ iSI- ^l^llt^-^^^Sl. ^TXIh^l'^h'irf f" "T 'T^ ""'It T ,. . ,°o. N i-u 1. 1 i r sm, death, and hell, and from the law. But as L"e'cL?crw4tal?nle;e\tenfoTtr.^"^iS! S^^TiLl^i Tto "t^ ^^ form.of. a servant isterium" and given the^" Oberkirchenrath. " I w?f W Tr.,^ 1I' t the Christian, being Old church orderswere introduced, andKliefoth ^i^'fJ^^ f^T-f 1^°'^ 7 ^- ^' ""-'l^' ^'' could freely carry out Luth ideals Frederick SSsSL^^ to'himselt For'thrffitian was a true father of his people and deeply pious. j„„„ „„* u • r.- iri^ I- ^i .T *-"V"-;f" -Bi J • 1 -luTj ^. , , . . , , , "°e^ '^ot live in himself but m Chnst and in the freaenct, Jaa., one of the histoncal churches brethren ; in Christ by faith, in his feUow-men of the eighteenth century, aud the successor of by love. By faith he soars upwards to God by the extmct congregation at Monacacy, ten love he stoops to his fellow-men. " And this is miles to the north. Pastors at Fredenck : B. M. the trae Christian liberty, not a liberty from Hausihl (1742-58); J. S. Schwerdfeger (1763- works (a5 o/fr/dz^i), but from those false pre- A ' h i^^^^ll ^i^^^^^^U ^of ¦ ?'S^,i^7/~ sumptuous opinions concerning works {abopini- 96) ; C. F. Wildbahn (1796-98) ; J. F. Moeller o«/5«i oherum). which seek iustifioation (1799-1802) ; F. W. Jasinsky (1802-7) ; D. F- Schaeffer, D. D. (1808-37) ; S. W. Harkey, D. D. (1837-50) ; Geo. Diehl, D. D. (1851-87) ; L. Kuhlman, D. D. (1888-). A second congre gation was founded in 1887. Freedom (Christian Evangelical). The perum), wliich seek justification through works." The principles laid down in this treatise have always been maintained by the Luth. Church, over against a spirit of legalism, be it Romish, Puritanic, or Pietistic, which makes Christ a new Lawgiver, and the gospel itself a new law ; year 1520 marks that period in Martin Luther's against the spirit of bondage which submits to life when he may be said to have become fully the dictates of human and worldly authorities iu conscious of the necessity of a thorough refor- matters of faith and conscience over which the mation of the Church, and of his own personal Word of God alone must have the rule • as well vocation and duty with reference to this cause, as against the spirit of antinomianism and moral In that decisive year he issued his three Refor- indifference that would use liberty as a cloak of maliciousness. ^ g Freedom ofthe Will. Free wiU is within man's power in natural Ufe and morality (Gen. 4 : 6, 7 ; Acts 14 : 15 ff. ; 17 ; 22 ff. ; Rom. i : 18 ; 2:14), but in spiritual matters he is unfree being "flesh," inclined to evil from youth 1?^°' l^' ^•^^^' iieeding a new heart and mation manifestos, in which his position was clearly defined over against the absolute au thority which the Roman hierarchy had thus far exercised over the Church and the indiridual conscience. The first of those manifestos was his Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the Ger man Nation, setting forth the necessity of a ref ormation. Then followed his treatise on the thorough regeneration ( Ps. 51-10- Ez 11 -iq- Babylonian Captivity of the Church, in which 36 : 26), being in thought and -sriU helpless and he exposed the fundamental errors of the Church of Rome. At the very time when this Prelu- diu-m de Captivitate Babyl. was finished the Pa pal Bull reached Germany which condemned Luther and all his writings, suspended him from the ministerial office, and threatened him, as a heretic, with the penalty of death. Luther's answer to this cruel and tyrannical decree was m contiadiction with divine salvation Qohn 15:5; Rom. 7:7; I Cor. x:i7 ff.). Luther recognized this deeply from the Word and by expenence, knowing that civil and legal right eousness did not suffice. The heart is" the -very source and spnng whence arise the chief sins God alone can deliver. This is devel oped with great stnngency in De Servo Arbitrio the treatise on the Liberty ofthe Christian, the (1525), which ought to be viewed not from its greatest of those three Reformation manifestos, deterministic overstatements but its relitriout a positive and cheerful testimony conceming the centie, which L. always held With this book Freemasons 187 Fritzhans he destioyed the wrong notion that "religious experience consists of historical and sacramen tal acts, which God works and keeps in readi ness, and of subjective acts, which are somehow man's -part" {Hamack). He restored religion to the believer and "gave back to it that view, in which the Christian constantly experiences it" {Hamack). Melanchthon at first followed Luther, but afterward by overstating the ethical gave the -will some power in conversion {non sane otiosam sed repugnantem infirmitati sues) (1535). But the Augs. Conf. (Art. XVIII.) holds the proper balance, when it states, "that man's -will hath some liberty to work a civil righteousness, and to choose such things as rea son can reach unto, but it hath no power to work the righteousness of God, or spiritual righteousness, vrithout the spirit of God. ' ' Sim ilarly the Apology unfolds this truth -within the proper limits. The later discussions of syner gism (see Synergism ; Flacids ; Strigel) made necessary the statements of the Form, of Concord (Art. II, The Free Will), which leave not even a spark of saving knowledge and power to man, although he may apply himself to an outwardly decent life and even externally read and hear God's Word, go to church, hear or not hear the sermon. But toward grace man is as a stone or block, nay worse, opposing, or at least not applying, himself in any way for the preparation or coming of grace. This position, fully unfolded by the old dogmaticians, aban doned by Pelagian rationalism, was again taken np by modern confessional Lutheranism, which, however, recognizes man's action as a result of converting grace and allows for the preparatory work in the natural conscience, without desir ing to injure the exclusiveness of di-rine grace. It will have no meritorious co-operation, but simply operation, as a resultant of the divine influence, concei-ring of man rather in his per sonality than, as the older theologians, in his nature (Kostlin, L.'s Theol. II. , p. 297 ff. ; Frank, Theol. der Concord, I., p. 120 ff. ; the Dogmatics of Philippi, Luthardt, Frank ; Lu thardt, Die Lehre vomfreien Willen, 1863). J.H. Freemasons. See Secret Societies. French Lutherans. See France, Lu theran Church in. Fresenius, John Philip, D. D., preacher and devotional writer, b. at Niederwiesen, in the Palatinate, 1705, studied at Stiassburg, pastor successively at Niedervriesen, Giessen, Darm stadt, Giessen again, and Frankfort-on-the-Main. Declined general superintendency of Schles vrig shortly before his death in 1761. During his pastorate at Darmstadt (1736-42) hefounded an institution for proselytes. More than four hundred passed through the course successfully, while more than six hundred were dismissed as unworthy. His polemical vmtings against the Moravians were an episode of a life otherwise devoted to the cultivation of depth of spiritual ity, which he combined -with fidelity to the Lu theran confessions. Besides his Meditations on the Gospels of the Church Year, and Sermons on the Epistles, his Confession and Communion Book (1746) is most important. He took a deep interest in the founding of the Luth. Church in America, and aided in various ways his near relatives, the pioneer missionaries, Stoever, father and son, in Virginia and Pennsylvania. Freylinghausen, Johann Anastasius, b. at Gundersheim, Branswick, 1670, d. 1739 as di rector of the Francke Institutions in Halle, which under him attained their highest devel opment. He is the chief representative of the hymnology of the Halle pietism, both in his own hymns and in the hymn-book edited by him, Geistreiches Gesangbuch (Halle, 1704 and 1714). A number of his hymns passed into Eng lish, among them "Wer ist wohl wie Du," his noblest and most beautiful product, freely translated by J. Wesley, " O Jesu, source of calm repose." A more literal translation by Dr. M. Loy, in the Ohio Hymnal, "Who is, Jesus blest." A. S. Freystein, Johann Burchard, b. 1671, at Weissenfels, d. 1718, at Dresden, lawyer, court counsellor, and hymn-writer of the pietistic school. His hjrmn, " Mache dich mein Geist bereit," was tianslated by Miss Winkworth, ' ' Rise, my soul to watch and pray, ' ' Choral Book for England, 1863. Another tianslation by E. Cronenwett in the Ohio Hymnal, "Up, my soul, gird thee with power." A. S. Fries, Nicolaus, b. 1823, in Flensburg, Sile sia, pastor at Heiligenstedten, noted for his popular Christian stories, among which the Bilderbuch zum heil. Vaterunser is the best. Fritschel, Gottfried, D. D., b. December 19, 1836, at Nuernberg, Bavaria, d. July 13, 1889, in Mendota, Illinois. At the request of his father he first devoted himself to business, while his brother Sigmund entered the Missionary Institute for America, at that time in Nuernberg, afterwards in Neuendettelsau. The study of Sartorius, Heilige Liebe (Holy Love), awakened the desire in him to devote himself to the ministry of the gospel, and in 1852 his father at last consented that he also should enter the Missionary Institute, where he studied under Loehe. From Pastor J. T. Mueller, the editor of the Symbolical Books, he received instrac tion in Symbolics. In 1857 he followed his brother to America, after having spent one year at the University of Erlangen. He soon took his place as one of the leaders of the Iowa Synod, and one of the most scholarly and prom inent Luth. theologians of our Church in the West, doing faithful service as pastor, preacher and missionary, as professor and author. Among his publications we mention his History of Christian Missions among the Indians of North America m the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries ; Passionsbetrachtung en (Meditations on the Passion of the Lord), with an introduction by W. Loehe ; Theophilus, a little book for the newly confirmed members of the Church. In 1879 Muhlenberg College confened the title of D. D. on him. On a mis sionary tour of inspection, through Dakota, iu the summer of 1888, he contracted a serious ill ness, to which he finally succumbed after nine months of great suffering. A. S. Fritzhans, Johann, a Franciscan of Magde burg, who accepted the evang. faith, and, com pelled to flee, exhorted the Magdeburgers to Fritzsch 188 Fundamental Articles receive the trae doctrine. Permitted to retum, he became pastor of the Church of the Holy Spirit ( 1524 ) . He was zealous and conservative. Fritzsch, Ahasuerus, b. 1629, at Moecheln, in the province of Saxony, d. 1701, at Rudolstadt, as president of the Consistory. He published several collections of hymns, Jesuslieder and Himmelslieder, but it is difficult to ascertain those which he composed himself, as no names of authors are given. A. S. Froehlich, Bartholomaeus, pastor in Per leberg, Mark-Brandenberg, from 1580-1590, author of the hymn "Ein Wuermlein bin ich, arm und klein," which first appeared in Sel- necker's Psalms (1587). A. S. Froehlich, Johann Karl Heinrich, b. 1826, in Kamentz, d. 1881, in Dresden. Studied in Leipzig ; 1823, secretary of the Saxon Bible So ciety ; 1844, rector of the Deaconess House in Dresden. At the head of this institution he proved himself a. most faithful and devoted Luth. pastor, a remarkably successful instrac tor, and a man of eminent gifts for organization and administration. A. S. Froeschel, Sebastian, b. 1497, in Amberg, Palatinate, studied at Leipzig, became a friend of Camerarius, and was won for evang. faith by the Leipzig disputation. Showing his faith as a priest, he had to flee to Wittenberg (1522), where he heard Bugenhagen's lectures on the Pauline letters. Although Melanchthon gave him the outlines of his sermons, he was a clear, power ful preacher, whom Luther and Bugenhagen gladly heard, and the latter prevailed on F. to publish his sermons on the Catechism. He also issued sermons on Matt. 5 :8, and on the kingdom of Christ. As a pastor he was faithful and earnest. Frommel, Emil, b. 1828, in Karlsmhe, Baden, d. Nov. 9, 1896, in Sion. He studied theology in Halle, Erlangen, and Heidelberg ; became assistant pastor in Alt-Lusheim, 1850, and, after a journey to Italy, assistant of the famous Alois Henhoefer in Spoeck, from whom, according to his own confession, he learned the A B C of theology over again. In 1855 he was called to Karlsruhe ; 1862 to Barmen ; and 1869 to Ber lin, as military chaplain. After the Franco- German war he was appointed court preacher in Berlin. He was one of the most gifted preachers of recent times, and also a prolific writer of popular books of a healthy Christian character. In 1883 the theological faculty in Berlin confened the title of Doctor of Theology on him. A. S. Frommel, Max, brother of EmU F., b. 1830, at Karlsruhe, d. Jan. 5, 1890, in Celle, Han. He had first intended to devote himself to the study of art, but finally turned to theology. Through the influence of Harless in Leipzig he became a decided Lutheran. After a journey to Italy he first served congregations of the ' ' Old Lu theran " Synod of Breslau. As pastor in Is pringen, Baden, he broke off his connection with that body. In 1880 he was appointed consistorial counsellor and general superin tendent in Celle, thereby entering the service of the state church. In 1883 the theological faculty in Dorpat confened on him the title of Doctor of Theology. He was also distinguished as a popular writer and a preacher of uncommon abiUty. His postUs on the Gospels and Epis tles rank even above the sermons of his brother EmU. A. S. Fuerbringer, Ottomar, b. June 30, 1810, at Gera (Reuss) , studied theology at Leipzig, 1828 to 1830, together with Walther, Brohm, Buenger, and others of the circle led by Cand. Kuehn in their devotional exercises. From 1831 to 1838 he was instructor in an institute for boys at Eichenberg, where G. H. Loeber was pastor. He came to America vrith the Saxon pilgrims, 1839, was one of the founders of Concordia Col lege in Perry Co., Mo., and of the Missouri Synod; pastor in Elkhorn Prairie, IU., 1840 to 1851, at Freistadt, Wis., 1851 to 1858, and at Frankenmuth, Mich., from 1858 to his death, July 12, 1892. He was, for 25 years (1854 to 1872 and 1874 to 1882), president of the North- em District Synod of Missouri, and the pro foundest thinker among the fathers of the Mis souri Synod. A. L. G. Funck, John, b. 1518, in Wohrdt, near Nu remberg, accepted ev. faith at Wittenberg, was pastor at his home, which he had to leave be cause of the Nuremberg Interim (1547), came to Konigsberg, and followed Osiander in doctrine. After O.'s death he was the leader of the Osian drian party, but became involved in political in trigues and was beheaded 1566, haring aban doned Osiandrianism shortly before. He was earnest and eloquent, but injudicious and hot- tempered. Fundamental Articles. The distinction of articles of faith into fundamental and non-fun damental has proceeded from the conception of the organic relation between all the contents of revelation, and the cential position in this or ganism of certain doctrines. It does not pro ceed from the thought that an3rthing that God has revealed is unimportant, or may be denied vrithout peril to salvation, when it is recognized as coming from God. Properly speaking, the foundation of salvation is Christ himself, and the fundamental articles are then those that are implied in the knowledge of Christ. The old Luth. dogmaticians define Fundamental doctrines as those that must be known and be- lie-ved for salvation, and di-ride them into {a) Primary, or those which must be apprehended in their detaUs ; and {b) Secondary, or those the knowledge of whose details is not necessary, but which stand in such close relation to the pri mary doctrines that, when the details are pre sented, they dare not be denied without causing loss of salvation. The Primary Fundamental articles they again classify as antecedent, con stitutive, conservative, and consequent. Non- fundamental articles are purely theological problems, such as the origin of the soul, the sin of the angels, etc. Among modem Lutherans, Philippi has distinguished between central and peripheral fundamentals : and immediate and^ mediate, formal and mate-rial fundamentals, ^formal fundamental is "the doctrine that God's revela tion, in all its parts, must have the uncondi tional obedience of faith, even where its contents Fnnk 189 Geissenhainer neither form a part of the immediate experience of faith, nor stand in necessary connection with the fundamental act of salvation, nor can be de rived from it by simple inference," while the Material comprises those which form part of such experience, etc. Frank has reconstructed the distinction. He shows that the difference made by the Luth. Church between the Small Cathechism, as the symbol of the laity, and the ampler confessions for the pastors and teachers, implies this distinction. The distinction upon which he insists is that of what is fundamental to the individual and what isfundamental to the Church. To every individ ual and every Church that is fundamental which it has learned to know as a part of God's revela tion. "Of the pastors and teachers of the Church, such a degree of knowledge must as a rule be required, that to them everything is fundamental that is fundamental to the Church. But of the laity, only such a degree of faith is, as a rule, to be demanded that, founded upon that which is absolutely fundamental, they may gradually grow up under the training of the Church, to the heights of churchly knowledge. Finally, in a still smaller number, whose per sonal knowledge of salvation is more compre hensive than that of the Church, the extent of what is fundamental is increased, in proportion as they have entered, in a still greater degree than the Confession, into the depths and re mote places of the organism of salvation" (Philippi, Kirchliche Glaubenslehre, I. 101-118 ; Frank, L)ie Theologie der Concordienformel, I. 16-19 • Book of Concord, Philadelphia edition, II. 321-329). H. E. J. Funk, John Aegidius Louis, d. 1867, op posed the Agenda of Fredr. Wm. III. of Prassia (1822), as mUitary chaplain at Danzic, deny ing the right of the prince to make liturgical laws. Then Funk had not yet come to faith in Christ, but in the ensuing discussion he was led to accept Christ, and served with great blessing the pastorate of St. Mary's, Liibeck, from 1829. For his truthful conscientiousness he was called the "conscience of Liibeck." G. Galesburg Bule, so called from the meet ing of the General Council at Galesburg, IU., in 1875. It belongs to a series of interpretations of the Pittsburg Declaration of 1869 concern ing the Four Points (see Four Points) asked by synods that desired a stricter practice. What is generally known as the Galesburg Rule is properly the Akron Rule of 1872. At the meeting of the General Council at Lancaster, O., in 1870, an answer was made to questions from the Minnesota Synod ; the Lancaster Declara tion being unsatisfactory to the German Synod of Iowa, that synod requested that a verbal dec laration made in the debate at Lancaster, by the president. Dr. Krauth, be adopted by the CouncU. At Akron this was done, as follows : " I. The Rule is : Lutheran pulpits for Luther an ministers only. Lutheran altars for Lutheran communicants only. II. The exceptions to tbe mle belong to the sphere of privilege, not of right. IIL The determination of the excep tions is to be made in consonance with these principles, by the conscientious judgment of pastors, as the cases arise." At Galesburg, one clause was inserted with the first sentence of the Akron Declaration, so that it reads: "The Rule, which accords with the Word of God and with the confessions of our Church, is," etc. Sundry questions were agitated as to the mean ing of terms, and the question whether the clause inserted at Galesburg did or did not dis pense with the second and third articles admit ting exceptions. This was followed accordingly by the action at Pittsburg in 1889: "Inasmuch as the General Council has never annulled, re scinded, or reconsidered the declarations made at Akron, Ohio, in the year 1872, they still re main, in all their parts and provisions, the ac tion and rale of the General Council. All sub sequent action of the General CouncU is to be understood and interpreted according to the principles there determined and settied. . . . The present position of the General Council is to be understood and interpreted in such manner that neither the amendment and further explana tion at Galesburg, nor the original action at Akron, be overlooked or ignored ; both of which remain in full force and mutually interpret and supplement one another." H. E. J. Gallus, Nicolas, b. 15 16, in Kothen, a de voted Luth. pastor at Regensburg (1543), which he left on account of the Interim ( 1548) , becoming pastor and supt. at Magdeburg (1550)1 whence he was recalled to Regensburg ( 1554). He gave an asylum to persecuted Fla cians and assisted Flacius on the Magdeburg Centuries. D. 1570. Garve, Karl Bernhardt, b. 1763, near Han over, d. 1841, at Herrenhut ; Mora-rian pastor and hymn-writer of a healthy scriptural spirit, whose h3Tnns have been freely received into modem Luth. hjrmn-books. "Dein Wort, O Hen, ist milder Thau," tianslated by Miss Winkworth, "Thy Word, O Lord, like gentle dews," Lyra Germ. (1855), and Church Book, afterwards revised, "Thy Word, O Lord, is gentie dew," in the Ohio Hjrmnal. A.S. Gedicke, Lampertus, b. 1683, in the Alt- Mark, Prassia, d. 1735, as chief mUitary chaplain, in Berlin. He studied in Halle, and also assisted there for a time as instractor. Author of the fine hymn "Wie Gott mich fuehrt, so vrill ich gehn." A. S. Geffken, Dr, John, b. Feb. 20, 1803, d. Oct. 2, 1864, pastor at St. Michael, Hamburg, begin ning 1829, known for his works on early Liibeck, Hamburg, and his Bilderkatechism. des isJahrh. u. die katechet. Hauptstucke in dieser Zeit bis auf Luther (1855). Geier, Martin, b. April 24, 1614, in Leipzig, prof, at its univ. 1639, then subdeacon, deacon, archdeacon, supt. at St. Thomas, until called ( 1665) as court preacher to Dresden. He wrote commentaries on the Psalms, Proverbs, Daniel, and published many sermons of great eloquence. D. at Freiburg, Sept. 12, 1680. Geissenhainer. i. Fred. William, Sen., D. D., b. June 26, 1771, at Miihlheim, in Rhenish- Gellert 190 Cieneral Council Prussia, studied at the Universities of Giessen and Goettingen, where he labored for two years as Privat-Dozent. In 1793 he came to America, accompanied by his brother, Hy. Anastasius, and accepted a call to the New Goschenhoppen charge. He was licensed in 1796 and ordained four years later. In 1808 he becomes Dr. Kunze's successor in New York, resigns 1814, is pastor in Western Pa., and is re-elected pastor of the united churches in N. Y. in 1823, where he continues until his death, May 27, 1838. 2. Fred. Wm., Jun., D. D., son of i, b. June 28, 1797, at New Hanover, Pa. , studied under his father, is licensed in 1817 by the Pa. Synod, serves churches in Chester Co., Pa., and is called in 1826 as assistant to his father, to New York, and pastor of the English St. Matthew's Church on Walker St. When iu 1850 English services were discontinued, G. organized the German Luth. St. Paul's Church untU recently at 6th Ave., cor. 15th St. He opened the Luth. cemetery at Middle Village, and was active in the founding of the Theol. Sem'y at Phila., being the first president of the board of trustees. D. June 2, 1879. 3. Henry Anastasius, younger brother of 1. He is licensed provision ally by the Pennsylvania Synod in 1797, two years later he receives full license, and is or dained in 1804. Before 1804 he served two churches in Chester Co., Pa. ; until 1806 he is located at Pikeland, and then becomes pastor of the large Whitehall parish in Lehigh Co. In 1818 we find him at Pottsgrove, and in 1820 he moved to Pittsburg. 4. AnaSTaSiuS T. En tered the ministry in 1835. He is pastor of the church at Wirtemberg, N. Y., from 1838 to 1840, when he becomes pastor of the Orwigsburg charge. Subsequently he resides in New York City, and in 1851 becomes pastor of church at Trenton, N. J., and for a second time in i860. In 1857 he accepts call to St. Paul's, AUentown, Pa. , and is engaged from 1862 to 1866 as travel ling missionary of the second conference. In 1867 he is elected treasurer of the Pa. Synod, and serves as such for eleven years. D. March 2, 1882. J. N. Gellert, Christian Fuerchtegott, b. 1715, at Hainichen, Saxony. In 1734 he entered the University of Leipzig as a student of theology. For a number of years he was engaged as private tutor, and in 1751 he was appointed professor extraordinarius of philosophy, lecturing also on poetry, rhetoric, and moral philosophy. As a professor he was greatly esteemed and revered by his students, among whom were Lessing and Goethe. His Fabeln (1746 and 1748) still rank among the classics of German literature. His hymns, though somewhat stiff and didactic, and not up to the mark of true church hymnody, are the sincere utterances of a genuine Christian morality, recognizing the fundamental facts of Christianity. At a time when rationalism and infidelity were in the ascendency in Germany Gellert's hymns were a positive testimony for the Christian faith, and well deserved, and still deserve, a place in the hymn-books of the Luth. Church. They first appeared in Leipzig, 1757, under the titie Geistliche Oden und Lieder (54 in number). More than half of them found their way into the EngUsh language. among them "Jesus lebt, mit Ihm auchich" (Easter hymn), the best translation by Frances Elizabeth Cox (1841-1864), "Jesus lives no longer now" (see Church Book); "Dies ist der Tag, den Gott gemacht " (This is the day the Lord hath made), tiansl. by Miss Borthvrick (1864); "Wie gross ist des AUmaechtgen Guete " (How bounteous our Creator's blessing), transl. by A. T. RusseU (1851). A. S. Geletzky (Jelecky) Johannes, one of the pas tors and hymn-writers of the Bohemian Brethren, d. 1568, at Groedlitz. To the hymn-book of 1566 he contributed 22 hymns and translations ; a few of them have passed into the English Mor avian hymn-books of 1754 and 1789. The translation of " Resonet in Laudibus, "_ in the German Sunday-School Book, is ascribed to him. A. S. General Council of the Lutheran Church in North America. The Ministerium of Pennsyl vania was the first of the old Eastern synods which fully acknowledged all Luth. confes sions in 1853, and thus returned to its original position of 1748. As in Germany, a conserva tive reaction (from about 1850) led many back to the faith of the fathers, intensifying the con flict between the Lutheran and the unlutheran elements within the General Synod. A rupture could not be avoided. At the York convention in 1864, the unlutheran Franckean Synod, which never had adopted the Augs. Conf., after a long discussion was received into the General Synod, with the understanding that at its next meeting it should adopt the Augs. Conf., " as a substan tially conect exhibition of the fundamental doctrines of the Word of God." Against this unconstitutional action all the delegates of the Pa. Synod and others protested, but in vain. The Pa. delegates retired from the sessions of the General Synod, according to a previous stipulation of their synod, reported at its next meeting, and were sustained. The Pa. Synod, however, sent delegates to the next convention of the General Synod at Fort Wayne in 1866. The president (Dr. S. S. Sprecher) refused to receive their credentials, holding that, because they had retired, their status should be deter mined after the organization. The delegates pro tested, but after a three days' debate his action was approved. A few weeks later the Pa. Synod at Lancaster, Pa. , severed its connection -with the General Synod, other synods followed suit (New York, which lost its English pastors and congregations, Pittsburg, which also suffered a split, Minnesota, the English Synod of Ohio, Illinois, and Texas) . The Pa. Synod, which had been instramental in forming the General Synod in 1820, re tired from it in 1823, for practical reasons, and again joined it in 1853. It took a highly im portant step after havingleft the General Synod, when, at the convention at Lancaster, in 1866, moved by a fervent desire to bring about a union of all trae Lutherans in America, it, the "Mother Synod," appointed a committee to issue a fraternal address to all Luth. synods and to invite them to a conference for the pur pose of forming a general body. In this ad dress the committee says: "It is most clear that the Ev. Luth. Church in North America General Council 191 General Council needs a general organization, first and supremely for the maintenance and unity in the trae faith of the gospel and in the uncorrapted sacraments, and furthermore, for the preservation of her genuine spirit and worship, and for the devel opment of her practical life in all its forms. With our communion of millions scattered over a vast and ever-widening territory, with the ceaseless tide of immigration to our shores, with the diversity of sunounding usages and of religious life, -with our various nationalities and tongues, our crying need of faithful ministers, our imperfect provision for any and all of the urgent wants of the Church, there is danger that the genuinely Luth. elements may be come gradually alienated, . . . that the unity of the spirit . . . may be lost, and that our Church, which, alone in the history of Protes tantism, has maintained a genuine catholicity and unity, should drift into the sectarianism and separatism which characterize and curse our land." This address was signed by the Rev. Drs. G. F. Krotel, Chas. P. Krauth, W. J. Mann, C. W. Schaeffer, and J. A. Seiss, who, with the Revs. Dr. B. M. Schmucker, S. K. Brobst, and S. Laird, were the first clerical delegates of the Pa. Synod to the convention held at Reading, Pa., in December, 1866, where for the first time in the history of our Church preliminary steps were taken for the formation of a general body on strictly confessional principles. The Synod of Pa., two English Synods and the Joint Synod of Ohio, the Synods of Pittsburg, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Canada, New York, and the Norwegian Synods sent delegates. Even Missouri was represented. The Swedes expressed their sympathy by letter. Prof. M. Loy of Columbus delivered the opening sermon on the conditions of Christian union (i Cor. 1 : 10), -riz. : " (i) the same faith in the same truth, (2) the same confession in the same faith, (3) the same judgment under the same confession." Nine articles containing the fundamental princi ples of faith and church polity and eleven articles on ecclesiastical power and church government, prepared by Dr. C. P. Krauth, were fully dis cussed from the 12th to the 14th of December, and after a few alterations unanimously approved and a plan of organization adopted. With joy ful hearts all present joined in singing, "Now thank we all our God." In the eighth article of the principles of faith the convention (and the General Council) de clared : "We accept and acknowledge the doc trines of the Unaltered Augsburg Confession in its original sense as throughout in conformity vrith the pure trath of which God's Word is the only rule. We accept its statements of truth as in perfect accordance with the Canonical Scrip tures. We reject the enors it condemns, and believe that all which it commits to the liberty of the Church of right belongs to that liberty." And in the ninth article : " In thus formally ac cepting and acknowledging the Unaltered Augs burg Confession, we declare our con-riction, that the other confessions of the Ev. Luth. Church, inasmuch as they set forth none other than its system of doctrine and articles of faith, are of necessity pure and scriptural. Pre-emi nent among such accordant pure and scriptural statements of doctrine, by their intrinsic excel lence, by the great and necessary ends for which they were prepared, by their historical position, and by the general judgment of the Church, are these. : the Apology of the Augsburg Con fession, the Schmalkald Articles, the Catechisms of Luther, and the Formula of Concord, all of which are, -with the Unaltered Augsburg Con fession, in the perfect harmony of one and the same scriptural faith." On ecclesiastical power Article I. says : " All power in the Church be longs primarily, properly, and exclusively to our Lord Jesus Christ. . . . This supreme and direct power is not delegated to any man or body of men upon earth. II. All just power exercised by the Church has been committed to her for the furtherance of the gospel, through the Word and sacraments, is conditioned by this end, and is derivative and pertains to her as the servant of Jesus Christ. IV. The primary bodies through which the power is normally exercised, which Christ commits derivatively and ministerially to his Church on earth, are the congregations. The congregation in the normal state is neither the pastor without the people, nor the people without the pastor. V. In con gregations exists the right of representation." On Nov. 20, 1867, the first convention of the General Council was held at Fort Wayne, Ind. The Synod of Missouri kept aloof from the movement. Thirteen synods (Pa., N. Y., Eng lish Ohio, Pittsburg, Wise, Iowa English Dis trict of Ohio, Mich., Scandinavian Augustana, Minn., Can., IU., and the Joint Synod of Ohio) organized the General Council. Even then the so-called four points were brought up by the Joint Synod of Ohio, the Synod of Iowa seconding the three last ones, viz. : (i) Chiliasm, (2) pulpit fellowship, (3) mixed communion, (4) secret so cieties. These points gave rise to many debates and constant agitation for years, and led to the withdrawal of some synods which were not wholly satisfied vrith the declarations of the Gen eral Council (Wise, in 1869, 111. and Minn, in 1871, and Mich, in 1888). (See Four Points.) The Joint Synod of Ohio withdrew from the G. C. in 1867 ; the German Synod of Iowa adopted a waiting, but friendly, position and made use of the pririlege of debate. Thus the hopes with which many, even Prof. Walther of the Mo. Synod, had greeted the Reading Conference, were only partially realized. But moved by the example of the G. C. another general body, the Missourian Synodical Conference, was organized in 1872. The G. C. received the Texas Synod in 1868, the Indiana Synod in 1872, the Holston Synod in 1874, but afterwards permitted the last one to join the General Synod South and the first one to join the Iowa Synod. The Indiana Synod is now the Chicago Synod. In 1875 the G. C, at Galesburg, 111., passed the resolution : ' ' The mle which accords with the Word of God and with the confessions of our Church is : Lutheran pulpits for Lutheran pastors only, Lutheran altars for Lutheran communicants only." (See Galesburg Rule.) There is no opposition to this mle at present. The Westem Synods, not having passed through the unluth eran experiences of the East, could more easily insist upon a strictly Luth. practice ; they started General Council 193 General Council vrith a good Luth. material, many ha-ring come to this country on account of their truly Luth. faith, but in the East there were many old pre judices to be overcome as well as much luke warmness in doctrine and practice, sectarian in fiuences, unionism, the evil of secret societies. The old synods had to revive Luth. conscious ness, to arouse a Luth. spirit, and to remove much rubbish in order to reach the good old Luth. foundations. This requires time and tries patience. In 1881 Dr. Krauth wrote to the convention of the G. C. at Rochester, N. Y. : " Our General Council has borne rich fruit for God's glory and the future of the Church. Most of all has she done a great work in that testimony for which she has been most assailed. In her principles of pulpit and altar fellowship she has vindicated herself from the reproach of the avowed sectarianism which in our day is trying to usurp the place of apostolic unity. May God keep her steadfast in the assertion of principle. May he make her willing to perish rather than to sunender it." There has been a growth in knowledge, in firmness, in harmoni ous co-operation. The future belongs to the G. C, because it occupies the golden mean be tween eccentric doctrinal tendencies to the right and to the left, acknowledging the truth wherever found, and, while unflinchingly op posed to enor, bearing its adversaries no ill-will. True conservatism is the character of its posi tion. Having planted itself firmly and sin cerely on all Luth. confessions contained in the Book of Concord, but disdaining to add to them favorite doctrines held by some other synods as a test of Lutheranism, keeping the unity in spirit in the midst of a variety of lan guages and customs, the G. C. has the special mission to spread sound Luth. doctrine in the EngUsh language, and thus to exert a far- reaching influence on the many denominations which surround it. Even at the first convention the exceedingly important work of home, foreign, and emigrant missions was considered. The mission amongst the Telugus in East India was transferred to the G. C. in 1862, and carried on successfully up to the present time. The home mission work was divided among a German, an English, and a Swedish committee in 1881 . Moved by an appeal issued by the German board. Pastor Johannes Paulsen started a theological seminary at Kropp for the G. C. in 1882, and although not officially connected with it since 1888, he continued to send laborers to the same. The German board has been publishing a monthly paper Siloah in the interest of its home missions since 1882. The work succeeded so well in the Northwest, that in 1897 the German Manitoba Synod was organized, haring about 3,000 communi cants. The Foreign Missionary since 1880, and the German Missionsbote since 1878, are ?ublished in the interest of the Telugu Mission. he Swedes have missionary papers of their own. A large weekly paper. The Lutheran, Dr. G. F. Krotel, editor, represents all the vari ous interests of the G. C. (since 1896). The Emigrant Mission, begun in 1865, by the Pa. and N. Y. Synods, but in 1869 transfened to the G. C, has proved a great success. At the first convention of the G. C. the pub lication of an English and a German Church Book was taken into consideration. The Eng lish edition appeared in 1868, the German in 1877. A truly Luth. form of worship and a wealth of liturgical and hymnological material is given in these books which, together with the German and English Sunday School Books, have enriched our Church and found high favor even in England and Germany. All these books show the trae Luth. spirit, the order of di vine service having been especially prepared in conformity with the German standard Agenda of the time of the Reformation. Dr. B. M. Schmucker, who, with Drs. J. A. Seiss, C. P. Krauth, C. W. Schaeffer, and others, had pre pared the English Church Book, gave his pro found liturgical knowledge to the German books also, together with Drs. A. Spaeth, S. Fritschel, and Edw. F. Moldehnke. The champion of Lutheranism in the English language was Dr. Chas. P. Krauth (d. Jan. 2, 1883), who, by his Conservative Reformation and other books and essays, exerted a powerful influ ence. Through the work of Pastor F. W. Weiskot- ten and Dr. Wm. A. Schaeffer, a publication house has been successfully started at PhUadel phia in 1896. The Lutheran Church Review contains many valuable articles written by mem bers of the G. C. The PhUadelphia Theological Seminary at Mt. Airy, founded in 1864, having such professors as Drs. Krauth, Krotel, Mann, C. F. and C. W. Schaeffer, Spaeth, Jacobs, and lately J. Fry and G. F. Spieker, has exerted influence in consolidating and strengthening the G. C. Good work is also done in this di rection by the Swedish Augustana Seminary at Rock Island, 111., founded in i860, Dr. O. Ol son, president, and by the Chicago Seminary, founded by Dr. W. A. Passavant in 1891, where Drs. R. F. Weidner, G. H. Gerberding, H. W. Roth, W. A. Sadtler, W. K. Frick, are untiring in their labors in despite of great difficulties. Not only this seminary, but also many institu tions of mercy, owe their existence under God to Dr. Passavant, the greatest of all American Luth. phUanthropists. Within the bounds of the G. C, there are 12 orphan asylums, 23 hos pitals, deaconess institutes, homes for aged, 6 colleges (Muhlenberg at AUentown, Pa., Dr. Theo. L. Seip, president ; Augustana at Rock Island, Dr. O. Olsson, president ; Bethany at Lindborg, Kan., Dr. C. A. Swensson, president ; Gustavus Adolphus at St. Peter, Minn., Dr. M. Wahlstrom, president ; Thiel at GreenvUle, Pa., Dr. T. B. Roth president ; Wagner Memorial at Rochester, N. Y., Dr. J. Nicum, president). Nine German, 13 English, -4 Swedish Church papers are pubUshed. Nine synods belong to the G. C, Pa., the " Mother Synod," the lead ing synod of the East, N. Y. , Pittsburgh, District of Ohio, Swedish Augustana, which has grov?n wonderfully, Canada, Chicago, Northwest, Manitoba, comprising 1,176 ministers, 2,003 congregations, 339,876 communicants. The presidents of the G. C. were G. Bassler (i year), C. W. Schaeffer (i year), G. F. Krotel (5 years), C. P. Krauth (10 years), A. Spaeth (8 years), J- ^u, ® (^ year), C. A. Swensson (2 years), and Edw. F. Moldehnke (since 1895). E. F. M. General Synod 193 General Synod General Synod of the Evangelical Luther an Church in the United States. The oldest organization for the union of the different synods of the Luth. Church in America. It arose out of the normal growth and needs of the Church. The planting and early training of Luther anism in the United States were congrega tional. The Church consisted of distinct and independent congregations. No successful at tempt at any synodical organization occuned before the formation of the Synod or Ministerium of Pennsylvania in 1748. The Synod of New York was organized in 1786, the Synod of North Carolina in 1803, the Joint Synod of Ohio in 1818, the Synod of Maryland and Virginia in 1820. Then, however, in the tenitorial expan sion and the demands of its advancing work, the Church became conscious of the necessity for a closer bond of fellowship and a means of united effort and enterprise for its common in terests and prosperity. The separate synods, standing and working apart from each other, could not meet the Church's larger exigencies. Under these circumstances, and through the call of these necessities, the General Synod came into being. It exists as the product of the di-rine Pro-vidence which led the Church through the manifestly proper and needful completing step of organization for fellowship and efficient co operation in its great mission and work in our country. The movement was led by the Synod of Penn sylvania. At its meeting in Harrisburg, in 1818, it declared it " desirable that the various Evan gelical Luth. Synods in the United States should in some way or other stand in closer connec tion vrith each other," and appointed a com mittee to prepare some feasible plan. This com mittee reported a plan to the synod at its meet ing a year later in Baltimore. After adoption there, and submission to the existing synods for consideration and approval, a convention was called, and the General Synod was formally or ganized at Hagerstown, Md., Oct. 22, 1820. All the above named synods were represented in the organization except that of Ohio, from which no delegates appeared. General Principles. The general princi ples which determined the form and constitution of the body were such as arose from the condi tions of the Church and the objects aimed at. These were primarily not doctrinal, but practical. It was a union for counsel and work. In it the synods came together on the recognized and unquestioned fact that the synods so uniting were Evangelical Luth. bodies. To this prac tical purpose of vnited effort in upbuilding the Church and accompUshing its work all the powers and orders of the organization were ad justed. Development. For this worthy purpose the " plan " meant to embrace the entire Church — "a fraternal union of the whole Evangelical Luth. Church in the United States." But both indifference and hostiUty soon interfered. By reason of the former, the New York Synod at once permitted its connection to lapse, till re sumed in 1837. By reason of the latter, in the form of an empty congregational fear of loss of Uberty, through centialization of ecclesiastical 13 power, the Synod of Pa. felt constrained to withdraw after the first meeting, and remained separate till 1853. Yet the growth of the body and the prominent efficiency of its work in the development and prosperity of the Luth. Church has been most gratifying and honorable. It drew into itself largely the synods which were successfully formed in the Church's expanding territory — uniting most of the English-speaking synods. After 1820 a decennial exhibit shows the number of synods in union -with it as follows : 1830 3 1840 7 1850 16 i860 26 1870 21 1880 23 1890 : . 24 The loss sho-wn between i860 and 1870 came, first, through the Civil War separating the Southern synods, since associated in the United Synod of the South, and secondly, by the withdrawal of the Pennsylvania, New York, and several other synods, which have united with the General Council. Confessional Position. Though the pri mary object of its organization was not confes- ¦ sional, but practical, looking to fellowship and co-operation on the basis of acknowledged ' Luth. standing, the General Synod at once placed a positive Luth. basis under its prac tical work. In the constitution of the theolog ical seminary which it at once proceeded to- establish it enacted : "In this seminary shall be- taught, in the German and English languages,, the fundamental doctrines of the Sacred Scrip tures, as contained in the Augsburg Confession. ' '- This was incorporated in the professors' oath of office. In the constitution provided for dis trict synods in 1829, the question required in ordination was : ' ' Do you believe that the fundamental doctrines of the Word of God are taught in a manner substantiaUy conect in the doctrinal articles of the Augsburg Confession ? " During this time the liturgies of the chief synods standing aloof from the General Synod failed to exact confessional obligation in ordination. The General Synod led the way in re-establish ing, from the prevalent neglect, the proper authority of the Church's great Confession. Its completed form of subscription, adopted into its constitution, is : " Receiving and holding, with the Evangelical Lutheran Church of our fathers, the Word of God, as contained in the canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testa ments as the only infallible rule of faith and practice, and the Augsburg Confession as a cor rect exhibition of the fundamental doctrines of the diidne Word and of the faith of our Church as founded on that Word." The explanatory resolution vrith which the synod accompanied the constitutional requirement, "to prevent all misapprehension as to the doctrinal position of the Luth. Church as represented by the Gen eral Synod, should be read in connection, riz. : "This General Synod, resting on the Word of God as the sole authority in matters of faith, on its infaUible wanant rejects the Romish doctrine General Synod 194 General Synod of the real presence or Transubstantiation, and with it the doctrine of Consubstantiation ; re jects the Romish Mass, and all ceremonies dis tinctive of the Mass ; denies power of the sacraments as an opus operatum, or that the blessings connected with baptism and the Lord's Supper can be received without faith ; rejects auricular confession and priestly absolution ; holds that there is no priesthood on earth but that of all beUevers, and that God only can for give sins : and maintains the divine obligation of the Christian Sabbath." This declaration, with respect to enors sometimes said to be in the Confession, is not meant to add anything to the Confession or take anything from it, but as definitive of the General Synod's understanding of its true teaching as against the enors alleged. The body is thus grounded in a double way : primarily, on the Word of God as the only in fallible rule, and secondarily, on the Augsburg Confession as a conect exhibition of the funda mental doctrines of that Word. There is no need, therefore, of specifying its teaching, as the Confession itself is the sufficient statement of its doctrine. As in harmony with its basis it sets forth Luther's Smaller Catechism as a hand book for catechetical instruction. The General Synod, thus, does not require adherence to any of the other writings which have, to greater or less extent, been received in the Church. It declines to include them for such reasons as these : that the Augsburg Con fession is the one only universal symbol of ihe Luth. Church, marking and identifying ii always and everywhere ; ihat the other syrnbols never have been necessary to define and consti tute the Church, the Luth. Church having existed and done its work, in full standing, in whole countries on the basis of the Augsburg Confession alone ; that, however high the value of these additional writings, ihey are noi be lieved to be adapted to unite the whole Luth. Church, as shown in its actual experience, both past and present ; that the generic and uni versal Luth. Confession, while fully securing the Luth. system of doctrine and identifying Luth. status, allows also free room in the union for all Lutherans who may accept for themselves special developments or types of view found in the other symbols. True to the original purpose, expressed in the Pennsylvania Synod's plan for the organization, as "a cen tral union for the Evangelical Luth. Church in the United States, ' ' the General Synod believes that the Lutheran Church in this country ought to be one, and, therefore, that its basis, in this meeting-place of Lutherans from all lands, should be nothing nanower than the great Con fession that is common to all. This secures the full historic continuity of the Church and pro vides the true conditions for denominational fellowship and co-operation. The General Synod looks on this breadth of communion as not only proper in itself, but as -rital and essen tial to the hope and possibility of ever realizing a union of the whole Church. This fact ex plains the reason why the body does not, and cannot, look vrith favor upon any plans or movements that seek union through forms of confessional obligation to particularistic stand ards or types nanower than the Church's oecumenic Confession. Worship. The General Synod approves of and provides well-ordered liturgical services, seeking due conformity to the moderate orders of the past, vrith needful adaptation to present conditions and necessities. According to Luth. principles concerning " uniformity of cere monies," their use is not placed in the sphere of law, but of liberty. They are not enforced by authority or constraint, but submitted to the free use of the congregations as they may be found to edification and the best spiritual life. Catechization. This custom of the Church for the proper instruction of the young and their preparation for admission to communion is adopted and exalted to its full place of prom inence. While seeking the conversion of the world through the faithful preaching of the gospel, the General Synod lays the utmost stress upon bringing up the children of the Church in the nurture of the Lord, and gather ing them, as also the unbaptized children from without, into the catechetical class for special indoctrination in the truth and awakening liv ing faith. Christian Life and Church Work. The time of its organization made it largely recipient of the cunent of re-rived evangelical piety which, from the spiritual labors of Spener, Arndt, and their associates, came to America through Muhlenberg and other godly ministers from Halle. That gracious quickening, gi-ring to doctrine its true life, gave deep and perma nent impress to the life of the churches and synods of this body. The pietistic principle remains vital in their views and temper. It appears in various features of congregational order and usage, such as mid-week services, prayer-meetings, Sunday schools. It has given the ministry, mostly, a pronounced interest on all effort, by means consistent with the Scrip tures, to quicken trae piety and bring the life of the Church into full witness for Christ. In harmony with this and the original pur pose of the organization, the General Synod devotes its chief endeavor to carrying on the Church's work in education, missions, church literature, and different forms of mercy. Under its auspices, more or less direct, have been es tablished four theological seminaries, at Gettys burg, Pa., Springfield, Ohio, Selinsgrove, Pa., and Atchison, Kan., and eleven colleges, -viz., Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, Pa. ; Witten berg CoUege, Springfield, Ohio ; Roanoke Col lege, Salem, Va. ; Newberry CoUege, Newberry, S. C. ; North CaroUna CoUege, Mt. Pleasant, N. C. ; Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa. ; Carthage CoUege, Carthage, 111. ; Midland College, Atchison, Kan. ; Watts Memorial Col lege, Guntur, India ; Maryland Female CoUege, LuthervUle, Md. ; Kee-Mar CoUege, for Young Ladies, Hagerstown, Md., and Irving College, Mechanicsburg, Pa. The body carnes on ex tensive home missionary and church exten sion work, and supports two foreign missions, one in India, and the other in Africa. It con ducts these enterprises through board's respon sible to Its directions. A woman's home and foreign missionary society, formed in 1877, George III. of Anhalt 195 Georsria acts in co-operation with the missionary boards. Among the General Synod's benevolent opera tions are a prosperous orphan home, a home for the aged, and a deaconess house. Three weekly papers are published, and a quarterly re-riew, dating from 1849. The Publication So ciety, organized 1855, operating through a board of publication, has attained a large pros perity and usefulness. Relation to other Denominations. The constitution of the General Synod accepts as its duty to be " sedulously and incessantly re gardful of the circumstances of the times and of every casual rise and progress of unity of senti ment among Christians in general, in order that the blessed opportunities to promote concord and unity, and the interests of the Redeemer's kingdom, may not pass by neglected and un availing." In accordance with this, the Gen eral Synod cultivates fraternal relations vrith the other branches of orthodox Protestantism. While holding the tiuth as our Church confesses it, and thus -witnessing against contrary teach ing, it still "believes in one holy, Catholic Church," "which is gathered from every na tion under the suu, ' ' ' ' the congregation of saints, confessing one gospel, haring the same knowl edge of Christ, and one Holy Spirit, who re news, sanctifies, and rales in their hearts ' ' {Apol. Conf, Arts. VIL and VIIL). The synod maintains friendly correspondence, or interchanges of courtesies by delegates, -with a number of other denominations. It enacts no restrictive law against fellowship in pulpit or at altar, but allows to both ministers and mem bers the freedom of conscience and love in this matter. M. V. George III. of Anhalt, sumamedthe Pious, b. 1507, at Dessau, was in Roman orders, but after a long struggle and study of the Scriptures, the Fathers, the Augustana, and Apology, he became evang. 1532, when he appointed N. Hausmann court-preacher at Dessau. Called by Aug. of Saxony as spiritual coadjutor of the vacant bishopric of Merseburg, he wished to be made bishop for the sake of the enemies of the gospel. On Aug. 2, 1545, Luther installed him. He did not join the Smalcald league, but later favored the Leipzig Interim. Compelled (1550) by the Emperor to leave Tiis bishopric, he went to Dessau and d. Oct. 17, 1553, honored for his learning and piety. George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ans bach, the Confessor, b. March 4, 1484, at Ans bach, became evang. at his uncle's court, Wla- dislaw II. of Hungary, assisted his brother, Albrecht, grand-master of the German order, in introducing the Reformation into Pmssia. In Silesia he had the gospel preached in 1524. After the death of his brother, Casimir, his co- regent in his inherited lands, he introduced the Reformation fully (1528). At Spires (1529) he was one of the Protestants, took part in the convents at Schwabach and Smalcald, and at Augsburg (1530) was ready to give up his head rather than his faith. Under his mle the cele brated Brandenburg-Nuremberg church order ( 1533) appeared after a visitation. D. at Ans bach, Dec. 17, 1543. George of Denmark, consort of the English Queen Anne, son of Frederick III. of Denmark, b. 1653, married 1683, on accession of his wife to the throne in 1702, became Generalissimo aud Lord High Admiral of England ; d. 1708. Un favorably criticised by English writers as sin gularly deficient in gifts. A consistent Luther an, he founded the court chapel of St. James, and introduced -with it as the second pastor in 1705 the influential Anthon Wilhelm Bohme. George Ernst of Henneberg-Schleusingen, b. 151 1, d. 1583, furthered the Reformation in Henneberg, was instrumental in framing the Maulbronn Formula, and instituted a church order of Reformed character, which was assailed by the clergy of Henneberg. George, Duke of Saxony, b. 1471, succeeded his father, Albrecht, the Courageous, in 1500. In contradiction to the Emestinian line he natu rally opposed Luther, although not averse to a reformation in the sense of Erasmus, for he was economical and soUcitous of the welfare of his people. A sermon of Luther at Dresden (July 25, 1517) scandalized George because Luther did not emphasize good works. The Leipzig dis putation finally confirmed him against Luther. In 1525 he formed a league with the Electors of Mayence and Brandenburg and the Duke of Branswick against the new doctrine. He de sired to give over his country to Ferd. of Bohe- hemia to save it from Lutheranism, but when the estates refused this, he demanded of his suc cessor, his Luth. brother, Henry the Pious, the promise to leave the religion of the land un changed. Before Henry's negative reply reached him, George d. April 17, 1539. Georges. From 1714 to 1837, Great Britain was ruled by sovereigns who were, at the same time, the rulers of the electorate of Liineberg, which in 1814 assumed the name of its chief city, and became the kingdom of Hanover. These sov ereigns were George Lewis, Elector of Liineberg from 1698, and as King of England, George I. (b. 1660), 1714-27; George II. (b. 1683), 1727- 60; George III. (b. 1738), 1760-1820 ; George IV. (b. 1762), 1820-1830; William IV. (b. 1765), 1830-1837. The laws of Hanover not allowing a female sovereign, the accession of Victoria sep arated Hanover and Great Britain. As electors of Liineberg, the English sovereigns were the executive heads of ttie Luth. Church of that country, a circumstance which was of great im portance to the German Luth. congregations of the last century, gi-ring them the official rec ognition of the English government. George II. was almost a foreigner to England, and made no effort to conceal his preference for the country of his birth, although he as well as his father and George IV. were not men of religious character, and were stained by notorious scan dals. Georgia, Lutherans in. in 1890, 18 con gregations, -with 1,932 communicants, were re ported ; two congregations, vrith 455 communi cants, being independent andthe rest belonging to the United Sjmod of the South. They are chiefly in the former settiements of the Salz burgers and in the cities of Savannah, Atianta, and Augusta. Georgia Synod 196 Gerhardt Georgia Synod. See Synods (IV) . Gerber, K. F. W., LL. D., b. 1823, was professor successively at Erlangen, Tuebingen, Jena, Leipzic, since 1871 minister of ecclesias tical affairs and public instruction in Saxony. He deserved well of the Luth. Church in Saxony by giving to it a Luth. consistory for the gov ernment of the Church, and also by securing for it a decided influence on the common schools, especially by bringing the religious and moral education under its inspection and control. D. Dec. 23, 1891. J. F. Gerhard, Johann, the " arch- theologian "and standard dogmatician of the Luth. Church, b. Oct. 17, 1582, at Quedlinburg, province of Saxony. Whilst attending school there he was induced by Johann Arndt to devote himself to the service of the Church. He studied theology at Witten berg, Marburg, and Jena. Only 24 years old and having preached no more than four times, he was appointed supt. at Heldburg, duchy of Coburg. At the same time he was created doc tor of di-rinity. 1615, the duke made him genl. supt. In this capacity he directed a visitation of all the churches and composed an order of church government and discipline — a twofold labor the salutary effects of which were felt long afterwards. But G. had always had the desire of serring the Church as a theological professor, a position for which he was pre eminently fitted. Still, he waited patiently, till God opened the way for him. Three times he received a call to the University of Jena and once to that of Wittenberg ; but only when the third call to Jena came the duke yielded to the entreaties of the faculty and the remonstrances of the Elector of Saxony and permitted G. to go. At Jena G. labored from 1616 to his death (1637, Aug. 20), as the greatest ornament of the Luth. Church in those times, eminent as teacher, author, and counsellor to men of every station, in theological, ecclesiastical, and even political matters, "the oracle of his times." Whilst at Jena he received 24 honorable calls, one from the Swedish University at Upsala ; but he was faithful to Jena, where he so manifestly enjoyed the blessings of God in every respect, financial matters not excluded. To his ability, faithfulness, and kindness as a teacher, as also to his reputation as a theologian, it was owing that the University at Jena in the midst of the horrors of the Thirty Years' War flourished " as a rose among thorns. ' ' G. was characterized by extraordinary humility, great charity, and immovable confidence in God. His modest and tender disposition qualified him rather for setting forth, explaining, and de fending the truth in a calm, assured, and peace ful way than for carrying on vigorous contro versies. His chief work was in Dogmatics. His Lod communes theologici in 9 vols, (best older ed. by Cotta, 1762; latest ed. Leipsic, 1885), begun when he was 27 years old and completed 1621, are a model especially in thorough scriptural proof. His Confessio catholica (3 vols., 1633- 37) improves upon the Catalogus testium veri tatis of Flacius, proving the trath of the Luth. doctrine by testimonies of Roman Catholic writers. In Exegesis also G. did exceUent work. He completed the Harmonia evange- lica, begun by M. Chemnitz and continued by P. Leyser ; published commentaries on Genesis, Deuteronomy, and especially the Epistles of Peter ; and superintended the publication of the renowned Weimar Bible, contributing himself the explanation of Genesis, Daniel, and Revela tion. In Isagogics his excellent Methodus studii theologici emphasized the study of the Scrip tures, trae piety, and a practical preparation for the ministry. Of his devotional writings the Meditationes sacres (transl. into German and English) take the first place— the ripe frait of a severe sickness while a student. His Schola pietatis, written to counteract the somewhat pietistic and mystic True Christianity of J. Arndt, is too scholastic in form. His printed sermons also are too much like lectures. The best biography of G. is the Vita Gerhardi by Fischer (1723), of which a popular German translation was published by Boettcher (1858). — Compare Herzog, Realencyclopesdie ; Meusel, Handlexikon. F. W. S. Gerhard, Johann Ernst, son of johann Gerhard, b. Dec. 15, 1621, at Jena, prof, of theol. at Jena 1655-68, d. Feb. 24, 1668, ex celled in oriental languages and church history. On his journeys through several European countries he became acquainted with different denominations and sects ; this may account for his more liberal tendency. He edited his father's Patrologia. His son, Johann Ernst (1662-1707), a very learned man and orthodox, was inspector of schools and churches in Gotha and afterwards professor of theology at Gies sen. F. W. S. Gerhardt, Paul, b. March 12, 1607, at Graefenhainichen, between Halle and Witten berg, he lost his father in early childhood, attended the famous school at Grimma (1622- 1627), and entered the University of Wittenberg in 1628, as a student of theology. The Thirty Years' War was then at its height, and when he had finished his studies he could not for a long time find regular work as a pastor. For years he served here and there as a private tutor, and in 1643 became instractor in the house of the emi nent lawyer, Andreas Barthold, in Berlin, whose daughter Anna he married in 1655. In 1651 he was appointed chief pastor (Probst) in Mittel- walde, near Berlin. In 1657 h& became third Diaconus at St. Nicolai, Berlin, and enjoyed the affection and respect of his congregation in the highest degree. In 1662 (and in a stricter form, in 1664), the Edict of the Great Elector of Bran denburg appeared, which, under penalty of sus pension, forbade the Luth. pastors to carry on a personal controversy, -with mentioning of names, against members of the Reformed Church to which the Elector himself belonged, and other theologians suspected of unsound doctrine. Gerhardt had acted as secretary of the Luth. Ministerium in the negotiations and correspondence conceming this subject, and though he himself never indulged in any per sonalities, he absolutely refused to sign the "Revers" which would bind him under the Edict of the Elector. The result was his sus- Geriche 197 Germann pension in 1666. But as the representative citizens of Berlin interceded for him he was soon re-installed. The Elector, in restoring him to his office, expressed the hope that even without signing the Revers Gerhardt would know how to live up to it. This made it impossible for a man of Paul Gerhardt's tender conscience to ac cept his restoration to office. In a touching letter to the Elector he frankly declared his un- -willingness to be restored -witb such an under standing. He continued to live in Berlin until 1668, -when he was called to Luebben on the Spree. There he spent the last years of his life as a widower, among people who were unable to appreciate him. He died June the seventh, 1676. With his deep personal piety and his de vout and spiritual h3ntnns, Paul Gerhardt is for ever the strongest testimony against the ground less charge that a strict unyielding confessional ism is incompatible vrith a true living Chris tianity. Next to Martin Luther Paul Gerhardt ranks as the greatest hymn-writer of the Church. With the strong solid objecti-rity of the ancient churchly hymns he most happily combines a warm and healthy subjectivity. His hymns, 120 in number (with II songs composed for special occasions), appeared first in the different editions of Crueger's Praxis Pietatis Melica (3d edition, 1648) and in the Crueger-Runge hymn-book of 1653. The best modern critical edition is the one prepared by J. F. Bachmann ( 1866) . His hymns were set to music by his contemporaries Craeger and Ebeling, who were both organists of St. Nicolai in Berlin. In recent times Friedrich Mergner furnished some beautiful and striking tunes to Gerhardt's hymns, not so much in the style of the choral as in that of the aria, bring ing out the lyric subjectivity of his songs (Paul Gerhardt's Geistliche Lieder in neuen Weisen, Erlangen, 1876). A large number of Ger hardt's hymns have been translated for English hymn-books, though the extreme length of some and the intricate metres of others have some what impeded their general adaptation for Eng lish use. Julian's Dictionary of Hymnology gives 16 of his hymns as being in common Eng lish use, vrith II others not in common Eng lish use. A. S. G^ricke, Christian William, b. 1742, at Kol- berg, Prussia, studied at Halle, taught in Francke's girls' school (1763), was ordamed to the ministry in India (1764), arrived atKudelore (June, 1767). G. was a great and gifted worker, preached to the English, Portuguese, and Tamil daily in town and country, suffered much from war and pestilence, saved Kudelore from de straction, worked at Negapatam (1783), was tiansfenedto Madras ( 1787), joumeyed much in Tamil Land, d. at Madras, October 5, 1803. G. was, next to C. F. Schwartz, the most successful of Luth. missionaries in India. W. W. Gerike, Paul, a Luth. pastor of Poland, who at the Synod of Thom (i595) opposed the unionistic agreement of Sendomir (1570). He was suspended as a disturber of the peace. Gerlach, Stephan, b. 1546, instrumental as court preacher of von Ungnad at Constantinople, in tbe correspondence of Crusius vrith patriarch Jeremias II. (See Crusius.) G. was prof, at Tiibingen 1579, d., 1612. Gerlach, Otto von, b. April 12, 1801, in Ber lin, pastor at St. Elisabeth, Berlin, court preacher at the Dom (1848), was effective in bringing the estianged masses to the Church by manifold organized activity and fervid exposi tory preaching. He d. 1849, and is still noted for his Bibelwerk which popularizes thorough exeget. study. German Bible (translation). See Bible Translations. German (Luth.) Literature in America. The writings of Luth. divines in this country who used the German language cover the four departments of theology. History. — As soon as Dr. H. M. Muhlenberg had anived in Phila delphia (fall of 1742) he sent reports to Halle, describing the condition of the Lutherans, his work among them, etc. This, continued by his successors, is known as Hallesche Nachrichten. (See article. ) The early history of the Salz burg settlement of Ebenezer in Georgia is given in Ausfiihrliche Nachrichten von den Salz- borgischen Emigranten, by Saml. Urlsperger (1735 to 1767), containing reports of Revs. Bol zius and Gronau, pastors at Ebenezer. General histories are: Lutheraner in Amerika (E. J. Wolf and J. Nicum) ; Geschichte der Luth. Kirche in Amerika (A. L. Grabner); Gesch ichte der Luth. Kirche in Amerdka (based on Dr. Jacobs's work, G. J. Fritschel). In recent years several synods have had their histories prepared and published ; thus the Missouri Synod by C. W. Hochstetter ; the N. Y. Min., by J. Nicum ; the Ohio Synod, by C. Spielmann ; and the Iowa Synod, by J. Deindorfer. In the domain of Exegesis no original work has appeared in the German language. In connec tion with the discussion on predestination and election comments on many passages were pub lished in Lehre und Wehre on the side of Mis souri, and in Alies und Neues, by F. A. Schmidt and others against an election to faith. — Sys tematic Theology. M. Giinther's Populdre Sym bolik has appeared in a new edition. C. F. W. Walther's Kirche und Ami may also be classed as belonging to this department. Practical Theology. — A number of most excellent vol umes of sermons have appeared. A. E. Frey published sermons on the gospel, in memory of the 25th anniversary of his pastorate. G. Frits chel, Passionbetrachtungen ; W. J. Mann, Heils- botschaft ; W. Sihler, Sermons on the Gospels ; A. Spaeth, Saatkoerner and Brosamen ; C. F. W. Walther, Evangelienpostille, Epistelpos- tille, and Brosamen. Considerable work has been done in the preparation of genuine Luth. hymn-books, liturgies, and agenda. J. C. W. Lindemann has published a Katechetik. C. F. W. Walther in 1872 published Americanisch- Lutherische Pastoral Theologie. There is also a very large number of less voluminous and popular publications on a great variety of sub jects. J. N. German Universities. See Universities. Germann, William, Supt. and Kirchenrat at Wasungen, Thuringia, co-editor -with Drs. Mann and B. M. Schmucker of the annotated Germanto-wn 198 Germany edition of the Halle reports. Dr. G. has not only published several works on the early Luth. missionaries in India and one on the reformer Foerster, he has also done a great service to the Luth. Church in America by having all the im portant documents in the archives of the Or phanage at Halle, which pertain to the history of the Luth. Church in this country, copied. These copies are preserved in the Theol. Semy. at Mt. Airy. J. N. Germantown, Luth. Church in. German- town was laid out in 1685. While the first setUers were German Quakers, Menonites, etc., Lutherans were there early in the next century. Gerhard Henkel preached there be fore 1726. The first church was consecrated in 1737, the Swedish pastor Dylander serv ing the congregation. Zinzendorf frequently preached there in 1742. Brunnholtz was the first regular pastor. Other regular pastors were Handschuh, Heintzelmann (assistant), J. N. Kurtz, Voigt, Van Buskerk, J. F. Schmidt, Weinland, F. D. Schaeffer, J. C. Baker, under whom another church was built in 1819, B. Keller, J. W. Richards, S. S. Schmucker, C. W. Schaeffer, F. A. Koehler, J. P. Deck, P. H. Klingler, and S. A. Ziegenfuss, under whom the third church was built in 1897. Germany, Luth. Church in. About the middle of the sixteenth century the Luth. Reformation had conquered the greater part of Germany. Even in the Austrian crown lands of the Hapsburg dynasty, it had taken firm root, in spite of the fact that the central power of the Emperor was altogether devoted to the interests of the Roman Hierarchy, while the smaller territorial powers of princes and free cities were the chief supporters of the Luth. Reforma tion. But soon a reaction set in, and the gro-wth of Lutheranism was seriously interfered -with from two sides. In the East and South, in Bohemia, Austria, and Bavaria, Jesuitism, through the power of the Hapsburg dynasty, crushed the Church of the Augsburg Confession. On the other hand, the Reformed faith gained the ascendency vrith some prominent Protestant princes and began to exercise an influence more and more antagonistic to true, consistent Lu theranism. In 1613 Johann Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, formally accepted the Re formed faith, a step of far-reaching conse quences for the Luth. Church in Germany. For the house of HohenzoUern aspired to the na tional and political leadership in Germany, which, after two hundred years of struggle and conflict, was finally obtained by William, the first Protestant Emperor of Germany, in 1871. It was natural that the same dynasty considered itself called to assume the protectorate and leadership also of German Protestantism, and to take the place which Saxony had formerly held in the Corpus Evangelicorum, the Protes tant States of Germany. Thus it happened that the leading power in Protestant Germany was no longer Lutheran, as in the days of the Refor mation, but Reformed. And whilst it never dared to ignore or to set aside the seventh arti cle of the peace of Westphalia, which secured to the Church of the Augsburg Confession its right of existence, it had no sympathy with, and no appreciation for, the Luth. Confession and for those who felt themselves in conscience bound to adhere faithfuUy to it. The treatment which Paul Gerhardt received from the Great Elector is characteristic in this respect. Ever since the beginning of the eighteenth century the princes of the house of HohenzoUern made persistent attempts to abolish the distinction between the Reformed and the Luth. churches, and to unite them in one evangelical body. King Frederick WiUiam the First, the father of Frederick the Great, abrogated many character istic features of the old Luth. service. In 1808 the Evangelical Luth. Consistory for Prussia was abolished. At the opening of the newly founded University of Berlin, October 31, 1816, the theological faculty had to promise to tieat their science " according to the teachings of the Evangelical Church. " On September 27, 1817, the famous edict of King Frederick William the Third, of Prussia, decreed the union of the Reformed and Luth. Churches in Prassia, into one Evangelical Church, and this union was first consummated and demonstrated in the Court- and-Garrison Church at Potsdam, with the cele bration of the Lord's Supper, in honor of the three hundredth anniversary of the Reforma tion. The example set by Prussia was soon followed by Baden, Nassau, Waldeck, and Rhen ish Bavaria, while in Wuertemberg, Franconia, Saxony, Hanover, Mecklenburg, and Schles-wig- Holstein the confessional status of the Luth. Church remained, for the present, intact. As the King of Prussia, in 1830, insisted on the introduction of his unlutheran Agenda (see Agenda Controversy), the faithful Lutherans of Breslau and other parts of Silesia, under Scheibel, Huschke, and Steffens, protested, and asked for permission to celebrate the Lord's Supper, as hitherto, in accordance -with the Luth. Confession. The Prussian government answered those Protestants with -riolent acts of coercion, imprisonment, and banishment. Many thousand faithful Lutherans emigrated to America. Under the reign of Frederick Wil liam the Fourth, the Lutherans met with a more just and considerate treatment on the part of the State. In 1842 the Synod of Lutherans iu Prassia was founded as a Free Church, based on the unreserved acceptance of the Luth. Confes sion. In 1845 the government officially granted them the right of existence as an independent ecclesiastical body. Looking back over more than thirty years of government efforts in behalf of the "Union," Hengstenberg's Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, which had at first been favor able to the union, said, in 1859, "What has been accomplished? 20,000 to 30,000 Prassians have been driven across the Atlantic, 40,000 to 50,000 into independent Luth. organizations, and within the Church nothing but conflict and troubled conscience wherever the word ' Union ' is pro nounced." The prophetic warning of Claus Harms, in 1817, had been fulfilled. The at tempt to " force a marriage " between the Luth. and Reformed Churches had led to a powerful re-rival of Lutheranism all over Germany. In Bavaria there were men like Caspari, Buchracker, Harless, Loehe, v. Zezsch-witz ; in Wuertem- Gerock 199 Gezelius berg, where the stiong pietistic elements and the close connection with the Basel Mission In stitute are unfavorable to strict Lutheranism, Eberle, Voelter, Burk, and Kuebel ; in Alsace, Horning and Haerter ; in Hanover, Petri, Lud wig Harms, Buettner ; in Kiel, Koopmann and Ruperti ; in Mecklenlsurg, Kliefoth, Philippi, Dieckhoff, v. Maltzan ; in Saxony, Lindner, who influenced the leaders of tire Missouri Synod, Rudelbach, Graul, Delitzsch, Luthardt, all working in the spirit of confessional Lutheran ism, though here and there dirided on minor points. In 1866, when Hanover, Electoral Hessia, and Schleswig-Holstein were incorpo rated into Prussia, the danger seemed greater than ever that Lutheranism in Germany would gradually be swallowed up into one national Ger man Church of a decidedly unionistic character. And the formation of the German Empire, five years later, under the King of Prussia, could not but aggravate the ecclesiastical situation for the Lutherans. The General Luth. Conference was organized to represent and protect the Lutheran interests all over Germany. It met for the first time in Leipzig, in 1868, and since then, from time to time, as the circumstances seemed to call for a convention. Though the statistical numbers of what used to be, stiictly speaking, the Luth. Church in Germany, havebeen greatiy reduced by the establishment of the " Union," and though the Luth. Church, in the true con fessional sense of the word, seems more than ever removed from the hope of becoming the national church of Germany, it is nevertheless true that of aU the different confessions none has such a claim to that titie as the Luth. Church. The spirit of positive, churchly Chris tianity in Germany, even in the churches of the Union, is at the present day pre-eminently Lutheran. (See for details, articles on separate states and provinces ; also Rocholl, Gesch. der. Ev. Kirche in Deutschland). A.S. Gerock, J. Sigfr,, pastor in Lancaster, Pa., New York, and Baltimore, Md. A Wuertem- berger. Arrived in this country in 1753, d. in 1787. Member of the Pa. Ministerium (1760-77). Gerok, Karl, reno-wned pulpit orator and Christian poet, b. at Vaihingen, Wuertemberg, 1815, studied at Tiibingen ; deacon atBobUngen (1844); from 1849 at Stuttgart, deacon, dean, chief court chaplain, chief member of consis tory and prelate ; d. Jan. 14, 1890. Published sermons: " Evangelien Predigten," 10 eds.; ' ' Epistel Predigten " ; " Pilgerbrod ' ' ( gos pels) ; " Aus ErnsterZeit " ; " Hirtenstimmen " (episties); "Brosamen" (gospels); "Himme- lan" (gospels); "Der Heimath zu " (posthu mous), etc. Lectures on Psalms, 3 vols.; on Acts. Poetical works : " Palmblatter " (100 eds.) "Pfingstiosen," and many others. H. W. H. Gesenius, Justus, b. 1601, at Esbeck, Han over, studied at Helmstedt and Jena, pastor in Bransvrick (1629), court chaplain and cathedral preacher in HUdesheim (1636), general superin tendent in Hanover (1642), d . in 1673. Gesenius was an accomplished theologian, a great cate chist and preacher, and a prominent Luth. hymnologist. Together vrith D. Denicke he edited the Hanover hymn-books of 1646-1660, recasting many of the older hymns in accord ance with the linguistic and poetical canons of Martin Opitz. His revisions were soon widely accepted. It is difficult to ascertain in detail his own work in the composition and revision of hymns, inasmuch as those Hanover hymn- books give no authors' names. The foUo-wing hymns, however, unquestionably belong to him: "O Tod, wo ist dein Stachel nun?" (Easter), and " Wenn meine Suend mich kraenken " (Passion), transl. by Miss Wink worth, Lyra Germ. (1855), "When sonow and remorse." A. S. Gesius (Gese, Goess) Bartholomaeus, b. about 1560, near Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, d. there about 1614 ; a prominent church musician who published a Cantionale in three parts (1601-1605), containing the most common choral tunes in settings for four and five voices, also the " Pas sion " after the Gospel of John (1588) and the " Passion " after Matthew (1613). A. S. Gettysburg, Tendency of. The trend of Gettysburg has been somewhat de-rious, though on the whole directed toward an increasing ap prehension of Luth. doctrine. The seminary, at its founding, took the initial step in the re- acknowledgment of the Augs. Conf., which had for at least a generation fallen into desuetude, and its first constitution required adherence to both the Catechisms as well as to the Augus tana. One professor departed, indeed, from this position, but the alumni of the institution did not follow him, and his chief antagonist was chosen to succeed him, while his associate sounded the bugle for the Church to renew her connection with the past. Another associate made at his inauguration the promise to teach the full faith embraced in the Symbolical Books, a promise which was re ligiously kept. None of the successors of these men stand charged with de-riations from the Confession, and the alumni, throughout the en tire history of the institution, including such men as C. W. Schaeffer, the younger Krauth, the younger Schmucker, -with hundreds now living and laboring iu the three general bodies of English Lutherans, bear testimony that they received at Gettysburg their start in the path of confessional Lutheranism. Those charged in these days with the examination of candidates for the ministry are often heard commending the soundness of doctrine which they find to char acterize the Gettysburg students. E. J. W. Gezelius, Johan, Sr., b. in Vestmanland, Sweden ( 1615) ; professor in the University of Dorpt (1641) ; D. D. (1661) ; bishop of Abo, Fin land (1664) ; d. 1690. He labored zealously for promoting reUgious and intellectual interests, rendered valuable services to common and higher education, was a diligent -writer, had his own printing press, published the Greek New Testament ; -wrote text-books, manual of peda gogy, dictionary, encyclopaedia, etc. Most im portant, however, was his great exegetical Bible work, commenced in 1670, and after his death finished by his son and successor Bishop Johan Gezelius, Jr. (d. 1718), a man of great learning and piety. N. F. Gigas 200 Good Works Gigas (Heune), Johann, b. 1541, at Nord hausen, d. 1581, at Schweidnitz, Silesia ; a pupU and friend of Justus Jonas, successor of Matthe- sius in Joachimsthal, wrote a few hymns still found in German Luth. collections. A. S. Glassius, Solomon, b. at Sondershausen in the principality of Schwartzburg-Sondershau- sen (1593), received his gymnasial training at Gotha, and entered the University of Jena in 1612, where he devoted three years to the study of philosophy. In 1615 he studied theology under Balduin, Hutter, and Meissner. Return ing to Jena, he enjoyed the instraction of the treat dogmatician, John Gerhard, for a period of ve years. Gerhard influenced him strongly and thought very highly of him. For a time Glassius labored at Sondershausen as superin tendent. In accordance -with the last wish of Gerhard, Glassius succeeded him as prof, at Jena, but only for a brief time. In 1640 Duke Ernest the Pious called him to Gotha and as signed him the influential position of general superintendent for the improvement of the churches and schools of the duchy. As a scholar his preference was for the study of philology,, which gave him the eminent reputation still held by him as a biblical critic. His great work of enduring value is the Philologia Sacra. As a man he was mild in disposition, meditating between the school of Calixt and the theologians of electoral Saxony in the syncretisic contio versy. D. in 1656. G. F. S. Godman. See Christology. Goering, Jacob, b. in York County, Pa., June 17, 1755 ; studied theology under Dr. Helmuth at Lancaster ; served congregations in and near Carlisle and York, sometimes in con junction with his father-in-law. Rev. John Nich olas Kurtz. He was a dignified and scholarly man, an able preacher, and published three small controversial works against Anabaptists and Methodists. D. Nov. 27, 1807. C. E. H. Goettingen Univ. See Hanover, Luth. Church in ; Universities. Goetvrasser, John Ernest, was the first pas tor of the Dutch Ev. Luth. Trinity Church in the city of New York. The Luth. churches at New Amsterdam and Albany, as early as 1649, had sent urgent requests for a pastor to the Luth. consistory at Amsterdam, Holland. But the principal obstacle in the way of sending them a pastor was the well-known opposition of the West India Trading Co. to granting liberty of worship to any religious body whose confes sion differed from the articles of Dort. When, in 1656, another request was received from the New Netherlands, the Luth. consistory at Amsterdam confened with the directors of the West India Trading Co., who assured them that the Luther ans should enjoy religious liberty in the New Netherlands, and when, in AprU, 1657, a person had been found who was willing to serve as min ister in the New Netherlands, the Luth. consis tory again sought an understanding with the West India Go. , who once more most solemnly as sured them that the Lutherans should enjoy full religious liberty. The day after receiring this renewed assurance (April 3, 1657), Goetwasser (Gutwasser) is called. He accepts and pro ceeds to his destination. The Dutch Reformed minister in New Amsterdam {Megapolensis) is furious because of the arrival of a Luth. min ister. Conducting public services is prohibited by a fine of 100 pounds ; and the immediate retum of G. is demanded. Oct. 31, the con sistory at Amsterdam received a letter from G., describing the condition of affairs. In May, 1658, a commissioner sent by the Lutherans of the New Netherlands appears, and he and the consistory urge upon the West India Co. that religious liberty be granted to the Lutherans ia the New World as originally promised. Mean while G. remained, as pastor. After Nov. 11, when he is required to stay in his lodgings, G.'s name disappears from the records here as weU as in Amsterdam. J. N. Goschel, Karl Friedrich, b. Oct. 7, 1794, im Langensalza, noted Luth. jurist, consist, presi dent in the pro-rince of Saxony, d. Sept. 22, 1861. He felt constiained to espouse Luth. confessionalism after being brought to the ex amination of the Luth. separatists. He wrote : Der Mensch nach Leib, Seel u. Geist ; Zur Lehre von den letzten Dingen, and Die Konk. form, nach Gesch., Lehre u. Bedeut. Good Friday, See Church Year. Good Works, This subject, and the ques tions connected -with it, were very intimately re lated to the central theme of the Reformation, justification by faith, and to the indulgence con tioversy which occasioned the presentation of the 95 Theses. The Church of Rome taught that men are saved on account of their gpod works, eternal life being a recompense rendered for the merits and good deeds of the regenerate (Chem. Examen, 213 : 2. ) Also, that a man cannot only satisfy the requirements of the divine law fully, completely, and in rich measure, but can lay up treasures of superfluous good works, which by indulgences can be applied to the needs of his less holy brother. Luther and his followers rejected such false teaching. They insisted on the trath , which they substantiated amply by the Scriptures, and by quotations from the Fathers, that we are justi fied by faith alone, without the works of the law. They also called attention to the utterly false conception of good works which held that the requirements of the Church have precisely the same authority, and must be obeyed under the same penalties, as the commandments of God, — a conception which, added to the prac tical exaltation by the Romanists of monasti- cism, pilgrimages, and the like, over the keeping of the ten commandments, rendered their eth ical system almost grotesque. The third important conection of the teaching of the adversarries was made by the Lutherans in emphasizing the importance and value of good works in their proper place. Calumni- ously charged vrith prohibiting good works, they easily find sufficient answer, as when Me lanchthon, in the Apology (Art. III.) says: " Our teachers not only require good works [he has already given an explanation of what con stitutes a traly good work] , but also show how they can be performed." There could be no Gospel 201 Gospel more faithful teachers of the duty of good works than the leaders of our Church have been. The confessions bear abundant testimony to this fact. The contioversy is as to the place of good -works in the plan of salvation, as to their rela tion to our salvation. To assert that our works have merit, and serve to procure our pardon, is to lessen the value of Chnst's salvation, to make of his sacrifice a useless, even a foolish, thing. It is also to show an entire misunderstanding of God's thought of the unpardonableness of sin ; to exalt the Commandments of the Second Table (which can be outwardly kept vrithout inner fear, love and trust in God) above those of the First Table ; to make salvation depend on an impossibUity, for no good work can be done without a divine life within, and, even where there is the new life and its fruit, there is no merit, for we simply do, at best, our duty. The truth is that good works are the natural and necessary fraits of a living faith. We do good works not in order to be saved, but because we are saved. The controversies that have turned upon this question, vrithin the Lutheran Church, the Majoristic, and in some measures the Philippist, Antinomian, and Osiandrian, are simply evi dences of the fact that all sorts of enor inevi tably follow upon the lack of a thoroughly clear imderstanding of the cential doctrine, justifica tion by faith. The old enor of Rome is the enor of Rome to-day. In aUiance with her, on this point, is the universal carnal heart, manifesting itself especially in every rationalistic system of so- called religion. In the churches around us also, the old deception has gained ground under the cloak of new words, "salvation is character," and the like. A thorough study of the confes sions and of the Word of God equips us for the unceasing conflict. C. A. M. Gospel, according to et3rmology God's spell, i. e. " the story concerning God " {Skeat). The Greek euaggelion means "good news.'' It appears in the LXX. to designate tidings of deliverance (2 Sam. 18 : 27 ; 2 Kings 7:9; Is. 40 : 9 ; 52 : 7 ; 61 : I ; Neh. i : 15). While it is used in the N. T. sometimes for the entire rec ord of the life of Christ (Marki : l), embrac ing all of the teaching of Christ (Acts 20 : 21), its peculiar sense is the proclamation of forgiveness of sins and sonship with God through Christ. Upon the conect definition of "gospel" the true conception of justification and its relation to sanetification depends. The early Christian ¦writers fail to note clearly the antithesis be tween law and gospel. Even Augustine finds it mainly in the degree of clearness of the rev elation, and states that "in the preaching of the gospel there is taught us what we ought to love, to despise, to do, to avoid, and to hope" (Mign^ edition, V. 1357). Luther, by his constant study of Paul, straggled through similar conceptions, in which his first writings abound, to a clear and sharp distinction of the two kinds of doctrine. "This article concem ing the distinction between law and gospel must be known, since it contains the sum of all Christian doctrine " {Opera Latina, Erlangen, 24 : 174). " By the law, nothing else is meant than God's Word and command, directing what to do and what to leave undone, and requiring of us obedience or works. But the gospel is such doctrine or Word of God that neither re quires our works, nor commands us to do any thing, but announces the offered grace of the forgiveness of sins and eternal salvation. Here we do nothing, but only receive what is offered through the Word. " " The gospel asks us only to hold the sack open and receive ; the law, however, gives nothing, but only takes and de mands of us." "The law requires perfect righteousness of every one ; the gospel, out of grace, presents the righteousness required by the law to those who do not have it" {Sermon on Distinction between Law and Gospel, Er langen ed. 19 : 234, sqq. ) . No better brief defi nition can be given than that of Melanchthon in the Apology : "The gospel is the gratuitous promise of the remission of sins for Christ's sake" (p. 115). "Everything that comforts, that offers the favor and grace of God to trans gressors of the law, is, and is properly, said to be the gospel, a good and joyful message that God does not will to punish sins, but, for Christ's sake, to forgive them " {Formula of Concord, p. 593). The necessity for a confessional state ment of the doctrine arose when John Agricola taught that the gospel not only offered the grace of God, but preached repentance by re proving the greatest sin, viz. that of unbelief, particularly by proclaiming the sufferings of Christ. The Fo-rmula pf Concord shows that so far as the preaching of the suffering and death of Christ declares God's wrath, "itis not prop erly the preaching of the gospel, but the preaching of Moses and the law, and, there fore, a ' strange work ' of Christ, whereby he attains his proper office, i. e. to preach grace, console, and quicken, which is properly the preaching of the gospel " (508). If the reprov ing sin be regarded a part of the preaching of the gospel, the gospel is converted into a species of law ; and the plan of salvation peculiar to the gospel is either obscured or en tirely denied. Chemnitz has well analyzed the various factors involved in the conception of the gos pel. " I. It is preached to penitents, and con tains the gratuitous promise of reconciliation, remission of sins, righteousness before God, and acceptance to life eternal, based upon the grace, mercy, and love of God. 2. In the defi nition of gospel, the Person of Christ in his mediatorial office must always be included. The benefits of Christ, on account of which we receive forgiveness of sins, and are received into life eternal, must be distinguished from those of sanetification, or renewal, which follow justification. But the benefits of reconciliation are (i) That Christ tiansfers to himself our sins and their penalties, and makes satisfaction for them to his Father. (2) That he is the fulfill ing of the law to every one that believeth (Rom. 10 : 4). ... (3) That these benefits of the Me diator are apprehended by faith and applied to those who believe in Christ. (4) That these benefits are offered through the Word and sacraments, through which organs the Holy Spirit is efficacious. ... (5) After the benefit Gospel 202 Gossner of grace or justification, the gospel contains also the promise of the gift through grace (Rom. 5 : 15), or of the tmth ( John 1 : 17), viz. that the spirit of renewal is shed into believers, who write the law upon their hearts. ... (6) The gospel proclaims not only present blessings received, in this life, by faith, for Christ's sake; but also the promise of the hope of righteous ness, which we expect (Gal. 5 : 15), where God wiU be aU in aU (i Cor. 15 : 28). . . . (7) The promise of the gospel is universal, pertaining lo all. Gentiles as well as Jews, who repent and receive by faith the promise. ' ' The gospel differs from the law, in being known entirely from revelation ; in proclaiming forgiveness of sins ; in being the law of faith, instead of works ; in offering Christ, instead of exacting works ; in having gratuitous prom ises ; in bringing life and nghteousness in stead of death and condemnation ; in showing the only way in which good work required by the law can be rendered ; in being preached to the contrite. The gospel is proclaimed in its fulness and greatest clearness in the N. T. ; but it is also found, although obscurely, in the O. T., begin ing -with the prophecy concerning ' ' the seed of the woman" in Gen. 3:15, and the seed of Abraham, in whom all nations would be blessed (Gen. 12:3; 15 : 6, etc. ; see Acts 10 : 43, and the argument of Rom. 4). Notvrithstanding this distinction between law and gospel, both must be preached, each in its own place. Luther illustrates the relation by the Person of Christ, where we must con stantly distinguish the humanity from the dirin ity, and yet both belong together, each retaining its own place. (On Gal. 3) : " The law without the gospel either makes men hypocrites or drives them to despair ; the gospel without the law nourishes carnal security. ' ' The gospel is not only a message of salvation, but an instrument through which the Holy Spirit works (Rom. I ; 16). See Augsburg Con fession, Art. V ; Small Catechism ("The Holy Ghost hath called me by the gospel ") ; Large Catechism ("Faith is offered and granted to our hearts by the Holy Ghost, through the preach ing of the gospel," p. 444). The effect of the gospel is faith, as the effect of the law is con trition. The Roman Catholic Church has failed to make this distinction. Under the New Testa ment, it regards the requirements of the law mitigated, and brought within the possibility of man's fulfilment. This makes of Christ simply a reriser of the code of Moses. Beyond this even works of supererogation may be rendered, in compliance -with " the evangelical counsels." ' ' God commands not impossibilities, ' ' in the statement of the Decrees of Trent, Session VI. , Chapter XI. "If any saith that Christ Jesus was given of God to men, as a redeemer in whom to trust, and not also as a legislator whom to obey, let him be anathema" (Canon XXL). A recent writer (Loofs, Dogmengeschichte, p. 385) has shown how, in Zwingli also, the distinc tion between law and gospel has entirely dis appeared. There is a distinction drawn in the second of his LXII. Articles of 1523, but itis no advance upon the mediaeval doctrine, except in the elimination from it of human traditions. See also Frank's Die Theologie der Concor dienformel, II. 312. Calvin in his Institutes (Book II. , Chap. IX.) draws the distinction, but accompanies it with so many qualifications, that the powerful contrasts drawn by Luther fade away. He prefers to regard "law " as synony mous vrith O. T., and gospel with N. T., and then, including in the law the germs of the gospel found in the O. T., concludes that the chief difference is only one of clearer rev elation. The Later Helvetic Confession, how ever (1566), Chap. XIIL, makes a full presen tation of the contrast. The Consensus Gen- eviensis, the Decrees of Dort, and the Westmin ster Confession incidentally teach the distinc tion ; but it does not have the prominent place in the Reformed, that it has in Luth. theology. Writers and preachers of to-day who declare that the Sermon on the Mount contains the essentials of Christianity, overlook the fact that Christ began his preaching by a statement of the spiritual meaning of the law, and freeing it from rabbinical additions. This is the office of the Sermon on the Mount. There is no gos pel as yet there. That was to come in the later words and works of our Lord. H. E. J. Gossner, John Evangelist, a Scriptural re vivalist by word and pen, b. at Hausen, near Augsburg, Dec. 14, 1773, d. in Berlin, March 20, 1858. G. studied for the R. C. priesthood at Dil- lingen and Ingolstadt, was ordained priest (1796), got under the reformatory influence of Martin Boos, a R. C. preacher of justification by faith, became (1801) assistant of another evangelical priest, Fenneberg, was persecuted by the Jesuits, was parish priest (1804-n), received much light through the Luth. pastor Schoener at Nurem berg, preached in Munich (1811-19), and wrote many books and tracts. Banished from Bavaria, G. became pastor and professor at Duesseldorf on the Rhine. Called by Alexander II. to St. Petersburg in 1820, he, stUl a R. C. priest, preached the gospel vrith boldness. He had to leave Russia in 1824 and went to Leipzig, where he wrote sorne of his best books, e. g. his Schatzkaestlein. G. became a communicant member of the Evangelical Church of Prassia at Koenigshayn, SUesia, in July, 1826. He went to Berlin and passed a severe examination of the ministry. He first became assistant pas tor of the Louisenstadt Church of immense membership, and in February, 1829, pastor of Bethlehem Union Church, as successor of Father Jaenicke. G. was appointed ' ' Luth. preacher, ' ' his colleague being the " Reformed preacher." Here he worked untU 1846 as a true disciple of Christ in labors abundant in the congregation, in home and foreign missions, writing thou sands of letters as the spiritual adviser of noble lords and ladies, including royal princesses. He spent 1847-58 in retirement from the pul pit, but in works of mercy, the fraits of which are stUl seen in the girls' home in the " Goss ner House," the homes for little children, the great Elizabeth Hospital, the Gossner Mission Society, through which a great work is done among the Kol tribes in Bengal. His books are Gotha Btindniss 203 Grace stUl read extensively. J. E. Gossner was a true priest of souls. W. W. Gotha Biindniss (covenant) was the agree ment of Feb., 1526, concluding the Torgau agree ment between John the Constant of Saxony and Philip the Magnanimous of Hesse, to defend evangelical faith and worship and to be mutual allies. In was in opposition to the Catholic Regensburg Biindniss. Gotter, Ludwig Andreas, b. 1661, at Gotha, d. there in 1735, court preacher, supt., and counsellor, one of the best hymn-writers of the pietistic period. Of his hymns 23 are found in the Freylinghausen hymn-books of 1704 and 1714. Seven were tianslated into English, among them ' ' Womit soU ich Dich wohl loben ' ' (Lord of Hosts, how shall I render), in Dr. J. Guthrie's Sacred Lyrics (1869), and " Herr Jesu, Gnadensonne " (Lord Jesus, Sun of Graces), in supplement to Germ. Psalter, ed. 1765. A. S. Gotteskasten, the Lutheran, is an institu tion vrithin the Luth. Church of Germany for charitable work. Its purpose is to buUd the Luth. Church (cp. Gal. 6 : 10) in every way, espe cially by aiding its members in non-Lutheran countries or when surrounded by other denom inations. As far as its limited means go (about $20,000 annually) it assists weak congregations in non-Lutheran sunoundings (Prassia, Bohe mia, Hungary, America, etc.), aids students of theology, spreads Luth. literature, maintains Luth. ministers in the diaspora, etc. J. F. Gottskdlksson, Oddur, b. 1514, d. 1556, a jurist in Iceland, son of Gottskdlk " the cruel," bishop of H61ar, received his education in Norway, Denmark, and Germany, where he came into contact with the Luth. movement, be coming a Luth. himself, and on his retum to Ice land consecrating all his energies and learning to the propagation of Lutheranism. He tians lated the New Testament for the first time into Icelandic, and had the same printed in Roskilde, Denmark, in 1540. He also translated Corvin's postU and published it in Rostock (1546). F. J. B. Gotwald Trial. In Febmary, 1893, certain charges were prefened by Messrs. A. Gebhart and Joseph Gebhart and their pastor, Rev. E. E. Baker, all of Dayton, Ohio, against Rev. Luther A Gotwald, D. D., professor of practical theology in Wittenberg Theological Seminary, Spring field, Ohio. The charges involved the "type " of Lutheranism the accused was alleged to stand for. The case was fully heard by the board of directors of the institution in April, 1893. The charges were groundless, and unsupported by any sort of evidence, and Prof. Gotwald was ac quitted by a unanimous vote, even the counsel of the authors ofthe charges, the Rev. Dr. E. D. Smith, voting for his acquittal. D. H. B. Go-wn. See Vestments. Goze, Johann Melchior, b. in Halberstadt, 1717, second pastor at the Church of the Holy Spt., Magdeburg (1750), first pastor at St. Catherine, Hamburg (1755). senior ministerii (1760) until his death (1786). He was the advo cate of orthodox Lutheranism ag. the rational ists, but is particularly noted for his attack on Lessing, when the latter publ. the Wolfenbiittel fragments. For this he has been decried as nar row and ignorant, though he was an earnest, con sistent Christian of great learning (Rope, Les sing u. Goze im Fragmentstreit, Hamb. 1859). Grabau, John Aidrew Augustus, b. 1804, in Olvenstedt near Magdeburg, province of Saxony, Prussia, of poor but Christian parents, who spared no pains to bring up their chUdren in the fear and admonition of the Lord. At the age of thirteen he began the study of music and Latin, and a year later entered the gymna sium at Magdeburg, where he enjoyed a stipend. From 1825-1829 he studied theology at Halle and graduated with distinction. After teaching for four years he was ordained and became pas tor of the large church of St. Andrew at Erfurt. The official Agenda was given him to use in the services by the ecclesiastical authorities ; be coming con-rinced, however, thaf the doctrines and usages of the Luth. Church were not ex pressed clearly and purely in this book, but sub stituted by reformed expressions, he petitioned the consistory to permit the use of the old Luth. Agendas, the more so as his congregation was at unity with him in this matter. The petition not being granted, and G. remaining firm, he was suspended, imprisoned for over six months, and, foUo-wing a short release, was imprisoned again. After a time he was allowed to emigrate, as were also his congregation in Erfurt, another in Magdeburg, and others, because the king would ' ' not be wUling to tolerate any Protestant church outside of the united." In the fall of 1839, the emigrants arrived in America, the greater part of them going to Buffalo, N. Y., vrith their pastor, where for forty years he was at the head of his congregation, the synod and the college exercising a wholesome influence upon the Luth. Church, not only within but outside the bounds of the Buffalo Synod. D. 1879. G. was an indefatigable worker, very kind, gentle, and modest as a man, and of re fined personal habits ; as a theologian of in domitable will, having the courage of his con viction at all times ; strict towards his parishion ers, his students, and in synod, but stricter stUl towards himself. He published, besides many tracts, a hymnal for the use of the congrega tions, edited the official organ and the reports of synod. At the time of his death he was en gaged in compiling an Agenda, which has since been published. Vide Life of f. A. A. Gra bau, by J. A. Grabau. (See also Buffalo S-WJOD.) H. R. G. Grace, according to Scripture, is the opera tive principle of salvation, the manifestation of the divine favor, thought of in its activity in its relation towards the sinner as a transgressor of the law and guilty before God ( John 3:16). The grace of God excludes all human activity ; works and grace are directly opposed to each other (Rom. 11:6; Eph. 2 :8, 9). Grace is not de served, but presented gratis (Rom. 3 : 24) , for grace and merit are also diametrically opposed (Rom. 4 : 4). Through grace men are called (Gal. 1 : 15 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 9) and justified (Rom. 3 : 24), in it we stand (Rom. 5 : 2) and walk (2 Cor. i : 12), and upon it the Christian hope is based (2 Thess. 2 : 16) . Grace is of the Father (Rom. 1:7; 1 Cor. 1:3; etc.), as he is the source of redemp- Grace 204 Graul tion, — of the Son, as it is through his instrumen tality that grace exercises its rule (Rom. 5 : 21), and it is tiirough him that we obtain grace (Rom. I : 5) and our access to it (Rom. 5 : 2), — of the Spirit, because the Holy Spirit applies the gifts of grace and redemption to the heart of sinful man. It is God's gracious will that all men, -without a single exception, should be saved (John 3 : 16 ; 1 John 2:2; 1 Tim. 2:4; Tit. 2 : II ; Rom. 11 :32 ; 2 Pet. 3:9). The reason that so many perish lies in their own vricked ness and sin (2 Pet. 2 : 1-3). Our Luth. Dogmaticians in speaking of the grace of God in Christ Jesus distinguish be tween the universal will and the special will of God. The former, called also the antecedent -wiU, inasmuch as it antedates all question as to the manner in which man may treat the offered grace, depends alone upon God's com passion for the wretched condition of man, and has not been called forth by any merit or worthi ness in man (Gal. 3:22; Rom. 11:32), for in man there is no impelling cause whatever, and compassion for man only affords an occasion for the manifestation of God's grace. But this an tecedent will is not absolute and unconditional, as the Calvinists maintain. On the other hand, we maintain that it is : (1) relative, limited to justice, because it has respect to the satisfaction of Christ, by which divine justice was satisfied ; (2) ordinate, because God in his eternal coun sel established a series of means (the Word and sacraments) through which he confers saving faith upon all men ; and (3) conditioned, be cause God does not wUl that men should be saved -without regard to the fulfilment of cer tain conditions. When regard is had to the condition upon which man is to be saved, this gracious will of God is designated as the special or consequent will of God. The antecedent will relates to man in so far as he is wretched, the consequent as he is believing or unbelie-ring ; the former respects the giving of salvation on the part of God, the latter the recei-uing of sal vation on the part of man. The grace of God through the Word acts be fore conversion in a three-fold way : ( i ) by /rs- venient grace, implanting the first holy thought ; (2) by preparative grace, arousing the affec tions ; (3) by exciting grace, working in the heart. In the act of conversion, which is brought about by the Holy Spirit through the Word, we may distinguish between : (1) operating grace, which works {a) the knowledge of sin, and {b) compunction of heart, and (2) completing grace, which works faith in Christ ; after conversion we may speak of the grace of the Holy Spirit as : (i) co-operating grace, which preserves, assists, and strengthens the believer, and (2) indwelling grace, which dwells in the heart of the believer, changes him spiritually, and enables him to grow in grace and sanetification. As the acts of applying grace follow one an other in certain relations and connections, we may arrange the " order of the works of grace " (Acts 26 : 17, 18) somewhat as follows : (i) the calling (Gal. i :6-8); (2) the illumination (Gal. 2:16, 21; 3:22-24); (3) regeneration in its Strict sense (Gal. 3:2; 6 : 15) ; (4) conversion (Gal. 4:3, 9) , which consists of (5) repentance. and (6) faith ; (7) justification, which consists of {a) remission of sins (Gal. 3 :22), and {b) the imputation of Christ's righteousness (Gal. 2:21; 3 : 27) ; (8) the mystical union with God (Gal. 2 : 20 ; 3 : 27, 28) ; (9) adoption as sons of God (Gal. 3:26; 4:4-7); (10) sanetification, which consists of {a) renovation, or the putting off of the old man (Gal. 5 : 19-21), and (6) sane tification proper, the putting on of the new man (GaL 5: 16, 25). R. F. W. Grace Churches, is the name of six Luth. churches in Hirschberg, Landshut, Sagan, Freistadt, Pless, and Militsch, Austria, which were built after Chas. XII. of Sweden had secured from Austria at the Old-Ranstadt Con vention (1707) the re-opening of 121 Luth. churches, which had been closed in SUesia, and the free exercise of religion. Grace, Means of, in Luth. usage, indicates the special means or instruments which God has appointed and uses on his part to bestow upon us the blessings of the gospel and the gift of salvation. The expression is used in its most nanow sense, and is limited to the Word of God and the two sacraments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper. We differ therefore ( I ) from the Reformed churches in general, who would also include prayer as a means of grace, and (2) from the Roman Catholic and Greek churches, who teach that there are seven sacraments, adding to Baptism and the Lord's Supper, five others. Confirmation, Penance, Extreme Unction, Ordi nation, and Matrimony. (See Word of God ; Gospel ; Baptism ; Lord's Supper ; Prayer ; Sacraments.) R. F. W. Gramann (Poliander) Johann, b. 1487, in Neustadt, Bavaria, a friend of Luther, rector of the Thomas School, Leipzig, d. 1541, as pastor in Koenigsberg, author of the fine hymn " Nun lob mein Seel den Herren." A. S. GraUj Eudolf Friedr., b. April 20, 1835, in Hemngen-on-the-Werra, studied in Leipzig, Erlangen, Marburg, prof, at Koenigsberg until his death, Aug. 5, 1893, was a Luth. of modern type, known for his Entwickelungsgeschichte des N. T. Schrifttums (1871), Bibelwerk fiir die Gemeinde (1877), and Selbstbewusstsein Jesu (1887), which emphasizes that Christ was con scious that Jehovah had appeared iu him as the shepherd and physician of Israel. G. was also co-editor of the Beweis des Glaubens and author of the Bibl. Theol. of the N. T. in Zockler's Handbuch, etc. He was an original thinker, a brilliant writer, but in some features departed from Luth. confessional standards. Graul, Karl, b. Feb. 6, 1814, in Woriitz, Hessia, studied in Leipzig, called as director of the Luth. Missionary Society at Dresden (1844), whose institute was transferred to Leipzig (1847). He -was the soul of this Luth. mission, journey ing in India as director, organizing the work, inspiring the missionaries, and raising the Leip sic mission to a high educational standard and thorough Lutheranism. Retired to Erlangen (1861), d. Nov. 10, 1864. Deeply pious and thoroughly learned, he is known for his Unter- scheidungslehren der verschied. chrl. Bekent- nisse, the best popular Luth. symbolics. Graun 205 Gregorian Chant Graun, Karl Heinrich, prominent musician at the court of Frederick the Great, b. 1701, in Saxony, d. in Berlin, 1759, author of the famous cantata "Der Tod Jesu," which was a great favorite -with the Berlin population though far from being true church music. A. S. Greenland, The Lutheran Church in. Greenland was discovered by pagan Norsemen in the tenth century, and the natives were driven back to the interior and a colony was founded. About the year 1000 Christianity was intio ¬duced, and in the course of years sixteen churches and several monasteries were built and a diocese established. But in 1348 all Scandi navia was so terribly scourged with the black death that all communication between Green land and the mother country was cut off. After a struggle of fifty years, the colony was utterly destioyed by the natives. The next missionary labor was begun by Hans Egede (see article) , in 1721. In 1740 he was appointed titular bishop of Greenland. He was enabled to send a number of missionaries into the field, but the most successful of them was his own son, Paul H. Egede. He too was made Bishop of Green land. The stations established are : Good Hope (1721) ; Nepeseng (1724); Christian's Hope (1734) i Frederick's Hope (1742) ; Jacob's Haven (1749) ; Claus Haven (1752) ; Holsteinborg (1757) ; and Rittenbeck (1759) ; and down to the last date, the most active missionaries num bered 21. The good work was retarded. during the period of rationalism, but again revived. Greenland is now thoroughly Christianized, and there is a theological seminary at Good Hope under the care of the pious and zealous pastor, N. E. Balle, who is doing all in his power to raise up a native ministry. Three Esquimaux have already been ordained after the completion of their studies in Copenhagen. There are also catechists and deacons, who are authorized, in certain cases, to officiate at bap tisms and burials. There are churches at the several stations, and the mission is under the care of the Bishop of Sealand, Denmark, and numbers about 8,000 souls. E. B. Greenwald, Emanuel, D. D,, b. near Fred erick, Maryland, Jan. 13, 1811, was, like the prophet Samuel of old, dedicated by his pious parents to the holy office from his earliest in fancy. His theological studies were pursued under the private supervision of Rev. David F. Schaeffer, who similarly prepared no less than fourteen other young men, in his own parsonage, for the work of the ministry. Dr. Greenwald's first parish was New Phila delphia, Ohio, and all the adjoming country within a radius of fifteen miles in every direc tion. At one time he supplied fourteen preach ing points on Sundays and week-days. In 1842 he was elected as the first editor of the Lutheran Standard, and from 1848 to 1850 he was the president of the English District Synod of Ohio. The years 1851 to 1854 were spent in the city of Columbus, during which time he held many responsible positions on important boards, com mittees, etc. In September, 1854, he accepted a caU to the pastorate of Christ Church, Easton, Penn., which he faithfully served for twelve years. His fourth and last parish was Holy Trinity Church of Lancaster, Penn., in which he labored from May, 1867, up to his death in December, 1885. He began preaching every Thursday evening at a mission point in the northern part of the city, which soon developed into Grace Church, and afterwards started an other mission in the western section which was the nucleus of Christ Church. An assistant being necessary for the increasing field. Rev. Charles S. Albert served in this capacity, then Rev. David H. Geissinger, then Rev. John W. Rumple, then Rev. C. Elvin Haupt, then Rev. Ezra K. Reed, then Rev. Charles L. Fry. Long after his own generation wUl his memory continue to be revered as an ideal pastor and a man of pre-eminent saintliness. C. L. F. Gregorian Chant, or Plain Song, includes the whole body of sacred song of the Early and Mediaeval Church. The name " Gregorian " was first applied to it by William of Hirschau (ob. 1091), while much of the music long ante dates the time of Gregory. Its beginnings are variously ascribed to Jewish, Grecian, or early Christian sources, but it seems impossible to determine its exact origin. The melodies used by the earliest Christians were handed down by tradition simply, until Ambrose (ob. 397) col lected and arranged them, and probably gave permanent form to the four scales or Modes in which most of them were written. (The so- called Authentic Modes, — Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixo-Lydian.) Gregory the Great (590-604) again revised the greatly increased number of melodies, adding many of his own and establishing four related scales, each begin ning a fourth below but ending on the same final as its conesponding Authentic Mode. (The Plagal Modes, — Hypo-Dorian, Hypo- Phrygian, Hypo-Lydian, Hypo-Mixo-Lydian.) He arranged all the melodies to the then well developed Liturgy for the whole cycle of the Church Year in his " Antiphonarium, " indicat ing them possibly by letters of the alphabet or by "neumse" placed over the text itself. This Antiphonanum was fastened to the altar of St. Peter's in Rome and became the model for all other Office Books. During the succeed ing centuries other Modes and many new melo dies were added, and because of the imperfect notation numerous " local uses "crept in, ap pearing later in various private printed editions. The complete revision of the whole system of ritual song, begun by the Roman Church under Palestrina and Guidetti, has but recently found its completion in the "authentic editions" issued from the press of Pustet. Gregorian music includes the inflections for the Lections, Collects, Versicles, Prefaces, etc., and the beautiful Psalm Tones (Accentus) , as well as the whole body of original melodies of the Responsories, Antiphons, Introits, Graduals, and festival forms of the K5Tie, Gloria, Sanctus, Agnus, etc., and many Hymns (Concentus). Our Reformers universally retained the Grego rian music. Luther set the old melodies to the Liturgy in his Deutsche Messe of 1526 and used many others later. (See his Funeral Hymns, 1542, etc.) The great majority of the early Greitter 206 Grueneisen Luth. orders either print them -with the text or assume them as well known. The collections of Lossius (to which Melanchthon wrote a pref ace), Elerus, Ludecus, Spangenberg, Onolz bach, Hof, etc., were prepared especially for Luth. serrices and have preserved hundreds of the old melodies. (For early Luth. usage of Plain Song see Preface to The Psalter and Can ticles Pointed for Chanting to the Gregorian Psalm Tones, Archer, Reed.) Many factors combined to almost entirely supplant Gregorian music by modern polyphonic measured music. But within recent years ear nest study given to Liturgiology and the distinc tively churchly in all Sacred Art has resulted in a gro-wing appreciation of Gregorians and in their extended use, not only m the Roman Church, but in the Anglican and our own, par ticularly in Germany and America. Gregorian music differs from modem music, especially in being entirely unisonous, not composed in either our major or minor scales but in one of a dozen Modes, in each of which the position of the semitones varies, and in being rhythmically free, i. e. not measured. It takes the free rhythm of the prose text, and to be understood must be approached from this standpoint of musical declamation. Its grave simplicity, dignity, strength, and melodic beauty, together with its distinctive churchliness, especially qualify it to meet the requirements of liturgi cal song and psalmody. For easily accessible information in English, see Magister Choralis, by F. X. Haberl ; Plain-Song, by T. H. Helmore; and articles in Grove's Dictionary. L. D. R. Greitter, Matthaeus, a choir singer at the Cathedral in Strassburg, joined the Reformation movement in 1524, and in 1528 became diaconus at the Martin's Church in Strassburg, d. 1552. He was a prominent musician, composing and ananging tunes for the service of the Evangel ical Church. A. S. Griesbaoh, Joh. Jakob, b. Jan. 4, 1745, in Butzbach, Hessia, prof, at Halle and Jena, Geheimkirchenrat m Weimar, d. March 24, 1852, a theologian noted for his excellent criti cal work on the text of the N. T. In 1774 he first published the critical recension of the syn optic gospels. In 1796 the complete critical ed. of the N. T. began to appear, which G. did not live to complete. Considering the texts G. possessed he was in many respects the greatest textual critic of the N. T. Groenning, Rev. Chr, William, b. Nov. 22, 1813, at Fredericia, Denmark, d. Feb. 7, 1898, at Apenrade, Schleswig. He saUed as mission ary of North German Society, Dec. 12, 1845, to Calcutta, India ; reached Rajahmundry, July 22, 1846. In 1850 entered serrice of American Luth. Church, when his station was tiansfened to it ; labored also at Guntiir and in the Pal- naud ; ri.sited home 1858, returning i860. In 1865 accompanied his sick -wife to Europe ; became pastor at Hadersleben and Apenrade ; prepared Becher, Schmidt, and Poulsen as mis sionaries, and in 1876 visited America in the in terest of the mission. F. W. W. Groenning, Rev. William, son of the pre ceding, b. Sept. 29, 1852, at Guntur, India, d. July 9, 1889, at Rajahmundry. Brought to Europe (1858), studied at Kiel, Leipzig, and Erlangen. Became inspector of Breklum Mis sion 1879, ordained Aug. 23, 1885, at Bragge ; sailed Sept. 23, 1885, from Liverpool ; reached Rajahmundry, Dec. 6, 1885, and took charge of the Luth. Mission Schools, for which General Council's Foreign Mission Board had called him. F. W. W. (jronau, Israel Christian, b. in Germany, d. at Ebenezer, Ga., January ii, 1745. G. was a tutor in the Orphan House at HaUe, when, in 1733, he was selected to accompany Rev. J. M. Bolzius to Georgia as assistant pastor of the Salzburger Colony. D. M. G. Grossgebauer, Theophilus, b. Nov. 24, 1627, in Ilmenau, Saxe-Weimar, prof, and pastor at Rostock, where he died July 8, 1661, a man of great linguistic attainments and earnest piety, kno-wn particularly for his Wdchterstimme aus dem verwiisteten Zion, which deeply eamest call to repentance influenced Spener, but also contains depreciating remarks about confession and absolution, and recommends Calvinistic lay presbyterate. Grossmann, C. G. L., b. 1783, near Naum burg, d. 1857, as supt., professor, and pastor of St. Thomas at Leipzig. He won the respect and thanks of his Lutii. countrymen by his fearless defence of the rights of the Luth. Church in Saxony over against state and Romanism. He was a forceful preacher, a conscientious teacher, and a man of profound learning, from whose pen issued a. great many publications. Most widely known, perhaps, as founder of the Gustav- Adolf-Verein. J. F. Grossman, Geo. M., b. 1823, studied theol ogy at Neuendettelsau and Erlangen, came to America in 1852, and was one of the founders of the Synod of Iowa, whose president he was for 39 years, for some time also president of its theological seminary and college. He exer cised great influence in the shaping of the synod's doctrinal position, and impressed upon it the spirit of a strict confessional Lutheranism, of which he was a conspicuous representative. D. Aug. 24, 1897. J. F. Gruendler, John Ernst, b. 1677, at Weissen- see, Thuringia, studied at Leipzig and Witten berg, taught in Francke's Psedagogium at Halle (1702-08), arrived at Tranquebar, July 20, 1709, founded station at Poreiar, was Ziegenbalg's best co-worker and traest friend, also his suc cessor as senior, d. March 19, 1720, was buried in Jerasalem Church, Tranquebar. W. W. Grueneisen, Karl, D.D., b. 1802, in Stutt gart, Wuertemberg, studied theology in Tii bingen (1819), and in Berlin (1823), where he came into contact with Schleiermacher. In 1825 he was appointed court chaplain, and in 1835 court preacher in Stuttgart, and afterwards prelate. He published a volume of sermons in 1842. He was an eminent authority in matters of ecclesiastical art, editor of the Journal for Christian Art (Christliches Kunstblatt), and honorary member of the BerUn Academy of Fine Arts. Himself a poet of considerable talent, he took an active and prominent part in the hymnological reform movement of this cen- Grumbach 207 Guenther tury, first by a tieatise. On Hymn Book Reform (1838), then as a member of the commission which prepared the Wuertemberg hjTun-book of 1842, and as the chief promoter of the so- caUed Eisenach Entwurf a collection of 150 standard hymns, approved by the Eisenach Conference over which he presided. (See Hymnody.) A. S. Grumbach, Argula, b. 1492, daughter of Bernard of Stauffen, vrife of Fredr. of Gram- bach, Bavaria (1516), a deeply pious Luth. prin cess, who wrote an earnest letter to the Cath. Univ. of Ingolstadt, against Cath. errors and persecution. Persecuted and driven from her home, she died (1554) in firm faith. Grundtvig, Bishop Nicolai F. S., b. Sep tember 8, 1783, in Udby, a small -rillage in Sealand, Denmark, was the sixteenth min ister of his name and relationship. At the time of his birth, Bishop Balle visited his parents and remarked, that, as they had already three sons in the ministry, he supposed that they could not give another, to which the mother answered that this one should also study, if she had to sell her last garment. In 1800 he was admitted to the University of Copenhagen and was grad uated as candidate for the ministiy in 1803. He devoted much time and study to the ancient Scandinavian literature, and tianslated the old Sagas of Denmark and Norway into modern Danish. In 1810 he preached a sermon in which he condemned, in impassioned language, the prevaUing rationalism and its e-ril fraits, and earnestiy advocated the position of primitive Christianity as re-established in the Luth. Reformation. For this he was called to account by the Consistorium, and it was only through the strong influence of Bishop Balle that he was appointed assistant in his father's parish and or dained May 29, iSii. He served in that po sition until his father's death two years later, and being in disfavor he was without appoint ment until 1821, when he became pastor in Praestoe, and in the foUovring year chaplain in the Church of Our Saviour in Copenhagen. During the intervening years he led the life of a hermit and devoted his time to study and pub lished impressive sermons and poetical writings of a high order. In his new and influential po sition he resisted the common practice of indis criminate admission to the Lord's Supper, and the remarrying of divorced persons. At that time the learned, but rationalistic. Professor H. N. Clausen, of the University of Copenhagen, published his work on Catholicism and Protes tantism, which aroused Grundt-rig to put forth his Kirken's Gjenmaele, the Church's Reply. But while he was zealous for a higher and purer Christian lUe in the Church, it is deplorable that he adopted and vrith aU his power promulgated doctrines which are at variance -with the teach ings of the Bible and the testimony of the Church in its best estate. He stiangely de clared that the Aposties' Creed is the Word from the mouth of Jesus himself during the forty days of the temptation and that, as the U-ring Word, it is above the Bible, which was some times designated as the dead Word. For these opinions he claimed the authority of the Church Fathers, and especially Irenaeus. He also taughtthat in the future world there wUl be a possibility of conversion and salvation for those who have been unfavorably situated in this life -with reference to religious conditions. But he awakened in the Danish Church a deeper and more serious -riew of the sacraments. In connection -with Rudelbach and Lindberg he edited a theological review. He was prose cuted and fined for publishing his Gjenmaele, and was dismissed from office in 1825, and not restored until 1837, but meanwhile received royal support. He was thus enabled to visit England three times, and there, at Exeter, Oxford, and Cambridge, excited great interest in the study of the Anglo-Saxon manuscripts. There were English congregations in Copen hagen and Helsingoer, and he was on terms of intimacy with the pastors, and especially with the Rev. Wade of the latter place. An association of 160 members, including student Martensen, — later the distinguished bishop, — was formed in Copenhagen and memorialized the king for permission to organize a free congregation with Grundtvig and the German minister Simonsen as pastors. The request was not granted. Grundtvig preached in halls and other places to immense gatherings of people. In 1839 he was appointed pastor of Vartau, a small church, where multitudes gathered to hear him, and a large free congregation was buUt up. The king appointed him titular bishop. His per sonal labors and theological writings and hymns exercised a marked influence throughout Den mark and led to many controversies. In 1867 his health failed and he petitioned the king to be released, which was refused, and, instead, the bishop suspended him from office ; but on the restoration of health he was permitted to resume it. He d. September i, 1872, and one- fourth of the clergy of Denmark attended his funeral. He was thrice married, and his young est son came to this country and was ordained in Chicago by Pastor A. S. Nielsen. Two of Bishop Grundt-rig's brothers were missionaries in Africa. E. B. Grynaus, Simon, a Swabian theologian, b. Vehringen, 1493, studied at Vienna, where he began to lecture ; from 1524 to 1529 professor of Greek at Heidelberg, and then at Basle, where he lectured also on the Greek Testament ; one of the authors of the I. Helvetic Confession, a participant in the Conf erence at Worms (1540), d. of plague, 1541. Gryphius (Greif), Andreas, b.i6i6, in Gross Glogau, Silesia, d. there 1664, a prominent linguist, scholar, and poet, friend of Johann Heermann, translator of some of Richard Bax ter's treatises, one of the finest hymn--writers of the SUesian school. Some of his hymns have been tianslated into English. A. S. Guenther, Cyriacus, b. 1650, at Goldbach, near Gotha, d. there 1704, as teacher in the gymnasium ; a Luth. hymn -writer of the pietis tic period, but remarkably free from its charac teristic faults. Freylinghausen admitted 10 of his hymns into the hymn-book of 1 7 14, among them " Bringt her dem Henen Lob und Ehr " (With joyful hearts your praises bring), and " Halt im Gedaechtniss Jesum Christ " (O keep Giinther 208 Gustavus Yasa before thy thankful eyes), both translated by A. T. RusseU, 1851. A. S. Giinther, Franz, of Nordhausen, was made Baccalareus BibUcus, while Luther was dean of the Wittenberg Univ., Aug. 21, 1517. Luther wrote 99 theses for him ag. Aristotelian scholas ticism, defending Augustmian views of sin and grace. Guenther, Martin, b. Dec. 4, 1831, at Dres den, Saxony, emigrated vrith the Saxon emi grants in 1838, studied at Altenburg and St. Louis, was pastor at Cedarburg, Wis., 1853 to i860, at Saginaw, Mich., i860 to 1873, and pro fessor of theology in Concordia Seminary of St. Louis, 1873 'to liis death, June 22, 1893. He was the author of Populdre Symbolik, published in a third edition after his death, and a biog raphy by Dr. C. F. W. Walther. A. L. G. Guericke, Heinr. Ernst Ferdinand, b. Feb. 23, 1803, in Wettin-on-the-Saale, province of Saxony, studied in Halle, prof, at Halle (1829), left the Prussian Union because of the force used to introduce it (1834), served scattered Luther ans as pastor until forbidden (1838) ; in 1840, he was reinstated in office as prof, at HaUe under Fred. Wm. IV., without appro-ring the Prassian Union ; d. Feb. 4, 1878. A trae Lutheran, the founder -with Rudelbach of " Zeit schrift fiir gesammte Luth. Theol. u. Kirche," he is noted for his N. T. Isagogik (1867) ; Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte (9th ed. 1866) ; Allgem. Chrl. Symbolik (3d ed. 1861), which were standard for many years. Gunn, W., b. at CarUsle, Schoharie Co., N. Y., June 27, 1815. Pursued preparatory studies in an academy in his native county and graduated from Union College in 1840. Gradu ated from the Theological Seminary, Gettys burg, in 1842. Appointed to the foreign work May 25, 1843. Was ordained by the Hartvrick Synod at Johnstown, N. Y., Sept. 5, 1843. Sailed the following Nov. and arrived in India June 18, 1844. D. in Guntur, India, July 5, 1851. L. B. W. Guntur Mission. Located in the South Krishna district, and adjacent parts, India. Organized by Rev. C. F. Heyer, sent out by the Synod of Pennsylvania, in 1842. Transfened to the General Synod in 1846. Twenty male and ten female missionaries, not counting the vrives of missionaries, have served in this field. Five male missionaries died in the service and six male and three female missionaries retired. January i, 1898, there were seven male and five female missionaries in the field. A college build ing, costing about |35,ooo, was formally opened March 17, 1893, and June 16, 1897, a woman's hospital, costing over $20,000, was opened. At the close of 1897 there were 418 organized congregations, while the gospel was being preached in 494 towns and -rillages. Native gospel workers, 172. Communicants, 6,138. Baptized membership, 17, 164. Inquirers under instruction, 3,539. Sunday-schools, 208 ; teach ers, 355 ; and scholars, 10,103. The educational department is represented by 205 schools, 314 teachers,and6, 795 pupils. In this work is embraced the college and its branches, with 44 teachers and 936 students. L. B. W. Gustavus Adolphus, the hero of the Thirty Years' War, b. in Stockholm, Dec. 9, 1594, upon the death of his father, Charles IX., Oct. 30, 1611, ascended the throne of Sweden. He inherited a war with the Danes, the Russians, and the Poles. After two years he concluded a peace -with Denmark, and in 1517 he made a treaty with the Czar, by which he extended his eastern frontiers to Lake Ladoga. He next turned his arms against his cousin Sigismund of Poland, who claimed the Swedish throne. By the medi ation of France a trace for six years was finally concluded in 1629. Gusta-vus was now enabled to come forth as the champion of the crushed and bleeding Protestants of Germany. In June, 1630, he landed on the northern coast of Germany vrith a veteran army of soldiers, and quickly reduced Pomerania. He met and completely routed the hitherto -rictorious TUly in the battle of Breitenfeld, Sept. 7, 1631. The decisive battle of the war was fought at Liitzen, Nov. 6, 1632. The great hero was killed, but his army gained a complete victory over Wal- lenstein and the imperial forces, and Protestant ism and civU and religious liberty were saved. Though one of the greatest generals of the world he was also a great statesman and admin istrator. He reorganized the government of his kingdom, encouraged commerce and manu factures, founded schools and colleges, en dowed the University of Upsala, and planned the settlement of New Sweden on the banks of the Delaware. He was married to Maria Eleo- nora of Brandenburg, and had one daughter, Christina, who became his successor. C. W. F. Gustav-Adolf Society, is an association which seeks to help evang. Christians in Ro man Cath. countries by furnishing them -with churches and pastors. It consists of a number of societies in various German states, which have, as their main society, that at Leipzig, vrith an executive committee of 24. It was founded after an appeal of Dr. Grossmann of Leipzig, Nov. 6, 1832, the day of the battle of Liitzen, as a liring monument for Gust. Adolphus. The society is imionistic, its main bond being the negation of Romanism. Gusta-vus Vasa, king of Sweden, b. at Lind- holmen. May 12, 1496. His parents belonged to ancient noble families, and he received a careful and thorough education. At that time the three Scandinavian countries were under the same king. Christian II., of Denmark, and Sweden suffered all the ills of a subject kingdom ruled by foreign royal deputies. Gusta-vus became its liberator. The war of liberation began in the winter of 1521. Later in the same year Gustavus was chosen regent, and in 1523, at Stiangnas he was chosen king. Through the exertions and personal influence of Gusta-vus Lutheranism be came the religion of Sweden in 1527, at the diet of Westeras. In 1534 the king began a war against the Hanse tovms, which at that time con trolled the commerce of the north. The power of the League was broken and the commerce of Sweden began to flourish. Gusta-vus thus became the liberator of his country in a three fold sense — politically, religiously, and commer cially. D. Sept. 29, 1560. C. W. F. Haas 209 Halfdanarson H. Haas, Nicolas, b. 1665, in Wunsiedel, Bava- na, pastor at Blowitz (1691), and Bautzen (1702), Saxony, where he d. 1715. He was a volumin ous ascetic vmter, and is noted for his excellent pastoral guide Getreuer Seelenhirte (newed., St. Louis, 1870). Haberkorn, Peter, b. 1604, in Butzbach, Hessia, court preacher at Darmstadt (1633), supt. at Giessen (1643), and prof, until his death (1676), an orthodox Luth., whose polemics ag. Rome and the Reformed (Anti-Syncretismus) were eamest and powerful. Habermann, Johann (Avenarius), d. 1590, as superintendent in Zeitz, a famous Hebraist and distinguished preacher, best known as the author of a littie prayer book, which to this day is a great favorite of devout Christians. A.S. Handel, Georg Friedrich, one of the world's greatest composers, and, -with the ex ception of J. S. Bach, the greatest organist and harpsichordist of his time, b. at Halle, Lower Saxony, Feb. 23, 1684 ; began his musical studies in 1692 under Zachau, organist of the cathedral at Halle ; went to Berlin, 1698 ; to Hamburg, 1704 ; -risited Italy, 1706-9 ; retumed to Ger many and was chapel-master to the Elector of Hanover (afterwards George I., of England), 1709-12 ; settled in London as organist, 1712- 16; musician to King George I., 1716-18 ; chapel-master to the Duke of Chandos, 1718- 21 ; 1720-51, produced most of his operas and oratorios, and a large number of miscellaneous vocal and instrumental works ; became blind in 1759 ; d. in London, Good Friday, April 14, 1752. Handel's great fame is due chiefly to his oratorios (twenty-one in number, — "Esther," "Israel in Egypt," "Messiah," "Judas Maccabaeus," etc.), in which his genius found the grandest and most effective expres sion. I'he greatest of these and the one stiU most popular is the ' ' Messiah, ' ' -written in the incredibly short space of twenty-four days, and first produced at a charity concert at Dublin, April 18, 1742. " Grandeur and simplicity, the majestic scale on which his compositions are conceived, the clear definiteness of his ideas, and the directness of the means employed in cany ing them out, pathetic feeling expressed with a grave seriousness equally removed from the sen suous and the abstract. These are the distin guishing qualities of Handel's music." Ofthe large Handel literature see Chrysander, G. F. Handel, Leipzig, 1858-67, 3 vols. ; Rockstio, Life of Handel, London, 1883. J. F. O. Haerter, Franz Heinrich, b. 1797, in Stiass burg, d. 1873, Luth. pastor in Ittenheim and Strassburg, founder of the Deaconess House in Stiassburg. As far back as 1817 the idea had been suggested to him of gaining Christian women for the nursing of Protestant patients in the Stiassburg Hospital. Independent of Flied ner, H. was quietiy preparing the way for such work, and on the 31st of October, 1842, he was at last able to open the Deaconess House in Strassburg. See Dr. Th. Schaeffer, Ge schichte der weiblichen Diakonie, p. 113. A. S. 14 Hafenreffer, Matthias, theologian, b. at Lorch, Wuertemberg (1561) . Professor at Tiibin gen (1592) untU his death (1617). A stimulat ing teacher, with a magnetic influence upon young men. Among those who enjoyed his instructions and correspondence was the astron omer Kepler. He combined strictness of con fessional fidelity with an irenic disposition. His chief work was his system of doctrine, under the title, Loci Theologici (1600). Hagenau Conference is the meeting of June 12 — July 16, 1540, ananged by King Fer dinand between the Romish theologians Eck, Faber, Cochlteus, the papal nuncio Morone, and the evangeUcals Brenz, Osiander, Capito, Cra- ciger, Myconius. Though -without result it prepared for the Worms colloquium. Hagersto-wn, Md., formeriy "Elizabeth- town." St. John's is the mother church, whose corner-stone was laid, 1795 ; congregation or ganized about 1769. The pastors have been C. F. WUdbahn, J. G. Jung, J. G. Schmucker, Solomon Schaeffer, B. Kurtz, S. K. Hoshour, C. F. Schaeffer, Ezra Keller, F. W. Conrad, F. R. Anspach, Reuben Hill, E. Evans, T. T. Titus, and since 1869 S. W. Owen. Trinity Church was organized, 1869, of which Rev. E. H. Delk is now pastor ; and St. Mark's, in 1889, Rev. G. H. Bowers, pastor. There is also a German congregation. Total number of com municants at present, 1,400. S. W. O. Hagius, Peter, b. 1569, in Henneberg, rector of the cathedral school at Koenigsberg, wheres he d. Aug. 31, 1620, hymn-writer, composed "Uns ist ein Kind geboren," " Ich weiss, dass; mein Erloser lebt." Hahn, Philip Matth., b. Nov. 26, 1739, at: Schamhausen, Wuertemberg, pastor at Korn-. westheim and Echterdingen, where he d. May 2, 1790, a pietistic preacher, who instituted de votional Bible-hours, which were much opposed, but later gained great acceptance. H. taught the trinity in a subordinative sense, regarded Christ as raising his flesh to divinity, held that justification was given because God saw the new life, in its completion, »and denied the eternity of punishment. He was also a mechanical genius, thinking on the problem of moving a wagon by steam, and inventing cylinder- watches. Hahn, Dr. Hugo, Rhenish missionary in Southwest Africa, b. at Riga on the Baltic, Oct. 18, 1818, d. Nov. 24, 1895. H. began his work among the Herero in 1844, founded New Bar men and two other stations which were destroyed (1853) ; went with J. Rath to the Ovambo (1856), told the Finnish Miss. Soc. to occupy this field — which they did (1870), and retumed to the Herero in (1864) ; founded seminary " Augus- tineum" at Otjimbingue. Hahn was an ener getic and -wise worker. W. W. Halfdanarson, Helgi, b. 1826, in the north of Iceland, d. 1894, graduated in theology from the University of Copenhagen (1854), was ordained 1855, serving as pastor till 1868, be came professor of the theological seminary at Reykjavik in 1867, serving in that capacity for 18 years, teaching exegesis, ethics, church history, practical theology, and dogmatics. In Halifax 310 Halle 1885 he was appointed president of that institu tion and made lector theologice. He was presi dent of the committee, officially appointed in 1878 to prepare a new hymn-book, which was published in 1886, more than 200 hymns being from his own pen, 66 original and 145 trans lated. He is the author of the catechism now in use in the Icelandic Church, published 1877, an estimate of Luther (1883), History of the An cient Church ( 1883-96) , Christian Ethics accord ing to Luth. doctrine (1895), and a treatise on homiletics (1896). He was a man of pure and scriptural orthodoxy, and dedicated all his energies and learning to his church. In its present hymn-book Iceland possesses a treasure equal to any Luth. hymn-book ; this standard of excellence was reached through his efforts aud contributions and those of Rev. V. Briem, thepoet. F. J. B. Halifax, Luth. Church in. See Nova Scotia. Halle, its Institutions. Hala, a fort for the protection of the salt springs, given by Otto I. in 961, to the Archbishops of Magde burg, a powerful Hansa city in the Middle Ages, frequently at war vrith its archbishops, subdued by Ernest in 1478, who built the " Moritzburg " in 1503, in order to hold the city in check, hav ing rid itself of Archbishop Albrecht of Magde burg and Mayence in 1549, embraced the Reformation and called Justus Jonas in 1541, as pastor and superintendent. In 1680 it became part of Brandenburg and belongs to the king dom of Prussia. A peculiar group of the inhab itants are the "Halloren," descendants of the original salt-springs' keepers. The library of the Market Church (built in the twelfth century) preserves a life-like figure of Luther wearing his famous death-mask. The city has some large institutions, viz. for the deaf and dumb, for lunatics, students of technology and agri culture, dispensaries, a deaconess mother-house founded in 1857, by Fliedner, assisted by the wife of Professor Tholuck. Two institutions have acquired a world-wide fame. I. The Francke Institutions {Stiftungen). August Hermann Francke, Spener's friend, of fiery zeal and piety, a great organizer, began his stupendous work amongst the poor in a most humble way. With seven guilders he started a school for the poor in 1695 aud built the first Luth. orphan asylum in 1698. His work grew rapidly. His institutions soon be came the centre of great missionary acti-rity. In 1705 Ziegenbalg and Pliitschau were sent to East India to the heathen, afterwards Griindler, the great Christian Fred. Schwartz and others ; in 1728 the Institutum Judaicum was founded by Callenberg for Jewish missions ; in 1742, Henry Melchior Miihlenberg, who had been a teacher under Gotthilf August Francke in 1738, was sent to America to the scattered Germans, and other ministers after him. A multitude of pious, zealous ministers were practically pre pared for the churches in Germany. But other countries — viz. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Russia, Austria — felt the blessed influence of Francke's work. Now, the institutions occupy a very large area. The front wing of the main building (erected in 1698 and containing the book concern, Latin school, museum) shows two eagles flying towards the sun and the in scription " Jesaiah 40 : 31." A -wide yard, 800 feet long, follows, flanked by high buildings containing orphan asylums, primary and gram mar schools, boarding schools, residences for teachers, a dining-hall. Aula, the Canstein Bible Institute (founded 1712), a high school for girls, a female teachers' seminary, a library (30,000 volumes). In the rear of the yard is the statue of Francke, modelled by Rauch, un veiled in 1829, bearing the inscription : He trusted in God. Behind it, in the rear building, is the residence of the director, the college (paedagogium), residences, seminarium prse- ceptorum. Then follow extensive buildings for^ school purposes, the East Indian mission. Aula, drug store, gymnasium, printing establishment, hospital, play-grounds and a large garden. Up to 1898, 109,068 pupils had been educated in the institutions. 2. The University, founded by the Elector Frederick III. , "to the honor of God aud for the common good, " as a school of a moderate type of Lutheranism, was dedicated in his presence on July I, 1694. Christian Thomasius, driven from Leipzig, in 1690, ha-ring attracted many students, contributed most to its foundation. Spener's influence was paramount in the selec tion of professors. Joachim Justus Breithaupt (b. Feb., 1658, d. March 16, 1732), began his lectures in Nov. , 1691, Francke after Easter, 1692 (being professor of the Greek and Oriental languages, in 1698 professor of theology). John Wm. Baier, called in 1694, left the uncon genial pietistic atmosphere in 1695, and had Paul Anton for his successor, who most of all pietists clung to the Symbolical Books. Vitus Ludovicus Seckendorff, the great statesman {omnium christianorum nobilissimus, omnium nobilium christianissimus) , was the first chan cellor. Halle became the seat of Pietism. The professors strove, "not only to itqpart the necessary knowledge, but also to edify their hearers, to move their conscience, and to educate pious and zealous pastors." This proved a great blessing for the churches. The following generations of Pietists were more narrow-minded and weak, e. g. Gotthilf August Francke, Joachin Lange ("the sword of the Pietists"), the timid John George Knapp (d. 1825), and could not cope with the most influential phi losopher of those times. Christian Wolff {d. 1744), who, from 1706 at HaUe, though trying to prove the traths of Christianity by mathematical rnethods, yet really endangered its very founda tions and was the champion of ' ' practical com mon sense." Expelled under penalty of the hangman's rope, in 1723, by Frederick William I., who, being fond of the Pietists, obliged all theo logical students of his country to study at Halle for at least two years, Wolff was recalled by ; Frederick II. , in 1740, and inaugurated the period of the so-called " Aufklaerang." Hence the proverb, " Halam tendis, aut pietista aut atheista reversuras." John Solomon Semler (professor from 1753-1 791), "the father of ra tionalism," introduced the historico-critical method of Bible study. Gesenius (d. 1842) and Wegscheider (d. 1849) were famous ration- Halleliviali 211 Hamburg aUsts. Frederick Schleiermacher, the father of the so-called modern theology, was professor at HaUe from 1804 to i8o6,when Napoleon aboUshed the university, because the students had greeted him -with a " Pereat." In 1813, it was re-estab lished and on June 21, 1817, the Wittenberg University was added to it. Since then it bears the name. The United Frederick's University of Halle-Wittenberg. By the old Luth. move ment since 1830, the religious awakening pro duced by the Napoleonic wars was led into more strictly Luth. channels. But although favoring Lutheranism, Julius Miiller (d. 1878), August Tholuck (d. 1877), Justus Lud. Jacobi (d. 1888), were representatives of the " positive Union " and pillars of the so-called " Vermitt- lungs-Theologie. " The old Luth. Professor Guericke had very little influence. The present faculty has for its most prominent member Julius Koestiin (recently emeritus), the deep thinker Martin Kaehler, Willibald Beyschlag, Haupt, Kautzsch, Loofs (all three belonging to the historico-critical school), and H. Hering, a pronounced adherent of the Prussian Union. Of all German universities, Halle has the largest number of theological students, viz. 433, while in the whole number of students, viz. 1604, it is greatly surpassed by Berlin and Leipzig. E. F. M. Hallelujah. {Praise be to the Lord.) Taken into Christian worship from the Jewish Passover Liturgy. The song of the redeemed in praise of the Risen and Glorified Christ (Rev. 19 : i, 3, 6). Gregory the Great ascribed the use of it to the church of Jerusalem, whence it was brought to Rome by Jerome. It was sung after all An tiphons, Psalms, Verses, and Responsories from Easter to Pentecost, but omitted in Lent, and when the Litany was said. Sung after the Epis tle in the Morning Service with passages from the Psalms varying -with the season. Luther called the Hallelujah "An unbroken voice of the Church, commemorative of its passion and its victory." E.T. H. Hallesche Nachrichten, a series of reports from the Luth. pastors in Pennsylvania (Muh lenberg, Brunholtz, Handschuh, etc.), sent to the authorities at Halle, and published at ir regular intervals in parts. The first part, pub lished in 1744, has the title " Brief Report from some Evangelical Congregations in America, especially Pennsylvania." So great was the demand that a second edition of the earlier parts appeared as early as 1750. The last part was pnnted in 1787. When complete, bound volumes appeared -with an introduction by the Director of the Orphan House at Halle, Dr. J. L. Schulze. These volumes are filled with most interesting details of the pastoral experiences and missionary labors of the Fathers of the Luth. Church in America. By the generosity of a descendent of the Patriarch Muhlenberg, Dr. H. H. Muhlenberg of Reading, Pa., the unbound sheets still remaining at HaUe were secured about 1854, and after being substantially bound were distributed to libraries, institutions of learning, and many Luth. pastors in this country. A translation into English was un dertaken by Dr. J. W. Richard, but was inter mpted by his deatii. To Drs. W. J. Mann and B. M. Schmucker, with the co-operation of Dr. W. Germann of Bavaria, belongs the credit of editing a reprint of these reports, with exhaus tive notes explanatory of the geographical, his torical, and theological allusions of the text, and bringing down the history of congregations mentioned to the date of the republication. While the elaborate scheme of the editors was interrupted by their death, the first volume was issued with an excellent index in 1887, and several numbers of the second volume pubUshed before the death of Dr. W. J. Mann. The rest of the text was reprinted, under the superin tendence of Rev. F. Wischan, but vrithout notes (1894). The publication of two English trans lations has been begun, but been abandoned ; one by Dr. J. Oswald, which is too faithful to the original to be regarded a real translation, and the other an excellent translation of the edition of Drs. Mann and Schmucker by Dr. C. W. Schaeffer (1882). All efforts to reproduce these invaluable documents in either German or English have entailed financial loss upon those who assumed responsibility for their pub lication. H. E. J. Hamann, Johann Georg, called the "Magus of the North," b. 1730, in Koenigsberg, d. 1788, in Muenster. He studied in Koenigsberg the ology, law, philosophy, mathematics, and lan guages, without much system. For a short time he held positions as tutor in Livonia and Courland, and finaUy tried a business life as merchant in Riga, and other cities. This led to a crisis in his life when he found himself in a state of utter destitution in London. Now he began to study the Bible, and though always a somewhat enatic genius, he became a powerful and brilliant defender of the realities of the Christian faith {Omnia divina et humana omnia) over against the presumptions of rationalistic and speculative philosophj'. He was highly ap preciated by men like Claudius, Jacobi, Lavater, Herder, and even Goethe, who had intended to prepare a full edition of his writings. His most valuable and characteristic treatise is Golgotha und Sheblimini. The most complete collec tion of his -writings by Roth, Berlin (1821-1843) in 8 vols. A. S. Hamburg, The Luth. Church in. Ham burg, the largest and most influential sea port on the continent of Europe, is a free city of about 500,000 inhabitants. The Reformation was formally intioduced into this city on the 28th day of April in 1528. In 1523 a certain Franciscan monk from Ros tock, Stephan Kempe, began to preach the gos pel according to Luther's interpretation at first at St. Mary Magdalene's, later on as pastor of St. Catharine's parish church. A great many ac cepted the new doctrine, others opposed. This strife lasted until Easter, 1528, when the senate, unvrilling to see the population divided on re ligious questions, invited both parties to state their doctrines publicly in the city hall. When, on the appointed day, the Romish party failed to appear, the senate declared in favor of the Luth. side, and the city was forthwith reformed in the sense of Luther. However, no violence was done to those who chose to remain in the old faith. Bugenhagen was caUed from Wit- Hamclmann 212 Hanover tenberg and completed the work of Reforma tion in 1529. One of the monasteries was changed into a college, the "Johanneum," the others into homes for aged people. New schools were established and hospitals founded. Hamburg remained au exclusively Luth. city until 1806, when toleration was granted to peo ple of other creeds, and in i860 religious liberty was proclaimed. The government of the Church is in the hands of a synod composed of the min isters, several senators, and a number of lay representatives for the administration of tem poral affairs, and a ministerium composed of the pastors of the parish churches and a certain number of senators for the administration of spiritual matters. Hamburg abounds iu charitable institutions, orphan asylums, deaconess homes, hospitals, homes for the aged, the poor, the blind, the deaf and dumb. Most of which, if not directly under the control of the Church, are at least in the hands of Lutherans, or were founded by Lutherans. The various home and foreign missionary societies, the "Gustav-Adolf Ver- ein, " have a great many representatives in Ham burg. In order to meet the enormous immigra tion into this ever growing city, a great number of new parishes have been established and many new churches were erected within the last 25 years. K. L. W. Hamelmann, Hermann, the reformer of Westphalia, b. 1525, in Osnabriick, converted to evang. faith as priest at Camiu (1552), pastor at Bielefeld (1554), genl. supt. at Gandersheim (1560), where he introduced the Reformation into Brunswick, supt. at Oldenburg (1573), was instrumental in giving it the true faith, writing the Oldenburg Ch. order with N. Selnecker (1573). Learned, deep in conriction, sound in faith, he d. 1591. Hamilton, Patrick, first martyr of the Refor mation in Scotland, b. of noble family connected with the House of Stuart (1504), educated at Paris and Louvain, became member of Faculty of St. Andrew's (1524). Early in 1527, his sympathy with the evangelical doctrines endangering his life, he fled to Germany, where he visited Wit tenberg, and, leaving there because of the plague, went to the recently-founded Uni versity of Marburg. The theses ou ' ' Law and Gospel ' ' which he there defended were after wards published as Loci Communes. Returning home the same year, he was arrested Feb. 28, 1528, and burned at the stake the next day. His fortitude won Alesius, who had undertaken to convert him, to the Luth. cause. H. E. J. Handschuh, John Frederick, one of the founders of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, b. 1714, educated at Halle, came to America (1748), pastor in Lancaster, Germantown, and Philadelphia. D. 1764. Hanover (former kingdom), Luth. Church in. I. The established Luth. Church of Han over is as old as the Reformation. Its birth may be assigned to 1530, in the moment when the Dukes Ernest and Francis of Liineburg signed the Augs. Conf. Its extent coincided with the boundaries of the kingdom that existed before 1866. It arose with this kingdom, and consists of the possessions of the ducal Brunswick-Liine- burg house (younger line), which formed the original stock and the various territories, which were gradually incorporated ; Hoya, Diepholz, Osnabruck, Bremen- Verden, Hildesheim, Lauenburg (partly) , East Frisia. All provinces have throughout a Luth. population ; only Hildesheim and Osnabriick have Catholic dis tricts, and Osnabriick and East Frisia on the frontier toward Holland considerable Reformed districts. Noted reformers of various parts are : Urbanus Rhegius (Liineburg), Anton Corvinus (Calenberg), Hermann Bonnus (Osnabriick), and perhaps George Aportanus (East Frisia ; here Lasco founded the Reformed Church). The special prerogatives of this church from the very first are its church orders and appoint ments on the basis of the Luth. confessions (mostly including the Form, of Concord) . The country districts particularly have glorious church orders {Kirchenordnungen) : first of aU the Calenberg order (1569) ; then the Liineburg (1619 — inwardness), and the Lauenburg (1585 — ^great earnestness), likewise the East Frisian (1630 — ^has actual but not judicial validity) , and the Hoya order (1573 — is abolished through the Liineburg). The orders of service and Agenda contained in these orders, together with the liturgies and their musical parts (Lossius), pos sess a high value (wealth with moderation, depth and popular simplicity) . Before ration alism excellent catechisms were in use : Gesen ius for Hanover, Walter for Liineburg, Soete- fleisch for Stade ; like-wise good hymn-books : the Hanoverian (1019 hymns, among them 500 of the best hymns), the Liineburg and Lauen burg (the latter dependent upon the former and more diluted), the East Frisian (-with traces of Pietism). The Hanoverian hymn-book served to indicate the way for hymn-books of other countries. The church-life within the con gregations was marked by religious longing and decided churchliness, though less by great ac tirity, certainly until 1866. Even though few, as ever3rwhere, grasped truth in its depth, yet the mass of the people were kept within salutary limits by a Christianity of habit and a sense for churchly propriety. External righteousness {justitia civilis) deserves even until now high praise, especially among the country population. Rationalism brought its devastation of the in heritance of the fathers in Hanover also. (See Rationalism. ) The confessions were actually abolished. The catechisms had to give way to the ' ' alten Freund ' ' of 1790. The hymn-books were either replaced by new fabrications, that in part were terribly flat (Osnabriick, Hildes heim, Brernen-Verden), or disfigured by ap pendices with insipid hymns, among which those of Gellert were the best. The school children and congregations were taught only to learn and sing these (Hanover, Liineburj;, East Frisia). The East Frisians removed about one- half of their best pithy hymns. But everywhere a few Luth. hymns were noticeably kept un changed, and "A mighty fortress" was per haps never wanting. It is self-e-rident that the old church orders became obsolete, the services lifeless, and in Reformed manner bald ; that the Agenda were arbitrarily changed or exchanged Hanover 213 Hardenberg for private fabrications, that the churches be came sheep-stables {Schafstdlle.) The es tablished university Gottingen (1737), at which the tiaeologians were compeUed by the state to receive their education, added its quota to the general devastation, -without, however, being worse in this respect than other universities. The afflictions of tiie Napoleonic times led back to the Word. There had been pious souls, the quiet of the land, who had nourished them selves with the old postils, catechisms, hymn- aud prayer-books, and here and there with Pietism, during the time of spiritual death. They were the connecting point for the awaken ing of the life of faith. Nearly everywhere scattered vritnesses of the gospel arose. It was the spring-time in which a Weibezahn held his rerivmg sermons, Schiiren sent forth his pop ular pedagogical -writings, and Spitta sang his devout hjrmns of faith. Summer followed -with the glorious triumvirate, Ludwig Harms, Lud-wig Adolf Petri, Konrad Kameades Miinkel, whose sermons resting upon the Scriptures and in the spirit of the confessions of our Church, per haps stand forth unattained in modern times in the power and mighty earnestness, iu the beauty of stiucture and classic language, in the wealth and impressive depth of their thoughts com bined vrith proportional conectness of doctrine. (See, however, Lohe. — Eds.) The time of the harvest came and passed over into fruit-bearing autumn. Harms spread out his missionary net over the world from Hermannsburg, the lonely village on the heath. To the few orphans' homes and institutions of rescue of the past were added a multitude of all kinds of acti-rities of inner mission. Freytag .published his Hanoversches Sonntagsblatt, and founded the society for inner mission, which spread over the whole land. Biittner become director of the ' ' Henrietten- stift," the large and recognized deaconess home of Hanover. Fricke brought the ' ' Stephans stift," the important institution of brothers, to its blossom. The church orders, and -with them the order of services, were again replaced, and the churches were restored or rebuilt anew in beautiful form, mostly Gothic (Hase and his architectural school). The old catechism of Walter was to be intioduced generally in a new edition, but it had a high church tinge and the catechism-storm (1862) carried it away. More carefully a new hymn-book and order of serrice v/ere of late introduced generally. Both are pearls and tieasures of the Luth. Church of the present time. A union of all the Luth. prov inces was attempted and attained in the new synodical order of 1863. A synod of the whole land and a consistory established prior to 1866, which co-operates with the sjmod, are the church authorities and have the final decision in all internal matters, being dependent upon the state only in external matters {in externis). But meantime the winter has come for the new church life of Hanover. Although the church- govemment (a Niemann, . Lichtenberg, Briiel, and partly Uhlhom) has labored with blessing in sustaining the new church-life and its lead ers, in gathering in the harvest of the inner- mission work, yet it cannot be denied that, on the whole, it has entered upon a dangerous. wrong course. This was evident before 1866 in the organization of independent school-boards within the consistories ; in the formalistic man ner of contending against the rapid grovrth of the Protestantenverein, bold as the attack in general was ; in the call of Ritschl to Gottingen, and in the weakly position during the catechism- storm. After 1866 the danger grew in the fa vorite admission of Reformed Christians and those from the Pmssian Union as guests to the Luth. communion {gastweise Zulassung), which exception has now been made a duty ; in the admission of jurists from the Prussian Union to consistorial offices ; in the intioduction of the form of marriage of 1874, and in the frequent deposition of faithful pastors for disobedience when, for conscience sake, they do not follow instractions, etc. The theory of the omnipo tence of the state has gained power over the Luth. Church of Hanover, and with it a bureau cracy which blights spiritual life. Opportun ism rules and favors ambition ; coquetry with Berlin removes the antithesis and the necessary opposition to the Prassian Union. The sover eign right of the individual conscience, theo retically guaranteed since the Reformation but -without force through fault of the jurists and canonists, is oppressed. II. The separation in Hanover has its secret and deepest source in the ferment of a method- ism combined with high-church mysticism, as undeniably found with Ludwig Harms. But it grew through the abuses in the established church. The marriage-form of 1874 was the last stiaw. The separation began at Hermanns burg under Theodor Harms, who attiacted many Hessian Vilmarians, and also united -with those tending toward Breslau. The result was, that soon the "Hessians" and "Breslauers" again separated, and a Hessian and Breslau Free Church were formed beside the old Hermanns burg Free Church. Through further di-rision a Missourian Free Church was added as a fourth organizatioij. Time must teach whether these organizations vrill remain. At present it does not seem thus. Though blessed with men of high character they exhibit one-sided nanow- ness and severity, and have not proved them selves good builders. F. B. Hanover, Pa., (York Co.), one of the earli est settlements of Germans west of the Susque hanna River, known first from its surveyor, McAllister, or Callistertown, or from the gen eral name of the settlement, Conewago, which, properly speaking, was a short distance away. The first known pastor was Daniel Candler, of whom there are traces as early as 1738. Hardenberg, A. R. The family name of this theologian seems to have been Rizaeus, but, after the custom of his time, he was called Hardenberg after his birthpla'ce, Hardenberg, a village in Holland. Albert Rizaeus of H., b. about 15 10, received his education in the cloister at Groningen and at the University of Loewen. The bitter opposition to the Reformation, which prevailed in the latter institution, led H. to the study of Luther's works, by which he became persuaded of the enor of Rome. His leaning becoming known, he was soon forced to leave. Influenced by a Lasco, a friend of Zwingli, and Hardenberg 214 Harms Melanchthon, he formally separated himself from Rome and came to Wittenberg in 1543, where an intimate friendship with Melanchthon and Paul Eber sprang up. From 1544 to 1547 he labored in the archbishopric of Cologne to in tioduce the Reformation, but left when Cologne again became Catholic. In 1547 he became preacher in the cathedral at Bremen. When, in 1556, he publicly assailed Art. X. of the Augs burg Confession, which tieats of the Lord's Supper, and presented a Calvinistic -riew of the sacrament, he became involved in a bitter con tioversy with his colleague, John Timann. H. was favored by the burgomaster, Biiren, and by an opinion of Melanchthon in 1557. When, upon the death of Timann, in 1559, TUemann Hesshusius came to Bremen, H. was unmediately put under the ban. The league of the cities of lower Saxony, before which he was accused, in 1561, deposed him, -without, however, taking his office from him. Thereupon he went to Olden burg, where he d. as preacher at Emden May 18, 1574. But Bremen, through the controversy, was lost to the Luth. Church. H. W. H. Hardenberg, Georg Friedrich Philipp von (Novalis), b. 1772, near Eisleben, d. 1801, at Weissenfels. He was of Mora-rian descent ; one of the foremost poets of the Romantic school of Germany. He wrote 15 hymns of remark able beauty, but too subjective and sentimental for church use. He attracted considerable attention in England and America, especially since T. Carlyle made him the subject of a tieatise in 1829. His hymns were all translated into English. A. S. Harless, Gottlieb Christoph Adolf von, b. in Nuremberg, Nov. 21, 1806, studied phi lology and law at Erlangen (1823), and then theology. After studying the great philos. systems of Spinoza and Hegel he came under Tholuck's influence. When, in 1829, he began to teach theology in Erlangen he had experi enced that conversion, the full truth of which he found in Luther's writings and the Luth. confessions. In 1836 he wrote his epochal and still fresh commentary on Ephesians, in 1837 his characteristic theol. encyclopaedia, in 1842 his Ethics of surpassing power and depth. Com ing into conflict with ultramontanism, he was dismissed from his professorship (1845), but was called as prof, to Leipzig (1847), where he was also pastor at St. Nicolai, preaching ser mons of spiritual insight and intellectual strength. He became cliief court preacher at Dresden (1850), but was recalled to Bavaria by Max. II. as pres't of the consistory (1852), and was instramental in retaining Lohe within the Church, which was more thoroughly Lutheran- ized and given an exceUent liturgy and consti tution. H. d. Sept. 5, 1879, °ne of the greatest modern Lutherans as theologian, preacher, and organizer, firm iu conviction, but gentle in spirit. (D. Adolph V. Harless by Wilh. von Langsdorff, 1898.) J. H. Harms, Claus, a distinguished Luth. the ologian, pastor, and pulpit orator, b. May 25, 1778, at Fahrstedt in Holstein, d. at Kiel, Feb. I, 1855. Asa boy he suffered an interruption in his education and labored with his father as a mUler ; but finally, at the age of 19, he entered the gymnasium at Meldorf, and two years later the university at Kiel, where he studied the ology. While a student, he made the happy transition from rationalism to positive faith, partly under the influence of Schleiermacher's Reden iiber die Religion. A tutor from 1802 to 1806, he first became assistant pastor at Lunden, and in 1816 first assistant {archidiakonus) in Kiel. This remained henceforth the scene of his labors. In 1835 he became chief pastor and in 1841 Oberkonsistorialrath. In 1849 he was compelled to relinquish his labors on account of blindness. Claus Harms was a truly great pastor and preacher. No more characteristic figure can be found than his to mark the trans lation from rationalism to positive Lutheranism in Germany in the first half of this century. He is most noted for his republication of Lu ther's theses with 95 new theses as "a transi tion from i5i7toi8i7"on the occasion of the tercentenary celebration of the Reformation. In these vigorous, witty, popularly written theses he sounded the trumpet for battle, not only against the prevailing rationalism, but also against the union of the Luth. and Re formed churches just then beginning. He published several volumes of sermons and is the author of a number .of practical writings, the best of which is the still popular Pastoral Theologie. He also published his own biog raphy. A. G. V. Harms, Louis, (full name, George Louis Detlev Theodore), founder of the Hermannsburg Mission, b. at Walsrode, May 5, 1808, d. at Hermannsburg, Nov. 14, 1865. Sou of a ration alistic pastor at Hermannsburg in Hanover, he attained to a deeper perception of Christian ity at Goettingen, where he studied from 1827- 1830. He showed the force and independence of his character already as a student by his self- denial to save his parents expense, by his re sistance to the temptations of student-life, and by his independent studies, the lectures of the rationalistic professors gi-ring him little satis faction. For many years after the completion of his studies he had no appointment in the Church. But as a tutor at Lauenburg and after wards at Liineberg he exerted a decided religious influence by his occasional preaching and by his interest in missionary and philan thropic work. Finally, in 1844, he became the assistant of his father, and in 1849 his successor at Hermannsburg. This town he made famous. His earnest, deeply evangelical preaching pro duced a religious awakening in the congrega tion. He also infused his enthusiasm for mis sions into the people. So the great Hermanns burg Mission started as a local enterprise. Soon Harms founded an institution for the train ing of missionaries. Through a Missionsblatl the interest in the work was carried abroad. In 1853 the missionary ship " Candace " was built. By his restless labors the indefatigable pastor, who had "no time" to get married, impaired his health. His published sermons on the Gospels and Epistles were extensively circu lated. A. G. V. Harms, Theodore, b. in 1819, d. in 1885, brother of the famous I<)) . Be sides these he published with Delitzsch a series of commentaries which were also translated into English (in Clark's Library), as the Pentateuch, Joshua,Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Jeremiah, Lamenta tions, Ezekiel, Daniel, Minor Prophets. Keil's Introduction to the Old Testament, also trans lated into English for the Clark series, has not yet been superseded by a similar work in the English language. Besides these works, he published separately commentaries on Mac cabees (1875), Matthew (1877), Mark and Luke (1879), John (1881), Peter and Jude (1883), Hebrews (1888). B. P. Keller, Benjamin, b. March 4, 1794, at Lan caster, Pa., educated for the holy ministry by Rev. G. H. E. Muhlenberg, D. D., at Lancaster. He was a devoted and most conscientious pastor and servant of the Church. Preached at Car lisle, Pa.; Germantown ; the " College Church," Gettysburg ; founded St. Jacobus' (German) congregation, and sustained the missions at Nicetown and Rising Sun, Phila. ; and was the indefatigable agent of the Lutheran Board of Publication, Phila., in the beginning of that enterprise. He also collected the funds for the endowment of the German professorship of Penna. College at Gettysburg. He d. at the home of his son-in-law, Charles F. Norton, of Phila., founder of the Norton professorship, of Mt. Airy Seminary, July 2, 1864. Keller, Ezra, D. D,, first president of Wit tenberg College, b. near Middletown, Md., 1812, graduated at Pennsylvania College (1835) and the Gettysburg Theological Seminary; Western traveUingmissionary of the Ministerium of Penn sylvania, in 1836, making extensive explora tions in the present State of West Va., and in Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and lUinois, laying the foundations of numerous congregations, and travelling 3,000 miles ; pastor, Taneytown and Hagerstown, Md.; became president of Wit tenberg College, Springfield, O., 1844; d. 1848. Keller, Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg, eldest son of Rev. Benjamin and Cath. Eliza Crever (Schaeffer) Keller; b. April 28, 1819, at Carlisle, Cum. Co., Pa.; d. at Reading, Pa., March 18, 1864. Grad. in the first regular 4 yrs. class at Penna. College, Gettysburg, 1838. Licensed to preach, 1840. Served in and around Reading, Berks Co., Pa., first as coadjutor to Rev. J. MiUer, D.D., at Holy Trinity, then (Nov. 3, 1842) founder of St. James' Church and other outlying congregations in and near the city of Reading. KeUner, Eduard, b. 1803, in Pangau, Prassia, d. 1878, Luth. pastor at Honigern, who refused to introduce the Prassian Agenda (1834), be cause he had promised to defend the Augs. Conf. He was imprisoned, while soldiers at tacked the congregation holding its church. The soldiers were quartered upon the people to force them into the Prussian Union. But many with their pastor remained firm. K. was freed ( 1838) through the interest of a Catholic warden, aud became pastor at Schwirz, 1841. Kenosis is the doctrine which, tieating of the humiliation of Christ, seeks to determine its character. Its name is derived from Phil. 2 : 7, ekenose (he emptied himself), which whole pas sage, together with Mark 13 : 32 ; John 17:5:2 Cor. 8:9, is the principal scriptural basis. The reaUty of the kenosis was always admitted in the Luth. Church, but its determination varied. Luther, who does not distinguish historically between the humiliation and exaltation of Christ, sees in Christ's humanity, as the real revelation of God, the fulness of di-rinity, which exaltation only reveals more fully. Although he holds that Christ becoming a natural man laid aside divine glory, and " has just as any other holy natural man, not always thought, spoken, -willed, remembered all things, ' ' this to him is overbalanced by the presence of the divine, so that he finally, like Augustine, assigns Christ's not-kno-wing (Mark 13 : 32) to Christ's office and not his person. The nature which suffers the kenosis is ihe human. Brenz followed Luther, emphasizing more stiongly the presence of divine glory in humanity, so that humUiation is only a hiding of the divine majesty possessed by humanity since the incarnation. As man Christ is almighty, omniscient, omnipresent, while in the cradle, on the cross, in the grave, he fills and rules heaven and earth. Chemnitz, however, holds, that the divine nature, bodily in Christ, did not then fully and publicly wish to use and prove the majesty, glory, and power in the assumed human nature and through it. The kenosis is in the acts of the human nature. But the differences of Chemnitz and Brenz did not separate them, although the Form, of Cone. in general followed Chemnitz, and asserted that in the state of humiliation Christ abstained from divine majesty, " truly grew in all wisdom and favor with God and men ; therefore he exer cised this majesty, not always but when it Kenosis 261 Keyl pleased him" {Epit. VIII. il). But this Logos supplying the place of the human soul. formulation did not decide the question. From Frank is perhaps most in harmony vrith the 1617 the discussion between the Giessen and scriptural and confessional statements, when he Tiibingen theologians arose on the question makes kenosis " the translation from the eternal of the omnipresence of the flesh of Christ, consciousness of the son to the form of finite The Tiibingers (Haffenreffer, Thummius, L. human consciousness, developing in time, which, G. Osiander, -with the Hamburg theol. Nicolai) because of its being the divine image, was virtually followed Brenz, asserting that omni- capable of being the vessel of the divine con- presence was a propinquity to creatures, by tent, being in human manner the consciousness which Christ was closely present to all ; it was of the eternal Son." Thus the kenosis is in. also predicated of his human nature in conse quence of the personal union. Its use or re nunciation was not to be questioned, Christ only exercised it differentiy in humiUation. There the self-consdousness of Christ. Ritschlianism, knowing Christ's deity only as a judgment of value, is not troubled vrith this question, whose solution is still to be found. In all attempts. was properly »o^f«o«.j (renunciation), but only Luth. theology, even in its modern histoncal a krupsts (concealment) . The Giesseners, how- manner, has ever sought to preserve the di-rine ever (B. Menzer and Feuerbom), who had and human real and united in one person. (See caused the contention, which in time grew very also CHRISTOLOGY. ) fierce, by the remark of Menzer that omni- Lit. : Kostlin, Luther's Theol. II. 400 : See- presence -was not " simple nearness" {adessen- berg, Dogmengesch. II. 312, 363; Frank, tia simplex) , but " operative presence " {pree- sentia operativa) , followed Chemnitz. By them the question, whether the man Christ, in union with God, during the state of humiliation, as a Theol. der Konk. form. II. 291 ; Schmid, Doc irin. Theol. 406 ; Thomasius, Christi Person u. Werk (2d ed.), 2, 199 ff. ; Luthardt, Comp. (7th ed.) 197 ff. ; Luthardt, Chrl. Glaubens- present king governed all things, though lehre, 364 ff. ; v. Frank, Chrl. Wahrheit, 2, 137 unobservedly, was denied. The personal union ff . J. H. fave only the real possession of divine attributes, Ken-tucky, Lutherans in. In this state ut did not determine the use, which depended the Luth. Church is very weak, and reported, upon the di-rine will. In omnipresence human jn jSgo, only 18 congregations, vrith 2,394 mem- nature had the power of being present, but not ijgrs. Of these, 11 congregations with 1,627 the actualization. There was a real, though members belonged to the General Synod, the partial, renunciation of communicated divine outgrowth of the missionary acti-rity of Rev. attributes during humiliation. This position was -William Carpenter and other missionaries be- virtually approved by the " Decisio Saxonica " longing to the Ministerium of Pennsylvania in (1624), after which the Tiibingen theologians the first decades of the present century. The modified their view in relation to Christ's sacer- earliest reference to Lutherans in this state is dotal office, but retained essentially the conceal- jq the Minutes for 1790. Four congregations ment. The later dogmaticians adopted the view .^yith 299 members belonged to the General of the Saxon decisiou.which prevails in the Luth. Council, and the rest to the Synodical Con- Church. Its defect is, the danger to the unity of f erence. the person, arising from a divided actirity, while its virtue is the maintenance of the historical trath of Christ's life, which the Tiibingers injured though keeping the union intact. This dilemma has causedT modem Luth. theology, after its Keppele, John Henry, a prominent Philadel phia merchant of the eighteenth century, and active elder of the Luth. Church, b. 1716, in Baden, came to Philadelphia, 1738, d. 1797. Member of Pennsylvania Assembly, first presi- in-law of Dr. Helmuth. Kettenhach, Heinr. von, able evang. preacher in Ulm ( 1521), opposed monkery -with violence, fled to Wittenberg, where he issued return to confessionalism, to re-examine the ^g^t of Gemian Society of PhUadelphia, father question. Histoncally the connection is the - - — - reality of the human, defended by the Giesseners, and so strongly felt at present ; fundamentally modern kenosis rests upon a renewed study of ?,?'^- Vl\ The subject which renounces is now j -^ polemical writings, powerful, ironi- thought to be «o/ the hurnanhnt tne divine cll, but sometimes fanatical.^ He probably died nature. Thomasius, who is the father of this .„ ;^^ pp^=,„ts. -wz^r new kenosis, sees the renunciation in the gi-ring up in humiliation of the relative divine attri butes, i. e. those of Christ's relation to the world, as omnipresence, omniscience, and in the re taining of the immanent attributes of truth. in the Pea.sants' War. Kettler, Gotthard, d. 1587, the last grand master of the German Order, favored the Refor mation and gave Livland to Sigismund of Poland, with the condition that the Augs. Conf. iov7,"holiness',~'etc.7whkh could be"reveaied"in be preserved. He organized many churches humanity. The cential thought, the renuncia- and schools, systematized the care of the poor, tion of divine nature, is maintained by nearly brought about the Church Order of 1572, and aU modern theologians, e. g. Sartorius, v. Hof- the translation of the N. T. into Lettish. mann, Liebner, Besser, Kahnis, Delitzsch, Keyl, Ernst Gerhard "Wilhelm, b. May 22, Luthardt, Zockler, etc., although Domer objects 1834, at Leipzig, where he also studied theology from the trath of the immutability of God, and and became attached to the circle of which Philippi feels safest in the position of the old Cand. Kuehn was the leader, and Walther, dogmaticians. The most enoneous supposition Brohm and others were members. He was is that of Gess and Kiibel, who, the former more pastor at Niederfrohna in Saxony, 1829 to 1838, radically, the latter more carefully, hold a came to America vrith Martin Stephan and his change of the Logos into the Son of Man, the emigrants, was pastor at Frohna, one of the Keyniann 362 Kinderlebre Saxon colonies in Peny Co., Mo., 1839 to 1847, at Freistadt and Milwaukee, Wis., 1847 to 1850, at Baltimore, Md., 1850 to 1869, at Willshire, O., 1869 to 1871, d. at Monroe, Mich., Aug. 4, 1872. He was an assiduous and methodical student of Luther's works, the author of Pre- digieniwurfe Uber die Sonn- und Festtags- Evangelien aus Dr. Luthers Predigten und Auslegungen and Katechismusauslegungen aus Dr. Luthers Schriften und den symbolischen Biichern, and the editor of Lutherophilus, a periodical publication devoted to the advance ment of the study of Luther's works. A. L. G. Kejrmann, Christian, b. 1607, at Pancratz, Bohemia, d. 1662, as rector of the gymnasium at Zittau, a distinguished scholar and h3min- writer of the seventeenth century, author of " Freuet euch, ihr Christen alle" (Christmas) (O rejoice, ye Christians, loudly), translated by Miss Winkworth, Choral Book for England (1863); " Meinen Jesum lass ich nicht " (I -will leave my Jesus never), found in the Church Book, translator unknown. A. S. Keys, Power of. This is described in Matt. 16 : 19 ; John 20 : 23. (Comp. 2 Cor. lo : 8 ; 13 : 10.) It is the authority given the Church to absolve (see Confession and Absolution), and to excommunicate. It is a purely spiritual authority, exercised exclusively by the appli cation of the Word of God. The agents are the ministers of the Word acting as the organs or instruments and representatives of the Christian congregation. (See Appendix to Schmalkald Articles, I. 24 ; II. 67, 68.) Neither the min istry nor the Church has any arbitrary or judi cial power, whereby the degree of guilt may be determined and the absolution or excommuni cation be proportioned accordingly. Only they are absolved whom God absolves ; only they are excommunicated whom God excommunicates. The Word declaring forgiveness communicates what it declares, when its conditions are ob served, and only then. The excommunication excludes, from the outward feUowship, those who have already broken the inner fellowship of the Church. (Comp. Augsburg Confession, Art XXV. ; Apology, pp. 195 sqq. ; Schmal kald Articles, Appendix, 342 sqq. ; SmaU Cate chism : " Of Confession.") Luther's works are full of material on the subject. " The keys are not a power, but a service. They were given not to St. Peter, but to you and me ; the keys are yours and mine. . . . Christ has ordained that through the keys the clergy serve not themselves, but only us" (Erlangen ed 20- 187). * H. e! j. ¦ Kiel University. See Universities. Kierkegaard, Soren Auby, b. in Copen hagen, May 5, 1813, was a melancholy boy of deep religious inclination, who, attracted and repelled by Chnstianity, gave himself up to pessimism, from which the death of his father delivered him, leading him as a man to the study of theology ( 1840). But he conceived of J^t.^ J'"''? subjectivity, and rejected existing Chnstianity as wrong, attacked Martensen when the latter praised Mynster (1854), and was led into the bitterest attitude ag. Church and Christianity ; d. Nov. 11, 1855. The sub jective truth of the personality was the centie of K.'s system. The personality is the ethic ally existing, not the knowing, which must be capable of infinite suffering, though it is finite. To suffer is to be religious, which includes the paradox. The paradox or absurd is the con tradiction between man, a sinner by his very existence, and man determining himself for faith, i. e. not likeness, but contemporaneous ness with Christ, as shown, not merely in humil ity and inner suffering, but in actual expe rience of the hate of the world, which flies from truth. (LiT. : Petersen, Soren Kierke- gaards Kristendums forkyadelse ; Martensen, Aus meinen Leben ; Kierkegaard, in the various Cyclop. ; espec. Nordisk Konversaiionslexikon. Kinderlehre, also caUed Chrisienlehre, Gebeisverhor, and in Saxony Kaiechismusunier- redungen, an institution dating back in its origin to the times of the Reformation, accord ing to which, at stated times, most frequently on Sundays, after the main service, or in the afternoon, the pastor instracted and examined the members of the congregation, especiaUy the younger among them, in the Catechism, or in biblical doctrine as related to it. This cate chization, to be distinguished from the special preparation for confirmation, and ha-ring as its subjects chiefly those already confirmed, originated in the desire to further and es tablish the members of the Church in their acquaintance with evangelical doctrine. Lu ther, while in general dwelling on the necessity of instruction in doctrine, also recommended the special use of the secondary services {Nebengottesdienste) for this purpose. The Articles of Visitation of Meissen (1540) provide that after the vesper a part of the Catechism be simply explained and the children examined on it during the week. (Cf. Bachmann on Con firmation, p. 57.) 'Ihe Kirchenordnungen oi the sixteenth century make it the duty, not only of the superintendents in their visitations, but in most instances also of the indi-ridual pastors to hold such examination statedly. Thus it became customary in most localities to examine the assembled congregation, especially the youth, in the Catechism, every Sunday afternoon. The practice, which, Uke many others indicative of a sound life in the Church, had fallen into partial disuse during the seven teenth century, was revived by Spener, under whose influence this institution too, from a mere rehearsal of the doctrines of the Catechism, into which It had mostly degenerated (during the reign of orthodoxy) , became a means for the exercise of the personal awakening in fluences of Pietism. To the same influence its early introduction into the Luth. Church in Amenca is traceable. Muhlenberg intioduced the practice in the churches which he organ- u ^^"^ ^^^^^ (cf. Mann, Life and Times of J-l. M. Muhlenberg, p. 289) , catechizing old and young. In 1764 he expresses himsel? in a letter to Rev. Kjug, in Reading, Pa., as aston ished to find people from 16 to 27 years of age in the c&techizat-ions {Hallesche Nachrichten, vol. 11., p. 125). The Pennsylvania Ministe- num m 1760 discussed the question of the best Kirctaen-Ordnnng 263 Klopstock method of conducting Kinderlehre, especially with reference to the needs of the scattered population in the coimtry. It was recom mended that the youth especially should be the objects of diligent labor, and that not only memorizing of the Catechism but impressing the heart was to be aimed at {Documentary His tory of Pa. Min., 1898, p. 51). In 1790 com plaint was brought before the same body against Rev. Jung of Hagerstown, for neglect of catechization, and it was resolved that it is the duty of every preacher wherever possible to hold K. every Sunday (ibid., p. 233). Pastor Emnnholz reports that he instracted and cate chized in the order of salvation and Bible his tory, the younger members in the Catechism, ind claims a more direct impression from this instraction than from his sermons. The prac tice, which first took the place of the Sunday- school for a long time, continued in vogue in Zion's Church, Phila., until the year 1870, on alternate Sunday afternoons after the Sunday- school session. G. C. F. H. Kirchen-Ordnung (K. O. ; Chiu-ch Orders), the regulations and directions for the govern ment of the Church, the instiuction of the young, the order of service, the maintenance of discipline, etc., published in the Reformation - era. As a rule these orders, in their various provisions, cover the whole life of the Church, the "Credenda" as well as the "Agenda." They contain not only the orders of service (liturgies) in the different Luth. churches, but also summaries of doctrine, outlines of the cate chetical instraction of the young, directions for the organization and administration of church government and discipline, regulations and laws concerning matrimony, school affairs, finances, care of the poor. These Kirchen-Ordnungen were written mostly by prominent theologians, by order of the princes and ralers of the differ ent territories, and by their authority were in troduced and recognized as the law of the land. The Luth. Church Orders of the sixteenth cen tury are generally divided into three groups ; (1) Those of an ultra-conservative character, which, though Luth. in doctrine, contain some romanizing features, particularly in the order of service such as the Mark Brandenburg K. O. of 1540, prepared under the Elector Joachim the Second, by Stratner of Anspach, and Buch- holtzer of Berlin ; the Pfalz-Neuburg K. O. of 1543 (Ott-Heinrich), and the Austria K. O. of 1571, prepared under Max. the Second, by Chy traeus. (2) The Church Orders of the genuine Luth. type ; among them the most prominent and influential are the foUo-wing: Prussia (1525) by order of Duke Albrecht, prepared by George von Polenz and Erhardt von Queisz, in its order of service based on Luther's Formula Missse of 1523 ; the Bransvrick K. O. of 1528, prepared by John Bugenhagen,on the basis of Luther's and Melanchthon's Instiuctions for the Visitators in Electoral Saxony ; the Brandenburg-Nuernberg K. O. of 1533, by Osiander and Brenz, ap proved by Luther and Melanchthon ; the Pom erania K. O. of 1535, by John Bugenhagen ; the Hanover K. O. of 1536, by Urbanus Rhe gius ; the Saxon K. O. of 1539, Duke Henry's, prepared by Justus Jonas ; the Mecklenburg K. O. of 1552, by order of Duke John Albrecht, prepared by Johann Aurifaber, Johann Riebling, Joachim Nossiophagus, and Ernest Rothmann, with the co-operation of Melanchthon. (3) Those K. O. O. which incline towards the Re formed type, especially in their order of service, such as the Wuertemberg K. O. of 1536 by order of Duke Ulrich, written by Schnepf, ap proved by Brenz ; the Wuertemberg K. O. of I553i under Duke Christopher, written by Brenz ; the Palatinate K. O. of 1554 (Ott-Hein rich) ; the Baden K. O. of 1556 ; the Worms K. O. of 1560. See Dr. Aemilius Ludwig Richter, Die Evangelischen Kirchen-Ordnungen des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts, Urkunden und Re- gesten, zur Geschichte des Rechts und der Ver- fassung der Evangelischen Kirche in Deuisch land (Leipzig, 1871, 2 vols.), covering 172 differ ent Church Orders. A. S. Kliefoth, Dr. Theodor, an eminent authority on questions of liturgy and church polity, was b. in Karchow, Mecklenburg, January 18, 1810, and d. in Schwerin, January 26, 1895. In 1833 he became the instructor of the princes of Meck lenburg. In 1840 he was called as pastor to Ludvrigslust. In 1844 he was appointed super intendent in Schwerin and afterward superior church councillor. In 1886 he was made presi dent of the CouncU, the chief ecclesiastical body in Schwerin. He published five volumes of ser mons and eight volumes of Liturgische Abhand lungen. The first three of these tieat of Mar riage, Burial, and Ordination and Installation. The last five treat of the original order of ser-rice of the German churches of the Lutheran Confes sion, its destruction and its reformation. He also had the direction of the republication of the Mecklenburg Cantionale of 1650, a valuable con tribution to the music of the Liturgy, in four folio volumes. His last work was a treatise on Chrislian Eschatology (Leipzig, 1886). G. U.W. Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, b. 1724, at Quedlinburg, d. 1803, at Hamburg. He attended the excellent school at Pforta, where the reading of Milton's " Paradise Lost " made a deep and lasting impression on him. While studying theology at Jena he composed the first three sections of his " Messiah," in prose, as he had not yet decided on the metie. He continued his studies at Leipzig, and there chose the hexameter for his great epos, thereby intioduc- ing this ancient metre into German poetry. The first three cantos appeared in 1748 and created the deepest impression in Germany. But only in 1773 the whole epos was finished. In 1751 Count Bemstorff invited him to Co penhagen, there to complete his poem free from care. From 1770, -with the exception of one year in Karlsruhe, the rest of his life was spent in Hamburg. At a time when in- fideUty was rampant in Germany he manfully imfolded the banner of simple faith in Christ, the God-man, the Sa-riour of mankind. His poetry was altogether in the ancient classical forms of Hellas and Rome, and the hymns which he wrote for the use of Christian congre- f ations were entirely too artistic and stilted to nd a home in the service of the Church. His revision of the old standard hymns, from Luther Knade 264 Koch to Gerhardt, was an unfortunate mistake which he himself afterwards regretted. A. S. Knade, Johann, first preacher of evang. tiuth in Danzig (1518), was married and im prisoned for it. Afterward he was pastor at Marienburg and Thorn (Quandt, Knade' s Selb- sierkenniniss) . Knapp, Albert, b. 1798, at Tiibingen, Wuertemberg, studied there from 1816 to 1820, and began his pastoral work as assistant (vicar) in Feuerbach and Gaisburg, in the neighbor hood of Stuttgart, being greatly aided in his spiritual growth by his friend Ludwig Hofacker. In 1831 he was appointed chief pastor in Kirch- heim unter Teck, at the special request of the pious Duchess Henrietta. In 1836 he was called to Stuttgart, where he d. in 1864. He was un doubtedly a man of brilliant poetical gifts, and would have ranked as a shining star in German literature, had he devoted himself to secular Eoetry. As a hymn-writer he was distinguished y his mastery of form, the comprehensiveness and wealth of his thoughts, and the glow of his personal devotion to Christ, his Saviour. But he wrote too much, and was inclined to be dif fuse even in the best that he wrote. Very few of his hymns approach that simplicity and ob jecti-rity which would make them fit for congre gational use. As a hymnologist, Kuapp did a great work in the compilation aud publication of his Evangelischer Liederschatz (Treasure of Evangelical Hymns). The first edition ap peared in 1837, -with 3,590 hymns ; the fourth, revised and improved by his son Joseph, was published in 1891, -with 3,154 hymns. The value of this collection, which might have been an indispensable storehouse for the student of German hymnology, is greatly impaired through the unwanantable liberties which Knapp took vrith the originals, "to suit the requirements of the nineteenth century." Knapp was a prominent and influential member of the com mittee which prepared the Wuertemberg hymn- book of 1842. He also edited the hymns of Gottfried Arnold and Nicolaus Zinzendorf, in 1845. Julian's Dictionary of Hymnology enu merates 24 translations in English of his hymns, among them his finest and most popular one, " Eines wuensch ich mir vor AUem andern " (More than all one thing my heart is craving) , by T. C. Porter, in Schaff's Christ in Song (1869). The late Dr. Chas. W. Schaeffer also translated this hymn. A. S. Knapp, Joh. Geo., b. 1705, in Oehringen, Bavaria, was teacher in the Halle institution, preacher in Berlin, and prof, in Halle and di rector of the institution (1769), a mighty man of prayer, revered like a saint. His son, Geo. Christian, b. 1753, in Halle, prof, at the univ. (1782), director of the Halle institution (1785), d. 1825, is known for his exegetical writings, espec. his Editio Novi Tesiamenii, and his dog matics, Vorlesungen iiber die Glaubenslehre, ed. by his son-in-law Thilo (2d ed., 1836). Knipstro, Joh. Karl, b. 1497, in Sandow, Altmark, won for Luther by the 95 theses, which he defended ag. Tetzel in Frankfort (Jan. 20, 1518), deacon, pastor, and supt. at Stralsund (1825-27), introduced the Reforma tion in Greifswald (1531-32), appointed pastor and then supt. at Wolgast by Duke PhUip (1534), prof, at Greifswald (i539)- -A-S genl, supt. he held visitation, called the Greifswald Synod, and intioduced the Agenda of 1542. He opposed Osiander, and in the ordination dispute of Frederus {q. v. ) advocated laying on of hands as according to Church Order. K. d. 1551. Knoepken (Cnophius) Andreas, b. about 1490, in Kuestrin, teacher in Treptow, vrith Bugenhagen. The prosecution of the Bishqp of Kamin drove him to Riga. He gained thtt city for the Reformation when, after a trium phant disputation -with the Romanists, he had been appointed pastor of St. Peter's, in 1522. He ¦wrote a commentary on Romans to which Me lanchthon added some annotations (Wittenberg, 1524). His hymns (originally -written in Loiv German) are mostly versions of Psalms, among them " Von aUen Menschen abgewandt " rt lyft my soule. Lord, up to thee) , translated bir Coverdale (1539). A. S. Knoll, Christoph, b. 1563, at Bunzlau, Sr lesia, entered the University of Frankfurt a Oder in 1583. In 1591 he became diaconus, aud in 1620 archdiaconus at Sprottau, where he was driven out by the Lichtenstein Dragoons in 1628 ; d. in Wittgendorf, 1650. He is the author of the hymn " Herzlich thut mich ver langen " (My heart is filled with longing), translated by Miss Winkworth, Choral Book for England (1863). A. S. Knoll, Michael Christian, from 1732 untU 1750 pastor of Trinity Church in New York and of the churches in New Jersey belonging to the parish. B. at. Rendsburg, studied at Kiel, and was ordained, in 1732, by the Luth. pastors in London. Under his administration the congregations did not prosper. After re signing New York in 1750, we hear no more of him. J. N. Knudsen, Hans, last of Danish chaplains at Tranquebar, So. India, left station in charge of Leipzig missionary Cordes (1843), returned to Denmark, where he d. 1886 as a countiy pastor. He founded (1859) a missionary society which later merged into the Danish F. M. Society. K. was greatly interested in charity work for poor crippled children. W. W. Koch, Emil Edward, b. 1809, at the SoU tude, Wuertemberg, studied theology at Tiibin gen ; 1830, assistant pastor in Ehningen ; 1837, pastor in Gross-Aspach, near Marbach ; 1847, pastor, and 1853, superintendent, in Heilbronn; 1864, pastor in Erdmannshausen ; d. 1871 on a -risit in Stuttgart. A prominent hymnologist, author of the Geschichte des Kirchenlieds und Kirchengesangs der Christlichen, insbesondere der Deutschen Evangelischen Kirche (History of the Hymnology and Music of the Christian, particularly the German Evangelical Church). This important and voluminous work grew out of his plan to write a commentary to the Wuer temberg hymn-book of 1842. First edition in two volumes (Stuttgart, 1847). Second edition, four volumes, ibid. (1852 and 1853). Third edi tion, eight volumes (1866 to 1876), the first six by Koch himself, the seventh by his son Adolph Wilhelm, court chaplain of Prince Alexander of Kocherthal 265 Kohlhans Bulgaria, from notes of his father, the eighth volume by Richard Lauxmann. The chief value of this work is in its biographical sketches; its hymnological statements are not always ex act and reliable and need verification from direct sources. A. S. Kocherthal, Joshua, pioneer of German emigration to New York, pastor at Landau, in Bavaria, -visited England in 1704, with a view to leading a colony of his people to America, pub lished, in 1706, a pamphlet commending South Carolina as the best home in America for Ger mans, led a band of emigrants to New York in 1708; returning to England the next year, ac companied the 3,000 emigrants under Governor Hunter, and served the Lutherans as pastor, until his death, 1719. Buried at West Camp, N. Y., where his tombstone has recently been re moved to the vestibule of Luth. Church. H.E.J. Kock, Peter, prominent Swedish Phila delphia merchant, and the most important lay man in the Swedish American congregations of the last century. Translated Luther's Cate chism into English, and labored vrith Schley- dom of the German Church for a union between the Swedish and German churches, leading to a conference in 1744, which, while unsuccessful, culminated in the founding of the Ministerium of Pa. in 1748. D. 1749. Koehler, August Philip, b. Feb. 2, 1835, at Schmalenberg, Rheinpf alz ; commenced his aca demic career at Erlangen in 1857 ; was made professor extraordinary in 1862 ; ordinary pro fessor at Jena, 1864, at Bonn, 1866, at Erlangen, 1868, where he d. Feb. 17, 1897. He is the author of Die niederldndische ref. Kirche, Erlangen (1856); Prindpia doctrines de regenera- tioneinN. T. obvia (1857) ; Commentatio de vi ac pronundaiione sacrosancies Tetragrammatis (1857) ; Die nachexilischen Propheten (1860-65), 4parts; Ueber Berechtigung der Kritik des Alten Test. (1895). But his main work is Lehrbuch der Biblischen Geschichte Alten Test. (1875-93), a work on which he spent more than 20 years. B. P. Koellner, Edward., b. 1806, in Tiingeda, Gotha, prof, in Gottingen (1803), in Giessen (1847), is noted for his Symbolik aller chrl. Confessionen, Hamb. (1837-44), 2 vols. Koenig, Friedrich Edward, b. November 15, 1846, at Reichenbach, Saxony, commenced his academic career at Leipzig, and occupies, since 1888, the theological chair at Rostock. Koenig's contributions to the literature of the Old Testa ment must always command the attention of scholars. We only mention : Offenbarungs- begriff des A. Test. (1882) ; Hauptproblemeder aUisraelii. Religionsgeschichte (1884 ; Engl. transl., The Religious History of Israel, Edin burgh, 1885) ; Einleitung in das Alte Test. (1893); but his main work is Historischkriii- sches Lehrgebdnde der Hebr. Sprache, vol. i., pp. 710(1881) ; vol. ii., pp. 602 (1895) ; vol. iii., pp. 721 (1897). B. P. Koenig, Georg, b. 1590, d. 1654, prof, at Alt dorf, is espec. known for his practical casuistics. Casus consdenties. Koenig, J. F,, theologian, b. Dresden, 1619, professor at Greifswald and Rostock, d. 1664. His Theologia Positiva Acroamaiica is a very compact text-book, upon which Quenstedt afterwards constructed his elaborate system. The definitions of the latter are almost uniformly those of Koenig. Koepke, Balthasar, b. 1646, in Nonnhausen, Prussia, pastor at Fehrbellin and inspector at Nauen, d. 1711, friend and defender of Spener, known for his allegorizing publications on scriptural topics. Koester, Henry Bernhard, German mystic, b. in Westphalia, 1664 ; educated at Frankfort- on-the-Oder ; while tutor in Berlin came under Pietistic influences, but combined their accept ance vrith strongest professions of adherence to the strictest form of Lutheranism ; came to America in 1695, and settled in neighiborhood of PhUadelphia, holding religious meetings and preaching in both German and English, before the English Church held services there ; founder of Christ Episcopal Church ; retumed to Europe in 1700, and travelled much throughout the rest of his life; d. in Hanover, 1749. A voluminous -writer of mystical books and hymns. (See Sachse, The German Pietists of Pennsylvania.) Koethe, Friedrich August, b. 1781, at Lueb ben ; 1803, University preacher at Leipzig ; 1810, professor in Jena ; 1819, superintendent in AUstaedt ; d. 1850, one of the first opponents of the ruling rationalism, edited the Symbolical Books, Concordia {x8-2,o) ; Philip Melanchthon's works, vrith a biographical sketch (1829 ff.). Author of a number of hymns, among them "Wenn Sorg und Gram dein Herz erfiillt." A.S. Kohler John, D. D., b. Juniata Co., Pa. (1820) ; graduate of Pennsylvania College (1842) and Gettysburg Seminary (1844) ; pastor, Will- iamsport. Pa. (1844-49), New Holland (1850- 64) ; Trappe (1864-73) ; Stroudsburg (1873-82); principal of academic department of Muhlenberg College (1882-84) ; pastor, Leacock, Pa. (1884- 93) ; retiring to New Holland, but zealously occupied as president of Conference in supply ing vacant congregations and administrative duties, until the last day of his life. He was an influential member of the Ministerium of Penn sylvania, serving it as secretary, and for a long period as Conference president ; a member of the Church Book committee of the General Coun cil when both editions were prepared ; one of the founders of the theological seminary at Philadelphia, and largely instiumental in secur ing the Singmaster legacy from one of his parish ioners. Dr. Kohler was the chief advocate of the adoption of the episcopate into the Luth. Church of America, published a monograph on the subject that was widely noticed, both in the Luth. Church and outside of it, and was inde fatigable in the writing of articles and organiza tion of conventions to attain this end. d. 1898. Kohlhans, Johann Christian, b. 1604, at Neustadt, near Coburg ; 1633, professor of math ematics, and afterwards of Hebrew in the gym nasium at Coburg. In 1642 the war drove him to Gottingen. In 1653 he returned to Coburg, and d. there in 1677. Author of the hymn " Ach wann werd ich dahin kommen, das ich Gottes Angesicht." A.S. Kohlhoff 266 Krauth Kohlhoff, John Balthasar, b. 1711, in Pom erania, arrived at Tranquebar (i737). worked among the Tamils for 53 years, d. at Tranquebar, 1790. His son, John Caspar, was ordained to the ministry by C. F. Schwartz, who had educated him, at'his father's jubilee in 1787. W. W. Kohlrose (Eodanthracius) Johann, teacher and pastor at Basel, d. therein 1558. Author of the morning song ' ' Ich dank Dir, lieber Hene, ' ' a partial tianslation of which is found in the Moravian hymn-book of 1754, "Thy wounds. Lord, be my Safeguard." A. S. Kohlschuetter, Dr. Ernst Volkmar, b. 1812, d. 1889, Reformed minister at Dresden (1835-41), was won for the Luth. Church by Rudelbach and became one of the Luth. leaders in Saxony. Was vice-president of the Consistory of Saxony, dele gate to the Eisenach Conference since 1863, and its president since 1882. G. J. F. Koitsch, Christian Jacob, b. 1671, at Meis sen, studied theology at Leipzig and Halle. Through his teachers Francke and Breithaupt he came under the influence of Pietism. From 1696 to 1705 he was one of the teachers, and afterwards inspector of the paedagogium at HaUe. In 1705 he became professor and rector of the gymnasium at Elbig, where he d. in 1734. He contributed a number of hymns to the Freylinghausen hymn-books of 1704 and 1714. Several of them were translated into English, among them " Du bist ja Jesu meine Freude" (Thou, Jesu, art my consolation), by Miss Burlingham, in tne British Herald (1866), also in Reid's Praise Book (1872). A. S. Krabbe, Otto Karsten, b. Dec. 27, 1805, in Hamburg, prof., preacher, consistorial coun sellor, rector of the Univ. at Rostock (1840), noted for his Lehre v. der Siinde u. Tod. (1836), Heinr. Miiller u. s. Zeit. (1866), Dav. Chytreeus (1870). A man of eamest confess. Lutheran ism, uncompromising in position, though mild in disposition, he composed the Gutachten ag. M. Baumgarten (1858). K. d. Nov. 14, 1873. Kraeuter, Philip Da-vid, was pastor of the German Luth. Trinity or Hamburg Church in London, and ordained the Rev. John Chr. Hart- vrig on Nov. 24, 1745. Dr. K. took much in terest in the development of the Luth. Church in America. J. N. Krakevdtz, Berthold von, b. 1582, of Riigen nobility, studied at Wittenberg, genl. supt. and prof, at Greifswald, wrote polemical treatises ag. Romanism and Calvinism, and had the Form, of Concord included among the conf. of Pomerania. K. d. 1642. Krause, Jonathan, b. 1701, at Hirschberg, Silesia, studied at Leipzig and Wittenberg. Haring been a private tutor for a number of years, he was ordained in 1732 as diaconus at Probsthayn, near Liegnitz, Silesia. In 1739 he was appointed chief pastor of the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul at Liegnitz, and superin tendent in 1741 ; d. in 1762. Among his hymns the finest is "Hallelujah, schoener Morgen," partially translated in 1858, by Miss Borthwick, " Hallelujah, fairest morning." A. S. Krauth, Charles Philip, D. D., b. May 7, 1797, at New Goshenhoppen, Pa., where his father, Charles James K., was teacher and or ganist in the Luth. congregation. He first studied medicine under Dr. Selden, of Norfolk, Va., and afterwards theology, under Dr. D. F. Schaeffer, in Frederick, Maryland. He was licensed by the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, in Baltimore, 1819. His first pastorate was in Martinsburg and Shepherdstown, Va. In 1826 and 1827 he was associated with Dr. F. Schaef fer in editing the Evangelical Lutheran In telligencer. In 1826 he became president of the Synod of Maryland and Virginia. In 1827 he was called to St. Matthew's, Philadelphia, and in 1833 to the theological seminary in Gettys burg, as professor of biblical and oriental liter ature. In 1834 he became first president of Pennsylvania College. In 1850 he ga-ye up his connection with the college, to devote his whole time henceforth to the seminary. From 1850 to 1861 he was editor of the Evangelical Re view, which had been established in 1849, by Prof. W. M. Reynolds. He d. at Gettysburg, May 30, 1867. A. S. Krauth, Charles Porterfield, D.D., LL. D., b. March 17, 1823, at Martinsburg, Va., son of Charles Philip K. and his -wife, Catharine Susan Heiskell, of Staunton, Va. He was educated at Pennsylvania College and the theological sem inary in Gettysburg. Having been licensed by the Synod of Maryland, in 1841 , he took charge of the mission station at Canton, near Balti more. In 1842 he became pastor of the Lom bard Str. Church in Baltimore ; 1847, at Shepherdstown and Martinsburg ; 1848, in Win chester. On account of the ill-health of his wife he spent the winter 1852 to 1853 in the West Indies, serring the Dutch Reformed con gregation at St. Thomas', during the absence of its pastor. In 1855 he iDecame pastor of the first English Luth. Church in Pittsburgh, Pa., and in 1859 pastor of St. Mark's, Philadelphia. Later on he served the mission churches of St. Peter's and St. Stephen's, in Philadelphia. In 1861 he resigned the pastorate of St. Mark's in order to devote his whole strength to the editor ship of The Lutheran, which in his hands be- carne the strongest weapon in the conflict against the shallow, unprincipled " American Lutheranism ' ' which ruled our English Luth. Church of that time. He was pre-eminently fitted to transplant the spirit of trae, historical, conservative Lutheranism, into the sphere of the English language, and there to reproduce and establish it on such a basis, that its future should be secure. When the theological sem inary at Philadelphia was founded, in 1864, he was appointed Norton professor of dogmatic theology, and at the installation of the first faculty he delivered the inaugural address, de fining the theological position represented by that institution. In the establishment of the General Council he took an active and promi nent part, being the author of the Fundamental Articles of Faith and Church Polity, adopted by the preliminary convention at Rea^ng, 1866 ; of the constitution for congregations, adopted in 1880, and of the theses on pulpit and altar fellowship, presented in 1877. He was also actively engaged in the liturgical work of the Church, resulting in the publication of the Church Book. From 1870 to 1880 he was Krauth 267 Kuebel president of the General Council. In 1868 he was appointed professor of mental and moral philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania. From 1873 be held the position of vice-provost, and after the resignation of Provost Stills he carried the burden of this office for many months. After a journey to Europe which was undertaken, in 1880, not only for his own recuperation but chiefly in the interest of the Luther Biography with which the Ministerium of Pennsylvania had charged him, the chair of history at the University of Pennsylvania was given him in addition to all his other duties. But the burden proved too heavy. In the vrinter 1881-82, his work in the seminary was frequently intermpted through bodily weak ness. He d. January 2, 1883. He was one of the most prolific and brilliant writers of our English Luth. Church. Many and valuable articles were contributed by him not only to the Lutheran, but also to various reviews and encyclopaedias. Among his larger publications we. mention the following : Tholuck's Com mentary on the Gospel of John, translated (Philadelphia, Smith & EngUsh, 1859) ; Chris tian Liberty in Relation to the Usages of the Evangelical Luth. Church Maintained and Defended (Philadelphia, H. P. Ashmead, i860); Fleming's Vocabulary of Philosophy, edited -with Intioduction, etc. (Philadelphia, i860 ; New York, Sheldon & Co., 1878); The Augs burg Confession, tianslated with Introduction, Notes, and Index (Philadelphia, 1868) ; The Conservative Reformation and its Theology (PhUadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1872) ; Infant Baptism and Infant Salvation in the Calvinistic System (Philadelphia, 1874) ; Ul- rici's Review of Strauss' Life of Christ, Intro duction (1874) ; The Strength and Weakness of Idealism:, in Proceedings of Evangelical Al liance (New York, 1874) ; Berkeley's Prindples. Prolegomena, etc. (Philadelphia, 1874). (See Charles Porterfield Krauth, D.D., LL. D., by Adolph Spaeth, in two vols. : vol. i. (1823-1859), New York, The Christian Literature Company (1898.) A. S. Kremmer, K. F., b. at Schmalkalden, Sept., 1817, arrived at Madras, March, 1847, worked in Tamil Land until his death, July 24, 1887, when senior of the Leipzig missionaries in In dia. His chief work was done at Madura. Christians and pagans loved him. His brethren said of him that he did his best work on his knees. W. W. Kropp Seminary. The Evang. Luth. Theo logical Seminary of Kropp, located near Schles vrig, in the Prussian pro-rince of Schlesvrig- Holstein, Germany, owes its existence to the large increase of German emigration to America after the conclusion of the American and Ger man wars. Among others the General Council, a large Luth. body, authorized its mission- board to establish a connection between this body and a German theological school, which could provide well-educated theologians for the proper care of its German Luth. element. Rev. J. Paulsen, of Kropp, was interested in the scheme, and promised to found the institution and educate young men for the General Coun cU, which in return should furnish the financial aid. May i, 1882, the seminary opened with 12 students, of whom the first were sent to America in 1886. By thorough theological tiaining the institution has endeavored and succeeded in maintaining a high standard. It has from the be ginning been in full harmony with the doctrinal standpoint of the General Council. So far 122 students have received theological training at Kropp ; the largest number is in connection with the G. C, some with the Missouri and a few with the General Synod. Great personal and financial sacrifices entitie Rev. Paulsen to the gratitude of the American Luth. Church. Though official connection and mutual obliga tions have ceased to exist, since the Lutherans of America can better provide for their own, the Luth. Church of America holds in high regard and appreciates the services rendered by the seminary of Kropp. J. A. W. K. Krug, John Andrew, pastor, b. 1732 ; pupil and instructor at Halle ; came to Amenca (1763), pastor, Reading, Pa. (1763-1771), and Frederick, Md., from 1771 untU his death (1796). Kuebel, Franz Eberhard, b. 1835, in Kirch- heim unter Teck, Wuertemberg, d. 1892, as superintendent {dekan) in Esslingen, one of the most prominent Luth. pastors of recent times in Wuertemberg. He studied in the Pro-Seminary at Blaubeuren, and at the University of Tiibingen, was pastor at Esslingen and Urach, and editor of the Sueddeutsche Schulbote. He wrote a vol ume of excellent sermons on the Gospels of the Church Year (Esslingen, 1890) . A. S. Kuebel, Robert Benjamin, brother of the former, b. 1838, at Kirchheim unter Teck, d. 1894, as professor and doctor of theology in Tiibingen. He received his training at the Pro-Seminary of Schoenthal, Wuertemberg, and the University of Tiibingen, where Oehler and Beck made the deepest impression on his mind. In 1865 he spent some months in Paris to gather information on the condition of the Evangelical Luth. Church in France. In 1867 he became pastor {diaconus) in Balingen, Wuertemberg ; in 1870 professor and director of the theological seminary at Herborn, in Nassau ; 1874, pastor in EUwangen, Wuertemberg ; 1879, professor of theology in Tubingen, succeeding his former teacher, the celebrated Dr. J. T. Beck. Like him he claimed to hold a position independent of all theological, ecclesiastical, and political parties, simply as a positive biblical theologian. But he differed from Beck in his closer, living contact with modern theological science, and in his decided sympathy vrith Lu theranism, which became more and more out spoken as he advanced in years. He cheerfully co-operated vrith men like Luthardt, Zoeckler, Gran, and Frank, contributing freely to their periodicals, encyclopaedias, and commentaries. Among his works the f oUo-wing are most prom inent : Christliches Lehrsystem nach der Heil igen Schrift (1873) ; Bibelkunde (2 vols., 5 edi tions from 1870 to 1894) ; Outline of Pastoral Theology (1874) ; Catechetics (1877); Com mentary to the Gospel of St. Matthew {i88To the sources of doctrine concerning the Lord's Supper, they add John 6 : 48-58. Against the first argument, Luther and his successors re plied by showing that the Right Hand of God cannot be localized, and stating the doctrine of the communication of divine attributes to the humanity of Christ. Against the use of John 6, they showed that the treatment there was; conceming the spiritual eating of Christ's Body,^ which is absolutely necessary for eternal life,. and which occurs by faith, and outside of and vrithout the sacrament, as well as in it ; while the sacramental eating occurs only in the sacra ment, and by worthy and unworthy alike. While the spiritual eating, indeed, finds its highest realization in the proper use of the Lord's Supper, or when the Body and Blood of Christ are not only sacramentally received, but their reception is accompanied by faith in the words of the gospel of which they are the seal, nevertheless there is a sacramental which is not a spiritual, and there is a spiritual which is not a sacramental, feeding upon Christ. The doctrine is most fully treated in a number of Luther's writings, particularly, in addition to those above mentioned : Tha.t these Words: This is my Body, stand firm (1527) ; Confes sion ccmcerming the Lord's Supper {i$28) ; Brief Confession concerning the Lord's Supper {15^^. The fullest scientific treatment is found in Chemnitz, De Vera et Substantiali Pressentia, ist ed. (1569) ; 2d ed., Frankfort and Witten berg (1690) ; and in the Lod Theologici of John Gerhard. In EngUsh, the most complete statement and defence of the doctrine is found in Krauth's Conservative Reformation. Com pare the modem systems of Thomasius, Philippi, and Frank. H. E. J. Lossius, Lucas (Fachensis), b. 1508, in Vacha, Hessia, d. 1582, in Lueneburg. He was educated at Lueneburg and Wittenberg, where he became quite intimate vrith Melanchthon, Louis TI. 290 Luther who afterwards wrote the preface to his Psalmo dia Sacra. In 1532 he returned to Lueneburg highly recommended by Luther, Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen, and for the last fifty years of his life he was teacher and conrector of the school at Lueneburg. One of the greatest litur gical and musical treasures of our Church is his Psalmodia Sacra (Nuernberg, 1553 ; 2d ed., Wittenberg, 1561 ; 3d ed., Wittenberg, 1579). This Cantica Sacra Veteris Ecclesiee Selecla con tains the full musical material for all the litur gical services of the Church. The first and third editions are used by Schoeberlein. A. S. Louis VI., of the Palatinate, son ofthe Elec tor Frederick III. and Maria of Ansbach, b. July 4, 1539, received his education at the court of the Margrave Philibert of Baden, under Luth. auspices. In 1560 he became governor of the Upper Palatinate, and in 1576 succeeded his father as Elector. Louis was an ardent friend of the Formula of Concord, and did his best to restore the Palatinate, which had been Calvin ized by his father, to the Luth. faith. His reign, however, was too short to enable him to complete this work, which was undone by the regent who governed the country during the minority of his son Frederick IV. L. d. Oct. 12, 1583. G. F. S. Louise Henriette v. Brandenburg, b. 1627, at the Hague, d. 1667, in Berlin, as the wife of the Great Elector, Friedrich Wilhelm of Bran denburg, a descendant of Admiral Coligny, the French Huguenot leader, and the ancestor of William, who was proclaimed German Em peror at Versailles (1871). Though herself of the Reformed faith she was a faithful friend of Paul Gerhardt. At her request the Berlin hymn-book of 1653 was prepared by Christoph Runge for the joint use of Lutherans and Reformed. Four hymns in this book are spoken of by the editor as " her own," among them " Ich will von meiner Missethat " (I wiU return unto the Lord), tr. by Miss Wink worth (1869), and " Jesus, meine Zuversicht, " of which Julian mentions 15 different English translations, among them "Jesus Christ, my sure Defence," by Miss Winkworth, Church Book, and "Jesus, my Redeemer lives," also by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. (1855), Ohio Hymnal (1880). It is, however, not absolutely certain that those h3rmns called by Runge ' ' her own ' ' were really written by her. In none of the earliest sources is her name attached to them, and not until 1769 did the theory of the authorship of the Electress find acceptance. On the other side, there is no satisfactory eri dence that any other whose name has some times been connected with them is in real ity the author of those hymns, such as Otto von Schwerin, Caspar Ziegler, Hans von Assig. A. S. Louisiana, Lutherans in. Of the 12 con gregations and 2,952 communicants, reported m 1890, all but two congregations with less than 200 members were in New Orleans, and with the exception of a congregation of 500 com municants in that city belonging to the Joint Synod of Ohio, all belonged to the Synodical Conference. Ludecus, Matthaeus, b. about 1540, in Mark Brandenburg, bishop at Havelberg, d. there in 1606. He furnished most valuable material for the musical rendering of the Luth. serrice in his Missale (two parts), Vesperale, and Psalterium (1589). A. S. Lufft, Hans, " Bible printer," b. 1495 ; began to flourish as a printer at Wittenberg about 1530 ; printed Luther's German Bible complete in 1534. To 1574 more than a hundred thousand copies of the Bible were printed in his office. He printed many of the works of Luther, Mel anchthon, and other Reformers. Became an alderman of Wittenberg about 1550, and mayor in 1563. D. September 2, 1584. J. W. R. Luger, Friedrich Paul, b. at Luebeck, 1813, author of many published sermons, which are characterized by a clear, deep, and fervent style. Some of his works are : Christus unser Leben (1855, 5 vols.) ; Der Brief Jacobus (1887) ; Ueber Zweck, Inhalt, und Eigenthumlichkeit der Reden Stephanus (1838) ; and Pestalozzi (1845). In 1884 he was made emeritus as archdeacon. D. 1890. H. W. H. Luthardt, Christopher Ernest, canon of the Collegiate Church, Meissen, senior of theological faculty of Leipzig, b. March 22, 1823, at Marolds- weisach. Lower Franconia, studied at Nurem berg and Erlangen ; 1847, prof, of classical col lege at Munich ; 1851, instractor at Erlangen Univ. ; 1854, extraordinary professor of theology at Marburg ; 1856, professor at Leipzig ; since 1865, counsellor of consistory, and 1887, ecclesias tical counsellor. Since 1868 L. has been editor of Allgemeine Lutherische Kirchenzeitung. He is at present only survivor of the great past generation of Luth. divines, member of mission board (Leipzig), executive member of Luther ische Conferenz, author of twelve sermon col lections ; Gospel of St. John ; Doctrine of Last Things ; Doctrine of Free Will ; Com pendium of Dogmatics ; Apologetic Lectures ; Luther's Ethics ; Ethics of Aristotle ; History of Christian Ethics; Compendium of Ethics ; In troduction into Academic Life and Studies; Commentaries to Gospel of St. fohn. Acts of Apostles, Epistle to Romans, Three Epistles of St. fohn ; Autobiography ; Die Chrl. Glau benslehre, etc. G. J. F. Luther, Martin. Presupposing that every intelligent reader of this article has a biography of Luther, a simple summary for convenient ref erence is here attempted. Chronology. 1483. Nov. 10. Birth at Eisleben. 1497. Enters school at Eisenach. 1501. Student at Erfurt. 1505. Master of Arts. July 2. Overtaken by storm. "17. Enters cloister. 1507. May 2. Ordained. 1508. November. Instractor at Wittenberg. 1509. March 9. Bachelor of Theology. Re turns to Erfurt. 1511. October Starts for Rome. 1512. May. Sub-prior of cloister at Wittenberg. Oct. 4. Licentiate. " 19. Doctor of Theology. 1513- Spring. Lectures on the Psalms begun. Luther 291 Luther 1515- Vicar, in charge of eleven monasteries. 1516. Publishes The German Theology. Lec tures on Romans and Galatians. 1517. April. Notes on Penitential Psalms. Sept. 4. XCVII. Theses against Scholas tic Theology. Oct 31. The XCV. Theses. 1518. April 26. Heidelberg Conference. Oct. 12. Before Cajetan at Augsburg. 1519. January, first week. Conference vrith MUtitz at Altenburg. June 27. Leipzig Disputation begins. July 4. Beginning of Luther's discussion vrith Eck. 1520. June 23. To the German Nobility. Oct. 6. The Babylonian Captivity. Nov. 4. The Execrable Bull of Anti christ. Dec. 16. Burning of the Bull. 1521. April 2. Starts for Worms. " 16. Enters Worms. " 17, 18. Before the Emperor. " 26. Departure from Worms. May 4. Taken to the Wartburg. Dec. 2. Secret journey to Wittenberg. 1522. March 6. Returns to Wittenberg. 1523. Sept. 21. Publication of German New Testament. 1524. August. Conflict vrith Carlstadt at Jena, Kahlii, and Orlamiinde. 1525. April 16. In Thuringia, attempting to check the Peasants' Insunection. June 13. Marriage to Catherine von Bora. 1526. Beginning. The German Mass, and Order of Sermce. 1527. January to March. That the Words : This is my Body, stand firm. Ein feste Burg composed. 1528. March. Large Confession conceming the Lord's Supper. October. Visitation of churches. 1529. April. The two Catechisms. Oct. 1-3. Marburg Colloquy. April 16. Schwabach Conference. 1530. April 3. Starts on the way towards Augs burg. April 23. Reaches Coburg. June 5. Hears of his father's death. Oct. 13. Returns to Augsburg. 1531-4. Working steadily on tianslation of Old Testament. 1534. August. First edition of complete Ger man Bible. 1535. Lectures on Genesis begun, which were completed only shortiy before his death. Nov. 6. Cardinal Vergerius at Witten berg. December. The English commissioners. Fox, Heath, and Barnes, reach Witten berg. 1536. May 22-29. ' ' The Wittenberg Concord " with Bucer and Capito. December. Preparation of The Schmal kald Articles. 1537. Feb. 7-28. At Schmalkald. Leaves dan gerously ill. 1539. Ofthe Coundls and the Church. 1539-41. Revision of tianslation of the Bible. 1542. Jan. 19. Consecrates Amsdorf as bishop at Naumburg. 1542. Sept. 20. Death of his daughter, Magda lena. 1544. Sept. Short Confession concerning the Lord's Supper. The Hauspostille published. 1545. Oct. and Dec. 23. Two journeys to Mansfeld. 1546. Jan. 23. Starts on last journey to Eisle ben. Feb. 14. Preaches his last sermon. " 17. Signs articles of agreement of the Counts of Mansfeld. Feb. 18. Dies. " 22. Buried at Wittenberg. Sermon by Dr. John Bugenhagen ; address by Philip Melanchthon. His life dirides into three periods : one of preparation, another of protest against cunent abuses, and a third of attempts to reform and reorganize the Church. Nothing was farther from his thoughts than any plan to gain for himself renown, or to accomplish far-reaching results. Springing from the Saxon peasantry, he had experienced the pressure of poverty, but came from a respectable family, that was not absolutely without property. His parents were God-fearing, industrious, and thrifty ; but under the law themselves, sought to train their children by purely legal methods. His first teachers were stupid and brutal, and treated him with craelty. Under the teaching of Tre- bonius, and the care of Ursula Cotta at Eisen ach, he made rapid progress as a student, and on entering the University of Erfurt, was soon acknowledged one of its most brilliant scholars. Intended by his father for the legal profession, an illness, the sudden death of a friend, and a vow that he made during a fright ful storm, led him into the monastery. There the thorough honesty of his character compelled him to seek, by the most scrupulous observance of every requirement, the attainment of that righteousness which was claimed for the mon astic life. He would not be satisfied until he had fulfilled all that was included in his profes sion. Thus under the opinion that he was wrestling with God for the salvation of his soul, it was in truth the requirements, not of God, but of the Church, with which he was strug gling. By the advice of an old monk, and of the -Vicar-General, Staupitz, and by the reading of the Scriptures, particularly the Psalms and Epistles to the Romans and the Hebrews, he began to understand the way of life as declared in the gospel. This personal experience led him to see the defects of the scholastic the ology, iu which it was his duty to be versed. Called to Wittenberg, to lecture on the Dialec tics and Physics of Aristotie, no task could have been more distasteful ; and he found oppor tunity to make innovations by comments on the Holy Scriptures. His -risit to Rome opened his eyes to the weaknesses, worldliness, hypocrisy, and heartlessness prevalent in that religious centre. Returning to Wittenberg, he became a full professor of theology, devoting himself ex clusively to the interpretation of the Scriptures, and taking as his masters, Augustine, with his profound doctrines conceming sin and grace, Luther 292 Luther and John Tauler, vrith his sober mysticism. As vicar of the monasteries, he became the spirit ual father and adviser of numerous monks, among whom there were some struggling just as he had done before them. The crisis came on gradually. Sincerely regarding himself a loyal son of the Church, he was ignorant how far the church of his time had drifted from Paul and Augustine. Thus ideaUzing the Church, the errors that grieved him he thought were exceptional, and would be suppressed if known by the Pope at Rome. Even before the publication of the Theses of October 31, 1517 (see Theses, The XCV.), he had candidly ex pressed himself concerning current abuses. It was with astonishment that he gradually found that, back of the abuses of John Tetzel, was the Archbishop of Mayence, and back of the arch bishop was the Pope himself. From the sub jects at first involved in the controversy, the discussion changed to that of the final authority in the Church, and he soon reached the clear expression of the principle, that above the Pope, above councils, above the Church, stands the unerring Word of God contained in Holy Scrip ture. But although the expression of the prin ciple was only gradually attained, the principle itself had been unconsciously followed for years before. With it fell the entire fabric of the hierarchy. If the Holy Scriptures be the sole authority, there is no privileged class or order, whose prerogative it is to interpret Scripture. Every Christian is a priest, and all are inherently equal. Thus the pressing of the practical ques tions involved in the controversy concerning indulgences led to the formulation successively of the distinctive doctrines of Lutheranism. Every doctrine that Luther has restated was in volved in some practical discussion, that could not be settled until the principles beneath it were recognized. It was not enough, however, to state the doc trines only on the one side. They had to be guarded against misrepresentations and misap plications, both of enemies and of professed ad herents. Luther was eminently conservative. Whenever practical necessities forced him to break with what had previously been held, he was careful to re-confess the trath beneath the error which he had to reject. There had thus to be an extensive reconstruction of the entire framework of the Church's doctrine. He con structed no new system. It arose as others put into order the materials which he furnished on particular articles. This reformatory activity was not limited to a mere restatement of doctrines. It penetrated into every sphere of the Church's work. It necessitated the translation of the Scriptures into the language of the people, the elimination of doctrinal errors from the order of service and its translation, the composition of a catechism and of hymns and even of church music, the preparation of sermons as models to pastors and as devotional manuals for the people, the reor ganization, in all its details, of the Church's government, and the reorganization of the schools. Step by step he was led into each of these undertakings. As a scholar he was most profound in his knowledge of the Scriptures. He began as a Reformer, vrith a very limited knowledge of Greek, and stUi less, if any whatever, of the Hebrew ; but diUgently worked until he was at home in his Greek New Testament, and availed himself of the aid of his colleagues in studying the Heorew. His reading in the Fathers, particu larly Cyprian and Augustine, was well remem bered, and readily recalled. He knew well the Canonical Law, and some of the Scholastics. A recent writer has published a monograph on "Luther as a Church Historian," based upon quotations and allusions in his works. He was familiar also with many of the Latin classics, among whom Cicero was his favorite ; but had little acquaintance vrith the Greek classics. Ar istotle he had studied in Latin tianslations. When we consider the limited time which he possessed after the Reformation began for in dependent investigation of particular topics and the collection of authorities, we must be aston ished at the extent of his resources, as indicated by any index of allusions to ancient writers in his works. As a teacher, he broke for himself a new path. He is entirely independentof all former methods. He makes it his business to lead his scholars in to the very heart of the Scriptures. Making no effort to force them to commit approved defini tions, he takes the text of Scripture itself, and follows the argument with running expositions. He aims at clearness, rather than exhaustive- ness, and illustrates at every step from cunent events. In his lectures on Genesis, he is at his best, as he concentrates into them both the ex perience and the reading of his entire lifetime. As an author, his style has all the freedom of extemporaneous speech. He is never scholastic, but al-ways popular. Entirely inartificial, he often rises to the highest form of eloquence. He is often diffuse, and is canied away by the intensity of his feeling from his main subject into side remarks. Always full of force and fire, he occasionally, by his perfect frankness, lays himself open to the charge of a lack of dig nity, and even coarseness. He rarely qualifies or modifies his statements, with reference to possible misinterpretations of his meaning. He lives intensely in the moment in which he writes, and thinks of no other adversaries but those at -whom he is striking. Hence the fre quent misrepresentations by those who do not study or quote passages from him in their his torical setting. As a translator, he aims constantly at reach ing. t)y l^is own investigations and all the aid his associates can furnish, the precise meaning of the original ; and theu expressing it in the most idiomatic, forcible, and timely way. He does not hesitate to adopt a paraphrase, where this presents the thought more vividly. His translation of the Bible fixed the form and standard of the modern German. His hymns are largely paraphrases of Scrip ture in verse, composed while his mind was occupied with his translation of the Bible and his heart was aglow with the fire enkindled by his ever new discoveries of the riches of revela tion. They have all the -rigor, movement, and freedom of his speech. Luther 293 Luther As a preacher, he is thoroughly at home in his text. It has entered his very life and be come a part of his being. This he seeks to apply vrith all possible directness and plainness and force to his hearers. He adjusts his entire pres entation to the most unlearned among them. We have few sermons that he wrote. Those we know were mostly taken down as he delivered them. A clearly fixed theme underlies them ; and in general, divisions were determined evi dentiy beforehand ; but otherwise all was left to the suggestions of the moment. So free is he, that his style sometimes falls under the head of what would to-day be called sensationalism. But his theme is always Christ, and he never courts admiration or seeks to make a personal display. His favorite mode is the exposition of Scnpture, either of the Lessons appointed by the Church, or of books of the Bible tieated of con secutively. Peculiar emergencies, however, called forth sermons on free texts, or, as in the eight against the Zwickau prophets, without any text. As an organizer, he made the suggestions and laid down the principles upon which Melanch thon, Bugenhagen, and others worked rather than, as a mle, looked himself to the details. In his Address to the German Nobility of 1520, and particularly in his treatise on the schools of 1524, he introduced radical reforms into the entire educational system, by the application of which, in great measure, Germany has attained its pre-eminence as the land of scholars. He was the eamest advocate of the most liberal culture, the champion of the study of the Greek and Latin Classics, and of the education of women. The free public libraries arise from his suggestions. In the government of the Church, he held tenaciously to all that was approved by the experience of ages, until he found it either contrary to the letter or spirit of the gospel, or Ul adapted to the Church's chief work of reach ing all men -with God's Word. Even then, the break came only after all efforts of reform had been exhausted, and the change was indicated by circumstances beyond his control. In the public worship, all was retained that was not contrary to Scripture, the serrice was tianslated into the language of the worshippers, preaching was elevated to a position hitherto unoccupied, and new methods (such as the hymnody) were freely used to bring the gospel directly to the intelligence and hearts of the people. Exter nal union was esteemed as of value only in so far as it was the expression and means of pro moting unity in faitii and doctiine. However unyielding when a stand was taken, due credit has not been given him for his moderation and conciliatory methods at times, nor have the peculiar nature of the circumstances where he seemed to be intolerant been fully appreciated. The cause which he represented he could not allow to suffer misinterpretation or reproach from confusion with some who vrished to associ ate vrith him and whom he thought involved in serious enor. Outward association was to him a matter of far less importance than the clear ness of his testimony to what he believed to be the tmth. As a theologian, he is constantly restive un der the restraints of the scholastic terminology in which some of the doctiines he confesses are stated. Plain German he prefers to scientific Greek terms, and to deal with questions in the concrete rather than the abstract. All theology he regards as beginning and ending with the doctnne of Christ. God is known only in and through Christ ; and Christology, therefore, covers all theology. Speculations conceming God outside of Christ are not to be admitted. Predestination can be learned only after the entire plan of salvation in Christ has been sur veyed. The organic union of all men in Adam, and the organic union of all sins in original sin, are taught. The entire corruption of human nature, and its absolute helplessness,without the grace of God, not only to return to God, but even to respond to His call, are predominant features. In his De Servo Arbitrio, he pushes the doctrine of the bondage of the will to an extreme that has often brought upon him the charge of fatalism. The incarnation presup poses man's sin. Christ's work is to make satis faction for all sins, original and actual. The humiUation was of the human nature. Not only the sufferings, but the entire work of Christ was vicarious. Faith alone appropriates Christ's merits. This faith comes through the Holy Spirit working by means of Word and sacra ment. Law and gospel are sharply distin guished and contrasted. It is alone the word of the gospel that brings faith. The sacra ments are -visible signs of grace assuring the in dividual using them that the gospel promise belongs to him. In the Lord's Supper, the sacramental pledge of the certainty of the word of grace is the presence of the true Body and Blood of Christ. The Christian Church is the sum total of all believers in Christ. The minis try is not an order, but an office, through which any congregation administers the means of grace. His Ethics is pervaded by the rejec tion of the theory of any inherent antagonism between the spiritual and material, the heavenly and the earthly, the eternal and the temporal. The separation caused by sin is removed by redemption and regeneration ; and the spiritual now pervades the material, the heavenly the earthly, the eternal the temporal. The Chris tian is not only a spiritual priest, but a spiritual king to whom all things belong. Nevertiieless, while, by faith, he is lord over all, by love, he is servant of all. Faith is the spring and mother of all virtues. The Christian obeys the law, not by constraint, but by an inner neces sity of his nature. He had no ambition to be a social reformer. Politically he was the most conservative of con servatives. The old frame work of existing governments he most scrupulously upheld. But this did not deter him from speaking -with the utmost frankness to and of ralers, not merely oppressors of the gospel, like Henry VIII. and Duke George, but even the Saxon Princes who were on his side. He discrimi nated between the man and the ruler. The man needed and had to submit to the preaching of God's Word. In accordance vrith his call, he felt it his duty, therefore, to -risit ralers with his censures wherever the opportunity was offered Luther 294 Luther and the circumstances justified it. But, at the same time, the subjects were urged to obe dience. The revolts of both nobility and peas ants met with his severest censures, at a time when every suggestion of self-interest seemed to demand that he should be their ally. Even serfdom or slavery was supported by his words disapproving of any plots to violently abolish them. For a long time he could not be per suaded that the evangelical princes would be justified in offering any but moral resistance to the arms of the emperor. The Christian, as a Christian, could use only the sword of the spirit, but, as a man, he was in duty bound to obey the emperor, and, when called upon, to go to war against the Turk. His patriotism did not blind him to the faults of his nation, or restiain his words of sharp reproof for sins and abuses. His influence, vrithout any effort on his part, has extended to all departments of human activity. The assertion of the right of private judgment burst the shackles by which all scien tific inquiry had been fettered. Modern litera ture arose from his translation of the Bible and hymns and ceaseless acti-rity as an author, awakening similar movements in other coun tries. Modern English literature is rooted in the English Bible, which was in the beginning as much of a tianslation from Luther's German, as from the sacred originals. The map of Europe showed great changes between the time that his Theses were nailed up and the half century that followed, that can be directly tiaced to the discussions that he evoked. No intelligent admirer of Luther will claim that he was without faults. His manners were not courtly ; his language was not that of the drawing-room. He always bore the trace of his humble origin. He was, in many respects, a rough pioneer, whose work a less sturdy nature could not have performed. But if his language sometimes grates, before he 'is condemned the words of his cotemporaries, and particularly his opponents, should also be pondered. Under the weight of heavy responsibilities, amidst the pressure of incessant work, with a constitution that was undermined by the austerities of his youth, for years suffering from acute disease, it is not strange that, under the attacks of enemies and the misrepresentations of those about him, the nervous tension was excessive, and that his natural vehemence was at times uncontrolled. Let those who condemn him do one-hundredth of his work as well. His thorough sincerity, honesty, and unselfishness no one can question. In no hour of danger did he make a compro mise. His greatest enor, that of his temporary assent to the marriage of the Landgrave of Hesse, did not spring from motives of political expediency, as a superficial view of the circum stances might suggest, but from a pecuUar theory concerning marriage that he enunciates as early as 1520 in his book Concerning the Babylonian Captivity, and which we believe traceable to the fact that the monastic concep tion of the subject had not been entirely ex pelled. Luther's works have been pubUshed in the following editions : i. 'the Wittenberg, 1539-58, 12 vols. German and 8 Latin, folio. 2. The Jena, 1555-8, 8 vols. German and 4 Latin, with two supplementary volumes, Eisleben, 1564-5, folio. 3. The Altenburg, 1661-1702, 11 vols. folio, only in German. 4. The Leipzig, 23 vols. folio, 1729-40. The best folio edition. 5. The Halle, 24 vols. 4to, German, i74o-53- Edited with copious introductions, incorporation of illustrative documents, and tianslation of Latin works into German by J. G. Walch, and hence generally designated as the Walch edition. In 1880 the Luth. Ev. Synod of Missouri be gan to republish this edition after being thor oughly re-edited. Sixteen volumes had ap peared when this article was written. 6. The Erlangen (and Frankfort ) , 67 volumes i2mo, German, with exhaustive indexes, 1826-56 ; a second edition of earlier volumes has appeared. Latin works still in process of publication, about forty volumes ha-ring been published up to date. 7. The Weimar, large 4to, begun in 1883 under the patronage of the German Emper or, a critical edition, far surpassing all others, under editorship of Knaake, Kawerau, etc. (All these editions are in the Seminarj' Library at Mt. Airy.) The best collection of his Letters was edited by De Wette (5 vols., Berlin, 1825-8), with asup- plementary volume by Seidemann ( 1856) . An other edition is by Strobel (1780-83). Separate editions of his Postils and of some of his other works are numerous. Particularly to be com mended is the English translation of the XCV. Theses and his primary works ( To the German Nobility ; Concerning Christian Liberty ; and The Babylonian Captivity of the Church) by Wace and Buchheim {First Principles of the Refor^mation, etc.), Philadelphia, 1885. Contemporaries left biographies. Such are those of Melanchthon (1546) , Craciger (1553), Matthesius (1565), and his physician, Ratzen- berger (1571). The three volumes of Jorgens (1846-7) contain only the history of his childhood and his preparation for his work. The best modern biographies are those of Kostlin (particularly the largest of his three works, 1st ed., 2 vols., 1885 ; 3d ed., 1883 ; the intermediate edition, German, 1882, has ap peared in two English translations), Kolde (2 vols., 1884, 1893), Burk (1883), Plitt (1883), Rade (3 vols., 1887), Lang (1870), and the stiU useful book of Moritz Meurer (ist ed., 1843-6 ; EngUsh translation. New York, 1848). The biography in Vol. XXIV. of the Halle edition of his works (Walch) is valuable. The English biographies of Beard (1889) and Bayne (1887), and the American of Sears (1850), Weiser (1848, -1866) .Wackernagel (1883), E. Smith (1883), and Hay (1898) may be noted. See, also, Martin Luther ; the Hero of the Reformation (New York, 1898) ,by H. E. Jacobs. Most valuable bio graphical material is found in Loescher's, Re formations-Ada, and Seckendorf's Historia Lutheranismi. Luther's Theology has been the subject of monographs by Th. Harnack (1862-7), and Kostlm (Stuttgart, 1863; English translation by Charles E. Hay, D. D., Philadelphia, 1897). ISP^Pff Kirauth, Conservative Reformation (PhUadelphia, 1871) ; PUtt, Einleitung in die Luther's Catechisms 2S5 Luther League Augustana (Erlangen, 1868) ; CroU, Tributes to Luther (Phila., 1883) ; Pick, Luther as a Hymnist (PhUa., 187 ) ; Bacon, L. W., Luther's Hymns ()S.ew York, 1883) ; Vainter, Luther on Education (Phila., 1889) ; Juncker's Life of Luther, illustrated by Medals (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1699), constiucts a biography fromthe themes of the numerous medals covering Lu- •ther and his times, of which it gives Ulustia- tions. H. E. J. Luther's Catechisms. See Catechisms. Luther Jubilees. Public and formal cele brations in memory of Martin Luther were first held at the centennials of his death, in 1646 (particularly in Wittenberg and Erfurt) ; in 1746, in Wittenberg, Leipzig, Erlangen, Erfurt, Goet tingen, Nuemberg, Torgau, Weimar, Augsburg, and other places. (See Dr. M. l,nther's Merk- wuerdige Lebensumstaende, vou Friedrich Siegmund Keil, Leipzig, 1764, 4th part, pp. 292- 319.) In 1846 the 300th anniversary of his death was commemorated. See Denkmale zur dritten Saecular-Feier des Todes Luther's, von K. Ed. Foerstemann, Nordhausen, 1846, con taining (i) the different reports on the death of Luther ; (2) on his burial ; (3) testimonies from letters of his cotemporaries ; (4) the epitaphs of I^uther. The 350th anniversary of Luther's death was also duly remembered in Germany aud America, one of the most impos ing demonstiations being held in the Academy of Music, in Philadelphia, February 19, 1896. Luther's birth does not seem to have been spe cially commemorated in 1583, 1683, and 1783 ; but the 400th anniversary of his birth, on No vember 10 and II, 1883, was undoubtedly the most brilliant and universal Luther Jubilee the world has ever seen. We mention some of the most prominent celebrations in Europe and America. In Wittenberg the celebration was held in September, with a procession of 1,100 clergjrmen, the presence of the Crown Prince of the German empire, Frederick, who laid a wreath on Luther's grave, and eloquent addresses by Koegel, Koestiin, Stoecker, E. Frommel, and other speakers. In November, his birthday was celebrated in Eisleben, with a historic pro cession and the dedication of a Luther statue by Siemering ; in Leipzig, vrith the laying of the cornerstone of a Luther Church ; in Augs burg, vrith an open-air celebration in the court of St. Anna's College, where the Lutherans dur ing the Thirty Years' War held their service, for 14 years, when they were deprived of all church buUdings. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, of course, joined in the celebration, but also Austria-Hungary, Bohemia, and Swit zerland (Basel, Lausanne, Geneva, the latter city with L. Meinardus' Oratorio, Luther's " Gang nach Worms ") ; Holland (The Hague) ; Russia (St. Petersburg, Riga, Reval, Moskau, Archangel); Italy, with jubUee services in Rome (chapel of the German embassy, in the Caffarelli Palace), Naples, Florence, Palermo, and an Italian translation of Luther's Small Catechism by K. Roenneke ; and France, -with services in Paris, in the large Luth. " Church of the Redemption," and an excellent Luth. biog raphy by Felix Kuhn. In England, the Ger man congregations of the city of I for the king. The wives of his most distin guished successor in St. John's, Dr. John Bach man, were M.'s granddaughters. D. M. G. Martini, Olaus, Ph. M. (Rostock, 1588), b. 1557, d. 1609. He was secretary at the Diet of Upsala (1593), and was elected archbishop in 1601. By his writings and manly Christian be- ha-rior he defended and confirmed the Luth. constitution of Sweden, during the reign of Charles IX., who inclined to Calvinism and tried to intioduce it in his country. The king aud the archbishop exchanged learned contro versial tieatises against each other about the Person of Christ, the eucharist, the Heidelberg catechism, and the divine serrice, and at last the king had to give up his designs. Olaus Martini as weU as his predecessor, Nicolaus Bothniensis, who had been president of the memorable Diet of Upsala, were never conse crated or, as this act is called in Sweden, in stalled as bishops. N. F. Maryland, Lutherans in. The Germats. emigration of the eighteenth century passedl down the Cumberland Valley in Pennsylvania,, and flowed over into Frederick, Washington, and: Carrol Counties, Maryland. Another centre,- was formed by the emigration largely of north ern Germans directly to Baltimore. Of the 131 congregations and 24,648 communicants in 1890, 96 -with 17,288 communicants belonged to the Synod of Maryland (General Synod). The rest belong chiefly to the Missouri Synod and Joint Synod of Ohio. Baltimore had 37 con gregations (18 belonging to the Maryland Synod) ; Carrol, 23 ; Frederick, 24 ; and Washington, 20 congregations, of which all but two small congregations in Carrol and two in Frederick County belonged to the Maryland Synod. In number of communicants, the Lutheran Church ranks second, the Methodists being about five times as numerous. Maryland Synod. See Synods (I.). Maryland Synod Question, a discussion concerning synodical authority, arising in 1853, from the dismissal of a pastor, who had no inten tion of uniting with another synod. (See Evangelical Review, VI. 321 ; VII. 1 ; Morris, Fifty Years, etc., 485.) The question was whether one ceased to be a minister by ceasing to be a member of a synod. Massachusetts. The statistics of 1890 show 30 congregations -with 4, 137 members. Of the congregations, 11 were Swedish, 3 Danish, 2 Norwegian, the balance German. The German material Principle 306 maurice churches were mostly in the Ssmod of Mis souri, which had lo congregations with 1,707 communicants. The General Council had 12 congregations with 1,743 congregations. Two small congregations, aggregating 103 members, in Franklin County, belonged to the General Synod. An English congregation has since then been established in Boston. Material Principle of Protestantism, the doctrine of Justification by Faith alone. (See FoRMAi, Principle.) Mathesius, John, the son of Wolfgang Mathesius, a miner and prominent citizen, b. at Rochlitz, June 24, 1504. The older Mathe sius was a man of earnest piety, yet by no means narrow in his views of the Church's Ufe. He objected to masses for the repose of the dead, but yearned to see a copy of the entire Bible. While his father was still living, John was placed under the care of his grandmother, who trained him in the practices of the Church of Rome, making him pray according to the rosary every Saturday and also read one of the legends aloud for the benefit of the servants. He praises the schools of his youth for teaching the Ten Commandments, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer, which were neglected by the pulpit. In the school at Rochlitz, Michael Coe lius was his teacher. Continuing his studies at Mitweida, Nuremberg, and Ingolstadt, he afterwards spent some time in teaching. In 1526 Luther's treatise on Good Works aroused his Christian consciousness. Luther's writ ings on the Lord's Supper drew him to Wit tenberg in 1529. Here he continued his studies. In 1532 he accepted a call to a position as teacher at Joachimsthal. Again and again we find him a -risitor at Wittenberg, aud at length in 1540, after eight years of serrice as a teacher in Joachimsthal, once more as a student at the feet of the Reformers, and even as one of Luther's favorite table-guests. In 1541 he was called as diaconus to Joachimsthal, and in November, 1545, advanced to the pastorate, which position he filled until his death, Oct. 7, 1568. He is best known by his Life of Luther in sermons, which is not without historical value, and his Sarepta or Bergpostil. G. F. S. Mathesius, {Hymnological Addition). The morning hymn ' ' Aus meines Herzeus Grande, ' ' which was a special favorite vrith Gustavus Adolphus, and which is generally ascribed to Mathesius, does not belong to him. It was repeatedly translated into English, by Miss Winkworth, Ch. Book for England (1863), "My inmost heart now raises," and by E. Cronen wett, Ohio Hymnal, " My heart with deep emo tion." A miners' song of his, "Gott Vater, Sohn und Heilger Geist," was also translated by Miss Winkworth (1869), "O Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, Thou God dost fix the miner's post." His most beautiful hymn, the cradle song, "Nun schlaf mein liebes Kindelein " (General Council Sonntag Schul Buch), has never been translated. A. S. Matins. See Liturgy. Matrimony. See Marriage. Matthe-w's, St. , Nevr York City, is the heir .and successor of the old Dutch Trinity Church, which gradually passed over to the Germans. A very full history of the foundation and vicis situdes of the Church in the metropolis vrill be found in The Lutheran Church Re-view for 1884 and 1885, and, in German, in the new edi tion of the Hallesche Nachrichten, 631 sqq., both by Dr. B. M. Schmucker. Maulbronn. 1. The Maulbronn Colloquy, caused by the conversion to the Reformed faith of Frederick IIL, Electorof the Palatinate, and by the publication in 1563 of the Heidelberg Catechism, composed at his suggestion and un der his auspices. O-wing, especially, to the activity of Duke Christopher of Wuertemberg, the colloquy was held between the Wuertem berg and Palatinate theologians from April 10-15, 1564, both princes being present. The collocutors representing the Palatinate were : Ursinus, Olevianus, and others ; those repre senting the Wuertembergers were : Brenz, Jacob Andres, Schnepf, and Bidembach. The discus sion had reference to the doctrine concerning the Lord's Supper and to the Christological questions connected therevrith, especially to the doctrine conceming the Ubiquity of Christ. This latter doctrine was denied by the collocu tors of the Palatinate as being in contradiction with the characteristics of human nature and the sitting of Christ at the right hand of God ; the Wuertembergers, on the other hand, espe cially through Andrese, upheld this doctrine and tried to prove it from the Unio personalis and Communicatio idiomatum. When the theolo gians of the Palatinate asked, "Whether Christ's body had already been omnipresent in his mother's womb," Andrese pointed out the distinction existing between the possession and the use — possessio et patefactio — of divine properties. The colloquy did not develop any definite results : both parties claimed the vic tory. 2. The Maulbronn Formula is one of the foundations, upon which, finally, the Formula of Concord was erected. Jacob An drese had successfully labored to bring about a union between the theologians of Wuertemberg and of Lower Saxony, which union found its utterance in the Swabian-Lower-Saxon Formula of Concord of 1575. Elector Augustus of Saxony, after the defeat of the Philippists in his territory, inrited the friendly inclined princes, especially those of Wuertemberg and Baden, to co-operate with him in the establishing of unity in doctrine within the realms of the Gemian evangelical state churches. The two preachers of Stuttgart, Bidembach and Osiander, were appointed to draught a Formula of Union. At the convention of Maulbronn, Jan. 19, 1576, this draught was submitted, approved, and sub scribed to by the theologians of Wuertemberg and Baden, and then sent to the Elector of Saxony. Though this Swabian-Lower-Saxon Formula was used as a basis for discussion at the convention of Torgau (opened May 28, 1577)) all essential points of the Maulbronn Formula were, nevertiieless, embodied into the new draught of the so-called ' ' Book of Tor gau." W. P. Maurice, first Duke, afterwards Elector of Saxony, son of Duke Henry the Pious, b. 1521, at Freiberg, succeeded his father (1541) as ruler mayer 307 mecklenburg over Saxony of the Albertine Line. This youth ful prince, valiant, prudent, and ambitious, joining the Reformatory movement without inner conviction, always endeavoring to enlarge his possessions, acted a somewhat singular part in the drama of the German Reformation. In a critical hour he betrayed the cause of Evan gelical Germany and — saved it again. Not a member of the Smalcald League, he formed an alliance with the Emperor at the beginning of the Smalcald War, by which he was to secure the dignity of an Elector and the electorate of Saxony. The Elector of Saxony and Landgrave of Hesse ha-ring left their country to offer battle to the Emperor, Maurice tieacherously invaded the electorate. Though successful in recon quering his tenitory, the Elector of Saxony, after his defeat and capture at Miihlberg, never theless, lost both his electorate and a consider able part of his territory which were bestowed upon Maurice. In order to satisfy the demands of the Emperor, Maurice caused the Leipzig Interim to be drawn up. Magdeburg alone heroically withstood the introduction of the Interim, as a consequence of which the ban was published against the city, it falling to the lot of Maurice to execute the ban. But now a sur prising change in his attitude took place. He seems to have felt the reproach cast upon him on account of his betrayal of the gospel ; the disgraceful imprisonment of the Landgrave, his father-in-law, displeased him. He noted also the daily increasing power of the Emperor, endangering the freedom of the German pnnces. In 1551 Magdeburg sunendered, Maurice grant ing the city the mildest terms possible. Hav ing secretly entered into an alliance with the Margrave of Brandenburg, the sons of the Land grave of Hesse, and vrith King Henry II. of France (to whom he surrendered the imperial cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun), Maurice sud denly attacked the Emperor, who was sick at Innsbruck at that time. The Emperor had to submit to the victorious Maurice, the Compact of Passau being the result of Maurice's strategy, the conditions of which compact were laid down by him. According to this the Protestants were granted full freedom iu the exercise of their religion and equal rights with the Catholics. Having taken part in a campaign against the Turks, Maurice had to wage war against the Margrave of Brandenburg, his former confeder ate ; the latter was defeated at Sievershausen, 1553 ; Maurice, however, received a wound in battle which caused his death in the same year. W. P. Mayer, Philip Frederick, D, D., pastor of St. John's Church, Philadelphia — the first con gregation in the country founded for divine service in the English language (1806-58); b. 1781, d. 1858. He was a graduate of Columbia College (1796), studied theology under Dr. Kunze, served a congregation at Athens, N. Y. (1802-6), was, throughout his entire ministry, a member of the New York Ministerium, was president of the Pennsylvania Bible Society and of the Board of Managers of the Deaf and Dumb Asylum at Philadelphia, received his theologi cal degree from Columbia and University of Pa. ; of the latter, he was for many years a trastee. A brother, F. G. Mayer, was pastor at Albany (1807-42). Means of Grace. See Grace, Means op. Mecklenburg, Luth. Church in. This countiy accepted Lutheranism about the middle of the sixteenth century. At the Diet of Stem- berg, in 1550, it was resolved that the country should be thoroughly cleansed from every rem nant of popery. Duke and pastors cheerfully signed the Form, of Concord, in the preparation of which Chytiaus of Rostock had assisted. The constitution, or articles for the regulation of church services, government, discipline, sup port of the poor, etc., originally published in 1552, and revised in 1602, is still in force. In both of the grand duchies of Mecklenburg — Schwerin and Strelitz — we have the most con servative of Luth. state churches, those of the Scandinavian countries not excepted. And so devoted to the Luth. faith have pastors and people been at all times that when Duke John Albrecht II. became a Calrinist he had no foUovring. But one church of the Reformed faith exists in the land, and this was founded by Reformed immigrants from France. When Duke Christian became a Roman Catholic in 1 663 , he had but few that went vrith him . There are only three Roman CathoUc churches, and their members are largely Catholic immigrants. Negative criticism and modem theology have not been able to gain a foothold in M. The theological faculty of the Univ. at Rostock is the most con.servative in Germany. To it belong men like the eminent New Testament scholar, Nosgen, and the Luther scholar, Walther. The Grand Duke fearlessly supports the faithful pas tors in the conscientious discharge of their duty, and defends them against the accusations of their more liberal and fault-finding pations and landowners. The church government is unique. In 1850 Grand Duke Fred. Franz II. created the Oberkirchenrat, whose president for many years was Kliefoth. The prince, as chief bishop of the church in M., discharges the duties of this office through this high ec clesiastical council instead of through a ' ' Kultus- Minister" (secretary of affairs relating to church and schools) . Another council, created soon after the introduction of the Reformation, is the Consistorium. There is one for each of the two Mecklenburgs, the one for M. Schwerin having its seat in Rostock and the other for M. Strelitz in Neustrelitz. This body takes cog nizance of and regulates matters pertaining to doctrine, ceremonies, and discipline. From the decisions of this body an appeal may be taken to the high ecclesiastical court at Ros tock. This court answers for both countries, i. e. is competent to entertain appeals from decis ions of the consistories of both M. Schwerin and M. Stielitz. The work of direct and immediate supervision is assigned to superintendents, of whom there are seven (in Rostock, Wismar, Doberan, Guestrow, Malchin, Parchim, and Schwerin) . The territory which is assigned to these supts. is subdi-rided into 39 synods, so caUed, or small conference districts. In M. Stielitz there is only one superintendent and seven synods. The president of these synods is called prsepositus. The larger grand duchy medler 308 melanehthon numbers 346 pastors, and the smaller 68. The membership in the churches of the former is now slightly above 600,000, in the latter over 100,000. J. N. Medler, Nicolaus, b. 1502, in Hof, Bavaria, where he was pastor (1530), was compelled to flee for preaching too severely, was at Witten berg (1531-35), preached for Luther, who re garded him highly, became supt. at Naumberg (1536), assisted in introducing the Reformation in Leipzig (1539), supt. at Branswick (1546), d. 155 1. He was sincere, but dominating, and easily provoked to controversy. Meier, Ernst Julius, b. Sept. 7, 1828, in Zwickau, Saxony, pastor at Fleramingen (1854), supt. in Liegnitz (1864), preacher in Dresden (1867), court-preacher and vice-pres. of the Saxon consistory from 1890. Standing upon a moderate confessional basis, he advocates the true union between theological science and the life of the Church, and proclaims the saving Christ in sermons of eloquent devoutness. Meinhold, Johann Wilhelm, D. D., b. 1797, on the Island of Usedom, Pomerania, d. 1851, in Charlottenburg, near Berlin. He studied the ology in Greifswald, became rector in Usedom (1820), and pastor in Rehvrinkel, near Stargard (1844). In recognition of his valuable treatise on miracles and prophecies the faculty of Erlan gen confened the title of doctor of theology on him, 1840. He was highly gifted as an author, poet, and hymn-writer. Seven of his hjrnins are found in iLnapp's Liederschatz. Two of his hymns are transl. into English : " Outer Hirt, du hast gestillt " (Gentle Shepherd, Thou hast stilled), tr. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Ger manica (1858) ; and " O Bethlehem ! O Bethle hem ! " tr. by Dr. H. Mills (1845). A. S. Meinhold, Karl, D. D., b. 1813, in Usedom, the stepbrother of Joh. W. M., d. 1888, as pastor, and superintendent in Cammin, Pomerania ; a highly gifted, faithful, and fearless champion of the Luth. Confession in the Prussian state church who suffered much for the faith. On account of his treatise Union und Lutherische Kirche he was suspended from his position as superintendent, but was restored to his office vrith distinguished honors in 1879. He wrote exposition of the Song of Solomon (1856) ; and Eben Ezer, Sermons on the Gospel ojthe Church Year (188$). A.S. Meisner, Gottfried, b. 1618, in Wittenberg, d. 1690, in Grossenhain. A number of his hymns are found in the BoUhagen hymn-book. Fischer, in his hymnological dictionary, gives 13 of them. A. S. Meissner, Balthasar, b. Feb. 3, 1587, in Dresden, d. Dec. 29, 1626, as professor of the ology in Wittenberg, one of the most venerable Luth. theologians of the first half of the seven teenth century. At the age of fifteen he entered the university. After a two years' phUosophical course, he studied theology for five years at Wittenberg, Giessen, Strassburg, and Tiibingen. In 1611 he was made professor of Ethics, in 1613 professor of theology in Wittenberg. In 1624 he entered the consistory. He was a prolific -writer, especially in the field of polem ics. His best known work is his Philosophia Sobria, written at the age of 27. He was a gentle character of deep personal piety. His motto was Beati Mites. His death was a great loss, not only to his native Saxony, but to the Luth. Church from Hungary to Iceland. J. Schmidt of Strassburg, who was himself one of the most godly theologians of that time, said of him : " If it had been possible to put an end to the unfortunate controversies of that time, no one would have been able to accomplish this but Meissner." S. F. Meissner Conference is that pastoral confer ence in the Saxon Church, founded 1859, which advocates a mediate position, befriending the Prussian Union. Its first president was Dr. Briickner. Its great leader of late is Prof. Dr. Fricke of Leipzig, under whose presidency it was made a church conference (1870). Meister, Christoph Geo. Ludwig, b. 1738, in Halle, prof, in Duisburg (1778), pastor in Bremen (1784), d. 1811, a composer of 160 hymns, of which " Lass mir die Feier deiner Leiden ' ' is best known. Melanchthon, Philip, son of George and Barbara (Renter) Schwartzerd, b. at Bretten, in the Palatinate, February 16, 1497. His father, i± skiUul armorer, was distinguished for piety and integrity. His mother was an intelligent and well-bred lady. PhUip received the radi ments of an education in the town school. He was then taught at the home of his grandfather, John Renter, by John Unger, a good linguist. Losing his father and grandfather by death, at the age of eleven years he was sent to school at Pforzheim, where he began the study of Greek under George Simler, and came under the in fluence of John Reuchlin, who changed his name from Schwartzerd, meaning " black earth," to its Greek equivalent, Melanchthon. October 14, 1509, he was matriculated under the philosophical faculty in the University of Heidelberg. His progress in study was so rapid that, June 11, 1511, he was made bachelor of the liberal arts. Unable to enrol himself a can didate for the degree of master of arts on " ac count of his youth and his boyish appearance," he left Heidelberg and was matrictUated at Tii bingen, September 17, 1512. January 25, 1514, first among eleven cancUdates, he received the degree of master of the liberal arts, and -with it license to lecture as Privat-dozent on the Latin and Greek classics. As a student at Tiibingen he heard lectures on Uterature, law, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and the ology. Hebrew he pursued pnvately under the direction of ReuchUn. As a lecturer he awakened new interest in the study of the classics, and soon attiacted the attention of the most celebrated humanists of the age. He also began to edit the Latin and Greek authors, and re-wrote John Neuclerc's Universal History. He took some part in the contest carried on be tween Reuchlin and the observant monks, touching the destruction of all Jevrish books except the Bible. His humanistic culture and associations made him uncomfortable at Tiibingen. July 24, 1518, he accepted a call to the professorship of Greek in the University of Wittenberg, ha-ving already melanehthon 309 melanchthon declined a call to the University of Ingolstadt, where he would have become a colleague of John Eck. He entered Wittenberg (on the way thither declining a call to Leipzig) August 25, 1518. Four days later, he delivered an inaug ural address on The Improvement of the Studies of Youth. Luther was delighted vrith the ad dress, and soon formed a high opinion of the talents and scholarship of its author. The friendly relations of these two great men, Luther and Melanchthon, present one of the most pleasing features of the splendid drama of the Reformation. Luther loved Melanchthon as a son, and Melanchthon revered Luther as a father. Each was helpful to the other, and each supplemented the deficiencies of the other. Luther, by his heroic deeds, his fire and elo quence, commended the Reformation to the people. Melanchthon, by his moderation, scholarship, and culture, commended it to the learned. Together they wrought the German Reformation, and established the Luth. Church. For nearly twenty-eight years they were col leagues, and after Luther's death, in 1546, Me lanchthon carried on the work of Reform until his own death, April 19, 1560. For more than three hundred years, their bodies have reposed together in the Castle Church at Wittenberg. Melanchthon attended so many diets and colloquies that he once exclaimed : " I have lived in conventions, and now I shall die in them." He was the chief Protestant surrogate. He wrote nearly all the learned Opinions re quired of the Wittenberg faculty for forty years. He wrote the Saxon Visitation Articles (1527); the Torgau Articles (1530); the Augs burg Confession (1530); the Apology of the Confession (1530-31) ; the Wittenberg Concord (1536) ; and the Saxon Confession (1551). He also assisted Luther in translating the Bible (1522-1534). His extant letters, numbering several thousand, are indispensable for the study of the history and theology of the Refor mation. Nearly all of his known works and letters, together with many other valuable documents, have been edited by Bretschneider and Bindseil, and are published in the Corpus Ref ormatorum , consisting of 28 large quarto volumes, usually refened to by the letters C. R. I. His Person ai. Characteristics. Mel anchthon was below middle size and carried one shoulder higher than the other. He had a vride and high forehead, large blue eyes, a Roman nose, a scanty beard, and a small chin. In early life his countenance was thoughtful. In later years it became sorrowful. His dis position was kind, amiable, and friendly. His character was upright and free from blemish. His love of peace and his striving for harmony in the Church sometimes led him to make undue concessions to opponents ; but he never sunendered what he conceived to be funda mental trath. He prayed and wept daily for union in the Church, but died longing to be delivered from " the wrath of the theologians." 2. His Domestic Life. November 25, 1520, Melanchthon was married to Katharine Krapp. Luther was instrumental in making the match ; but Melanchthon praised his wife as the gift of God, and as " worthy of a better man." They lived together in happy wedlock for thirty-seven years, and became the parents of four children, — Anna, b. 1522 ; Philip, b. 1525 ; George, b. 1527 ; Magdalena, b. 1533. George died when a child. Philip lived to be very old. The house in which Melanchthon lived at Wittenberg is still standing. It is now the ' ' Melanchthon Museum . " A tablet placed high up in front, bears the inscription : Here lived, taught, and died Philip Melanchthon. In this house Melanchthon dispensed a generous hos pitality to scholars, students, refugees, and vagabonds. One day he heard twelve lan guages spoken at his dinner-table. At first his salary was one hundred gulden, equal to about four hundred dollars of our money ; in 1526 it was raised to two hundred gulden ; in 1536 it was increased to three hundred ; from 1541 it was four hundred gulden. He received many presents from the city of Wittenberg, and from princes whom he had served, or to whom he dedicated books, as two hundred gulden from Henry VIII. of England, to whom he dedicated the second edition ( 1535 ) of the Lod. He left an estate worth several thousand dollars. 3. His Services to the Cause of Educa tion. By talents, learning, choice, and experi ence, Melanchthon was pre-eminently a teacher. To the mastery of almost every known science he added a clear and logical method, brevity, and conciseness of statement. He led students to the sources of knowledge, and inspired in them a love of research. He regarded philology as furnishing the key for unlocking tiie tieas ures of the sciences, especially of the science of theology. He once wrote : ' ' All the learned unite in the opinion that no one can accomplish much in the right kind of studies who has not added Greek and Hebrew to the Latin. ' ' And again : ' ' Every good theologian and faithful expounder of the Christian religion ought necessarily to be first a linguist, then a logician, and finally a witness. " He speaks of himself as a " linguist " and a " logician, ' ' and regards the life of a teacher as less splendid, but more serviceable to humanity than the life of a cour tier. ' ' What is more useful than to imbue the minds of the young -with the knowledge of God, of nature, and of morality ? ' ' says he. His preference was to be and to remain a teacher of the Latin and Greek classics, of rhetoric and logic. It was only in response to the persistent efforts of Luther that he consented, in 1526, formally to enter the theological faculty, though without relinquishing his place in the faculty of letters. He lectured ou nearly every science, and prepared numerous declamations and lec tures for the use of his colleagues. He wrote text-books on Greek and Latin Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic, Physiology, Physics, Metaphy sics, Ethics, and History. From 1518 to 1544 his Greek Grammar passed through seventeen editions, and from 1545 to 1622 twenty-six edi tions were published. Of his Latin Grammar fifty-one editions were published from 1525 to 1734. It was used in many Roman Catholic schools. Melanchthon defines grammar as ' ' the proper mode of speaking and writing. ' ' He de fines Logic as " the art of speaking by defining, di-riding, and arguing." "Rhetoric adds eio- melanchthon 310 melanchthon quence, ornament, and grace to Logic." His text-books on these subjects were used in Ger many almost to the exclusion of all others. His editions of the chief Greek and Latin classics were numerous. His methods were all practical. He aimed to make all studies serviceable to religion and morality. His talent for organizing schools was recognized as early as 1524, when he was invited to take the rectorship of the proposed gymna sium at Nuremberg. From that time on he was constantly consulted on the subject of higher education, and his advice was so uni versally followed, that nearly all of the gymnasia and Furstenschulen, that is, Prince-Schools, of the sixteenth century were founded according to directions given by him. We still have the correspondence between him aud fifty-six Ger man cities which sought counsel and assistance in founding and conducting gymnasia. He wrote their constitutions, arranged their courses of study, and nominated the most of their in structors. The most distinguished rectors of ¦the century, John Sturm, Camerarius, Trotzen dorf, Neander, Wolf, and others, were his friends, and many of them had been his scholars. All adopted his methods, and his pupils carried with them the lofty ideals of ' ' the dear master. ' ' Luther valued him so highly as a teacher that he wrote : ' ' Whoever does not recognize Philip as his Preceptor is a stupid ass carried away by his own vanity. All that we know in the arts and in philosophy we owe to Philip. He has only the degree of Magister, yet he is a doctor above all doctors." He gave directions for the reorganization of the Universities of Heidelberg, Tiibingen, Leipzig, Rostock, Greifswald. He wrote the statutes for the University of Wittenberg in 1545. He was consulted and gave important assistance in the founding of Marburg, Koenigs berg, and Jena. Many of the chief professor ships were filled by his pupils. He himself was invited to Marburg, Tiibingen, Leipzig, and Heidelberg, and was asked to take the lead in founding the University of Jena. His services to the cause of education in his native land were so great that posterity names him Pre ceptor Germanics, and regards him as The Creator ofthe Protestant Educational System of Germany. 4. His Theology. Melanchthon began his theological teaching at Wittenberg by giving lectures on Paul's Epistle to Titus. To these he soon added lectures on the Epistle to the Romans. Out of these exegetical lectures grew his Loci Communes, or Theological Com monplaces, which were published first in 1521, but subsequently passed through many changes and editions. The Loci have a purely practical aim. They quickly pass over the abstract and metaphysical doctrines of theology, and treat mainly the doctrines of Sin, Law, Gospel, Grace, Faith, the Sacraments, the Church, Condemnation, and Blessedness. Among the notable features of the book is the denial of free will in man, and the affirmation of the doctrine of absolute necessity. " Every event occurs necessarily according to the divine ap pointment." This virtually makes God the author of sin. But in this, as in all other re spects, the teaching so pleased Luther that he declared the "book invincible, worthy not only of immortality, but of being placed in the in spired canon." For a time the Loci was re garded as the Wittenberg Confession of Faith. It was the beginning of the Luth. dogmatic system. In his first years at Wittenberg Melanchthon accepted Luther's doctiines in Luther's Formulae without question. After 1526 he became more independent in forms of expression, but he adhered with all fidelity throughout life to the Luth. type of doctrine in every particular, though he modified some of Luther's definitions and developed some of his principles in a more practical direction. He is therefore the repre sentative of science and progress in theology. His continuous study of the Scriptures, and of the Church Fathers, his intercourse with other theologians, and the criticisms of his own and of Luther's writings by friend and by foe, led him to modify several of his earlier views. {a) In the Commentary on Colossians, and in the Visitation Articles, both of 1527, he recog nizes freedom of will in all matters pertaining to this life ; but he denies man's natural ability to obey the law of God. This view of the will was placed by him in Article XVIII. of the Augsburg Confession. In The Loci Communes of 1535, he says that " there are three causes that concur in conversion : The Word, the Holy Spirit, and the Will, not indeed neutral, but resisting its own weakness." Again : " God precedes, calls, inclines, assists us ; but we should take care not to oppose. For it is evi dent that sin arises from us, not from the vrill of God." In a later edition of the Lod he defines free -will as the power which a man has of applying himself to grace. According to Melanchthon the order of salvation is this : God calls ; the Spirit operates through the Word ; the Will becomes active under the in fluence of Grace. Of itself the human will can not exercise saving faith or work spiritual righteousness. Its subordination, the operation of the Spirit, and to the Word is always pre supposed. Of the three concuning causes, the will is placed third, and becomes a cause only when quickened into actirity by the other two. This doctrine is as far from Pelagianism on the one hand as itis from Determinism on the other. In its fundamental tendency it may be regarded as the doctrine of the Luth. Church. (But see Freedom of the Wii,i,. ) {b) In the Loci of 1535 he calls the doctrine of necessity " a dream of the stoics " ; and in the Commentary on Romans (1532) he asserts " the universality of the promises of the gospel, which teach that God for Christ's sake offers salvation to all." He further says : " We must judge of the -will of God and of election, not from reason, nor from the law, but from the gospel." He finds the cause of salvation in the merciful, not in the secret, will of God. He places the cause of reprobation in man's unvrill- ingfuess to believe the gospel. To " the scrapie of particularity," he opposes "the universal promises of the gospel, which teach that God for Christ's sake, out of grace, offers salvation melanehthon 311 membership to all " (Commentary on Romans). He is thus the first of the Reformers to depart from the Augustinian particularity, and to bring out the doctrine of the universality of the offer of salva tion. Here he has left an abiding impression on theology. {c) Melanchthon expounded the doctrine of justification with great clearness. He insists on the forensic seuse of "to absolve, to pro nounce just." Faith is described by him as "confidence in mercy promised for Christ's sake." " It includes the knowledge of the his tory of Christ as the Son of God, and a habit or action of the will which accepts the promise of Christ, and reposes in Christ." This is the faith that justifies. Justification is named gratuita acceptatio for Christ's sake. Faith has also an ethical content. He defines it as " a new light in the heart, an energetic opera tion of the Holy Spirit by which we are regen erated." This makes faith fruitful. Hence he insists that "the works which God enjoins upon us ought of necessity to follow reconcilia tion. " In a lecture on the Gospel of St. John, he said that good works are ' ' conditio sine qua non to eternal life." This was thought by some to endanger the doctrine of justification ; but Melanchthon explained that good works are not a part of justification, but that in the order appointed by God, good works must fol low justification. In after years, in order to avoid giving offence, he exchanged the formula : " Good works are necessary to eternal life," for "Good works are necessary," to which he adhered to the end of his life. {d) On no other subject did Melanchthon bestow so much thought as on that of the Lord's Supper. In 1537 he wrote : " For ten years neither day nor night has passed in which I have not reflected on this subject." He was as much averse to Zvringli' s view of the Supper as was Luther. In 1529 he wrote that he would rather die than to affirm with the Zwinglians that the body of Christ can be in only one place (C R., II. 25). And again : "I would rather die than be contaminated by union with the Zvringlians " {C. R.,1. 1077). He frequently affirmed that Luther's doctiine is very old in the Church. In no doctrine was Melanchthon so much influenced by the fathers as in this. At Augsburg he believed that he had placed Luther's doctrine in the Confession, though he did not adhere rigidly to Luther's formulae. In the first edition of the Apology, he at least approximated very closely to the doctrine of tiansubstantiation : ' ' The bread is not only a figure, but is changed into the body of Christ." In 1529 at Marburg he modified Luther's doc trine of oral manducation. In 1531 he forsook the theory of ubiquity. Neither " oral mandu cation " nor "ubiquity " was placed in the Con fession or in the Apology. The relation of the body and blood of Christ to the material elements came to have but little significance for him. The real presence of Christ in the Supper he not only did not deny, but he continues to reiterate it, and makes it depend upon the institution and ap pointment of Christ. It is the whole Christ who is present in the Supper, and therein gives us a pledge of God's gracious will towards us. He speaks of the Supper as a mystery, a pledge, a communion with the entire Christ, a salutary impartation of the God-man to the beliering human soul, a thanksgiving by which we give thanks for the remission of sin — in a word, an application and appropriation of redemption. By joining the words of Paul (i Cor. 10 : 16) -with the words of institution of the Supper, he sees in the sacrament a fellowship with the body and blood of Christ ; and by associating the sacrament directly with the forgiveness of sins, he preserves the tme Luth. type of doc trine, for -with Luther as -with Melanchthon the chief thing in the Supper is not the real pres ence, nor the sacramental union, but the for giveness of sins. (See Lord's Supper.) Even when he changed the wording of the tenth article of the Confession in 1540, his object was not to change the Luth. doctrine, but more ac curately and carefully to define it, and to guard it better against the perversions of the adver saries. (See Augsburg Confession, Editio Variata.) The change was regarded as an improvement and was received with great favor. At no time did Melanchthon adopt or indorse Cal-rin's doctrine of the Supper, though he seems to have regarded Cal-rin's doctrine as opposing no effectual barrier to union. By re affirming to the close of his life the Augsburg Confession, the Apology, the Examen Ordi- nandomm, and the Bavarian Articles, Melanch thon gave full proof of his adherence to the Luth. faith. [See also: Ph. Melanchthon, the Prot. Precep tor of Germany, by J. W. Richard (N. Y., 1898). Eds.] J. W. R. Melanchthonianism. See Crypto-Cae- viNisTic Controversy and Phiwppists. Melin, Hans Magnus, b. in Sweden, 1805, ordained (1834), professor of theology at Lund (1847), dean (1865), d. there 1877. One of the greatest Luth. tiieologians, who published besides a voluminous Greek Lexicon and other learned works. Lectures on the Life of fesus, one of the ablest controversial works against Stiauss. His main work is, however, the excellent Bible Translation with Commen tary. N. F. Melissander. See Bienemann, C. Melsheimer, Frederick "Valentine, b. Re- genborn, Brunswick ; studied at Helmstadt ; came to America as chaplain of Bruns-wick troops (1776) ; pastor, Dauphin Co., Pa. (1779-84I ; Manheim (1784-6) ; New Holland (1786-9) ; professor in Franklin College, Lancaster (1787); pastor, Hanover, Pa. (1790), until his death (1814). Distinguished as a pioneer of the science of entomology in America. His son, John Frederick, was first assistant and then his successor ; d. 1829. Membership in the Church may be regarded from the point of -riew of the state law, which generally requires stated attendance on service and some measure of financial support, though in some states the determination is left to the Church's own decision. (See Charters ; Vo ters.) But the trae standpoint is the spiritual. According to it church membership begins vrith meneel 313 mentzer baptism (i Cor. 12 : 13), and assumes conscious exercise after confirmation, which admits to the Lord's Supper, through which membership in its unity is strengthened (i Cor. 10 : 17). It is first membership in the congregation, and only through it in the Church at large. Its privi leges, rights, and duties flow from the spiritual priesthood of believers. Admission to all the blessings of the Church, given in the Word and sacraments, obligate to the spiritual work and administiation of the Church as well as to its support (i Cor. 9:11; Gal. 6:6). But proper order ( i Cor. 14 : 40) and individual gifts must be considered (i Cor. 12: 27 ff.). The private Ufe of a church member ought, individually and in the family, to conform to the divine standard in the development of a spiritual Ufe. J. H. Mencel, Hieronymus, b. 1517, in Schweid nitz, Prussia, supt. of Mansfeld 1560, d. 1590, is known for his sermons on the Catechism. At a meeting in Weimar (1571) he presented the declaration of the Mansfeld pastors that man was not only a sinner, but sm. But through Wigand's influence he afterward abandoned and attacked Flacianism. Menius, Justus, a Latinized rendering of Jodocus Menig, b., according to Paul Eber, Dec. 13, 1499, at Fulda. His parents seem to have been people of limited means. He entered the University of Erfurt in 1514, and became a member of the circle of humanists led by Con rad Mutianus, whose influence, added to that of Crotus Rubianus, was, according to Luther's testimony, very detrimental to his spiritual wel fare. Camerarius was his friend and his in structor in Greek, a relation which was con tinued at Wittenberg, whither he went in 1519, attending the lectures of Luther and Melanch thon. His stay at Wittenberg proved a bless ing to him, and prepared him for his career as a reformer. In 1523 he was made vicar at Gotha, where he wrote his first literary produc tion, a commentary on the Acts of the Apostles ; but he was particularly gifted as a popular writer on topics of religious instruction. In 1525 he was made pastor of St. Thomas' Church in Erfurt, but withdrew in 1528, because of the bitter opposition of the papal party, and pro ceeded to Gotha, where his friend Myconius, vrith whom he was intimately associated in the reformation of Thuringia, provided for his recep tion. In 1527 he took part in the visitation of the churches of electoral Saxony. He was next charged with the duties of pastor and superin tendent at Eisenach in 1529, and proved himself an efficient worker in counteracting the influence of the Anabaptists, as well as in the organization of the Church and the promotion of education. He prepared a catechism, which was intended as an abbreviation of Luther's, and which has been criticised as approximating Zwinglianism, but with which Luther himself did not find fault. Luther wrote prefaces to two of his productions. On the death of Myconius his sphere of labor was enlarged, and for twelve years he resided at Gotha. Toward the close of his life he was obliged to meet the charge of Amsdorf that he shared in the enor of George Major concerning the necessity of good work to salvation. His last official position was that of preacher in St. Thomas' Church at Leipzig. D. Aug. ri, 1558. G. F. S. Mentzer, Balthasar, the elder, b. Feb. 27, 1565, in Allendorf, Hessen, studied at Marbm-g, was professor at the university of this place (1605- 1625), at Giessen (1625-1627), and then again at Marburg, where he d. Jan. 6, 1627. He was throughout his life a pronounced protagonist and champion of confessional Lutheranism, espe cially in the type in which it has been developed in the Formula of Concord. Henke calls him the patriarch of genuine Lutheranism in Hessen. He confined his studies and literary work prac tically to the debatable ground between Lu theranism on the one hand and the Reformed and Catholic churches on the other. His was thus pre-eminenUy a controversial career, a life given to the defence of symbolical Lutheranism. The centre of his researches were the doctrines of the communicatio idiomatum and the ubi quity especially in their relations to the Lord's Supper. On these subjects he was a prolific writer, his many polemical works being, aU things considered, rather free from personal rancor. His determined Lutheranism was the cause of his leaving the University of Marburg and accepting a position at the newly estab lished institution at Giessen. With some others he could not approve the Reformed tendencies that were becoming all powerful in Hessen. Mentzer's name -will ever be connected in church history vrith one of the most famous con troversies in the Luth. Church, namely, that between the Giessen and the Tiibingen theologi cal faculties on the subject of the kenosis or krypsis of Christ. Mentzer himself had called forth this controversy by an appeal to Hafen reffer, of the Tiibingen faculty, in reference to a certain definition of his on the omnipresence of God, in which some had found Calvinistic tendencies. The controversy for years agitated the whole Luth. Church of Germany, and the political heads of several states took active measures to put an end to it. Both parties agreed on the Luth. doctrine of the communi cation of attributes and the glory of the human nature of Christ, teaching that this nature from the moment of the incarnation was in the pos session {ktesis) of the divine attributes, espe cially those of omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence ; and that the human nature took part in the functions of the divine, particularly the government of the world. But they differed as to the use made of these attributes during the state of humUiation. The leading question was this : Was the human nature of Christ, in the state of humility, present with each and every creature, and did it rale all things in heaven and on earth, even in death ? To this question the Tiibingen men answered Yes, and the Gies sen men. No ; the one maintaining merely the krupsis, or concealing of the acti-rity of these at tributes, the others teaching the kenosis, or emp tying of these attributes, although at the same time yet possessing them. For Mentzer it was not a question of ktesis, but only of chresis. The matter was in 1624 appealed to the Saxon the ologians, who decided in favor of the Giessen theologians. (See Kenosis.) Mentzer had a mentzer 313 meyfahrt son of the same name of similar theol. tenden cies, who was also prof, of theol., b. May 14, 1614, d. July 28, 1679. G. H. S. Mentzer, Johann, b. 1658, in Jahmen, Sile sia, d. 1734, at Kemnitz. He studied at Wit tenberg, and was pastor at Merzdorf (1691), Hauswalde (1693), Kemnitz (1696), a warm {riend of the family of Zinzendorf. He wrote numer ous hymns, some of considerable merit, among them "Dugehest in den Garten beten," trsl. by J. Kelly, Family Treasury (1868), " Into the garden shade to pray ; " " O, dass ich tausend Zungen haette," tisl. by Dr. H. Mills, " O, that I had a thousand voices " (see Ohio Hymnal, 1880). The h3Tnn, "Der am Kreuz ist meine Liebe, meine Lieb ist Jesus Christ," is some times ascribed to him, but vrithout satisfactory evidence. A. S. Mergner, Adam Christoph Friedrich, b. 1818, in Regensburg, Bavaria, d. 1891, in Heils- bronn, near Neuendettelsau, Bavaria. Studied theology in Erlangen under Harless and Hof mann ; 1851, pastor in Ditterswind ; 1870, superintendent in Muggendorf ; 1874, in Er langen ; 1880, in HeUsbronn. A faithful Luth. pastor of eminent musical gifts who did much for the restoration of the old serrice and its ap propriate music in the Luth. Church of Bavaria. He composed many tunes of striking originality and depth (P. Gerhardt's Geistliche Lieder in neuen Weisen, Erlangen, 1876). Edited the Choratbuch fuer die Lutherische Kirche in Bayern, vrith 22 of his own compositions. A number of his tunes are found in the Siona, and some have been reprinted in the Jugendfreund and in Dr. Spaeth's Liederlust. A. S. Merit of Congruity and of Condignity are scholastic terms frequently opposed in the Luth. confessional -writings. The merit of con gruity is the merit of man's free -will straggling toward the good. Owing to man's endeavor it seems proper {congruum est) that God should show mercy. Man thus earns the first grace. When afterward God infuses grace the tmly good works follow and a merit of real worth (condigni) follows. The first brings to justifica tion, the second to eternal life ; the first is founded on God's -will accepting, the second is an obligation that he must fulfil. Both are ut terly opposed to the scriptural teaching of grace. Merxel, Paul Johann, b. 1819, in Nurem berg, prof, of Germanic jurisprudence in Ber lin (1850), at Koenigsberg (1851), Halle (1852), until his death (1862), was an earnest advocate of confessional Lutheranism and an opponent of the Prassian Union. Meurer, Moritz, b. 1806, in Pretzsch, near Wittenberg, deacon at Waldenburg (1834), arch deacon (1835), pastor at Callenberg (1841), un til his death (1877). For a long time editor of the Saxon paper, the Pilger, and the Sdchsische Schul- u. Kirchenblatt, he is espec. noted for his Life of Luther (3d ed. , 1870), which is largely told in L.'s o-wn words, and as editor of Leben der Altvdter der luth. Kirche. He was a consistent Lnth. pastor, an eloquent preacher, and humble in character. Meusel, Karl Heinrich, b. Dec. 25, 1837, in Niederau, Saxony, vicar at Dresden (1863), sub- deacon at Ch. of Holy Com. (1865), teacher in gymnasium at Bautzen (1867), and in Dresden (1871), pastor at Grosshennersdorf (1873), and supt. at Rochlitz (1885), until his death, Sept. I, 1889. A man of wide learning and decided confessionalism, he is known chiefly as editor of the Kirchliches Handlexikon, during the pub lication of which still unfinished work he died. Meyer, Heinrich August Wilhelm, b. Jan. 10, 1800, in Gotha, pastor in Harste, near Got tingen (1831), supt. in Hoya (1837), castle- preacher, supt. and consistorial counsellor in Hanover (1841), chief consistorial counsellor (1861), pensioned (1865), d. June 21, 1873. He was the editor of the earlier editions of the great N. T. commentary which bears his name and was begun 1829. M. wrote on the Gospels, Acts, Pauline Letters, except Thessalonians, and the Pastoral Epistles. His grammatico- historical exposition is of the highest order, and bears the impress of critical accuracy and linguistic exactness, combined with thorough knowledge of the whole range of exegetical literature. He is rather negative in his earlier volumes, but grew to be more positive, churchly, and Lutheran by larger study. (For sketch of his life, see vol. on Matthew, Am. ed., p. xxv.) Meyer, Johann Friedrich v„ D. D., LL. D., b. 1772, at Frankfurt a. M., d. 1849, philoso pher, statesman, poet, and biblical scholar of a mystical, theosophic tendency. He studied law, phUosophy, and languages at the Univer sities of Gottingen and Leipzig. Since 1802 he lived in Frankfurt, as solicitor, mayor ofthe city, representative of the Free Cities at the Gemian Diet, president of the Frankfurt Bible Society, editor of the Blaetter fuer Christliche Wahrheit (1818-1832). In recognition of his revised Bible translation {Die Bibel in bericht- igter Uebersetzung , 1819, 1822, 1855), he re ceived the title of D. D. from the Erlangen faculty. His poems take high rank in modern Christian lyrics, but are too subjective for church use. Knapp's Liederschatz contains 13 of them. A. S. Meyer, Johann Matthias von, b. 1814, in Ansbach, preacher in Dombiihl ( 1840) , prefect of teachers' sem. in Schwabach (1843 V pastor at Nordlingen (1844), at Miinchen (1849), consisto rial counsellor (1872), and pres. of the consistory after the death of Harless (1879), until his decease (1882). He was a man of great power and ability, but of mediating tendency. Meyfahrt, Johann Matthaeus, D. D., b. 1590, at Jena, d. 1642, at Erfurt. He studied at Jena and Wittenberg, was professor in the gymnasium at Coburg (1616), director of the same (1623), professor of theology at Erfurt (1633). His eamest endeavors to raise the moral standard of the university and church- life of his time brought him much Ul--will and opposition. He wrote a number of devotional works : Tuba Poenitentice Prophetica (1625) ; TubaNomssima (1626), containing the hymn "Jerasalem, du hochgebaute;" Hoellisches Sodoma (1629) ; Himrrilisches Jerusalem (162,0) ; Juengsles Gericht (1632). His beautiful hymn "Jerasalem, du hochgebaute Stadt," has been repeatedly tianslated into English. The best mi ami 314 ministerial Education version by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germanica (1858), "Jerasalem, thou city fair and high," in the Church Book (abridged) and in the Ohio Hymnal (complete). Its inspiring tune is generally ascribed to Melchior Frank, but has, thus far, not been traced beyond the Er furt hymn-book of 1663 ; a fine figurated setting, in Siona, 1882, p. 13-16. A. S. Miami (Ohio) Synod. See Synods (I.). Michael's, St., Philadelphia. The begin nings of the Luth. Church in Philadelphia are involved in obscurity. According to the late Dr. Mann, Fabricius, the pastor of the Swedish congregation, preached to the Germans of Philadelphia between 1688-91. The oldest Register is of 1733, and is in the handwriting of John Casper Stoever. Before Stoever, John Christian Schultze had for a time served them, and afterwards, for a time, Valentine Kraft. On Muhlenberg's arrival in 1742, he found Count Zinzendorf in possession of it, and had considerable difficulty in having the call, in response to which he had come to America, recognized. Muhlenberg gave to the congre gation its complete organization. The church building known as St. Michael's was begun iu 1743, and was consecrated at the organization of the first synod in 1748. Brunnholtz, Heintzel mann, Handschuh, Frederick Schmidt, J. C. E. Schultze were associated with Muhlenberg in the care of the congregation, although during a portion of the time Muhlenberg himself was at the Trappe. The successors of Muhlenberg were J. C. Kunze, J. H. C. Helmuth (with whom J. F. Schmidt was associated) , F. D. Schaeffer, C. R. Demme (with whom G. A. Rei chert, E. Peixoto, and G. A. Wenzel were associated), and W. J. Mann (with whom A. Spaeth was associated). Under Dr. Mann's pastorate, the corporation, which included a number of churches in various portions of Philadelphia, distributed its property among congrega tions founded for worship in these churches (1S67). Dr. Mann was succeeded in 1884 by Rev. E. Nidecker, who had previously been his assistant. The congregation known for the greater part of its existence as St. Michael's and Zion's is now known as Zion's. Its consti tution of 1762 became the model of congrega tional constitutions throughout the country, and has been followed by all the older churches. (See Dr. Mann's full history in New Edition of Hallesche Nachrichten ; Schmucker, B. M., The Organization of the Congregation in the Early Luther an Church of America.) H. E. J. Michaelis, Johann Heinrich, b. 1668, in Klettenberg, Saxony, prof, in HaUe (1699), until his death (1738). He was the deviser and soul of Francke's collegium orientate theologi cum, and edited an excellent critical ed. of the O. T. Michaelis, Christian Benedict, nephew of J. H., b. 1680, in EUrich, Saxony, prof, of oriental languages in Halle, d. 1764. He as sisted his uncle in editing the Hebrew Bible, and published a work on the right use of variants in the N. T. from oriental translations opposing Bengel. Michaelis, Johann David, son of C. B., b. 1717, in Halle, studied medicine and then theol ogy, travelled iu Holland and England (1741), became privat-dozent in Gottingen (1745), and prof. (1780), d. 1790. Led from Pietism to rationalism by Wolff's philosophy, he denied that he had ever experienced any power of the Spirit, was proud and contentious. Though stUl holding to miracles and prophecy as proofs, he was negative iu exegesis and partially or thodox in dogmatics. His greatest work is Mosaisches Recht (6 vols.). Michelsen, Hans, burgomaster of Malmo, private secretary of Christian II. , whom he fol lowed into banishment, first translated the N. T. into Danish (1524). It was published in Leipzig, but secretly introduced into Denmark from Antwerp. Michigan, Lutherans in. The Luth. Church in Michigan stood second among Protestant churches according to census of 1890, being exceeded only by the Methodists. It had 380 congregations, with 62,897 communicants. It stood first in Detioit, with 8,609, and in Sagi naw, with 2,716, and second in Bay City, with 1,017 communicants. Since the Michigan Synod has joined the Synodical Conference, the ma jority of Michigan Lutherans (37,513) belong to that body. The Joint Synod of Ohio has 21 congregations, with 6,217 communicants, and the German Synod of Iowa 33, with 4,498 communi cants. The Swedish Augustana ( General Coun cil) reported 37, with 4,194 communicants, and the three Norwegian Synods combined 42, vrith 3,831 communicants. Ahnost all the Finnish Lutherans are in this state, the Suomi Synod reporting 10 congregations, with 1,385 communi cants. The General Synod is confined to Benien and St. Joseph's Counties, and had nine congregations, with 679 communicants. Michigan Synod. See Synods (III. & V.). Millennium. See Chiliasm. Miller, George Benjamin, an eminent Luth. theologian and scholar, b. near AUentown, Penn., June 10, 1795. He was licensed as a minister by the New York Ministerium in 1819, and founded a church and classical school in Canajoharie, N. Y. In 1827 he was called as assistant professor of theology in Hartwick Seminary, and in 1830 he became principal and theological professor, where he remained until he d. AprU 5, 1869, vrith the exception of five years in Dansville, N. Y., from 1839 to 1844, having been 35 years professor in theology at Ilartwick Seminary. Besides review articles his writings comprise an English grammar and a volume of sermons published in i860. W. H. Miller, Jacob, b. Dec n, 1788, in Goshen hoppen, Pa., studied under his pastor, F. W. Geissenhainer, whose daughter he subsequently married, and became his successor in the charge consisting of Goshenhoppen, Falkner Swamp, and Boyertown. In 1829 he accepted a call to Trinity Church, Reading, Pa., where he re mained until his death in 1850. He was an eloquent preacher, a man of decided opinions, and of great influence in his congregations and in the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, over which he presided six years. J. Fr. Ministerial Education. The problem of ministerial Education 815 ministerial Education training worthy and efficient ministers of the gospel is of the utmost importance for the Church of Christ. Its peculiar difficulties stand out more prominentiy in those critical periods of the history of the Church when her work has to be reorganized under new environments. This appears particularly in the Reformation Era. As the Reformation movement rapidly conquered the greater part of Central Europe, the question how to secure suitable ministers for the hundreds and thousands of Evangelical congregations was most pressing, and difficult to meet. The average education of the Roman CathoUc priest of that day was of a low standard. The preface to Luther's Small Catechism openly charges that " many of the pastors are ignorant and incompetent teachers." The great school of prophets at Wittenberg did its very best to remedy the evil as promptly as possible. There the leaders of the Reformation were collected into a faculty to train the future ministers of the Church. But during the first twenty-five years, at least, the majority of the men ordained in Wittenberg by Luther, Bugenhagen, and their assistants were vrithout university or col lege education. In a list of ordained candi dates, recently discovered in Wittenberg, out of 1,750 names only 647 were " from this uni versity," and about 100 others were men of classical culture. Of the rest, 817 were school masters, cantors, and sextons, and the remainder belonged to different trades, weavers, book binders, shoemakers, taUors, carpenters, butch ers, miners, etc. But before the middle of the century this class of candidates disappears altogether ; those with a full university train ing become the rule, aud the standard of exami nation, pre-rious to their ordination, becomes steadUy higher. And this has been in general the character of ministerial education in Europe to the present day. A decidedly high standard of preparatory education is set for all those that enter the university for the study of a pro fession. But in the case of the theological student even more is required to pass the ex amination of " Maturity," as it is caUed, for his university studies. A tiiorough knowledge of Hebrew is added tothe other branches of classi cal languages, philosophy, history, etc. The full course of tiieological study (in Wuertem berg) is four years. While the European uni versity offers its boundless tieasures of knowl edge, vrithout any restraint to the student, it has also its manifest dangers for the cause of ministerial education. The interest of the uni versity is "science" pure and simple. The interests of the Church, her confession, her work and actual needs, are not sufficientiy con sidered and protected. A theological faculty there may combine the most antagonistic theo logical views. It may undermine and assault the very faith of the Church whose ministers it is called to educate. In recent years efforts have been made in Germany to counteract the possible e-ril effects of the university, and to sup plement the defects of its instruction by the establishment of practical theological semi naries for those candidates that have absolved their university course, such as in Wittenberg, Herbom, Friedberg, Loccum. When our Luth. Church was organized on this continent she was again confronted by the serious problem of ministerial education . From the very beginning Henry Melchior Muhlen berg was convinced that the supply of minis ters furnished by the fathers in Halle would sooner or later cease, and that a ministry would have to be educated in America, to build up the Luth. Church in her new home on this Westem Continent. As early as 1749 he planned an in stitution for the education of Luth. ministers in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. The Ministerium of Pennsylvania, which he or ganized in 174G, at its very first meeting gave a fine illustration of what it considered as a proper standard of preparation for the ministry, in the examination of J. N. Kurtz, the first candidate for ordination. (See Documentary History of the Ministerium, p. 19.) As long as it had no seminary it appointed from time to time certain men as theological instructors, authorized to prepare young men for the minis tiy. Early in the nineteenth century the be ginning is made with the establishment of the ological seminaries of which the Luth. Church now has in this country 25 with more than 1,000 students. Ministerial education in a free church is necessarUy on a different basis from that in the state church. In the free church it is altogether the work of the Church herself. As she organizes her congregations, builds her sanctuaries, calls and supports her pastors, car ries on her missionary operations without any provision and interference on the part of the state, so it is also with her work of ministerial education. She lays do-wn the plan of educa tion, its confessional basis, its literary and scientific standards. She appoints her teachers, endows their chairs, coUects the libraries, erects the necessary buildings. Ministerial education in the free church is necessarily seminary education. It may be charged that such a sys tem is apt to develop into nanow sectarianism, and that it -will be in constant danger of lower ing the standard, and of forfeiting that broad, comprehensive, general culture which is so readily secured in a European university. And it cannot be denied that the actual dearth of laborers has now and then forced upon the Church those "missionary institutes" and " practical seminaries" which lay more stress on the practical sincerity and godUness of a candidate and his devotion to the cause of his church than on his thorough general and theo logical culture. But after all there is nothing in the free church system of ministerial edu cation that would, of necessity, preclude the idea of the broadest general culture combined vrith scholarly theological training. While the Church must insist on evidences of personal godliness and devotion to her Confession, she must not lower the standard of general and theological culture. Her theological students ought to be men of classical tiaining, vrith a proper knowledge of the ancient languages, ac quainted -with the principal systems of phUos ophy, vrith history, physics, and art, especiaUy that art which, in Luther's estimation, is nearest to theology. No system of beneficiary educa tion, of which there is littie real need at tiie ministerial Relief 316 ministry present time, ought to affect this standard. On the contiary, if there must be beneficiaries, they of aU men ought to be kept to the highest stand ard, and the support they receive ought to be in the form of scholarships, on the basis of com petitive examinations. Another feature in the system of ministerial education to which our Church in this country had gradually to grow up is, what might be called, the national or territorial. As a Church of the Immigrant she had, for a time, to look to the fatherland to fill up the lines of clergy. But as she became rooted in the soil of her new home, the duty clearly devolved on her to educate her own ministry, under her own eyes, in her own insti tutions, out of material furnished by her own membership. This has been the common ex perience and practice particularly of those Lu therans who were most active to plant the Luth. Church securely on a firm basis in the far West, the German Synods of Missouri and Iowa, and the Scandinavian bodies. A. S. Ministerial Relief. See Pastors' and Widows' Fund. Ministerium. The two oldest synods in America owe their official name to the fact that they were originally an organization exclusively of pastors. The presence of lay delegates was not for the purpose of participating in the de liberations and decisions, but only to report concerning the parishes whence they came, and to confer with the Ministerium concerning their proper care. In 1792 lay delegates were given a seat and vote in certain sessions, known as synodical, while the other sessions were re served for the ministers alone. It was the pre rogative of the ministerial sessions to decide upon the licensure and ordination of candidates for the ministry, not that there was any dis position to deny to the laity a participation in the separation of men to the ministerial office, but because ordination presupposed a call to a congregation. The justification of the separate sessions is that it is the office of the regularly called teachers of the Church to provide for and judge the official teaching. At the same time, as a matter of expediency, it is held that objections to the admission of candidates can be discussed with more freedom in a private meeting than in one where the statement of what may be found to be a baseless rumor may do incalculable damage. In some of the synods, the Ministerium simply recom mends to the synod, for final action ; in others, the ministerial sessions have been abol ished. H. E. J. Ministerium of Ne-w York, See Synods (IL). Ministerium of Pennsylvania. See S-vnods (IL). Ministry. The ministry, in its broadest sense, includes all service for Christ and the Church, whether it be preaching, service at the ¦tables (Acts 6), or deaconess work (Rom. 16 : 1) ; in its particular application, however, it is the ministry of the Word. This, since Christ is the fulfiller and end of the law (Matt. 5:17; Rom. 10 : 4), is not influenced by the provisions of the Old Testament. Christ is the prophet Qohn 6 : 14) and apostle (messenger) of God (Heb. 3:1). After the preliminary choice of dis ciples (John I : 35 ff.) follows the definitive special call (Matt. 4 : 18 ff ; Luke 5 : 15 ; Matt. 9:9), applied to the twelve (Matt. 10 : i ff. ; Mark 3 : 14 ff.), representatives of the new Israel, who are named apostles (Luke 6 : 13), and called and sent immediately by Christ (John 15 : 16 ; 20 :2i ; Rom. 1:1; Gal. 1:1). They are not apostles in the general sense (Acts 14 : 14) in which many messengers of early Christendom received this name. They are to be the witnesses of Christ's life and resunection (John 15 : 27 ; Acts 1 : 8 ; i Cor. 9:1; 15 : 8 ; I John 1 : i). Endowed with special powers and God's Spirit to proclaim the Word (Matt. 28 : 18, 19 ; Rom. 15 : 18, 19 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 12 ; Matt. 10 : 20 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 40 ; i Thess. 2 : 13), they became the founders of churches (1 Cor. 3 : 10 ; Gal. 2:9; Eph. 2 : 20) , and gave them the authentic written Word of God (Gal. 6:11; 2 Thess. 3 : 17). On the apostles as bearers of diviue revelation (Matt. 16 : 16 ff. ; see Nosgen, Gesch. der N. T. Offenbarung, I., p. 493) the Church was to rest, and they were to exercise the judicial power of the whole Church (Matt. 18 : 17 ff. ; John 20 : 21 ff.). But in their special ministry, they occupy only a certain form of the one ministry, which they have in common -with all servants of Christ (Rom. 10 : 15 ; 16 : 21 ; i Cor. 4:1; Phil. 2 : 25 ; 4:3; Eph. 6 : 21 ; Col. 4 : 11, 12 ; i Thess. 2 : 6 ; 2 John 1 ; 3 John 1). They appoint directiy or indirectly (2 Tim. 2:2; Tit. 1 : 3) elders or presbyters, who are the same (Acts 20 : 28 ; Phil. 1 : i), and many in a church, untU later, when there is only one (cf. angel. Rev. 2 : i, 8, 12, etc.). The Church, however, votes for and approves of its elders (Acts 14 : 23) , even in its specialized form of a single congregation (Matt. 18 : 20 ; Acts 14 : 23). The apostles did not then bestow their office and elect its successors. They perpetuated the ministry by showing the Church how to fill the office given it. This office did not arise by the transference of the right, which every Christian possessed as spirit ual priest (i Pet. 7 : 5, 9), divinely taught and anointed (i Thess. 4:9; i John 2 : 27); for the sacrifices of spiritual priesthood are thanks giring and the body (Rom. 12 : i ; Heb. 13 : 15). The peculiar conditions at Corinth (i Cor. 14 : 26, 31) were testimonies that God's Spirit was to be upon all (Acts 2 : 17, 18). They co-existed ¦with the apostolate, and did not bring about the office ol presbyter, which existed previously (Acts II : 30). This arose from Jewish elder ship, was a distinction of age and then of posi tion. In heathen communities this congrega tional office was called episcopate, after the manner of sodalities and burying fraternities in the Roman empire. It was originally cultic (Acts II : 30), but soon received the ministry of the Word (i Tim. 3 : 2 ; 5 : 17). It became different from the office of the prophets (Acts 13 : i), who ceased, but absorbed the evangelist (Act 21 : 8 ; Eph. 4 : 11 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 5), and teacher (Acts 13 : i ; i Cor. 12 : 28, 29 ; Eph. 4 : II), and was identical with the shepherd (Eph. 4 : II ; I Pet. 2 : 25) and president (Rom. 12:8; I Thess. 5 : 17). Its governmental power ministry 317 minneapolis was that of the Word. It was a service of the new covenant (2 Cor. 3:6), given to announce the word of reconciliation (2 Cor. 5 : 18, 19). Its bearers are servants of God and Christ (Rom. 13 : 4 ; 2 Cor. 6:4; 11 : 23 ; Col. 1:7;! Tim. 4 : 6), and minister to the Church (2 Cor. 8:4; 9:1; I Pet. 5:3). God gives them to the Church with the charismata (Acts 20 : 28 ; 1 Cor. 12:28; Eph. 4:11), to fill the service which he created for the administration oJthe Word (I Cor. 12 : 28 ff.), and sacraments (Matt. 28 : 19 ; a word to the eleven but derivatively belonging to the whole Church) ; and also to remit sins (John 20 : 23, to be taken in conjunc tion with Matt. 16 : 19 ; 18 : 18, shows a right of the Church to be exercised by the office) . The ministers are called mediately through the Church (Acts 14 : 32 ; Tit. 1:5). The Luth. Confessions, like the Word, make the ministry necessary for teaching the gospel and administering the sacraments {Augs. Conf, Art. v.), and emphasize the need of a regular call {Augs. Conf, Art. XIV.), which includes examination and ordination. ' ' The Church has the command to appoint ministers" {Apol. XIII. 12), aud there are allowed " church polity and grades in the church, even though they have been made by human authority " {Apol. XIV. 24) . But the divine right of the ministiy is to "remit sin, also to judge in regard to doctiine, and to exclude from the communion of the Church ' ' by the Word of God. The whole Church in all its members, " since it alone has the priesthood, certainly has the right to elect and ordain ministers. {Smal. Art., " Power and Primacy of Pope," 69). Luther, in his teaching over against the as sumptions of the Roman hierarchy, at first em phasized the spiritual right of every believer to teach, which was to be restricted only for order's sake. Every Christian has the privilege, but dare not exercise it, until called by his co- priests. After the rise of the fanatics, who preached without being sent, Luther, though not abandoning his original position on the relation of the spiritual priesthood of individ uals to the office, accentuated more strongly the divine institution of the office for the adminis tration of the Word and sacraments. Those who are to fill the office are marked by their charismata. (Cf. Kostlin, Luther's Theologie, IL, p. 539S-) . . , . The classic Luth. dogmaticians, who tieat of the ministry in connection -with the three es tates, begin with a careful distinction between the immediate and mediate call. The former belongs only to prophets and apostles, the latter exists now. Of it God is also the author, its authority is apostolic, and it has saving promises. The whole Church possesses the ministry and fiUs it as a whole either directly or representatively. The ministry is the power of preaching the Word, administering the sacra ments, and granting absolution effectively and really though instrumentally (Chemnitz, Ex amen, XIII. ; Chemnitz, Loci, De Ecclesia, ii sq. ; Gerhard, Lod, XXIII. ; Schmid, Doctr. Theol. (ed. Jacobs and Hay), p. 621 ff.). In 1850 and the years following this doctrine caused controversy. It arose from the concep tion of the Church, when the Church was em phasized, either as the congregation of saints, or as the institution of God. From the former thought the ministry was conceived of as rest ing in the congregation, according to the latter it was the self -perpetuating office of the shep herd. The former found the divine right of the ministiy only in the administration of the means of grace, the latter added guidance and government as divinely given. The advocates of the first view were Hofling, Harless, Tho masius, V. Hoffmann, T. Hamack, Delitzsch (the Erlangen school). The later position of Hofling with the modifications of the others is correct, if the ministry be connected -with the means of grace and be considered as given for their sake to the Church. God then creates and gives the office to the Church, which, as a whole, fills it. Neither the ministry nor the Church is to be exalted to the detriment of either. The high estimate of the ministry was held by Loehe, Miinchmeyer, Huschke, Vilmar, etc. It is conect in disconnecting the ministry from the spiritual priesthood of individuals, and saving it from the danger of a congregational creation instead of a divine institution, but it ens in undervaluing the right of the Church, and in separating the office from it, and rather tends to guarantee the means of grace by the office, in the place of having the office simply for the administration of the means of grace. In America this view was advocated by the Buffalo Synod (see article) in Grabau's Hir- tenbrief and in modified form is held in the Iowa Synod, whose beginnings are due to Loehe's non-agreement with Missouri (see Iowa Synod, Synods, V.), which opposed aU these tendencies and took Luther's early posi tion. It holds that ' ' the ministerial office is confened upon its incumbents by God, by the Holy Spirit, by Christ, the head and arch bishop of his Church, through thfe congrega tions, which, by the call extended through them, delegate or tiansfer upon the men thus called the public exercise of those functions of the priesthood of all believers which, by virtue of such call, the ministers of Christ and of the Church perform in the name of the congrega tion and of Christ, who mediately called them through the congregation ' ' ( Grabner) . For Literature consult, in addition to the fuU list in Luthardt's Compendium, \\ 67, 74 ; Phi lippi, Kirchl. Glaubenslehre, 5, 3; Knoke, Grundriss derprakt. Theologie, \ 8 ; Grabner, Doctrinal Theology, p. 244 ; Sohm's Kirchen rechi under ' ' Urchristenthum ' ' and ' ' Re formation ; " Nosgen, Symbolik, p. 304 ; Meu sel, Kirchl. Handlexikon, I., p. 122 ff. J. H. Minneapolis, Luth. Church in. in 1856 the Rev. Ferdinand Sievers (of Frankenlust, Mich., d. 1893) was sent by the Missouri Synod to look into the prospects of starting mission work among the Indians of Minnesota'. Find ing a number of German settlements, he worked up a home mission field, and among others or ganized the first German Luth. congregation in Minneapolis in August of the same year. The first Swedish Church was organized in Minneapolis, in 1866, tmder the name of "The minnesota 318 missions First Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Church." The first English Luth. Church in any city northwest of Chicago is St. John's, Minneapolis, organized by Rev. G. H. Trabert in June, 1883. In Minneapolis there are 7 Swedish congregations belonging to the Augus tana Synod, -with 2,300 communicants ; 6 Ger man, I Missouri Synod, i Minnesota, and 3 Iowa, with 1,475 communicants ; and 2 Danish, with 175 communicants. Of the 8 Norwegian churches, 3 belong to the Norwegian Synod, I to the United Church, i to Hauge's Synod, and 3 to the Free Church, with an aggregate com municant membership of 2,550. There are 2 English congregations belonging to the English Synod of the Northwest, with 515 commu nicants, and I Slavonian (independent) , vrith a membership of 115. The whole number of Luth. communicants in Minneapolis is 7,120. G. H. T. Minnesota, Lutherans in. According to the census of 1890, there were 30,983 more Lu therans in Minnesota than communicants of all other Protestant denominations combined. They exceeded the Methodists 9 times, the Bap tists 17 times, the Presbyterians 18 times, and the Episcopalians nearly 25 times. The official record was : Congrega- Communi- tions. cants. General Synod, . . . i 26 General CouncU, . . . 223 27,906 Synodical Conference, . 217 30,398 Joint Synod of Ohio, . 21 3,i& Buffalo, 2 312 Hauge's 55 6,534 Norwegian Church, . . 164 21,832 Danish Ch. in America, . 2 200 Danish Ch. Association, 14 1,524 Icelandic, 5 221 United Norwegian, . 405 49,541 Independent, . . .17 3i40i The 30 congregations and 2,760 communi cants of the German Iowa Synod are included by the census in the General Council. While in the cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, the Lutherans hold the first rank among Protestant bodies, the proportion is not so overwhelming as throughout the state. It is a question whether the Lutheran would not considerably exceed also the Roman Catholic population, if the same method of reckoning members were adopted. Minnesota Synod. See Synods (III.). Mirus, Martin, b. 1532, in Weida, Saxony, pastor at Kahla, called as supt. to Weimar (1573)1 where he had to leave at once because of crypto-Calvinistic opposition, prof, and supt. at Jena (1574), then court-preacher at Dresden. Gaining the friendship of Aug. I., and advanc ing the cause of the Form, of Concord, he was banished under Christian I., by Crell's influ ence. Recalled after Christian's death (1591), he labored to remove crypto-Cal-rinism, but d. 1593- Misrepresentations of the Luth. Church. Of these the chief are that the Luth. Church teaches : (i) Transubstantiation ; (2) Consub stantiation ; (3) The Romish doctiine of the Mass ; (4) The Romish doctrine of Baptismal Regeneration ; (5) Private confession and abso lution in the Romish sense. With reference to (1) and (2), it may be said that Transubstantiation is distinctly, and Con substantiation implicitly, rejected in the confes sions. Both views have been energetically repudiated by all recognized Luth. theologians and divines from Luther and his times until the present day. (3) Article XXIV. of the Augs. Con. affirms that the Mass is retained. But "It is only necessary to read the Article through to see that the Confession sets forth the Mass in its original and proper sense, to note the celebration ofthe Lord's Supper " (Dr. C. P. Krauth, notes to^. C). (4) It is the Romish -riew that regeneration is effected by the performance of the rite of Baptism, that it is independent of the faith of the recipient, and that it depends upon the in tention of the officiating priest. The Luth. Church holds that baptism is ordinarily neces sary to salvation because God has commanded it, that the grace of God is offered to the recip ient of this rite, that this grace is also received by those who beUeve, or by those, as in the case of infants, who do not reject the proffered grace, and that regeneration which is not an invari able accompaniment of baptism — since it may either precede or follow the rite — is wrought by the Holy Spirit. (5) Confession and absolution mean the same in the Luth. Church as in other Protestant com munions, viz. . The declaration of forgiveness of sins upon the condition of repentance and faith, whether made in public to many persons, or to a single person in private. These and some other misrepresentations are due either to prejudice or to a cursory and undis- criminating examination (one cannot say study) of the confessions of the Church. S. B. Missions, Foreign, of the Luth. Church. Luther's part in mission work consisted in the purgation of the heathen leaven in Rome's mis sion methods, and the introduction of a scrip tural standard. Being a reformer in other de partments of theology, he made possible a proper mission theory and practice. Being oc cupied with the foundation, his work, for the most part, is underground. The visible portion is sufficient to indicate the nature of the founda tion. His translation of the Bible is at once the foundation and the possible beginning of all trae mission work. The principle that every passage of Scripture must be construed in its plain and literal sense could and would not leave him and his followers in doubt about the duty of preaching the gospel to every creature, nor could they doubt its effectiveness wherever the Word was preached. When the gospel became a power in Europe, numerous attempts in spreading it were made among the heathen on its frontiers and in foreign countries. Notable were those of Gus tavus Vasa, King of Sweden. In 1559 he sent the first missionary to the Lapps ; his son, Charles IX. , and Gustavus Adolphus continued the good work. Denmark and Norway labored among the Finns and the Lapps. Many of these people have not only become Christians but are missions 319 missions themselves engaged in the great work of Luth. missions. Through the establishment of colonies in the East Indies (1620), in the West Indies (1672), and about the same time on the Gold Coast of Africa, Denmark had an opportunity to let her light shine among the heathen as no other Lutheran country. The union of Norway vrith Denmark gave her access to the Finns and Lapps of the North, and the inhabitants of Greenland. The zeal of the pious king, like that of the Swedish rulers before him, could not be satisfied until all his territory was provided vrith the preaching of the gospel. For the history of the mission in India, see art. India, Luth. Missions in. Hans Egede's great concern of what he con sidered "God's business " caused him to sail (1721) from Bergen for Greenland. Instead of finding descendants of Norwegian settlers, as he expected, he found Esquimaux, prejudiced against Europeans and far reduced in the social scale. Nothing daunted by the unfavorable out look, and convinced of their need of the gospel, he determined to remain. By the closest appli cation, he learned the difficult language, began to preach and translate. For fifteen years, amidst great hardships, and during an epidemic in which only three out of two hundred native families survived, he labored unceasingly for Greenland's spiritual welfare. (See Egede, Hans, and Greenland.) The loss through the epidemic and the great strain upon him in caring for the sick was enough to dishearten men of stronger courage than Egede's. Hoping to do more effective work in enlisting interest at home, he returned to Denmark (1736), leaving his son Paul in charge of the mission. He himself assumed the superintendency of the Mission Seminary at Copenhagen and trained the men for Green land. With the exception of a few hundred natives on the East Coast, this country is now Christian. More than 8,000 members are reported. The few heathen who remain have the gospel preached to them, and they too may soon re joice in the salvation of Christ. As early as 1634 Rev. Peter Heyling of Liibeck began missionary work in Abyssinia. He rendered the Gospel of St. John into the Amharic language and otherwise did good work there. Dr. Krapf , of the Basel Seminary, sailed (1837) for Africa. He, in company vrith Mis sionary Isenberg, labored in behalf of the Abys- sinians until their expulsion the foUovring year. Together they wandered to Gallaland, spending a few years in Shoa. Being again driven forth by the Roman Catholics, Krapf went to Mom basa. Rebmann having joined him, they con tinued their journey, discovered (1848) Kiliman jaro, brought Uganda to the knowledge of the world, gave the impulse to East African dis covery, and laid the foundation for East African missions. No less than six missionary societies, more or less Luth. , are at work in and about the German possessions of East Africa. "The Bavarian Evangelical Lutheran Society for East Africa " is doing good work on a number of stations. Its missionaries, formerly trained at the Neuendet telsau Institution, are, since the society's affilia tion (1893) with the Leipzig Society, trained in the latter's institution. Rev. Lundahl, a repre sentative of the Fatherland Institute of Sweden, unable to engage in direct mission work, has succeeded in establishing a number of schools in Abyssinia, and by sending his pupils to Sweden for Christian training, he is able to do a great deal of silent work in behalf of God's kingdom. The Leipzig Missionary Society began work (1888) on the Kelina Njaro ; the Pilgrim Mission of St. Chrischona labors among the Gallas ; the Missionary Union of Sweden has a self-sustain ing mission on the Congo ; the Berlin Missionary Society for East Africa has a station at Dar-es- Salaam and is laboring to evangelize the Kon- des. Central Africa. Nearly all are well sup ported and very successful. The Luth. societies engaged in South Africa meet with encouraging results in spite of European vices and the disastrous wars. The beginning of Luth. missions dates from the settlement of German emigrants in Natal (1848). The Rhenish Society, upon the in-ritation of Dr. Philip, superintendent of the London Society's missions, began a mission in Cape Colony ( 1829), where it now has 13,900 Christians distributed in 10 stations. The transfer (1840) of the Lon don and Wesleyan stations among the Namaqua and the Herero tribes to the Rhenish Society largely increased the extent of the mission and, according to the last report, numbered 9,000 members. Through the exertions of Rev. Hahn, the Finns became interested in the Herero and the Ovambo people, and succeeded in establish ing a mission among them. The Berlin Society has its principal mission in South Africa. Its first missionanes arrived in 1834. The congregations are composed of dias pora and native elements. The 60 stations re port a church membership of 28,315, and a bap tized population of about 50,000. The Norwegians began a mission among the Zulus in 1844. At the time it was a fruitless effort. When Bishop Schreuder resumed the work, he succeeded in establishing a number of stations, and though the field has been divided on account of differences, the work still goes on with some degree of success. Among these same people and among the Natals, the Church Mission of Sweden has been laboring since 1876. The most important missionary work con ducted by the Lutherans in South Africa is that of the Hermannsburg Society. The first station , Hermannsburg, was established (1858) near the Tugela River, the boundary between Natal and Zululand. In Zululand the Hermannsburg mis sionaries succeeded in establishing 11 stations, in which they report 3,640 members. The Be- chuana converts number 29,863. The principal station is Bethany. A bequest of 145,000 from Rev. Lindeman in 1897 has enabled the society to greatly extend its missionary operations. The Hermannsburg Mission is an exemplifica tion of what one pastor and his devoted congre gation may accomplish when they apply all their energies to the work of the Master. On account of the close relation of the society to missions 320 missions the state church, the Hermannsburg "Free Church Missionary Society " conducts a mission of its own on the same territory. The Hermannsburg Society can also claim some credit for the Luth. mission work in Persia. It has tiained Pera Johannes, a. nati-ve of Persia, who, upon the completion of his studies, returned to his native land and is now actively engaged in preaching the gospel and in translating. His son, Luther, after finishing his course at Hermannsburg, will assist him. The Luth. Church reports 88,000 members in its South African missions. Adding the diaspora Lutherans, it is estimated that there are more than 100,000 Lutherans in South Africa. One oasis after another is forming, and soon, it is to be hoped, this entire section will be supplied with the Water of Life. West Africa is represented by the flourishing missions of the Basel, the Bremen, and the General Synod societies. The Basel Society began work (1828) on the Gold Coast. The work was attended -with great hardship and for a number of years without any converts. Bet ter results awaited the mission, and now it is able to report almost 14,000 adherents. No less difficult was the mission among the Cameroons ; but by patient effort 1,300 have been brought to confess Christ. On the Slave Coast, the Bremen Society has been laboring since 1847. Three stations, a mission house, a number of schools, attended by 800 pupils, and congregations with a mem bership of 1,623 are the fruit of the society's efforts. For about thirty years, the General Synod of America has been conducting a mission in Li beria. Rev. Dr. Day, up to the time of his death, had been the principal missionary and general superintendent. About 3,000 souls are under the influence of the mission. The industrial department, contrary to the experience of most other missions, is yielding encouraging results and adds considerably to the support of the mission. The Luth. mission in Madagascar began un der what may be considered a providential lead ing. The Norwegian missionaries laboring vrithout avail in Zululand and in limited sur roundings, and learning that the King of Mada gascar proclaimed religious freedom, proceeded thither and established a station in the interior. Dahl, the most energetic of all, established a seminary for the training of native help. The medical skill of Borchgrevink has been and still is a means of bringing many to the knowl edge of Christ. The government entrasted the training of the children in their district to the Norwegian missionaries. They are said to be the most careful and diligent missionaries on the island. The mission employs the services of 25 foreign and 60 native ordained mission aries. The church members number 35,000 and the scholars 35,000. There is also a theo logical seminary, a high school for boys and one for girls, a hospital, and a printing office. The United Norwegian Lutherans of America and the Paris Evangelical Society have vrithin recent years begun to cany on mission work on the island. (See Madagascar.) Traces of Luth. mission work by the Danes in China may be found in the seventeenth cen tury. The greatest credit for Luth. work in China must, however, be allotted to Frederick Guetzlaff. He dressed in Chinese fashion, con versed in Chinese and adopted many of their cus toms. He published a revised edition of the New Testament, founded The Chinese Magazine, established hospitals, prepared natives to teach and preach, and in numerous other ways became useful to the natives. At home he was instru mental in enlisting the services of prominent people, among them the Queen of Prassia, and in organizing the Danish Luth. China Mission. The Danish missionaries are untiring in their efforts to evangelize the Chinese. The Norwe gians and the Swedes, representing many smaU societies, are also striving to bring them to Christ. The Norwegians of America have un dertaken a mission in Hankow. The Basel So ciety is in South China since 1847 ; the Berlin since 1882 ; the Rhenish since 1846. Dr. Faber, formerly of the Rhenish, is acknowledged to be one of the best students of Chinese literature. The number of converts is about 5,000. Rev. Guetzlaff's futile attempt to enter Japan was followed by a successful effort on the part of the United Synod of the South of the Evan gelical Luth. Church of the United States, in 1887. (See Japan.) Sumatra has proved to be a very fruitful field for the Rhenish Society ; 32,987 native Chris tians are reported. The Evangelical Luth. Home and Foreign Missionary Society of Hol land is also represented. Since 1859, the Rhen ish Society has also labored in Borneo and Nias. The number of Christians is about 1,500. Australia has furnished a home for numerous German emigrants, and through their pastors mission work began among the natives. The Scandina-rian-German Synod of Queensland, the Neuendettelsau, the Gossner, and the Leip zig Societies are all engaged in the work of caU ing the Austialians to repentance. Though at tended with great difficulty, the labor is not without results. New Zealand is looked after by the Immanuel Synod of Austialia. The Hermannsburg Society has a mission at Max- wellton. The Bremen Society also has a mis sion since 1842. Seven missionaries from the Neuendettelsau Institution, sixfrom the Rhenish, and represent atives from the Immanuel Synod of Austialia are at present engaged among the natives of Kaiser Wilhelm' s Land, New Guinea. Adding the work of the Swedes in Alaska, in Russia, in Algiers ; that of the Germans in Pal estine, Asia Minor, Egypt ; and that of the American Lutherans among the American In dians and Negroes ; and the very general sur vey of Luth. Foreign Missions is complete. Briefly, the Luth. Church has in its missionary operations, 2,000 stations, 665 ordained mission aries, 250 native ordained pastors, 5,000 native lay-workers, 300,000 converts, 85,000 scholars. and an annual income of $1,325,000. Lit.: Plitt-Hardeland, Lutheran Missions; Lenker, Lutherans in AU Lands ; Wolf, After Fifty Years; Gundert, Evangelical Missions ; Christlieb, Foreign Missions, etc. P. A. L. missions 331 missions Missions, Home. This term denotes a ^here of church activity exclusively American. The modem migration of nations has brought, and is bringing, to these shores, people from every portion of the world. The citizens of the Luth. states of Europe settiing here usually leave their pastors at home. The same is trae of those moving from our Eastern States to the great West and Northwest. In order to gather this stream of Lutherans, and to hold it for our Church, pastors called "home missionaries" are sent forth supported by various synods, by the general bodies to which they belong, or, in some cases, by individual congregations. The labors of Revs. Bolzius, Gronau, and others in the South, at the beginning of the last century, and especially of Rev. Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, the patiiarch of our Church in America, were largely of a home missionary character. When the Ministerium of Pennsyl vania was organized (a. d. 1748), its members realized that pastors had to be sent out to per form this work in various sections of the land then opening to settlement. Although such pastors were not, at that time, called home mis sionaries, they were, essentially, what the name implies. In 1772 Rev. Frederick Schultz was sent from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia, where he labored among the Lutherans for a period of ten years. Ministers also -risited the region west of the AUeghanies. But it is especially during the present century that home missions have become the most im portant work of the Church. Immigration from Luth. countries assumed such vast proportions that it seemed scarcely possible to gather and hold the stieam. Thepolyglot character ofthe newcomers added to the difficulty. Germans, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, Icelanders, Finns, people from the Baltic provinces of Russia and from other sections of that great empire, taxed the resources of the Church in this countiy to supply them with the means of grace. At one time a mission superintendent stated that two millions of the members of our Church, scat tered throughout the broad expanse of our land, were as sheep without a shepherd, and urged the importance of making provision for them. In 1804 the Pennsylvania Synod adopted a plan for tiaveUing missionaries, and a number were sent into Westem Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and other regions. Rev. Buttler's cir cuit was designated from the ' ' so-called head of Holston, Virginia, to Knoxville, Tennessee." Rev. Forster was sent to the "district called New Pennsylvania (in the State of Ohio), from the capital. New Madrid, to Lake Erie." In October, 1812, ten ministers, missionaries sent out by the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, held in Washington Co., Pa., the first ecclesias tical conference west of the Alleghany Moun tains. In 1817 Rev. C. F. Heyer became a travelling missionary in Westem Pennsylvania, Maryland, Southern Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. In 1820 the General Synod was organized, and turned its attention to this harvest field. Not content with efforts made before, the Pennsylvania Synod, in 1836, constituted itself 21 a mission society. Rev. Ezra Keller was sent out and explored Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Ken tucky, and what is now West Virginia, preaching for, and encouraging Lutherans wherever found. The same year a central home missionary society was organized at Mechanicsburg, Pa., and six ministers sent to explore the Mississippi Valley. Most prominent among these was Pastor Heyer, who tiavelled thousands of miles, and found enough German settlements to re quire " at least fifty missionaries." In January, 1845, at the time of its organiza tion at Pittsburg, the Pittsburg Synod resolved to cany the gospel to destitute settlements. Mr. AdamKeffer, a layman, of Vaughn, Canada, travelled 500 miles, mostly on foot, to attend a meeting of this synod, and petition for aid in securing a pastor. Rev. G. Bassler, subsequently the first president ofthe General Council, visited Canada in 1849, and gathered congregations, which, in 1853, formed a conference of the Pitts burg Synod, and in 1861 developed into the Synod of Canada. In 1850 the South Carolina Synod sent Rev. Mr. Guebner as a missionary to Texas. He tiavelled over a large portion of the State, and then located at Galveston. The Pittsburg Synod, through Rev. C. Brain, also began home mission work in Texas, vrith the result that, November 8, 1851, the Synod of Texas was or ganized. Nova Scotia also testifies to the effi cient work of the Pittsburg Synod, which has gained the distinction of being called "The, Missionary Synod." _ From 1858-1869 Rev. C. F. Heyer was mis^.. sionary in the Northwest, receiving his support. largely from the Pennsylvania Synod. He re-_ sided at St. Paul, Minn., and from this place aS; a centre he travelled over the prairies, gathered the scattered Lutherans, and organized them into congregations, leading, in i860, to the.- formation of the Minnesota Synod. SimUar is,- the origin of a number of other synods. The General Synod tiansacts all home mis sionary operations within the boundaries of the synods connected with it, as well as those beyond these limits, through one cential board. It supported, according to the last report, 193 missionaries, with 209 congregations, at an ex pense, for two years, of ^99,627.23. When the General Council was organized, an ' ' executive committee on home missions ' ' was created to co-operate with home mission com mittees to be elected by the various synods, which synodical committees were to have charge of the missions -within the bounds of their re spective synods ; the executive committee to operate where the synods had no missions. In order to supply the money necessary for this purpose, the synods were requested to contrib ute one-fifth of all funds received by them for home missions, to the treasury of the executive committee. This plan succeeded in intensify ing the idea of " sjmodical activity in the mis sion work." It continued in operation until 1881. The total amount expended by the ex ecutive committee was $29,842.59. In the year 1881 the General Council elected one committee for its English work, and an other for the German. These were subsequently missions 323 missions incorporated as boards of home missions. The various synods, however, retained the control of the missions within their territory. The " central mission committee of the Augustana Synod " was appointed as the committee of the General Council to care for the Swedish in terests. The Board of English Missions has pushed its work -with commendable zeal. Its stations ex tend over the land from Boston, Mass., to Seattle, Wash., whilst the "English Synod of the Northwest " is a result of its labors. From 1881-1897, $132,475.23 were expended in its work. The Swedish field reaches from ocean to ocean, and from Canada to the Gulf. It is re markable how the sturdy countrymen of Gus tavus Adolphus have realized and improved their opportunities. The names of Revs. Esbjom, Hasselquist, Erland Carlsson, and of the pioneer on the Pacific Coast, Rev. Peter Carlsson, will ever remain associated vrith their great home mission operations. From 1882-1897 they have expended $204,991.27 in the work, and at pres ent support 200 missionaries. A lack of German pastors and candidates in duced the German committee to tum to the Fatherland for the needed supply. In 1882 a special committee appointed by the General Council recommended, and the General Coun cil unanimously adopted the following : " After full consideration of the claims of several insti tutions, your committee would recommend that of Rev. Paulsen, in Kropp, Schleswig, as in doctrinal position and in its aims most in ac cordance -with our wants." The German com mittee acted in accordance with this resolution. The impression prevailed that this institution, which had been opened May i, 1882, would be a sort of preparatory school, from which young men could enter one of the theological semina ries in this country. In course of time it became evident that a large number of members of the General Council desired, that, for practical reasons, the students from Pastor Paulsen's Seminary should spend at least the final year of their studies in the theological seminary at Philadelphia. The General Council appointed its board of trastees, the faculty of the theo logical seminary, and its German home mission committee a joint committee to arrange this matter with Rev. Paulsen, and to form an agree ment with him as to the amount of compensa tion to be given him. Rev. Paulsen met the committee, was informed of the wishes and de sires of the General Council, but — refused ab solutely to conform thereto. The General Council then severed the relations existing and withdrew its support from his institution. The German board at first supported missions in various states, and especially in Texas. These missions were transfened to various synods. At present, besides aiding missions in Ken tucky and Utah, it labors chiefly in the North western Territories of Canada, from Winnipeg, Manitoba, iu the East, to Edmonton, Alberta, in the West. In 1897 its labors resulted in the organization of the " Synod of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. ' ' The amount expended from 1881- 1897 is $64,552.23. The Pennsylvania Synod supports 53 missionaries ; the New York Minis terium, 25 ; the Pittsburg Synod, 26 ; the Canada Synod, 8 ; and the District Synod of Ohio, 5. In 1839a small band of German "Pilgrim Fathers" saUed up the "Father of Waters," and settled near St. Louis. Amid trials, and difficulties, and hardships at flrst, in the prori dence of God they have grown to be the largest Luth. Synod in America, — the Missouri Synod. Haring done more than any other to save the Germans of the Great West to the Luth. Church, it now sustains about 250 home missionaries, with 700 congregations and preaching places, at an expense per annum of about $60,000. The synods united with it in the Synodical Confer ence are also active in their spheres of labor. The Michigan Synod has all it can do to care for its missions. The Norwegians support 100 home mission aries, and are earnestly supplying the spiritual necessities of their countrymen. The Joint Synod of Ohio with 78, and the Iowa Synod with 50, missionaries are perform ing a good work. The Danes and the Icelanders are awake to the importance of caring for their portion of the Luth. host, whilst the Finns, Slavonians, Poles, Lithuanians, Letts, and others are cared for as well as their scattered condition aUows. The United Synod of the South, with a com paratively limited number of Lutherans in its field, is also pushing forward the interests of our Zion -with commendable zeal. The latest reports show that the various gen eral bodies and synods support over 1,000 home missionaries, supplying 1,600 congregations and preaching stations, at an annual outlay of about $212,000. F. W. W. Missions, Inner, in Germany, i. Name AND Character. For several hundred years efforts had been made in the Evangelical Church of Germany to combat the unbelief and the moral corraption of the masses, and to relieve their spiritual and bodily wants. Johann Hin- rich Wichern was the first to summarize these efforts under the name of "inner mission." This term he defined as " that part of the work of the Church to be performed by its active and Uving members by virtue of the principle of the universal priesthood of believers, looking to the extension and introduction of the king dom of God into the life of the masses, who only externally (i. e. because they are baptized) are still to be counted as members of the Church." He was led to adopt this name by the conviction ' ' that within the pale of Chris tendom there is need of no smaller missionary zeal than in the field of foreign missions, be cause, among the number of those baptized, that is to say, those who only externally belong to the National Church, there are many who are still to be regarded as proper objects of mis sionary acti-rity." Inner missions is not to be confounded with the English term "home missions," viz. the spiritual care of the brethren in the faith living in the "Diaspora" (Gustav-Adolf Verein ; Luth. Gotteskaste-fi). missions 323 mission \\^ork II. History, (i) The forerunners, {a) The Reformation : This gave the sound evan gelical basis in the doctrine of the justification by faith and of Christian charity as unselfish devotion in gratitude for the salvation which the saved enjoy. Practical measures were the regulations for the care of the poor, {b) In the period of orthodoxy : Joh. Val. Andrese, founder of the " Kirchenconvente " for the care and fostering of schools, for the care of the poor, and the oversight of public morals. He was also active in alle-riating the sufferings caused by the Thirty Years' War. (c) The period of Pietism (Spener, A. H. Francke) : The fos tering and nourishing of the faith in the indi vidual, as well as the institution of smaller and more frequent gatherings of the faithful, the prototypes of the modem "Christian associa tions." Their successors, "the quiet in the land" (Ps. 35 : 20), preserved devout faith in Christ and practised Christian charity during the period of rationalism in Germany. The " Christentums-Gesellschaft " founded in 1780 by J. A. Urlsperger, for joining active Chris tians into an international confederation and relieving the spiritual wants of the masses. {d) Prominent workers in more recent times : Oberlin, the father of the Christian kindergar ten ; Joh. Falk (1768-1826), Count v. d. Recke- Vollmerstein, and Chr. H. Zeller (1779-1860), all three founders of institutions for the care and education of neglected children ; Baron Kottvritz (175 7- 1 843) provided for indigent laborers in Silesia and Berlin ; Amalie Sieve- king (1794-1859), " the Tabitha of Hamburg," who devoted herself to the nursing of the sick during an epidemic of cholera, and who founded a women's society for the care of the poor and the sick. (2) The pioneers and leaders. The father of In. Mis. , Wichern (1808-81 ) . He was active from early manhood in works of Chris tian charity, superintendent of the first German Sunday-school, founder of " Das Rauhe Haus " (1833), of a house of refuge for boys, and of an institution for the education of lay-brothers. On Sept. 21, 1848, he held his address at the ' ' Kirchentag "in Wittenberg. Its resiUts were : Organization of " the central board for I. M. " ; congresses for I. M. Theo. Fliedner (1800-64) rerived the female diaconate by founding the Kaiserswerth mother-house of deaconesses (1836). (See Deaconess.) Wilhelm I^oehe (1808-72) brought I. M. to its proper position and recognition in the Luth. Church ; founded the " Verein fiir I. M. im Sinne der Luth. Kirche" (1850), the "Verein fiir Weibl. Dia konie," andthe mother-house in Neuendettelsau (1854). Fr. Haerter and Fr. v. Bodelschwingh also deserve mention, the latter for his coloni zation-plan in charity-work, which, with modi fications, is now being urged in America. IIL Fields of Labor, (i) Training and instruction of children : Day nurseries for the reception and care of infants ; Christian kinder gartens I Sunday-schools ; orphanages ; educa tional societies. (2) Education and protection of the young : Industrial schools for girls ; homes for servant-girls ; young women's associ ations ; homes for apprentices ; young men's association ; Herbergen zur Heimat, for the protection of tiaveUing workmen. (3) Recla mation of the lost : Houses of refuge for neg lected children ; Magdalen-asylums for fallen women ; home for inebriates ; Arbeiterco- lonien, i. e. farm colonies for the employment and reformation of tramps ; spiritual care of prisoners. (4) Protection of those in danger : Care of workmen who, with their families, wan der from place to place ; seamen's missions ; societies for emigrants. (5) Care of the sick and infirm : Asylums for the deaf and dumb, the blind, the idiotic, for epileptics (v. Bodel- schvringh), for the insane, and for cripples ; children's country week associations ; nursing of the sick in hospitals ; children's hospitals ; infirmaries ; nursing of the sick and poor in their homes, as conducted in a model manner in Berlin. (6) Dissemination of Christian Utera ture : Bible societies ; tract societies ; free libraries. (7) Efforts to suppress social e-rils : City missions (Ad. Stoecker) ; parish work ; care of the poor ; sa-vings banks. IV. The Workers. (1) Societies: Chari table societies ; district societies for I. M. ; socie ties for the Christian education of the populace. (2) Clergymen acting in the interest of I. M. institutions, as itinerant preachers, superintend ents of city missions, etc. (3) Lay-brothers and deacons trained in brother-houses (12), which, since 1876, are united in a conference. (4) Deaconesses : 44 Mother-houses with 9,714 sisters, in 1897 working in 3,642 fields. V. Lit. •.'Wichern, Die Innere Missicm; Denk- schrift; G. Uhlhorn, Die christi. Liebesthaet- igkeit; Th. Schaefer, Leitfaden der I. M. ; P. Wurster, Die Lehre von der I. M. ; Th. Schaefer, Kalender der Inneren Mission. K. G. Mission Work, Inner, in this land of " free " churches, differs necessarily from the work in Germany. Much of it is taken in hand by the Church in its organized capacity, and much is taken out of its hands by outside organizations. Inner mission work is likewise restricted by the enormous expenditure of effort, called for by the Home Mission work of the century. As distinct from the latter we may note the em ployment of special evangelists or " re-rival preachers, ' ' common fifty years ago, now obso lescent ; the work among the freedmen of the South by the Synodical Conference, the Apache Indian missions of the Wisconsin Synod in Arizona, and the Norwegian Indian school work at Wittenberg, Wis. The churches have always had "Dorcas," or sewing, societies, which aimed to clothe the poor. They continue under the general name of women's societies, but often waste their energies in getting up fairs and suppers. To counteract the unchristian secret mutual insurance lodges, Luth. mutual relief and in surance societies, -with sick or funeral benefits, or both, have been attached to many German and Scandinavian churches. Synodical and in- ter-sjmodical relief and life insurance societies have grown up, e. g. in the German Iowa, and Swedish Augustana Synods. The General Synod and some synods have pastors' and widows' funds. There is a Luth. ministers' insurance association in the East. Young people's societies have existed for many mission IVork 334 missionary Festivals years, sometimes as unions of catechumens, sometimes as young men's or young women's societies, sometimes as purely literary, again as purely missionary societies, culminating at last in the Luther League movement. The league can become a most efficient inner mission agency by committees to visit the sick and the straying and to look up clerks, domestics, and students coming into the city, and by " flower missions ' ' and visits of sympathy and song to hospitals, alms-houses, and prisons. To some extent this is being done, and here and there visiting committees of women and so-called congregational deaconesses are also formed, but, aside from the faithful work of Sun day-school teachers, there is little concerted effort. The most prominent departments of inner mission work are the Deaconess Work, Hos pitals, and Orphanages, which see. There are in the United States 39 orphanages, 1 1 hospitals, 6 homes for the aged and infirm, i home for epileptics, 5 deaconess mother-houses, and 1 deaf and dumb asylum under Luth. auspices. No work has been more blessed than that among the immigrants. To welcome them in Christ's name, to protect them from impostors, and to direct them to Luth. pastors in their new homes occupies the time of 2 German (General Council and Synodical Conference) missionaries, i Swedish, i Norwegian, 1 Danish, and 1 Finnish, at New York, where there are 2 Emigrant Houses, or Luth. hotels. Similar work is done at Baltimore, Boston, aud Phila delphia. Seamen's mission work is done at these and other ports by the local pastors, in part in conjunction with Scandinavian sea men's missionary societies across the water. The few Luth. churches that have aspired to be ' ' institutional churches ' ' seem divided be tween an endeavor to entertain their own well- to-do youth and an effort to reach out after the depraved. There is room for such churches in the congested and "slum" distiicts of our overgrown American cities. The older " down town " churches must either follow their con gregations up town, or still better, secure en dowment, change their methods, and fight tho new heathenism growing up under their very shadow. The serious divisions and subdivisions of the Luth. Church in America, the growth of an in terdenominational spirit in things religious and of a secular spirit in charity, together with a feeble grasp of the deep, underlying evangelical principles which must permeate inner mission work, makes the future somewhat problematical. On the other hand, the success of the Church in planting herself on the old doctrinal and litur gical foundations, the grovring inquiry for right principles and Luth. methods, and the pressing necessity to rescue the land, and espe cially the work of charity, from the secular spirit and cold officialism, give hope that the twentieth century will see as extensive an American Luth. inner mission work as charac terizes the old world. The beginnings must be made in connection with the deaconess work along lines suggested by the present actirities of the Mary J. Drexel Home, which includes, besides general hospital work, a girls' high school, a little children's school, a hospital for children, and old people's home and parish work. In addition to the closest organization of the congregation into visiting and relief committees, there is room for the parish deaconess to labor under the direc tion of the pastor among the poor, the sick, and the S. S. families. The parish house is called for as a centre of parochial acti-rities, and a house for girls out of employment or but slightly ill. The properly organized Luth. city church work of the future vrill embrace also the lay-brother, the city missionary (to visit prisons, reformatories, alms-houses, and general hospitals), and the colporteur to dis tribute aud sell tiacts, sermons, and books. It will pro-ride Luth. reading-rooms and Luth. inns or lodging-houses. It will aim not simply to raise up the fallen, but, by preventive meas ures, to care for the Luth. strangers within our city gates, and thus relieve the minds of many anxious parents and pastors in the countiy and smaller towns. There is perhaps a call also for such houses in connection with the great universities which are attracting our Luth. youth, as at Madison, Minneapolis, etc. Lit. : Roth's Handbook, Chap. XV. ; Len ker's Lutherans in AU Lands; The Church Almanacs. W. K. F. Missions, N. Amer. Indian. See Indian Missions. Missions of various Countries. See Mis sions, Foreign, and undernames of countries. Missions, Jevrish. See Jewish Missions. Missions, among Negroes. See Synod icai, Conference and west Indies. Missionary Conferences are either meet ings of the active friends of a society during its anniversary for the discussion of practical topics concerning the society's work, or annual meetings of the chief officers of a number of societies for the discussion of general principles and specific topics of general interest. Such profitable meetings are (e. g.) held at Bremen for a number of years, attended by the superin tendents of Luth., Union, and Mora-rian socie ties. The papers read and discussed are printed afterwards. The " vacation course on foreign missions ' ' offered to young ministers by several societies at a summer resort might also be called a "missionary conference." W. W. Missionary Festivals, apart from the anni versaries of the societies, gradually grew in favor among the friends of missions since 1831, when the first of them was held at Berlin. The second took place at Halle in July, 1833. Miss. festivals are an effective means for awakening and furthering interest in F. M., and now are held everywhere, in churches and in the open air. Several societies provide them systemati cally. They have become popular with the Lutherans in our Western States. Collections are a secondary, if ever-present, feature of miss. festivals. The first general church collection for foreign missions (in India) was taken in Wuertemberg, Oct. 27, 1715 ; and the Minister ium of the city of Augsburg devoted the col- missionary Institutes 335 missionary Societies lection of Reformation Day, 1730, to foreign missions. It amounted to 1 1,100. W. W. Missionary Institutes, for the trainmg of workers in the foreign fields, came into exist ence in 1702, when A. H. Francke at HaUe opened his "Oriental Seminary" for that spe cific purpose. Father Jaenicke, pastor of Luth. Bethlehem Church in Berlin, educated 80 young men for the work (in the employ of English and Dutch societies) in his "mission-school " (1800-27). The " German Christian Society " occasioned the formation of the "Evangelical (Basle) Missionary Society," in 1815, which opened its seminary in 1816. The "Rhenish (Barmen) Society" followed suit in 1828; Ber lin I. in 1830, and Berlin II. (Gossner) in 1836. The Evang. Luth. (Leipzig) Society established its seminary in 1832 at Dresden, and removed it to Leipzig, 1845. L. Harms opened his at Her mannsburg in 1849 > Neuendettelsau prepares some of its students for foreign missions since 1883 ; the Brecklum Society opened its semi nary in 1877. The Danish Society's "Mission- School " exists since 1862. The Swedish Socie ties have 2 seminaries, one at Stockholm, s. 1855, another at Johanneslund, s. 1863. The Norwegian Society has its seminary at Stavan ger and the Finnish Society its own at Helsing fors, since 1866. As thoroughness is a Luth. feature and principle, all these societies en deavor to give their future missionaries a solid training, the result of which is the efficiency of Lutherans acknowledged by their colleagues everywhere. Several seminaries require a six years' course, others five or four according to circumstances, none less than three years of hard work. With some it is a. college and a theological seminary course combined ; all of them add the study of medicine. Manual train ing is practised also. The greatest care is taken in the choice of instructors as well as in the re ception of applicants. W. W. Missionary Papers, Luth. The first of all miss, papers was published by A. H. Francke at Halle, 1710. Its name was Mission News of East India Mission Institute at Halle ; it was continued until 1880. The first report was published by Dr. Samuel Urlsperger for the dukedom of Wuertemberg, in 1715, under the title. Short Historical News of Mission Work done on the Coromandel Coast among the Mala- bars. The Magazine for the History of the Evangelical Missionary and Bible Sodeiies, edited by Dr. Blumhardt at Basle (1816-1838), continues as a monthly to the present day. Its competitor was the more popular Calwer Mis sionsblatl since 1827. The organ of the Leip zig Society is the monthly Ev. Luth. Missions blatl ; the Hermannsburg Society has a similar Missionsblatl; Brecklum has its Missions- nachrichten ; Neuendettelsau likewise ; Berlin I. publishes monthly Missionsberichte, and a missionsfreund ; Berlin II. has a Mission Bee ior its organ ; Barmen has monthly reports ; Basle, besides its magazine, publishes a Heiden- bote ; Bremen has a Mcmatsblatt ; the Protes tantenverein Miss. Socy. publishes a quarterly Journal oJ Missionary Science and Comparative Religion, etc. Dr. Wameck for 30 years is publishing his General Missionary Journal ; and the richly Ulustiated Evangelical Missions of P. Richter are winning favor. — Dr. Grunde- mann's Missionary Atlas of 35 maps is a work of highest merit. The number of historical and theoretical works is rapidly increasing, many monographies of fields and stations and biog raphies of prominent workers are written ; tiacts for adults and children, pictures, etc., are constantly issued. The mission literature of Germany exceeds the number of 2,000 separate publications. The Scandinavian Societies of course have their organs, e. g. the Fatherland Institute has its Missionstidning , likevrise the Church So ciety ; the Norway Society publishes Missions- tidende ; the Bp. Schreuder Society a Mis- sionsblad, and the Danish Society monthly reports. The Finnish Society has an organ also. The American societies largely make use of their synodical organs and of juvenile papers. The General Council publishes the Foreign Missionary and the Missionsbote ; the General Synod has a Missionary Journal ; the General Synod South has its paper, and the Synod of Missouri has the Missionstaube . Tracts are periodically issued. Papers in the native language appear in Tamil Land in India, in Zulu Land, S. Africa, and at Shanghai, China. W. W. Missionary Societies, Luth. A. " The American Ev. Luth. Missionary Society " was founded by members of the E. L. Ministerium of Penna. in 1836, and in 1842 appointed Rev. C. F. Heyer its missionary in India. The (old) "General Synod's Foreign Miss. Society," in 1843, appointed Rev. W. Gunn assistant of Heyer. In 1853 the Board of Foreign Missions of the General Synod, with which body the Ministerium of Penna. had reunited, assumed control of the work in India. When the General Council was organized, the General Synod was disposed to transfer the Rajahmun dry field to the English Church Miss. Society. The transfer was .prevented by Father Heyer, who, in 1869, was appointed the G. C. mission ary in India. I. Since '69 the work among the Telugu is carried on through "The General Council of the E. L. Church in America," by 7 ordained missionaries, 7 missionaries' -wives, 3 zenana sisters, 2 native pastors, 5 catechists, 138 teach ers, on 7 stations at and near Rajahmundry on the Godavery River, with 5,000 Christians and 2,700 pupils. Annual income (1898), $20,000. 2. "The General Synod of the E. L. Church in America, ' ' chief station, Guntur on the Krish na River. The 18,000 Christians live in 400 villages. There are 3i5oo scholars. Guntur has a college and a hospital. 1898 : 8 mission aries, 5 zenana sisters, a female physician, 20 catechists, 190 teachers. The same church has another field in Liberia, at the Muhlenberg station on St. Paul's River, since i860, 3 mission aries, 2 native pastors, 2,300 Christians. Total income, $50,000. 3. " The United Synod South " has two mis sionaries at Sendai, Japan, since 1892. 4. "The Synod of Missouri" in 1894 estab lished two stations in West Tamil Land, So. missionary Societies 326 missionary Societies India. The four missionaries formerly belonged to the Leipzig mission. 5. " The Synod of Wisconsin " has two mis sionaries among the Indians in New Mexico and Arizona. 6. ' ' The Norwegian Synod ' ' has four mis sionaries in South Madagascar, since 1892. Contributions for foreign missions, $20,000. B. 7. "The Evangelical Luth. Missionary Society," or " Leipzig Society," organized 1836, first labored in Australia, then in So. India. In 1847 the field of the old Halle-Danish Mis sions in Tamil Land, So. India, was partly re- occupied. There it has 28 missionaries, 2 female missionaries, 2 deaconesses, 22 native pastors, 35 stations, 16,800 Christians, 7,000 scholars, a seminary, a normal school, a college. Since 1892 work is done by 14. missionaries among the Wakamba and Wadjagga in East Africa. Income (1898), $120,000. 8. " The Hermannsburg Missionary Society, ' ' organized 1849, ^y Pastor Louis Harms and his congregation, began work among the Zulu in South Africa, 1853 ; among the Telugu in So. India, 1866 ; among the Maori in New Zealand and the Papua in Australia, 1875. It has 60 stations, 65 missionaries, 25,000 Christians. Income, $75,000. 9. " The Hermannsburg 'Free Church ' Mis sionary Society," organized 1892, is doing work of its own iu South Africa and New Zealand. 10. "The .Ichleswig-Holstein Ev. Luth. Miss. Society," or "Brecklum Society," organized 1876, labors since 1883 among the Telugu and Urya, S. E. India. It has 8 stations, 10 mis sionaries, 500 Christians. Income, $18,000. II. The Missionary Institute at Neuendet telsau, Bavaria, founded by Loehe, 1843, for supplying Germans in America and Australia with pastors, has missionaries among the Papua iu Australia and German New Guinea, since 1886. Income, $6,000. 12. The German Immanuel Synod of South Australia, since 1875, is working among the Papua in this state, through five missionaries. Income, $9,000. 13. " The Dutch Ev. Luth. Society for Home and Foreign Missions," organized at Amster dam in 1882, has four missionaries on the Balu Islands, Dutch East Indies. Income, $5,000. 14. "The Danish Missionary Society," or ganized 1821, works since 1863 among the Tamil, So. India. Ten missionaries, 5 native pastors, 6 stations, 1,500 Christians. Income, $30,000. 15. "The Swedish Missionary Society," or ganized in 1835, began work in Lapland, 1836 ; and in 1854 in South India in subordinate con nection vrith the Leipzig Society. Income, $10,000. 16. " The Fatherland Institution," organized 1856, for home mission work, began F. M. work 1865, in Abyssinia, and in 1877 among the Ghonds in Central India. Twenty mission aries. Income, $60,000. 17. "The Swedish Church Missionary So ciety," organized in i858, has 8 stations in Zulu- Land, South Africa ; 12 missionaries. Income, $20,000. 18. "The Norwegian Missionary Society," organized at Stavanger, 1842, sent missionaries to the Zulu, South Africa, in 1844, and to Mada gascar in 1867. It has 45 missionaries, 65 native pastors, 55,000 Christians. Income, $125,000. (See MiSSiONSSKiBE.) 19. "The Bishop Schreuder Society," organ ized 1873, supports stations in Natal, South Africa. Has 4 missionaries, 700 Christians. Income, $3,000. 20. "The Lapland Missionary Society," or ganized in 1888, supports three missionaries among the Norwegian Lapps. 21. "The Bergen Missionary Society," or ganized 1891, has seven missionaries in China. Income, $8,000. 22. " The Finnish Missionary Society, ' ' organ ized at Helsingfors in 1859, established stations in Ovambo Land, S. W. Africa, in 1870. It has 6 missionaries, 800 Christians. Income, $8,000. 23. " The India Home Missions to the San tals," organized by Boerresen and Skrefsrad, is mainly supported by Scandinarian Lutherans since 1890. Twenty thousand Christians in Bengal and Assam. Income, $60,000. The Luth. Synod of Russian Poland is sup porting "Polonia" station of Hermannsburg Missions in South Africa, and sends money to Leipzig and Berlin. Grant for foreign mis sions, $3,000. The Luth. Church in Russia annually sends $15,000 to Leipzig. ' ' The East Fnsian Missionary Society, ' ' or ganized in 1834, supports a preparatory school for missionary colleges, and a Hermannsburg station in South Africa. The following societies may justly be ranked among the Lutheran, since their constituency represents the ' ' Lutherans within the State Church of Prussia, ' ' and all their agents are of the same type. Their principles and methods are distinctly Lutheran. 24. " The Berlin Missionary Society " (I.), or ganized in 1824, sent its first missionaries to South Africa in 1834, others were sent to China in 1882, and to equatorial East Africa in 1891. Now 57 stations ; 90 missionaries ; 142 cate chists ; 33,000 Christians ; 6,000 scholars. In come, $105,000. 25. "The Berlin Missionary Society" (IL), or " Gossner Society," started by Pastor Goss ner (1836), began work among the Kol tribes in S. E. Bengal (1845). Now 12 stations ; 28 mis sionaries ; 20 native pastors ; 250 catechists ; 45,000 Christians. Income, $50,000. C. The following societies are composed of members both of the Luth. and the Reformed Churches. With the exception of the Paris Society, these societies have more Luth. con stituents than Reformed, the majority of their agents are Lutherans, and their mode of teach ing is prevailingly Lutheran. (a) " The Evangelical (or ' Basle ') Mission ary Society, " organized at Basle on the Rhine in 1815, began work in Armenia 1821 (stopped by Russia 1835), in West Africa 1827, in Southwest India 1834, in China 1847. Now 60 stations ; 160 missionaries ; 16 native pastors ; 200 cate chists ; 35,000 Christians ; 15,000 scholars. In come, $250,000. {b) "The Rhenish (or ' Barmen ') Missionary Society," organized at Bamien-Elberfeld in missionary Societies 337 mompelgard Colloquium 18x5, sent its first missionaries to S. W. Africa in 1829, to the Dutch Indies in 1834, to China in 1846, to New Guinea in 1887. Now 75 stations ; 100 missionaries ; 500 catechists ; 75,000 Chris tians ; 12,000 scholars. Income, $150,000. (c) "The North German (or ' Bremen ') Society," organized 1836, sent its first mission aries to New Zealand and Southern India (1842), is now working only in West Africa, since 1847. Now 3 stations; 10 missionaries; 1,000 Chris tians ; 1,000 scholars. Income, $30,000. {d) "The Jerasalem Society," organized in Berlin 1852, is doing and assisting mission work in Palestine. Five stations ; income, $8,000. {e) " The Berlin Women's Society for China," organized 1850; supports an orphans' and foundlings' home at Hongkong, China. Income, $5,000. {f) " The Syrian Orphanage Society," com posed of friends of the great Orphans' Home at Jerusalem, founded i860, supports its work of evangelization in the Holy Land. Income, $25,000. {g) " The Deaconesses' Institution at Kaisers werth " sends sisters to the mission fields (Pal estine, Syria, Asia Minor, and Egypt) since 1853. Special income for this branch of deaconess work, $45,000. {h) " The Evangelical Missionary Society for German East Africa" (Berlin HI.), organized 1885, has four stations in that field, six mis sionaries, and six deaconesses. Income, $10,000. (z) "The Neukirchen Missionary Institute," organized in 1852, sends missionaries to Dutch Indies and East Africa. Ten stations ; 10 mis sionaries ; 1,000 Christians. Income, $15,000. {k) "The General Evangelical Protestant Missionary Society," organized in 1883, by the " Liberals " in Luth. and Union Churches, has 4 missionaries iu Japan aud 2 in China ; i ,000 native Christians. Income, $10,000. (/) "The Swedish Missionary Union," or ganized in 1878 by "new" Lutherans not ad hering to the Augsburg Confession, but adopt ing " Alliance " principles, labors on the Congo, in China, Alaska. Income, $30,000. A number of similar Scandinavian societies are allied with the China inland missions, or cany on work of their own in Japan and Africa. (m) "The Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, ' ' organized in 1828, works in South and West Africa, on Tahiti, and lately in Madagas car, where they assist the London and Norwe gian missionaries. The Luth. members of the society now render aid to the Norwegians especially. Totals (1898). — I. A. C. Lutheran, {a) Six American Societies : 20 stations ; 40 mission aries ; 6 native pastors ; 30 catechists ; 25,000 Christians ; 7,000 scholars ; income, $100,000. {b) Eight German Societies : 170 stations ; 250 missionaries ; 50 native pastors ; 500 catechists ; 125,000 Christians ; 25,000 scholars ; income, $400,000. (c) Nine Scandina-rian Societies : 65 stations ; 120 missionaries ; 75 native pastors ; 250 catechists ; 85,000 Christians ; 50,000 schol ars ; income, $310,000. {d) One Dutch Society : 2 stations ; 4 missionaries ; 1,000 Christians ; 500 scholars ; income, $5,000. {e) One Finnish Society : 3 stations ; 6 missionaries ; 1,000 Christians ; 500 scholars ; income, $8,000. Total in "round " numbers : 25 A. C. Societies : 260 stations 420 missionaries ; 135 native pastors ; 800 catechists ; 240,000 Christians ; 85,000 schol ars ; income, $825,000. ToTAi,S (1898). — II. " Union " Lutheran. Ten German Societies : 165 stations ; 315 mis sionaries ; 20 native pastors ; 800 catechists ; 120,000 Christians ; 25,000 pupUs ; income, $550,000. Fields of Labor. — I. (a) United States, India, W. Africa, Madagascar, Japan, {b) India, China, New Guinea, New Zealand, Australia ; East, Southeast, Southwest, and West Africa. (c) Lapland, China, India, South Africa, Mada gascar, {d) Dutch Indies, {e) S. W. Africa. II. New Guinea, Japan, China, Dutch Indies, India, East, S. W., and West Africa, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor. W. W. Missionsskibe. The General Foreign Mis sionary Society of Norway, organized at Sta vanger in 1842, ha-ring taken Madagascar and Zululand as its fields of operation, concluded to buUd and control its own means of transpor tation. The " Elieser " was its first ship, dedi cated at Bergen, in 1864, going out of service in 1884. The " Paulus," a splendid steel ship, was then built at a cost of 126,000 kroner, and was dedicated at Christiania in 1885. E. G. L. Mississippi, Lutherans in, are confined to the central counties of Attala, Winston, Smith, and Scott. Eleven congregations, with 533 com municants, belonging to the United Synod of the South, were reported in 1890. Mississippi Synod. See Synods (IV.). Missouri, Lutherans in. According to cen sus of 1890, the Synodical Conference numbered in this state 118 congregations and 22,121 com municants. AU other bodies combined had 42 congregations and 4,978 communicants. In St. Louis, there were 16 congregations with 7,458 communicants ; ranking next to the German Evangelicals, who reported 13,777. Next to St. Louis, the greatest strength was in Cape Ge- rardeau (8 cong.), St. Charles (6), and Perry Counties (6). Missouri Synod. See S-vnods (III.). Moller, Henry, pastor, Culpepper, Va., Reading, Pa., Albany, N. Y., New Holland and Harrisburg, Pa., Albany (second time), and Schoharie Co., N. Y. ; chaplain in Revolutionary Army ; one of the founders of the New York Ministerium ; b. Hamburg, Germany, 1749 ; studied theology under Muhlenberg and Kunze in Philadelphia ; d. Sharon, N. Y., 1829. Moller, John Frederick, pastor, Frederick, Md. (1799-1802) ; Chambersburg, Pa. (1802-29); Somerset, O. (1829-33) ; b- 1773 at Grandeur, in Prassia, studied at Koenigsberg, came to America (1776); d. 1833. Mdmpelgard Colloquium, was a meeting ananged by the Luth. Duke Wm. of Wuertem berg (1586) , at Mompelgard (now Montbeliard) , to remove the difficulties between the Luther ans and Reformed. The Luth. side was rep resented by Jac. Andrese, the Reformed by Beza. The doctrines of the Lord's Supper, the person of Christ, and predestination, as well as pictures and ceremonies were discussed. Agree- moerlin 338 monocacy ment was reached on general statements, but the real differences remained, and Andrese could not grant Beza the brotherly recognition and sanction, which he sought. Moerlin, Joachim and Max, two brothers, theologians of the sixteenth century ; b. at Wittenberg, where also they received their theological tiaining ; both of them belonging to the strict Luth. party whose hearty cham pions they were. — Joachim M., the senior and more renowned of the two (b. 1514, at Witten berg, d. 1571 at Koenigsberg) ; for a time chap lain and table friend of Luther, was honored with the title, doctor of divinity, by the Wit tenberg University. After a short activity as pastor and superintendent, first at Amstadt, which place he had to leave on account of his strictness, then at Gottingen, from where he was banished on account of his opposition to the Interim, Duke Albert of Prussia appointed him dome-preacher at Koenigsberg. The Osiandrian contioversy raging there, he had to side vrith or against Osiander. Trying for a while to mediate between the contending parties, M. at last joined the opponents of Osiander, and the contioversy between Moerlin and Osiander was now carried on with bound less passion. AU overtures to mediate between the two were of no avail. In 1552 Osiander died, but the contioversy continued unabated, the more so, since Funk, son-in-law of Osiander, had gained control over Albert, who conse quently favored Osiandrianism. Having preached against the -riew of Osiander, con tiary to an express command of Duke Al bert, Moerlin was deprived of his office and banished from the duke's territory. Appointed superintendent at Braunschweig (1573-1567), where he was joined by Martin Chemnitz, Moerlin was eminently successful in his work, at the same time taking an active part in all the more important theological controversies of his age. He was the main factor in the so- called Coswigk Act, i. e. the endeavor to bring about a reconciliation between Flacius and Melanchthon. Though he had contributed his share to the composition of the Weimar Book of Confutation, he, nevertheless, soon after, boldly attacked the Flacian and Antinomian enors of Lutheranism. After the defeat of Osiandrianism in Prussia, Moerlin received an honorable call from the duke and the states as Bishop of Samland. Chemnitz assisting him, he now composed his Corpus dodrinee Pruteni cum, through which he succeeded in re-estab lishing the Luth. doctrine of justification. — Max Moerlin (b. at Wittenberg, 1516 ; d. at Coburg, 1584), court-preacher at Coburg from 1544 ; made doctor of divinity by the Witten berg faculty ; opposed Flacius and his extrav agances ; lost his position under John Wil liam ; was allowed to return upon request of John Frederick. Max M. took part in the com position of the Formula of Concord. W. P. Mohawk Valley, Lutherans in. The first Lutherans in the Mohawk Valley were Palatines, who, intheyears 1723, '25 and '26, came from the neighboring Schoharie region, where they left lands which they had received from the Indians, and which they had cultivated for some years. rather than submit to unjust demands for pay ment made by parties who had secured a gov ernment grant to that section. The pastor at Schoharie supplied them with religious serrices for some years, making long and perilous jour neys for that purpose. They suffered greatly from savage raids during the French and In dian War, and were patriots in the Revolution. To their descendants, immigration has brought additional Lutherans into the valley, and there are many strong congregations, both English and German, to be found there. W. M. B., Jr. Moibanus, Ambrosius, D. D., b. 1494, at Breslau, d. 1554. He studied at Kjrackau, was rector of the Cathedral School at Breslau, and of St. Mary Magdalena School, 1520. In 1521 he left Breslau for Ingolstadt, studied Hebrew under Reuchlin, and came to Wittenberg, to join the cause of the Reformation. In 1525 he became pastor of St. Elizabeth Church, Breslau. Author of the hymn "Ach Vater unser, der Du bist," translated by Coverdale in 1539, "O Father ours celestial." A. S. Molanus, Gerhard Walter, D. D., b. 1633, at Hameln, d. 1722, at Hanover. He studied at Helmstedt, became professor of mathematics at Rinteln (1659), professor of theology (1665), director of the Hanover Consistory and general superintendent of Brunswick-Lueneburg (1674), abbot of Loccum (1677). He edited the Han over hymn-book of 1698, and wrote a number of hymns, among them ' ' Ich trete f risch zu Gottes Tisch" (Thy table I approach), in the Ohio Hymnal (1880). A. S. Moller, Heinrich, b. 1530, in Hamburg, studied at Wittenberg, where he became prof. of Hebrew through Melanchthon's influence, but was deposed for crypto-Calvinism (1574). Li-ring secluded in Hamburg, he assisted El. Hutter in editing the Hebrew Bible, and d. 1589. Moller, Martin, b. 1547, at Liessnitz, near Wittenberg, d. 1606, at Goerlitz. He was cantor at Loewenberg, Silesia (1568), pastor at Kes- selsdorf (1572), and afterwards diaconus at Loewenberg, pastor at Sprottau (1575), chief pastor at Goerlitz (1600). Author of two devo tional popular books : Meditationes Sanctorum Patrum (mostly selections and translations from Augustin, St. Bernard, Tauler), and Manuale de Prosparatione ad mori.em (1593). Some of the prayers in the Church Book, under "Visitation of the Sick," are taken from these books. Wackernagel ascribes five hymns to him, among them "Heilger Geist, Du Troester mein," and "Nimm von uns. Hen." Some consider him also the author of the hymns "Ach Gott, wie manches Herzeleid," trsl. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. (1858), "Ah God, my days are dark indeed," in the Ohio Hymnal, and " O Jesu suess, wer Dein ge- denkt" (Dear Jesus, when I think of thee), Moravian hymn-book (1789). A. S. Monocacy, an extinct congregation ten mUes north of Frederick, Md., visited by Muh lenberg, in 1747. Upon the opening pages of the church register, he wrote in English the congregational constitution, pledging the con gregation to the Symbolical Books. The con- montana 329 miiller gregation can be tiaced as far back as 1741. Rev. David Candler (see Candler) was prob ably the first pastor. It suffered much from Mora-rian inroads under Nyberg. (See Nyberg.) After a brief existence it was merged with the Frederick congregation. (See Frederick.) Ancestors of Rev. Dr. J. A. Seiss belonged to this congregation. Montana, Lutherans in. in this state the few Lutherans are chiefly Norwegians. Of the 8 congregations, -with 394 communicants, 5, vrith 252 communicants, belonged to the two larger Norwegian bodies. There were two con gregations belonging to the Missouri Synod, and one independent congregation, all weak. Morris, Charles A., b. York, Pa., 1792, brother of Dr. J. G. Morris ; licensed by Min isterium of Pennsylvania, 1814 ; pastor at Wrightsville, Pa. ; because of infirm health, withdrew from the ministry, 1819, and became a druggist ; Sunday-school teacher and superin tendent for 50 years ; tiustee of Pennsylvania College, for 30 years, with characteristic modesty bequeathing it $20,000 for payment of debts, which, with other bequests and gifts during life, to charitable purposes, aggregated over $80,000. D. April 10, 1874. Morris, John Gottlieb, b. at York, Pa., Nov. 14, 1803, d. at Lutherville, Md., Oct. 10, 1895. His father was a distinguished surgeon in the Revolutionary Army. A student of Princeton and graduate of Dickinson, he pursued his theological course under Dr. S. S. Schmucker, also at Nazareth, Princeton, Gettysburg. In 1827 he became pastor of first Eng. Luth. Ch., Bait., Md., serving 33 years ; also supply and pastor of Third Luth. Church ; librarian of Pea- body Institute, Bait. ; served at Lutherville, Md., afterward, until a few years before death. He retained his vigor of body and mind to the last, though nearly 92 at death. He was distin- gfuished and influential in the Church, for which his fine natural endowments, varied culture, biblical and theological learning, strong pulpit power, devoted loyalty to the Church fitted him. He was a vigorous, popular -writer (for list of -writings see Life Reminiscences of an Old Luth. Minister, Luth. Pub. Soc, p. 355, ff.). He was also a scientific student and member of many learned societies. C. S. A. Mosellanus, Peter, philologian and human ist. His name was properly "Schade"; b. 1493 ; professor of Latin and Greek at Leipzig (1517) until his death (1523) ; sympathized ¦with the Reformers, and intioduced the Leip zig Discussion of 1519, of which he also wrote an account. Moser, Johann Jacob, Dr., b. 1701, in Stutt gart, d. 1785. Prominent statesman, prolific writer on political science, hymnologist, aud hymn-writer. He studied at Tiibingen, was counsellor (1726), professor of law in Tiibin gen (1729), professor at Frankfurt s- d. O. (1736), counsellor of the Landgrave of Hesse- Homburg (1747), solicitor of the Wuertemberg House of Representatives (1751). On account of his manly opposition to the arbitiary rule of Duke Charles he was imprisoned in the fortress of Hohentwiel (1759-1764), but afterwards de clared to be innocent and restored to his office. In 1770 he retired from public service and de voted himself to literary labors. He wrote about 500 treatises on political science, 1,190 hymns, the Evangelischer Liederschatz, with 1,117 hymns (1730-1734), and an Autobiography in four volumes (1777-1783). His son, Fnedrich Karl ( 1723-1798) , was also prominent as a Chris tian statesman and hymn-writer. A. S. Mosheim, John Lawrence von, b. at Lii beck, Oct. 9, 1693, '94, or '95. Moderate and im partial Lutheran ; describes himself as " neither Pietist nor over-orthodox." Studied at Kiel, where be became a member of the philosophical faculty in 1719 ; in 1723 followed a call to be ordinary professor of theology at Helmstadt. After 1747, university preacher and honorary professor of theology, and then chancellor, at Gottingen. Distinguished as a preacher ; called "the German Bourdaloue." At home in an cient and modern philosophy, in every branch of theology and in modem literature. Best known by his Institutes of Ancient and Modern Church History. D. Sept. 9, 1754. J. W. R. Muehlhaueser, John, b. Aug. 9, 1804, at Notzingen, Wuertemberg, Germany. Labored 1829-32 among the Protestant diaspora in Aus tria-Hungary ; suffered imprisonment. Studied at Barmen. Sent 1837 by Langenberg Society to America, seven months in New York. Or dained by N. Y. Ministerium. 1838-48, pastor of Zion's, Rochester, N. Y.; 1848 to his death, Sept. 15, 1868, pastor of Grace, Milwaukee. La borious pioneer ; Wisconsin German Luth. pas tor. First president of Wisconsin Synod, 1850. Conservative, Pietistic Lutheran. Co-laborer with Dr. Passavant in the Milwaukee Hos pital. W. K. F. Muehlmann, Johann, b. 1573, at Pegau, near Leipzig, d. 1613, as professor of theology, in Leipzig. He studied in Leipzig and Jena, be came diaconus in Naumburg (1599), pastor at Laucha on the Unstrut (1604). In the same year he was called to St. Nicolai, Leipzig, and was ap pointed professor in 1607. Wackernagel ascribes to him five hymns, among them ' ' Dank sei Gott in der Hoehe," trsl. by Miss Winkworth, Church Book for England (1863), ' ' While yet the morn is breaking," and " O Lebensbraennlein, tief und gross" (O Spring of life, so deep, so great), tisl. by A. T. RusseU (1851). A. S. Miihlenberg. See Muhlenberg. M-iiller, Dr. Heinrich, b. Oct. 18, 1631, at Liibeck, stands foremost among the devotional writers of the Evangelical Luth. Church. He had an early desire for theological studies, which he pursued at Rostock and Greifswald. In his 2ist year he became archdeacon ; 1659, professor of Greek ; 1662, professor of theology and pastor of St. Mary's Church, at Rostock ; 1671, superintendent. Out of love to his city he declined several honorable calls. Being from his youth of a delicate frame, he d. in his 43d year, Sept. 25, 1675, after a life of toil and labor. It is more the practical, than the theological, activity of M. that determines his position. He is an exponent of the pre-pietistic period, thor oughly grounded in the orthodoxy of the past, and yet in his li-ring piety taking a view which mueller 330 mulilenberg leads over to the Pietistic conception. His ser mons and devotional writings show a thorough acquaintance with the Divine Word. His in sight into the human heart and his presenta tion of concrete life is very clear. Among the numerous devotional writings of M. are espe ciaUy to be mentioned : Der himmlische Lieb- eskuss (1659), and Geistliche Erquickstunden { 1664) , the former consisting of more extended, the latter of 300 brief devotional meditations with striking, epigrammatic headings. G. C. F. H. Mueller, Johann Georg, b. 1651, in Jauer, Silesia, d. 1745, in Limbach ; pastor in Lim- bach, 1687 ; in Schkoelen, near Naumburg, 1734, was made Poeta Laureatus by Emperor Charles VI. A. S. Mueller, Louis, b. March 23, 1819, at Lisch- bach, Bavaria, Germany. Graduate of the Gymnasium of Zweibruecken and University of Utrecht. Emigrated to America in 1842. After brief pastorates in New York City and Brook lyn, removed to Charleston, S. C, and became pastor of St. Matthew's German Evangelical Luth. Church, Easter Sunday, April 10, 1848. Dr. Mueller lived to celebrate his Golden Jubi lee as pastor of this church, Easter Sunday, April 10, 1898, and d. on April 14, 1898. He ministered faithfully to a large German constituency for half a century — steadfast through war, pestilence, and earthquake. J. W. H. Mueller, Michael, b. 1673, at Blankenburg, in the Saxon Harz, d. 1704, at Schaubeck, near Klein Bottwar, Wuertemberg. He studied in Halle, under Francke, and served as tutor in the family of Gaisberg. Author of an excellent version of the Psalter {Die Psalmen Davids, Stuttgart, 1700) and of numerous hymns, among them "Auf Seele, auf und saeume nicht" (Epiphany), trsl. by Dr. Kennedy (1863), "Up, up, new light upon thee breaks." Of the 26 stanzas of the original the Kirchenbuch has only six. A. S. Miinchmeyer, Aug. Friedr, Otto, a promi nent witness of the Luth. Church, b. Dec. 8, 1807, in Hanover, studied in Gottingen and Berlin, influenced by Liicke, Schleiermacher, Neander, and von Kott-witz. He became pastor at Lam- springe, near Hildesheim, in 1840, supt. at Kat- lenburg in 1851, and in 1855 consistorialrat and supt. at Buer near Osnabriick. He was the founder of the Hanoverian Gotteskasten, wrote Gedenkbuch fiir Konfirmanden articles in church periodicals, etc., and d. Nov. 7, 1882. G. C. F. H. Miinchmeyer, Otto, brother of the above, b. 1821, supt. in Bergen bei Celle, a fighter for Confessionalism, an opponent of the Hermanns burg separation, known by his addresses in the Hanoverian Pentecostal Conference, and his explanation ofthe Catechism. G. C. F. H. Miinkel, Cornelius Carl, b. at Hameln, Han over, in 1809, on April 21. Early years were spent as tutor, and as teacher in the gymnasium at Hanover, where the influence of such men like Petri and Niemann confirmed him in the Luth. faith. Preacher at Oiste, near Verden, Hanover. When a conflagration destroyed the parsonage and his library in 1869, he retired to Hanover, where he d. April 7, 1888. M. was one of the pillars of the state church in Hanover. He was a notable preacher, whose sermons, while popular, show the most careful prepara tion. Author of Das angenehme Jahr des Herm (1855), a book of sermons on the epistles of the church year ; Der Tag des Herm (i860), on the Gospels. It was this latter book which led Broemel to concede to him the palm among contemporary preachers. The theological peri odical with which M. was identified, Neues Zeitblatt fuer die Angelegenheiten der luther ischen Kirche, was esteemed the most notable of its kind. H. W. H. Muenter, Balthasar, b. 1735, at Liibeck, d. 1793, at Copenhagen. He studied at Jena (1754- 1757)) vvas assistant court-preacher at Gotha (1760), superintendent at Tonna, first pastor of St. Peter's German Luth. Church, Copenhagen (1765). He published two volumes of hymns, Geistliche Lieder (1772 and 1774). Among them "Seht, welch ein Mensch, wie lag so schwer," trsl. by Dr. H. MiUs (1845), "Behold the Man ! How heavy lay, ' ' and ' ' Zitternd, doch voU sanfter Freude " (Full of rev 'rence at Thy Word), both in the Ohio Hymnal. A. S. Muhlenberg, Henry Melchior, "Patriarch of the Lutheran Church of America, " b. at Eim- beck, Hanover, Sept. 6, 1711, entered Gottingen, with its first students, 1735, graduating 1738 ; taught one year at Orphan House, Halle, where he was marked for service as a foreign mission ary iu India ; pastor at Grosshenersdorf in Upper Lusatia (1739-41) ; accepted call of the " United Congregations" (see article) in Pennsylvania, reaching Philadelphia, after visits to London and Georgia, to familiarize himself with English and American relations, Nov. 25, 1742. The people he found sadly neglected, scattered, with out church buildings or regular organizations, without schools, and at the mercy of impostors claiming to be pastors. At Phila. he was at once involved in a conflict with Zinzendorf. New activity was immediately awakened. Until his death, at The Trappe, Oct. 7, 1787, he was occupied with the organization of congregations and the various interests and agencies of the Luth. Church, as well as in diligent pastoral ministrations. His home was either at The Trappe or in PhUadelphia. During the summers of 1751 and 1752 he had charge of the church iu New York. His travels, in looking after the scattered people, extended from Northem New York to Georgia, while his influence and efforts through correspondence had a much wider range. The details of this actirity are recorded with fulness in his MS. Journals, most of which are at Mt. Airy, and may be read also in his Autobiography, found at Halle and published by the late Dr. W. Germann, as well as in the Halle Reports and the Documentary History of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania. English biographies have been written by M. L. Stoever (1856) and W. J. Mann (1887). The latter is drawn directly from the MSS. above mentioned. Depth of religious conviction, extiaordinary in-wardness of character, apostolic zeal for the spiritual welfare of indi-riduals, absorbing devo tion to his calling and all its detaUs, were among his most marked characteristics. These were mulilenberg 331 mulilenberg combined vrith an intuitive penetiation and ex tended width of view, a statesmanlike grasp of every situation in which he was placed, an al most prophetic foresight, coolness, and discrimi nation of judgment, and peculiar gifts for or ganization and administration. The Pietistic fervor of his earlier years, which called forth his Defence of Pietism against Dr. B. Mentzer, his only book, in 1 741, and which is not vrithout some extiavagance in his "Noteworthy Ex amples" in the Halle Reports, was much tem pered in later years. He was a true son of the Luth. Church, pledged at his ordination to the full body of the Luth. Confessions, exacting this pledge of those whom he ordained, and in serting it in the congregational constitutions, as well as in the constitution of the first synod. (See Mann, "The Conservatism of Muhlen berg," Luth. Church Remew, VII. 18 sqq.) He knew how to combine vridth of view and cor diality of friendship towards those of other com munions, with strict adherence to principle. A stricter school, of which Berckenmeyer was the chief representative, looked upon him vrith sus picion ; and even in Pennsylvania there was a coterie of pastors who long kept aloof from the ministerium and Muhlenberg upon the same claim. Muhlenberg gave to the congregations a model of a constitution, which has been fol lowed in most of the congregations of General Synod, General CouncU, United Synod in the South, and in many congregations outside these bodies. He was the founder of the first synod, for which the Church in Germany gave him few precedents, if any, as to details of organization. (See article CONSTITUTIONS.) He was the author of the first liturgy of 1748— a monument to his liturgical scholarship. (See Schmucker, B. M., in Luth. Church Review, I. 171 sqq.) In 1783 he made the suggestion that has been realized in the ' ' Common Service ' ' (Mann, Life of Muhlenberg, p. 501). For the hymn-book of 1786 he wrote the preface, and aided in the selection of the hymns. Appreciating the im portance of training American pastors for Ameri can congregations, he had purchased the ground for a seminary as early as 1749. An orphan house, in or near Philadelphia, was another of his/za desideria. Language being to him only a medium, whereby to reach men's hearts, he spared himself no labor in attempting to employ that language whereby those whom he sought to influence could be most successfully won, preaching sometimes in three languages on one Sunday. For excellent estimate of his plans and spirit, see article by his descendant, Richards,. M. H., "Ecclesia Plantanda Plan- tata," Luth. Church Remew. VIII. 13 sqq. He was married to a daughter of the distin guished Indian agent, Conrad Weiser. He re ceived the degree of D. D. from the University of Pennsylvania. His remains rest alongside of the venerable Trappe church. Dr. Kunze and Rev. C. E. Schultz were his sons-in-law. Governor John Andrew Schultz of Pa., and Rev. J. W. Richards, D. D., were grand sons. H. E. J. Muhlenberg, John Peter Gabriel, b. Oc tober 1, 1746, between 11 p.m. and midnight. at the home of his father, the patriarch Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, Trappe, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. He was baptized on the fourteenth day of the same month. It was but natural that this eldest son should be dedicated by his pious father to the serrice of God, and that his early education should be directed in that channel. This was conducted under the immediate supervision of his parents until the removal of the family to Philadelphia, in 1761, when he was entered at the academy, under the care of its provost, Dr. Smith. Here he remained until 1763, when, on April 27, he embarked on the packet ship. Captain Budden, with his two younger brothers for the Univer sity at Halle, Germany, as their ultimate desti nation. Peter inherited, naturally, a somewhat fiery disposition, which was in no wise lessened by his free life in America, and which ill brooked the very strict discipline of a German school. An insult from his teacher was resented by a blow and followed by flight to prevent certain dis missal. Then came enlistment in a regiment of dragoons which chanced to be passing through the town, and, with it, the foundation of a mili tary knowledge which was to be invaluable to his country in the future. His length of service with the dragoons is un certain, but, whilst with them, he seems to have fully upheld the reputation gained at the uni versity, if we may judge by the foUovring inci dent which occurred at the Battle of Brandy- vrine, and which he himself delighted to relate. When the straggle had reached the point of the bayonet, he chanced to be opposed by his old regiment, dismounted. Riding at the head of his troops, conspicuously mounted upon a white horse, as he drew near his old comrades (Ger man enlistment being for life), and was recog nized by them, the cry ran along their astonished ranks, " Hier kommt Teufel Piet." He was freed from the rash obligation he had assumed by a friend of the family, a British colonel, who chanced to see him, and returned home, where he again took up his studies until 1768, when he was ordained a clergyman of the Evangelical Luth. Church, and, on May 12, ap pointed assistant rector of Zion's and St. Paul's congregations in New Jersey, situated at New Germantown and Bedminster in Hunterdon and Somerset Counties. On November 6, 1770, he was married to Anna Barbara Meyer. With the increasing German Luth. popula tion along the Blue Ridge in Virginia came the necessity for a pastor, and the request from the congregation at Woodstock, to the Patriarch Muhlenberg, that his son, Peter, be assigned to them, to which both assented. Ovring to the peculiar laws of Virginia, where a union of Church and State existed, episcopal ordina tion was unavoidable, so, in company vrith one White, afterwards the venerated Bishop White of Pennsylvania, on March 2, 1772, he sailed for England, reaching Dover April 10, and becom ing ordained as a priest on April 23, at the King's Chapel, St. James, by the Bishop of London. / His pastorate at Woodstock began in momen- muhlenberg 332 muhlenberg tons times. The events occurring about Boston, and elsewhere, quickly stined up his warm and patriotic blood, and made it impossible for him to stand aloof from them. He became a mem ber of the Committee of Safety for Dunmore County, and, soon after, a member of the House of Burgesses, where he nobly supported Patrick Henry in his resolution to place the country in a state of defence, and where he became most favorably known to Washington. As events hastened to a crisis, there came the raising of tioops, and the German pastor was selected to command the 8th Virginia Regiment. Not for getting his duty to God, he felt constiained to change his sphere of action to better perform his duty to his country, and so accepted. He announced his farewell sermon for the middle of January, 1776. On the appointed day an im mense congregation of his parishioners greeted him. Clad in his clerical gown, their beloved pastor, in due time, ascended the pulpit. Then followed a burning eloquent sermon on the duty of the hour. The benediction pronounced, amidst a death-like silence, he threw aside his go-wn, revealing himself clad in the full uniform of a continental officer, and ordered the drams to beat for recruits, and, with the noble men who there gathered around him by the hundreds, he started on his undying career as a soldier. In his first campaigns, in Georgia and South Carolina, he showed marked ability. On Feb ruary 21, 1777, he was promoted to brigadier- general and ordered north. As the hero of Brandywine and Germantown, on the advance post at Valley Forge, in the Battle of Monmouth, with Wayne at Stony Point, and Baron Steuben in his campaign against the traitor, Benedict Amold, as a leader of the American final as sault at Yorktown, and always the close friend of Washington, he gained undying laurels and -will ever live in the memory of his countrymen. He was promoted to major-general on Sep tember 30, 1783, and, some months after, when the army was disbanded, he returned to his family at Woodstock, whence he removed to Pennsylvania. Here he was elected a member of the Supreme Executive Council of the State, in 1785 chosen vice-president of the common wealth, Dr. Franklin being president ; a member of the 1st, 3d, and 6th Congress ; elected United States Senator, February 18, 1801, but resigned his seat soon after taking it ; appointed by Jefferson, June 30, 1801, supervisor of Internal Revenue for Pennsylvania ; appointed, July, 1802, collector of the Port of Philadelphia, which office he held until his death near the city of Philadelphia, on October 1, 1807. His remains rest beside those of his father, in the Augustus Church graveyard, Trappe, Mont gomery County, Pennsylvania. H. M. M. R. Muhlenberg, Frederick Augustus Conrad, second son of the patriarch Henry M. Muhlen berg and his wife, Anna Mary, n^e Weiser, b. at Providence (Trappe, Montgomery Co.), Pa., on Jan. 1, 1750. At the age of 13 he, in com pany -with his older brother Peter and the younger Ernest, was sent to Halle, where he was educated in the famous schools of the orphanage. After taking a course of five years, both he and Ernest graduated in 1768, Fred erick delivering an English oration on the sub ject : " Contentment is the Greatest Wealth." Then attending the lectures at the university for two years both returned, accompanied by J. C. Kunze. On Oct. 25, 1770, Frederick was or dained by the Minist. of Pa. After assisting his brother-in-law, the Rev. Chr. Em. Schulz, at Tulpehocken (Stouchsburg, Berks Co., Pa)., for three years, he accepted a call to Christ Ger man Luth. Ch. in New York. M. was also the founder of the N. Y. Ministerium. Dr. Kunze, in the preface to his hymns and prayer-book, published in 1795, says : " To the late Dr. H. M. Muhlenberg belongs the immortal honor of having formed, in Pennsj'lvania, a regular min istry, and what is somewhat remarkable, to one of his sons, who officiated as Luth. minister from 1773 to 1776 in the city of New York, that of having formed the evangelical ministry of New York State." Dr. H., in a letter of Dec. 13, 1800, to Prof. Dr. Knapp of Halle, states more particularly that 1773 was the year of the found ing of the Minist. of N. Y. , when he says : When called to N. Y. in 1784 " I remained in connection ¦ with the Min. of Pa., though Ire- organized the Ministerium founded by F. A. Muhlenberg already in 1773, which was neces sary, as our connection reaches into Canada." The conference conceming which Fred. M. writes to his father and which was appointed to meet in AprU, 1774, must, therefore, be con sidered as the second meeting of the N. Y. Min. Being an ardent patriot and, hence, a marked person, M., having been informed of the ap proach of Gen. Howe's army, went to Philadel phia, being present at the reading of the Declara tion of Independence. He first assisted his father in Providence, and in 1777 took charge of the church at New Hanover, thus relieving his father, who was getting old and feeble. In connection with this congregation he also served the churches at Oley and New Goshenhoppen. In 1779 his German fellow-citizens, in order to be properly represented in the council of the colonies, elected him a member of the Conti nental Congress. Subsequentiy he was elected a member of the legislature of the State of Pa. and became speaker of the assembly. He was also chosen president of the convention which, in 1787, ratified the Constitution of the United- States. From 1789 imtil 1797 M. served in the congresses elected under the Constitution of the ' United States, being elected to the office of speaker in the first and third congresses. D." at Lancaster, Pa., June 4, 1801. J. N. Muhlenberg, Gotthilf Henry Ernestus, the youngest surviving son of the patriarch Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, b. at the Trappe, Mont gomery County, Pennsylvania, on November 17, 1753 (baptized December 4, 1753), and the only one of the three brothers who was able to re main steadfast to his calling as a clergyman. This was from no lack of patriotism on his part but merely from force of circumstances. On April 27, 1763, accompanied by his two brothers, he started for the University at Halle, Germany, which he reached in due time, and where, with Frederick Augustus, he completed a course of thorough education. On October 25, 1770, at the early age of seventeen, he was or- Muhlenberg 333 mulilenbers dained a clerg3^an in the EvangeUcal Luth. Church at Philadelphia. After laboring, as the assistant of his father, in Philadelphia, New Jersey, etc., on April 5, 1774, he was elected the third regular pastor of the Philadelphia con gregations, which he faithfully served until that city was captured and occupied by the British, when his outspoken loyalty to the Congress, and the influence which he had exerted in its be half, necessitated his flight to prevent the exe cution of atiocious threats which had been ut tered against him by the Tories. His flight was not vrithout both danger and adventure. For several years without a pastoral charge, his mind naturally reverted to other matters. Unlike his fiery brother, Peter, and even differ ent from his more ambitious and active brother, Frederick Augustus, as the quiet student which he was by nature, he gave his attention espe cially to scientific research, devoting himself in particular to the study of botany and miner alogy, and here laid the foundation of his future eminence in those branches. In 1780 he accepted a call to Trinity Luth. Church, Lancaster, Penna., where he labored faithfully until his decease. He was a devoted pastor, and, as such, greatly beloved. Not ac tive in politics, he always manifested great in terest in the progress of events. He was a Whig during the Revolution, a Republican in 1799, a personal friend and conespondent of Jefferson and other leading Democrats, of which party he remained a constant member. It is to be expected that a man of Dr. Muh lenberg's character should be actively inter ested in educational work, and such was the case. He was greatly instramental in the foundation of the old Franklin College, and, on June 5, 1787, was elected its first president. On the following day, the occasion of its dedi cation, he preached the Gemian sermon which was immediately published in pamphlet form. Later, -with Benedict Schipher as co-author, he issued a large German dictionarj'. On July 26, 1776, he was manied to Mary Catharine HaU, a daughter of Philip and Susan Catharine Hall. His decease occurred on May 23, 1815, and his body lies in the graveyard of Trinity Church, Lancaster. His fellow-members of the Luth. Church vrill ever revere his memory, because of his faithful service to the Church, but to the general public he wiU doubtless be better known for his valu able research as a botanist. As such he thor oughly explored his own county of Lancaster, and his excellent work brought him into exten sive conespondence and exchange with the most eminent botanists of his day in Europe and America. The superior excellence of his research won ample acknowledgment from many learned men and societies. At his time the knowledge of American flora was very limited. Dr. Muhlenberg discovered and de scribed, directly, 100 new species, to which should properly be added some 80 more de scribed by his conespondent Willdenow but ob tained from him as the collector. His labors in that direction have not been exceeded by any of the early explorers except, perhaps, Michaux. Muhlenberg's name and fame as a preacher and pastor may die out, except from the memory of a few, but his fame as a botanist must be im perishable, as his name has been given to va rious plants and beautiful grasses, which, in God's providence, will exist so long as the world endures. From this justly celebrated man spring nu merous descendants, amongst whom, bearing the same family name, is an unusually large number of men renowned in the annals of their country, but especially so in the records of the Luth. Church. H. M. M. R. Muhlenberg, Henry Augustus Philip, eld est son of Rev. Dr. Henry Ernestus, b. in Lan caster, Pennsylvania, on May 13, 1782. Licensed to preach in 1802, he accepted the charge of Trinity Luth. Church, Reading, Penna., where he labored, -with great ability and fidelity, until 1827, when forced to resign from the ministry because of impaired health. After much solic itation he was elected a member of the 21st Congress, where he served for nine years with distinction. In 1827 he was tendered, by Presi dent Van Buren, a seat in his Cabinet as Secre tary of the Navy, also the mission to Russia, both of which he was obliged to decline. In 1838 he was appointed Minister to Austiia, be ing recalled, December, 1840, at his own request. On March 6, 1844, he was nominated for Gov ernor of Pennsylvania, but his sudden death, August II, 1844, prevented his election to that high office. He was manied, ist, in 1805, to Mary Eliza beth Hiester, and 2d, on June 7, 1808, to Re becca Hiester, both daughters of Governor Joseph Hiester. H. M. M. R. Muhlenberg, Hiester H., M. D., son of Rev. and Hon. Henry A. Muhlenberg, b. at Reading, Pa., Jan. 15, 1812. He prepared for the medical profession, but relinquished it in 1842 when he was chosen cashier of the Farmers' Bank of Reading, a position he held until his death on May 5, 1886. He was a devoted and active member of Trinity Luth. congregation, and one of its officers for nearly fifty years. He occupied a high social position and had great in fluence in the community, and his intelligent and active interest in church affairs made him one of the best known and most esteemed laymen of the Luth. Church in America. He repeatedly represented Trinity Church in the Ministerium of Pa., and the Ministerium in the general bodies vrith which it was connected, and was the first treasurer of the General Council. He also served for some years as trustee of Penn sylvania and Muhlenberg Colleges. J. Fr. Muhlenberg, William Augustus, D. D., clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church, great-grandson of Henry Melchior, and grand son of Frederick Augustus Muhlenberg ; b. Philadelphia, 1796 ; attended the Episcopal Church, because unable in childhood to under stand the German language, in which exclu sively Luth. services were held ; and, under in fluence of Bishop White, became an Episco palian, rector at Lancaster, Pa., and in New York ; but chiefly known as an educator and philanthropist. Author of a number of hymns, musaeus 334 mysticism of which "I would not live alway," "Like Noah's weary dove," "Sa-riour, like a Shep herd, lead us," are among the best known. D. 1877. Ayres, Life and Work of William Au gustus Muhlenberg (New York, 1880) ; Newton, Dr. Muhlenberg, in series of American Re ligious Leaders (Boston and New York, 1890). Musaeus, John, a great-grandson of Simon Musaeus, b. 1613, studied at Erfurt and Jena, became professor at Jena (1646), where he died, l68i. He was a brave defender of Lutheranism against deists, pantheists. Reformed, and sec tarians, but was himself charged with syn cretism, synergism, and other heresies, by the over-zealous Wittenberg theologians, especially Calov, and in 1679, together with all the pro fessors at Jena, had to subscribe a formula in which every tinge of syncretism was con demned. He was perhaps the most phUosophic of the older Luth. theologians. His main works are : Introduclio in theologiam ; De usu princi- piorum rationis in theologia ; De libertate phi- losophandi ; De conversione hominis peccatoris ad Deum ; De esterno Dei decreto. F. W. S. Musaeus, Simon, in the original German form Meussel, b. 1521 ; studied at Frankfurt-on- the-Oder and Wittenberg ; 1558, professor at Jena ; 1562, superintendent at Bremen ; d. 1576 or 1582. Being a valiant adherent of Flacius, he was, like the latter, ' ' a fugitive and a wan derer in the earth," deposed and expelled by the Philippists and Calvinists wherever they had the power. Nothing certain is known about his later years. F. W. S. Musculus, Andrew (in German, Meusel), to be distinguished from the somewhat older Reformed theologian, Wolfgang Musculus (Maeusslin), b. 1514 ; studied at Leipzig and Wittenberg, was one of the most zealous fol lowers of Luther, became (1540) professor at Fraukfurt-on-the-Oder, where he d. 1581. He was of a combative disposition, always in con troversy -with somebody, fighting for purity of doctrine, as also for the proper support of min isters. Melanchthon he considered a theologian of straw and a patriarch of all heretics. His name will ever be remembered because of his participation in completing the Formula of Concord, though here also he proved to be a man not easy to get along with. As a preacher he was very lengthy and severe, castigating in unmeasured terms the extravagances of fashion no less than immoralities of life. Fear of men he knew not ; nor can selfish motives be as cribed to him. His delight in and capacity for work was inexhaustible. F. W. S. Muthmann, Johann Gottiob, b. 1685, at Reimersdorf, d. 1747, at Schloettwein, Saxony. He studied theology in Leipzig, was diaconus in Kronstadt, Oels (1708), pastor in Teschen, Silesia (1709), in Graba, near Saalfeld (1731), at Poessneck, Saxony (1739). Author of the hymns "Gott ist getreu, Er selbst," and ' ' Zeuch mich nach Dir. " A. S. Myconius (Mecum), Frederick, superin tendent at Gotha, b. Lichtenfels, Bavaria, 1491 ; a Franciscan monk at Annaberg, Saxony, pas tor at Weimar ; intimate associate of Luther, whose search for assurance of salvation in many respects resembled that of his friend ; distinguished for executive ability and elo quence ; commissioner to England (1538) ; d. 1546. Mylius, Georg, b. 1613, in Koenigsberg, d. 1640, as pastor in Brandenburg a. d. Pregel, near Koenigsberg ; one of the East Prassia circle of poets, author of the hymn ' ' Herr, ich denk an jene Zeit," Koenigsberg H. B. of 1650. A. S. Mjmster, Jacob P. (1775-1854), Bishop of Seeland. He was brought up under the in fluence of the rationalism that dominated Den mark before and at the beginning of the present century. In 1803, two years after his ordina tion, the conviction suddenly dawned on him that, to be a sincere Christian, he must yield himself unreservedly to God's guidance. Thenceforth his theological views developed in a positively evangelical direction. In 1811 he was called to Our Lady's Church at Copenhagen. Here his eloquent and scriptural sermons at tracted immense audiences, largely composed of the cultured classes. In 1834 he became Bishop of Seeland. Eminently conservative, he would not break with the culture of his time but sought to vrin it for Christianity. At first associated with Grundtvig in combating rationalism, he later became the active op ponent of Grundtvig's political and theolog ical radicalism. His most notable work is Meditations on the Christian Doctrines of Faith. E. G. L. Mysticism in Relation to the Luth. Church. The essence of mysticism is the im mediate union of the soul with the Infinite. It is not identical with theology, although often allied with it. It is not peculiar to Christianity ; it is found also in other religions. It has been characterized as " a creeping plant which grows up exuberantly on any support, agreeing equally well with the extremest opposites. ' ' Mysticism is not so much a doctrine as a method of thought — a grasping of the Infinite, not by processes of reasoning, but by direct contemplation either through intuition of the soul or through the imagination. It may be inteUectual and speculative, or it may be prac tical and centre in the heart. Its aim is to attain to immediate communion with God. This exclusive movement of the soul toward God is accompanied by an effort to escape from the outer world and from the lower self. Doctrinally considered, Lutheranism does not repudiate mysticism, whatever may be its atti tude toward indiridual mystics. The central thoughts of mysticism enter into the Luth. sys tem of faith, namely, the ideas of the negation of the world, the immediate union of the soul with God, and the direct action of God upon the soul. Yet Lutheranism is not a system of mysticism. It uses the ideas refened to, but does not make them absolute. It subordinates them to the traths brought to the understand ing through the outward Word of God. Mys ticism is pure inwardness ; Lutheranism culti vates inwardness, but not to the exclusion of what is given in the external world and the external Word of God. Lutheranism teaches Nachtenhoefer 335 l^aumburg Diet the mystic union. The relations of the believer to God are not all comprehended in the rational understanding of certain traths. There is a direct contact between the triune God and the person of the believer, which is described in Scripture as God's having his abode in the be liever. But this immediate communion vrith God is not effected by sinking one's self and the world entirely out of view in a contempla tion of the Infinite alone. This is the way of thorough mysticism, and it tends to the subjec tive absorption of the believer in the divinity. Historically considered, Lutheranism came into being partly under the influence of mysti cism. In his early period Luther valued the German mystics of the age preceding the Ref ormation, edited the " German Theology," and commended the sermons of John Tauler as " a pure, solid theology, like that of the ancients." Some of his most intimate friends were mystics, e. g. John Staupitz. Yet Luther was not a mys tic. His system centred in the external Word of God and its primary doctrine of justification, and not in the inwardness of an immediate union of the soul with God. When fanatics Uke Carl stadt, Miinzer, and the Anabaptists developed the idea of immediate communion with God in such a way that supposed inner inspiration took the place of the Word of God, Luther sternly rebuked this dangerous manifestation of mys ticism. Equally severe was Luther on the speculative mysticism of Caspar Schwenkfeld and Sebastian Frank. The fundamental ideas of the latter reappear in the seventeenth century in the theosophic mysticism of the great shoemaker of Gorlitz, Jacob Boehme, whose influence has continued to the present day, both within and -without the Luth. Church. An earlier mystic -within the Luth. Church was Valentine Weigel, the use of whose practical teachings brought trouble upon the saintly John Arndt. At the end of the seventeenth century, Gottfried Arnold repre sented a reaction of mysticism against the scholasticism of orthodoxy. In the last two centuries Wuertemberg has been a fruitful soil for mysticism. The school of Bengel, to which the famous theosophist Oetinger belonged, stood in close connection with the Church. Other mystics, like the disciples of Michael Hahn, formed sects. Mysticism is one of the prominent elements in modern speculative the ology. The school of Ritschl opposes it. How much the Luth. Church is practically pervaded by mysticism, is erident from its favorite devotional literature, for example the True Christianity of John Arndt, and from its hymnology, where the longing of the soul for union with God and the rejoicing of the spirit in this communion receive continual expres sion. A. G. V. N. Nachtenhoefer, Caspar Friedrich, b. 1624, in HaUe, d. 1685, in Coburg. He studied at Leip zig (1647), became diaconus (1651), and pastor (1655), at Meeder, near Coburg, afterwards in Coburg, first at the Holy Cross Church, and finally at St. Moritz, where he was second senior. He wrote a metrical history of the Pas sion {Erklaerung der Leidens- und Sterbens- Geschichle Jesu Christi, Coburg, 1685), and a number of hymns, among them " Dies ist die Nacht, da mir erschienen," tisl. by A. T. Rus sell, "This is the night wherein appeared." A.S. Naesman, Gabriel, Swedish-American pas tor, reached Philadelphia 1743, where he served in the Wicaco church and the neighborhood until 1751, when he went to the West Indies and afterwards to Holland and France ; served also as pastor in Sweden ; one of the founders of Ministerium of Pennsylvania. Nagel, Ludwig Julius, b. in 1809, at Steck- lin in Pomerania, pastor in Holzow, and chap lain in the army at Stargard. Being opposed to the Prassian Union he resigned his chaplaincy, and, in 1842, accepted a call to Trieglaff. In 1847 he, together with the larger part of his congregation, separated from the United Church of Pmssia and joined the Ev. Luth. Church of Pmssia. In 1852 he became pastor of the Luth. Church at Breslau and superintendent. D. Jan. 17, 1884. J. N. Naumann, Emil, b. 1827, in Berlin, d. 1888, in Dresden, a prominent composer and writer on the theory and history of music. He was educated at Bonn, Frankfurt a. M., and Leipzig. His treatise, tieber die Einfuehrung des Psal-men-Gesangs in die Evangelische Kirche {i8$6), attracted the attention of King Frederick William IV., and he was called to Berlin, as musical director of the court-church, with the commission to write, in common with other prominent composers, a number of psalm tunes for the Dom Chor. These compositions were pubUshed as volumes 8, 9, and 10 of the Musica Sacra of the Cathedral Choir, but are not in the spirit of trae evangelical church music. From 1873 he lived in Dresden, as teacher at the conservatory, leader of a choir, and musical author. His History of Music, in two volumes, was translated into English by F. Praeger, and edited by F. A. Gore Ouseley, pro fessor of music in the University of Oxford. A. S. Naumburg Convention (Theologenkon- vent) was a meeting of evang. theologians in 1554, in Naumburg-ou-the-Saale, to discuss the action to be taken over ag. the Catholics iu the Augsburg Diet of 1555, and to consult about the errors of Osiander aud Schwenkfeld. There were present J. Sleidanus, M. Chemnitz, Came rarius, Alex. Alesius, J. Forster. Naumburg Diet (Fiirstentag). This con vention was held at Naumburg in 1561. It was a meeting of the evangelical princes, brought about by Duke Christopher of Wuer temberg in the interests of confessional unity, in view of the impending resumption of the CouncU of Trent. Through the efforts of Duke John Frederick of Saxony, the question of the confessional basis was decided in favor of the Unaltered Augsburg Confession of the year 1530, over against the Variata of 1540, -with the pro viso that the Apology together -with the Variata should be recognized in a new preface, but no mention to be made of the Smalcald Articles, as well as of the Confessio Saxonica and the ' Neander 336 IVcuendettelsau Frankfort Compact. Duke John Frederick was dissatisfied vrith the outcome of the convention, and left behind him a written protest. Thus this effort at union faUed, because of its en deavor to compromise differences, a course which only brought them out into stronger relief. G. F. S. Neander, Christoph Friedrich, b. 1724, in Eckau, Kurland, d. 1802. He studied in Halle, was pastor in Kabillen (1750), in Graenzhof (1756), superintendent (1775). Author of a number of hymns which were highly esteemed by Gellert. A. S. Neander, Joachim, b. 1650, at Bremen, d. 1680, the most prominent hymn-writer of the German Reformed Church, whose hymns were readily received into Luth. hymn-books. After a somewhat reckless university life he was con verted through the preaching of Under-Eyck (1670). In 1673-1674 he was in Frankfurt a. M. as tutor, and became acquainted with Spener. In 1674 he became rector of the Latin school of Duesseldorf, where most of his hymns were written. In 1679 he was invited to Bremen as assistant of Under-Eyck. Among his hymns we mention " Lobe den Henen, den maechtigen Koenig der Ehren," the favorite of King Fred erick Willian III. of Prussia, " Praise thou the Lord, the omnipotent Monarch of glory," trsl. by J. H. Good, Ohio Hymnal ; " Himmel, Erde, Luft und Meer" (Heaven and earth and sea and air), in the Church Book, mainly from Miss Winkworth, partly from Miss Cox, partly new. A. S. Neander, Michael, b. 1525, in Sorau, Laus nitz, a great pedagogue of the sixteenth century, scholar of Luther and Melanchthon, teacher in Nordhausen (1547), then at the excellent clois ter-school of Ilfeld (1550), as whose rector he d. 1590. He advocated linguistic and general education. Nebraska, Lutherans in, rank second only to the Methodists in number of communicants. There were in 1890, 387 congregations and 27,297 communicants. Of these, 135 congrega tions and 12,339 communicants belonged to the Synodical Conference, 88 congregations and 7,204 communicants (including 45 and 2,983 of Iowa Synod and the rest to the Swedish Augus tana) to the General Council, and 73 congrega tions -with 3,731 communicants to the General Synod. The Norwegian bodies combined num bered 42 congregations -with 1,267 communi cants, and the Danes 35 congregations -with 1,542 communicants. In Omaha there were 11 churches -with 1,277 communicants. Nebraska Synod. See Synods (L). Nebraska (German Synod). See S-vnods (L). Negro Missions. See Synodical Confer ence -and West Indies. Nehring, Johann Christian, b. 1671, in Gotha, d. 1736. He studied at Halle, was rec tor in Essen (1702), pastor at Neuendorf (1706), in Mori, near HaUe (1716); wrote some h)ntnns that were received into the Freylinghausen hymn-book. A. S. Neology is that tendency which favors the new in opposition to that which is old, tried, and trae in faith. Its opposite is paleology (fr. Greek palaios, old). Its name arose during the spread of rationalism, and stUl stands for all those movements in theology, which, under the cover of originality and novelty, undermine the faith once delivered to the saints. Its causes are philosophical presuppositions, wrong search after novelty, personal ambition, unbelief of heart. Neostadiensium Admonitio. See Chris tology. Nerreter, David, b. 1649, in Nuernberg, d. 1726, as general superintendent, consistorial counsellor, in Stargard, Pomerania. Author of the hymn " Ein Christ kann ohne Kreuz nicht sein." A. S. Neudecker, Christian Gotthold, b. 1807, in Gotha, studied pedagogics in Jena, was director of schools in Gotha until his death ( 1866) . He gathered material for the history of the Reforma tion, particularly on G. Spalatin, which is in the ducal library at Gotha. Neuendettelsau, a village near Nuremberg, Germany, without any significance until Loehe began his activity there, by whom it has be come a source of blessing to three continents. Its importance is centred around the Missions- anstalt and the Diakonissenhaus. Missionsanstalt. When the Rev. Wyneken issued his well-known appeal in behalf of the spiritually destitute Lutherans in America, it nowhere struck a more sympathetic chord than in the soul of Loehe. Already in 1841 he began to train young men for missionary work among the Lutherans of the United States, secured the services of graduates of universities (A. Craem er), devised a far-sighted plan of colonization, founded Luth. settlements in Michigan, co operated in the erection of a theological sem inary at Fort Wayne, Ind. (1846), and in the same year founded a preparatory school at Nuremberg, of which a number of graduates subsequently proved to be a tiue ornament to the Missouri Synod. When, in 1853, it became impossible for Loehe to co-operate with the Missouri Synod, which his candidates had joined since 1845, the preparatory school at Nuremberg was converted into the Missions anstalt (course of three years) and moved to Neuendettelsau, where, after laboring under very primitive conditions, it secured a home of its own in 1867 (enlarged 1870 and 1893), and where it stood under the direction of most ex cellent men ('55-'74, F. Bauer ; '74-'97, J. Dein zer ; and since 1897, M. Deinzer). After the Iowa Synod had been organized by four of Loehe's former scholars ( 1854) , nearly all the graduates of the missionary school at Neuen dettelsau joined this synod, whose rapid growth is in no small degree due to the continuous sup ply of candidates from Neuendettelsau and to the rigorous support of the " GeseUschaft fuer innere Mission im Sinne der luth. Kirche," organized by men connected vrith the Neuen dettelsau institutions. Its leaders (Grossmann, S. and G. Fritschel, Deindoerfer), and fully one-fourth of all its pastors, received their theological training at Neuendettelsau. Since IVcumann 337 Ne-ivburg 1875 a supply of (15) ministers was also fur nished to the Immanuel Synod in Aus tralia. Since 1886 Neuendettelsau has also its own mission among the Papuas of Australia and New Guinea, and it now reports 5 stations with 10 missionaries, who have translated a church hook, catechism, biblical history, and parts of the N. T., and now look towards the begin ning of a rich harvest. Several graduates of Neuendettelsau are serving congregations in the General Council, and since 1898 two have gone to Brazil. In all 321 were sent out. The Diakonissenhaus was opened May 9, 1854. Though not the first institution of its kind, it is altogether an original creation upon a decidedly Luth. basis. Loehe rejoiced in hav ing proved by this institution, that the orthodox Luth. Church is quite as much possessed of vital power as other churches. Amid many trials the work grew vrith the insuppressible motive- power of a living organism, and gradually de veloped to such an extent, that the deaconess home is now surrounded by a rich wreath of other benevolent institutions. There were add ed : 1855, enlarged '64, the " Home for Idiots " ; '58, a beautiful prayer-room ; '62, the " Ret- tungshaus " for girls, and educational institutes (the blue, green, and red schools) ; '65, enlarged '78, the " Industrieschule " ; '65, resp. '88, the " Magdalenium " ; '67, a hospital for men ; '69, for women; '8o,enlarged '97,the " Hospiz " ; '77, the " Feierabendhaus " for sick and old sisters ; '88, the " Laurentiuskirche " ; '93, the " Dia- konenhaus." Branch institutions also were founded : Homes for Idiots, '65, at Polsingen ; '91, at Himmelkron (here also an industrial school); '91, at Bruckberg ; '97, a"Versorg- ungshaus " in Oberzenn, and in the same year Jacobsruhe was secured for institutional pur poses. Loehe was director of the Diakonissen haus until his death, 1872, F. Meyer from 1873- 1891, since '91 Dr. Bezzel. Theresa Stachlin is sister superior. Present standing (Jan., '98): 314 sisters, 129 trial sisters, 28 deacons, 57 out side stations, 2 sisters employed in missionary work in India, 621 idiots, 46 Magdalenes, 224 girl-pupils. M. R. Neumann, Caspar, b. 1648, at Breslau, d. 1715. He studied at Jena, was chaplain to Prince Christian of Gotha ( 1673) , court-preacher in Altenburg (1676), pastor in Breslau (1678). Among his hymns, " Grosser Gott, von alien Zeiten " (God of Ages, great and mighty), trsl. by C. H. L. Schuette, Ohio Hymnal ; "Herr, auf Erden muss ich leiden " (Lord, on earth I dwell sad-hearted), trsl. by Miss Winkworth, Ch. Book for England (1863), Ohio Hymnal ; " Nun bricht die finstre Nacht herein " (Soon night the world in gloom will steep) , trsl. by Miss Manington; A. S. Neumann, Gottfried, b. 1686, at Hohen- heida, near Leipzig, d. 1779. He studied at Leipzig ; between 1714 and 1734 he belonged to the fanatical sect of the " Inspired," and joined the Morarians in 1738. His hymn " Ei wie so seUg schlaefest du " (At length released from many woes), trsl. by Miss Cox, in the Church Book. A. S. NeUJnark, Georg, b. 1621, in Langensalza, d. 1681, at Weimar. After an anxious time of care and privation he became tutor in the house of Judge Henning, in Kiel. In 1643 he was ma triculated as a student of law at the University of Koenigsberg. He also studied poetry under Simon Dach. Duke Wilhelm II. of Saxe- Weimar appointed him court poet (1652) and secretary of the archives. He was a member of the Fruit-bearing Society (1653), and of the Pegnitz Orden (1679). His finest hymn, which he wrote at Kiel (1641), "Wer nur den lieben Gott laesst walten," has often been translated into English, " If thou but suffer God to guide thee," in the Ohio Hymnal, " Leave God to order all thy ways," in the Church Book, both translations by Miss Winkworth. The beauti ful tune, composed by Neumark himself, was used by J. S. Bach, who based a cantata on it ; and by Mendelssohn in his Oratorio " St. Paul ": " To Thee, O God, I yield my spirit" A. S. Neumeister, Erdmann, b. 1671, at Uech- teritz, near Weissenfels, d. 1756, at Hamburg. He studied at Leipzig, was pastor in Bibra (1697), tutor to the duke's daughter (1704), and afterwards court-preacher, consistorial counsel lor, and superintendent, pastor of St. James' Church, in Hamburg (1715). He was an earnest and eloquent preacher, and a champion of Lu theranism against the Pietists and Moravians, author of numerous hymns, distinguished by their simple musical style, poetic fervor, strong faith, and rich experience. Among them " Jesu, grosser Wunderstern " (Epiph. ) (Jesus, great and wondrous Star), trsl. by E. Cronen wett, Ohio Hymnal ; "Jesus nimmt die Suen der an ' ' (Jesus sinners doth receive), in the-. Church Book, trsl. 1890. A. a. Neunhertz, Johann, b. 1653, at Walterdorr,., Silesia, d. 1737, at Hirschberg. He studied at. Leipzig, was assistant preacher at Lauban (1678)^. pastor at Kiesslingswalde (1680), Geibsdorf; (1696), Lauban (1706), Hirschberg (1709)., Author of the hymn " Zween Juengergeha mit Sehnen," trsl. by Miss Winkworth, L. Germanica (1858). The Church Book has st. 4-7, beginning "Traest Friend who canst not faU." A.S. New Amsterdam. See new York. New Birth. See Baptism and Regenera tion. Newburg, N. Y., Luth. Church in, and Glebe. Jan. 1, 1704, the Rev. Josua von Kocher thal anived in New York with a number of Pal atinates. They settled at the Quaissaick near Newburg. Queen Anne had given them 2,190 acres of land, and 500 acres more, the income of which should be used for the support of the Luth. pastor and school-teacher. This grant was for all time to come. The land being poor, some of the Lutherans moved away. The pas tors of Trinity Luth. Ch. in New York City for years served the congregation at N. , until, in the summer of 1749, the Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed took forcible possession of the church building and debarred pastor and congregation from holding services, although there were yet about 60 Luth. families residing in and near Newburg. A report was transmitted to King George II. , stating that there were no more Ne-w Guinea 338 Blew York Lutherans at N., whereupon, acting upon this misrepresentation of facts, the king decreed that the income from the glebe should be used for the support of an Anglican minister. In 1803 a law was passed ordering the election of three trustees, by all such persons residing upon the original 2,190 acres, and entitled to vote for municipal officers. The Episcopal trastees now brought suit to oust these trustees, but the court decided against them , claiming that title could only be tried by quo warranto proceed ings. It might be an interesting question for the Lutherans to investigate if they are not traly entitled to bring such quo warranto pro ceedings, as the Lutherans were forcibly dis possessed, and King George, under a misappre hension, granted the use of the glebe to the Episcopalians. J. N. New Guinea, Luth. Missions in. New Guinea, the largest island in Melanesia, in habited by Papua of many tongues, belongs on the west side to Holland, on the east side to England, and on the north side to Germany. This part, since 1885, is called Kaiser Wilhelms- Land. The first German Luth. missionary in N. G. was J. Flierl of the Neuendettelsau M. S. He established Simbang station, near Finsh- haveu, in 1886. The Rhenish M. S. entered the field in 1887. At present ('98) there are 3 Nd. and 3 Rh. stations, manned by devoted servants of the Lord, sowing the seed and wait ing patiently for the opening of the hard soil. The climate is fearfully trying ; 12 missionaries died within a few years, three were slain by natives. W. W. New Hampshire, Lutherans in. Swedes and Norwegians have settled in recent years among the Green Mountains in the northern most extremity of this State. In Coos County there are two small congregations, one of the Swedish Augustana and the other of the United Norwegian Synod. In the southwestern ex tremity (Hillsboro County) there is another Swedish congregation. Total : 3 congregations, 520 communicants. New Hanover, a settlement in Montgomery Co., Pa., where the congregation is probably the oldest German Luth. congregation in the United States. The date of its origin is obscure, as Justus Falckner, who was supposed to have taken charge there directly after his ordination in 1703, it is now ascertained, went at once to Albany. It was one of the three congregations that united in sending a deputation to Ger many asking for a pastor in 1733, in response to which, after a long interval, Muhlenberg came to America in 1742. New Jersey, Lutherans in. statistics for 1890 : Congregations, 68 ; communicants, 12,878. The General Council included about two-thirds of the membership, viz. 7,940, and the General Synod one-fifth, 2,415. The Synodical Confer ence had five congregations, -with 699 communi cants. The cities with over 1,000 communicants were : Jersey City, 2,230 ; Trenton, 1,575 I New ark, 1,387. Newlanders. a term applied to the unscra- pulous agents of ships and land companies who, under false pretences, enticed emigrants from Germany to America. The abuse was common under the system that provided that immigrants could pay for their passage by selling them selves out to service for a term of years. (See Redemptioners ; also, Hallesche Nachrichten, old edition, pp. 997 sqq.) New Market, Va., a village in the Shenan doah Valley, population 800, a Luth. centre, has two Luth. churches, two weekly papers (one secular, and the other Our Church Paper) ; a publishing house, and a chartered school. It is interesting in Luth. history as the home for many years of Rev. Paul Henkel, for the opening of the Theological Seminary of the General Synod under Prof. S. S. Schmucker, while pastor here, and for the publication oitne Book of Con cord, Luther on the Sacraments, Church Postils, the works of David Henkel, and many other religious and miscellaneous works. L. A. F. New Measures. See Re-vival. New Mexico, Lutherans in. Two small congregations belonging to the General Synod were reported in 1890, at Santa F^ and Valencia, with a total of 64 communicants. New Providence. See Trappe. New Sweden. The lands along the Delaware from the ocean to the neighborhood where Tren ton, N. J., now stands, were occupied in the fourth decade of the seventeenth century by the Swedes, whose first colony arrived in 1637. The country was wrested from their control by the Dutch in 1655, who, in tum, were expelled by the English in 1664. Acrelius, Israel, History of New Sweden (Stockholm, 1759) ; translated by W. M. Reynolds (^PhUadelphia, 1874). New York, Lutherans in. statistics for 1890 : Congregations, 317; communicants, 89,076. The General Council, -with its 113 congregations and 39,430 communicants, is most numerous. Next comes the Synodical Conference, -with 67 congregations and 22,642 communicants ; and the General Synod with 95 congregations and 15,911 communicants. The Buffalo Synod has 12 congregations, ¦with 2,268 communicants. The Lutheran population is densest in New York City, the census sho-wing, in New York and Brooklyn combined, 54 congregations, -with 30,857 communicants. Thence it follows the Hudson, on both sides, to Albany, and throvring one branch to the northwest, until it reaches the St. Lawrence, flows in its main current along the line of the New York Central RaUroad, be coming dense again at Rochester and Buffalo, the former city having 4,847, and the latter 13,460, communicants, exceeding Methodists, Presbyterians, and Episcopalians combined. Then, ranning south to Chautauqua County, where the Swedes have five congregations and over 1,500 communicants, it ends. Along the Pennsylvania line, east of Catteraugus County, there are few Lutherans, as is also the case in the adjoining counties of Pennsylvania. In one- third of the counties of the State, the Luth. Church was unknown. New York, Greater, i. Manhattan and Bronx. Early History and Development. As early as 1649 the Lutherans in New Amsterdam are, in the records of the Luth. consistory of Amsterdam, termed a church or congregation. SJe-w York 339 New York Their first place of worship was located in the vicinity of what is now Whitehall st., near Bowling Green. Finding that the building stood too near the fort (Battery) and proved an impediment to the proper defence of the same, the governor, in 1673, had it tom down together with the adjoining dwellings. The congrega tion was paid a compensation of 850 florins, and was given, besides, a lot on Broadway, extend ing from Rector st. southward. At the south end of this lot, opposite what is now Exchange Place, the new church, which was called Trinity, was built, whilst the parsonage stood at the north end comer of Rector st. This edifice, a frame building, was, in 1729, replaced by a stone structure. When the great conflagration, on Sept. 21, 1776, laid in aSies the fourth part of the city, church and parsonage were also destroyed. They were not rebuilt. In conse quence of the revolutionary war the congrega tion had become weakened. The pastor. Rev. B. M. Hausihl, was an ardent royalist. When, in the fall of 1783, the English evacuated New York, H. fled to Halifax, taking with him as many of his congregation as he could induce to follow him. The congregation was distiacted and weakened, and the foUovring year it united vrith Christ Gemian Luth. Church, whose house of worship was on the N. E. cor. of Frankford and William st., forming a new organization, caUed the "United Churches." Christ Church was founded in 1750. Its leading members had been connected vrith Trinity Church. The rea son for their withdrawal was the language ques tion. Immigration from Holland had practi cally ceased, whilst Lutherans from Germany arrived in large numbers. They demanded recognition in the church services. This the Dutch Church officers of Trinity at first refused to grant, and later on only vrith reluctance granted the request. Still, to many of the Ger mans, the number of German services and the time at which they were held was not satisfac tory, and finding a German pastor they with drew and purchased a building in Cliff st. In a few years this church proved inadequate ; it was sold and a new church built of stone in WUliam st. Of this congregation the noted American patriot Fred. Aug. Conr. Muhlen berg was pastor from 1773-6. (See Art.) The "United Churches " in 1784 called Rev. J. Chr. Kunze, D. D., of Philadelphia. He remained pastor until his death, which occurred July 24, 1807. The valuable property on Broadway was sold (1805) to the Episcopalians for |i2,5oo. It would now bring a million or more. Dr. Kunze introduced English evening services. This was no easy matter, inasmuch as there were then no English hymn-books for Luth. churches. But K. proved equal to the task. He published an English liturgy, hymn-book, and a transla tion of Luther's Catechism, and engaged assist ants for preaching in the English language. One of them, Strebeck, organized the English Luth. Zion's Church (1797). In 1804 he joined the Protestant Episcopal Church, taking the larger part of the members of his church vrith him. Willeston, who succeeded S. in 1811, also went over to the Episcopalians, with his en tire church. These unfortunate occunences hindered the progress, if not the organization, of English Luth. churches in the city of New York for more than half a century. When Dr. Chr. Fr. Schaeffer was called in 1815, English preach ing was resumed in Christ Church. The attend ance upon these services was so large that the United Churches in 182 1 built the spacious St. Matthew's Church in Walker st. Dr. F. W. Geissenhainer, Sen., who had been Dr. Kunze's immediate successor, was recalled, and continued preaching Gemian in Christ Church, whilst English services were held in St. Matthew's. In 1826 Dr. Schaeffer resigned and organized St. James' English Ev. Luth. congregation, to which Peter LorUlard presented the Church of an Irish Presbyt. congregation on Orange st. Dr. F. W. Geissenhainer, Jun., the son of the pastor of Christ Church, was now called to preach in St. Matthew's in English. 1825, the United Churches changed their name into St. Matthew's. 1831, Christ Church was sold, and the German congregation moved to Walker st. 1840, the German corporation resolved to dis continue the English serrices. This led to pro tracted litigations between the attendants upon the English services and the German congrega tion which had paid all expenses connected -with these services. The suit was decided in favor of the German congregation. English preaching in St. Matthew's was now at an end. The location in Walker st. proving unsuitable, a Baptist Church, at the N. E. cor. of Broome and Elizabeth sts. , was purchased and dedicated May 3, 1868. During the act of dedication, the pastor. Dr. C. F. E. Stohlmann, died. He had faithfully served the congregation for 30 years. In 1880, at the instigation of its new pastor, the Rev. J. H. Sieker, St. Matthew's -withdrew from membership in the New York Min. St. James' Church, in 1843, sold its building on Orange st., and in 1846 built a church on Mulberry st. Ten years later, the congregation moved to 15th st. , and in 1889 the beautiful edifice on Madison Ave. and 73d St. was erected. In 1840 the N. Y. Min. appointed a committee to inquire into the cause why English Lutheranism in New York was making such slow progress. The com. never reported. Dr. Geissenhainer, Jun., in 1840 resigned his position as English pastor of St. Matthew's and organized St. Paul's German Luth. Church, whose church building, until re cently, stood on the S. E. cor. of 6th Ave. and 15th St., and is now located at No. 313 W. 22d St. In 1878 St. Matthew's organized St. Mark's German Luth. Church, and purchased for it the building it still occupies on 6th st. near Second Ave. Rev. A. H. W. Held, who had been pas tor of this new congregation from beginning, resigned in 1855, and gathered St. John's Ger man Luth. congreg., which, in 1858, purchased St. John's Prot. Ep. Church on Christopher st. As assistant to Dr. Stohlmann, Rev. Chr. Hen- nicke, in 1861, organized St. Peter's German Ev. Luth. Ch., which, in 1865, purchased a build ing in 50th St., and in 1871 acquired its present edifice, S. W. cor. of Lexington Ave. and 46th St. Rev. E. F. Moldehnke, Ph. D., D. D., had become pastor in Aug., 1871. He is stUl minis tering to the church. About the middle of the century Trinity German was organized. Its New York 340 Nicene Creed church building is beautifully located at 139 Ave. B. In 1864 St. Paul's iu 123d st., be tween 6th and 7th Aves., was built. In 1898 their second, a very handsome edifice, was dedi cated. About 1850 St. Luke's came into exist ence. Its church is located at No. 233 W. 42d St. The following complete the list : German churches ; Christ, 406 E. 19th ; Christ, 552 W. 50th ; Grace, 123 W. 7i.st ; Immanuel, 215 E. 83d ; Immanuel, 88th and Lexington Ave. ; St. John's, 217 E. 119th ; St. John's, 801 E. 169th ; St. Luke's, Van Nest ; St. Matthew's, 626 E. 156th ; St. Paul's, 928 E. 150th ; St. Peter's, 628 E. 141st ; St. Peter's, Williams- bridge ; St. Stephen's, 165th st. and Union Ave. ; Holy Trinity, 164 W. looth st. ; Zion's, 339 E. 84th ; Washington Heights — 25 German Luth. churches in all. There are seven English churches, viz. : be sides St. fames'. Holy Trinity, 47 W. 21st st., which was organized in 1867 by the Rev. G. F. Krotel, D.D.; upon the withdrawal of St. James' Church from the New York Min. ; Advent, 426 Columbus Ave.; Atonement, 140th st. and Edge- comb Ave.; Bethany, Teasdale Place, i62d St.; Epiphany , 74 E. 128th st. ; Redeemer, 127 W. 42d St.; Church of our Saviour, 179th st. and Audubon Ave. Other Luth. Churches : Swedish : Gustavus Adolphus, 151 E. 22d st. ; Harlem Mission ; Norwegian, 217 E. 119th st. ; Littavonian, Broome St., cor. Elizabeth ; Slavonian, 636 Sixth St.; Danish, 74 E. 128th st. ; Finnish, 53 Beaver St.; fewish, 70 Pitt st. Totals for Manhattan and the Bronx : General Council: 14 Germ, churches, 6,355 communi cants ; 3 Engl., with 952 com.; 3 Scandinavian, with 1,731. Synodical Conference (Missouri Synod) : 7 German, with 5,897 com.; i Engl., 78 com.; 1 Litt., 50; i Jewish Mission, 50 com. General Synod: 2 German, 860 com.; 4 Engl., 405 com. Grand total: 40 churches and 18,347 com.; 9,038 of whom belong to the Gen. Council, 6,175 to the Missouri Synod, 1,265 to the Gen. Synod,and the rest to independent organizations. II. Brooklyn and Queens. The German Evangelical Ch-arch on Schermerhorn st.,Brook- lyn, dates from 1841. The organization was effected by the Rev. F. Walz, a member of the Pennsylvania Synod. During 42 years of its existence the congregation was served by pastors connected either with the Pa. Synod or the New York Ministerium. The next oldest organization is 5z^.yb/z«'.s, Graham Ave. and Ten Eyck St., in Williamsburg. It dates from 1843. — St. Paul's, S. Eighth and Fifth sts., was or ganized 1849. From this separated in 1875, Immanuel's Ch. on S. Fifth and Fifth st.^ Zion's Ch. on Henry st. dates from 1S55. Its founder was the Rev. Fr. W. F. Steimle. St. Peter's, organized in 1867, has had a remarkable growth. Its church is located on Bedford Ave., near De Kalb. Other German Luth. churches are : Bethlehem, on Marion St.; Christ, at Woodhaven ; Christ, at Woodside ; Trinity, on Grand st. ; Trinity, at Astoria ; Trinity, on Har rison St. ; Trinity, at Middle Village ; Emanuel, at Corona ; Immanuel, on Seventh st. ; Im- ¦manuel, at Whitestone ; St. fames', on 46th st. ; St. John's, on Milton st. ; Si. John's, on Liberty Ave., East New York ; St. John's, at New Utrecht ; St. John's, at College Point ; St. John's, on Prospect Ave.; St. John's, at Flushing; St. Luke's, on Washington Ave.; St. Mark's, on Bushwick Ave. ; St. Matthew's, on No. 5th st. ; St. Matthew's, at Canarsie ; St. Paul's, on Pal metto St. ; St. Paul's, on Henry st. ; St. Paul's, Wyona st. ; Wartburg, on Fulton st. ; Winfield, on Prospect st.; Zion's, on Locust st. ; Im manuel's, at Richmond Hill ; ch. on Metropoli tan Ave. The English Churches are St. Mat thew's, on 6th Ave., near Second st. ; Christ, on Lafayette Ave. ; Holy Trinity, on Cumberland st. ; Redeemer, on Bedford Ave. ; Rejormation, in East New York ; Christ, Lafayette Ave. ; Calvary, Rochester Ave. , cor. Herkimer, and a church at Vanderveer Park. There are 9 Scandi navian churches, Bethlehem, Third Ave. ; St. Paul's, Swedish ; Immanuel's, McDonough st. ; Norwegian, Sutton st. ; Danish, 9th st. ; Norwe gian, Henry St. ; Scandinavian, on Milton St.; Scandinavian, on William st. Of German churches there are, in Brooklyn and Queens, 35, 18 of which, with 11,104 communicants, belong to the General Council, 14, with 5,207 com., to the Missouri Synod. To the Council belong six of the English churches. In Richmond there are four Lutheran churches, viz. at Stapleton, Port Richmond, and Linoleumville. These are all German. At Port Richmond there is also a Norwegian ch. Summary. The total number of communi cant members in the Lutheran churches of Greater New York is 40,871, 18,347 of which belong to Manhattan and the Bronx, 21,566 to Brooklyn and Queens, and 958 to Richmond. The churches of the Gen. Council number in all 23,234 com., or 9,038, 13,623, and 573 respect ively ; those of the Missouri Synod report a total of 11,717 com., or 6,175, 5, 207, and 335 respect ively, and the Gen. Synod 2,173, 1.265 ol which are in Manh. and the Bronx, and 908 in Brook lyn. The total number of churches is 97, 63 of which are German, 16 English, and 18 Scan dinavian and other nationalities. Services are regularly held in the German, English, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Finnish, Lithavonian, and Slavonian languages. J. N. New York Ministerium. See Synods (II. ) New York and New Jersey Sjmod. See Synods (L). Nicene Creed (Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan), one of the three cecumenical creeds. The creed adopted by the Council of Nice in 325 was the baptismal formula of Csesarea offered by Eusebius, with a number of additions and amendments, making its declaration of the Divinity of Christ more rigid. (See the " For mula of Csesarea" and "Nicene Creed," in parallel columns in Jacobs, Book of Concord, II. 20 sqq.) UntU recentiy, the received opinion has been that this creed was amended m the Council of Constantinople of 381. But the re searches of Prof. Hort of Cambridge disprove this theory. The creed as we now have it is eariier than 381, being found in Epiphanius in 374. and is not ascribed to that councU untU 451. The changes from the Nicene Formula of 325 are indicated in volume and place above cited. Nicolai 841 Niemcyer The probability is, that, as the trae Nicene Creed is a revision of the baptismal formula of Csesarea, so the Nicene Creed, as we know it, or the so-called Constantinopolitan, is an inde pendent rerision of a similar baptismal formula (Hamack says, of Jerusalem) , which about the year 500 supplanted the creed of 325. (See See- berg's Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, I. 190 ; Loofs, Leitfaden, 158 ; Harnack in 2d ed. of Herzog, and in Dogmengeschichte, II. 266 sqq.) The value of the Nicene, like that of the Apos tles' Creed, rests not upon the correctness of the name by which it is known, but upon its scriptural character. Every word has reference to some historical circumstance calling for a doctrinal statement. " In traly lapidary style, every clause is a shout of triumph over a -rictory, and a tombstone over some vanquished foe " {Alt.). OriginaUy belonging to the mysteries of the faith, it was first introduced into the public service by Peter FuUo, Bishop of Antioch (471), and was adopted in Spain for this purpose by the Council of Toledo (589) . It became Ro man usage under Benedict VIII. in 1014. The Nicene Creed was said directly after the reading of the Gospel, on all Sundays and festivals. Luther, m revising the service, retained the Nicene Creed in his Formula Misses of 1523, and was followed by most Lutheran Orders. Dober's Mass and Bugenhagen have the Apos ties' Creed in its place. In the ' ' German Mass" of 1526, Lutber prescribes a verified paraphrase, "Wir glauben all an einen Gott," to be sung by the people. The Apostles' Creed is properly the baptismal confession, and the creed of the minor services. The common service gives the Nicene Creed the first place. It is to be used on all the chief festivals and at every communion. (See chapter in Calvor, Rituale Ecclesies {l^oz) ; Klieloth, Liturgische Abhandlungen, III. 311 ; V. 45 ; Alt, Christ licher Cultus, I. 564 sqq., containing a very full explanation of the Creed, sentence by sen tence.) H. E. J. Nicolai, Jeremias^younger brother of PhiUp, b. 1588, at Mengennghausen, d. 1632. He studied at Erfurt and Wittenberg, was tutor (1580), diaconus (1586), pastor (1590), at Mengeringhausen, author of a number of hmyns. A. S. Nicolai, Philip, D. D., b. 1556, at Menger inghausen, Waldeck, d. 1608, at Hamburg. He studied at Erfurt (i575), and Wittenberg (1576), was pastor at Herdicke (1583), diaconus, and afterwards pastor at Niederwilduugen, near Waldeck (1586), chief pastor and court-preacher at Alt Wildungen (1588). He was forbidden to preach and threatened with imprisonment on account of his strong opposition to Calvinism and crypto-Calvinism (1592). As pastor in Unna, Westphalia, he was again engaged in theological controversies, and had to pass through a terrible visitation of pestilence. In 1598 he had to flee from the Spaniards. He be came chief pastor of St. Catherine's Church, Hamburg ( 1601 ) . He was universally esteemed as a popular and influential preacher, and a lovely Christian character. He -wrote two of the grandest hymns of the Luth. Church, which mark the tiansition to a more subjective and experimental period of hymnody, and in troduce those hymns of mystic love to Christ as the Bridegroom, of which, later on, Frank and Scheffler are the chief representatives. Nicolai's hymns are also remarkable for their unusual rhythms, and their splendid tunes, called the King and the Queen of German Chorales, (i) " Wachet auf , raft uns die Stim me " (a reversed acrostic, W-Z-G, Graf zu Waldeck), trsl. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. (1858), "Wake, wake, the night is fly ing " Ch. Book. (2) "Wie schoen leuchtet der Morgenstem," the initial letters of the stanzas form the acrostic, WUhelm Ernst Graf und Hen zu Waldeck, — the former pupil of Nicolai. The hymn is rarely found in its un altered original form, but mostly "rewritten according to the requirements of the times." Trsl. by Miss Winkworth, Ch. Book for the Church of England (1863), " O Moming Star ! how fair and bright," in the Ch. Book and Ohio Hymnal. A. S. Niedner, Christian Wilhelmjb. July 9, 1797, in Oberwinkel, Saxony, rose from Privatdozent at the Leipzig Univ. (1826), to full prof. (1838), took the part of the oppressed, as he thought, in the revolution of 1848, refused (1850) to elect the deputy to the estates, as demanded, and, when reprimanded with his opposing col leagues, left, lived privately in need in Witten berg, until called to Berlin 1859, vvhere he labored until his death, Aug. 13, 1865. He was a church historian of great ability, having as his motto : " The trath itself is Christ." Thor oughly unpractical in life, he Uved but for his studies, was highly beloved by his students, and produced in his Church History, despite its abstract language, one of the great representa tive works in thorough study of sources, ob jectivity of treatment, and trae pragmatism. Nielsen, Rasmus, 1809-1884, Danish theolo gian and philosopher, and professor at Copen hagen University. At first an ardent disciple of Hegel, he subsequently became a follower of Soren Kirkegaard, and came into conflict with Bishop Martensen. During his later years he adopted the theological views of Grundtvig. He was an exceedingly voluminous -writer. E. G. L. Niemann, Edward, b. 1804, in Neukirchen, Hanover, pastor in Osnabriick (1825), second pastor in ^Egidien Church, Hamburg (1829), court-preacher (1832), genl. supt. at Kalenberg (1854), member ofthe consistory (1866), until his death, 1884. Thorough in knowledge, apt and eloquent as preacher, he led the new life of faith into confessional channels. Niemeyer, Aug. Hermann, great grandson of Francke, b. 1754, in Halle, prof, there in 1784, director ofthe Francke institutes (1799), d. June 7, 1828. A representative of the better rationalism, he wrote on pedagogics, composed a number of hymns and devotional books. When Napoleon disbanded the Univ. of HaUe, Niemeyer was able through Jerome to hinder this, and was appointed by Jerome as rector perpetuus. Niemeyer, Herm. Agathon, sou of A. H., b. 1802, in Halle, prof, at Jena (1826), later co- Nigrinus 342 Norway director and then director of Francke instit. at HaUe, and prof, of theol. at the Univ.; d. 1851. He reorganized the Francke institute, espec. the Luther school. An upright rationalist, he is known for his collection of the confessions of the Reformed churches (1840). Nigrinus, Georg, b. 1530, in Battenberg, was early influenced by Mathesius. After a migra tory life caused by poverty he was recommended by Melanchthon and studied at Marburg (1555), became pastor at Hamburg (1556), in Giessen (1564), and supt in Alsfeld and Nidda (1580); d. 1602. A thorough Luth., he stood for the Form, of Concord, and strenuously opposed the Romanists. The Jews he wished either to be banished or compelled to work. Nigrinus, Theobald (Schwartz), d. 1566, a Dominican monk born in Hagenau, who was won for the Reformation, and on Feb. 17, 1524, read Mass in German in the Strassburg Munster, and distributed wine as well as bread in the Lord's Supper. The city council defended him against the bishop ; he was elected pastor of St. Peter's, and furthered the evangelical cause in Strassburg. Ninck, Karl Wilh. Theodor, b. May 28, 1834, pastor in his native country Nassau, chaplain in the wars of 1866 and 1870, pastor at St. Ansgar, Hamburg, until his death, Sept. 17, 1887. Editor of the papers Nachbar and Kinder- freund, author of a widely read description of the Holy Land {Auf bibl. Pfaden), he founded institutions for inner missions, directed the Saxon Tract Society into Luth. channels, and was noted as a man of faith and power. Nissen, E. Tonder, 1822-1882, Norwegian theologian, professor of church history at the University of Christiania, and, from 1874, coun cillor of state and president of the Norwegian Church Department. His chief published works are : History of the Church and A His tory ofthe Church ofthe North. E. G. L. Nitzsch, Georg, b. 1663, in Streblitz, preacher at Wolfenbiittel (1693), supt. at Gotha (1709), until his death, Nov. 20, 1729. In position, more pietistic than the orthodox, and more liberal than the Pietists, he is one of the best ascetic writers, noted for his sententious- ness and brightness. He eamestiy opposed the laxity of church discipline ag. transgressions of the 6th commandment. Nohrborg, Anders, b. 1725, in Sweden, student in the University of Upsala (1745), magister phUosophiffi (1752), ordained (1754). He received the appointment as assistant pastor in Stockholm and served as such for eleven years, until 1765, when he was promoted to the office of royal court-preacher. He died in 1767. His principal work was his Postil with the title : The Order of Grace for Fallen Man. This book has made him famous, and his name is dear to sincere Christians among the Swedes. It is a volume of sermons with a systematic treatment of the Order of Grace, and may be called a popular system of Christian Dogmatics. These celebrated sermons are remarkably deep in Christian experience, and the principal doctrines of the Christian religion are stated in such a manner that they affect, not only the feelings, but the understanding and the VriU. C. E. L. North Carolina, Lutherans in. statistics for 1890 : 131 congregations, 12,326 communi cants. 119 congregations and 11,759 communi cants belonged to United Synod of the South, and were divided between North Carolina and Tennessee Synods. The remainder (12 cong., 567 comm. ) belonged to Joint Synod of Ohio. The Missouri Synod has since then been repre sented. These congregations are nearly all along the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge in the western part of the state. In Rowan, Catawba, and Cabarras Counties, there were 59 congrega tions, -with 7,000 communicants. Along the sea- coast, Wilmington seems to be the only point occupied. North Carolina Synod. See Synods (IV. ) . Norway, The Lutheran Church of. The Catholic Church inNorway was a direct descend ant of the Anglo-Saxon Church. Norwegian seafarers (Vikings) visiting the coasts of Britain, Ireland, and France, must, at an early period, have obtained some knowledge of Christianity. But Christianity was not intro duced into Norway till some time afterwards, and then forcibly, by certain Norwegian kings. King Haakon the Good, who had been reared and baptized in England, sought to introduce Christianity into Norway, but met with indomi table opposition. Heathenism flourished as much as ever after his death in 961. Later on, the land was forcibly Christianized by King Olaf Trygveson (d. 1000), and King Olaf Haraldson, known as St. Olaf (d. 1030). Both had been baptized in England, whence they, brought with them Christian teachers, several of whom became the first bishops in the Norwe gian Church. This church obtained its first archbishop in 1150. His see was at Nidaras (Trondhjem). Under him, in the course of time, were appointed ten bishops, of whom four were inNorway (at Oslo, Stavanger, Bergen, and Hamar) ; two in Iceland (at Skdlholt and H61ar) ; one in the Faroe Islands ; one in Greenland ; one in the Shetland Islands, and one in the Orkneys. The two last-named were, in 1469, separated from Norway and connected with Scotland. Norway came into political connection vrith Denmark in 1380. The Norwegian Church, however, occupied an independent position with regard to the Reformation. As the first bish ops had come from England, so also the first monastics, by whom monasteries were subse quentiy established. Though the Catholic Church in Norway was a direct descendant of the Anglo-Saxon Church, it still had a pecu liar character of its own. It had its own na tional saints : St. Olaf, St. Halvard, and St. Suniva. In the main it resembled the churches of other lands. It observed the Romish cere monies as an opus operatum. It had, indeed, no prominent churcii teacher or poet. And yet, throughout the country, especially in Ice land, there was considerable literary culture, to some extent of a religious character. A notable vvork in this respect is The Royal Mirror, be sides a number of homilies. Norway 343 Norway The Reformation, as previously Roman Ca tholicism, was introduced into Norway by force. The light which had been kindled by Luther at Wittenberg, in 1517, soon shone into Denmark, where many able men, by pen and tongue, spread the truths of the gospel among the people. But not till later did the Reformation reach the more distant Norway. Here, at Bergen, Anto nius, a German monk, first preached the evan gelical doctrines, in 1526, but met with the bitterest opposition of the clergy. After him these doctnnes were preached by Herman Freze and Jens Viborg. Nothing further is known as to the progress of the Reformation in Norway at that time. The Reformation had made considerable prog ress in Denmark through the persuasive teach ing of several able men. Christian IIL, having come into power, on vanquishing his opponents, removed, by a sudden stroke of policy, in 1536, what remained of the Catholic Church in Den mark, deposed the Catholic bishops, and ap pointed evangelical preachers in their place. Norway's turn came in the following year, 1537. The Catholic Archbishop of Trondhjem fled to the Netherlands. The other bishops were deposed, and evangelical preachers ap pointed in their place, though in some cases not until several years had elapsed. The dio ceses of Oslo and Hamar were united. The last Catholic bishop of Oslo, on adopting the evangelical doctiines, was made bishop of the united diocese. The Reformation was now introduced by royal decree. Elsewhere it was generally ac companied with great progress in culture. Not so in Norway, however. There it was a cause of retrogression in culture, as it checked an earlier development vrithout at once being able to put anything better in its place. The intro duction of the Reformation at that time amount ed to little else in Norway than an appropriation of valuable ecclesiastical and monastic property by the king and secular powers. The Catholic priests were either deposed, so far as evangelical preachers could be secured to take their places, or were permitted to remain in office under a command not to perform CathoUc ceremonies. Peter Palladius, Bishop of Sjalland, in Den mark, and Primate of the Danish-Norwegian Church, wrote an Expositio Catechismi pro Parochiis Norvegianis, as a guide to evangelical doctrines for the Norwegian clergy. The com mon people were long in ignorance of these doctrines. The Bible was not translated into Norwegian, nor were any other books published in that language. The people of Norway had to be satisfied with the few books that were slowly issued in Danish — a language kindred to the Norwegian. Parts of the Bible had been translated into Danish previous to 1550. In that year a complete tianslation was published. The Norwegian Church was now legally a part of the Danish Church. It accepts, in common with other Christian churches, the oecumenical symbols, and, as special sym bols, the Augsburg Confession and Luther's Smaller Catechism. The Church of Nor way, as in other lands where Luther's doc trines had been adopted, became subject to the king as the highest ecclesiastical authority. Christian III., at the Diet of Odensee, 1539, issued a directory of worship for Denmark which became the first law for the Danish Church, and temporarily for the Church in Norway, whose local conditions required a special directory, which had been promised but was not granted till 1607, under Christian IV. This special directory for Norway was in force till Christian V. issued the "Church Ritual " for Denmark and Norway, in 1685. The Church was now connected with the State, and much of the ec clesiastical legislation was therefore incorporat ed in the "Norwegian Law" of Christian V., 1687. This and the " Ritual " are still in force, except in so far as they have been changed by subsequent laws and ordinances, especially by the royal resolution of Feb. 14, 1889, relative to the " New Altar Book." As the Danish-Norwegian Luth. Church had been planted by the Luth. Church of Ger many, it continued to be somewhat of an annex to the latter. The waves of every eccle siastical movement in Germany beat first against Denmark, and generally later on against Nor way. The fresh, vigorous life of the Luth. Church during the Reformation period was suc ceeded by distressing doctrinal controversies. At least one of these waves reached as far as Denmark, but was not very noticeable in Nor way. The Catholic Church, through the Jesuits, sought to re-enter Denmark and Norway during the reign of Christian IV. (1607-1620). The doctrinal controversies were followed by a lifeless, petrified orthodoxism in connection with intolerance towards those of a different faith. After orthodoxism came Pietism, whose great centre was Halle. . Various shades of this Pietism appeared in the Norwegian Church during the first half of the eighteenth century. In different ways it bore manifest fruit throughout Norway. In Romsdals Amt (near Molde and Christian- sund, western Norway) were seven clergymen, who frequently met to consider ways and means for overcoming the ignorance and moral laxity of the times, and who memorialized the gov ernment at Copenhagen again and again on the subject. These clergymen were called "Syvstjernen," or the "Pleiades." One of them, Thomas von Westen (1682-1727) , (see sep arate article), born at Trondhjem, labored in Norwegian Finland, with great zeal and ability, for the conversion and enlightenment of the Lapps, or Finns, who had, indeed, in a manner, accepted Christianity during Roman Catholic times, but who still lived in the deepest igno rance, and retained much of their ancient heathenism. Another Norwegian clergyman, Hans Egede (1686-1758), resigned the comfort able and remunerative parish of Vaagen, in Lofoten, northern part of Norway, and went as a missionary to Greenland. (See article on Egede. ) The rite of confirmation was intro duced into Norway in 1736. A text-book on Christian Knowledge was published in 1737, by Erik Pontoppidan, who, during the six sub sequent years, was Bishop of Bergen. The es tablishment of public schools was begun, though these were long of a very ordinary character. Norway 344 Nor-way Then, about the middle of the last century, came a deluge of rationalism from Germany, dominating the great majority of preachers and teachers in Norway down into the beginning of the nineteenth century. Only one of all the bishops in the kingdom, namely, J. Nordahl Bran, of Bergen, sought as far as possible to ex clude it from his diocese. But now, whilst ra tionalism was at its height, appeared Hans Nielsen Hauge (1771-1824). (See separate arti cle.) His home near Christiania became a spiritual centre, where many met for counsel cfiiring the last ten years of his life. The effects of the re-rival, which he promoted through the entire land, remain to this day. Norway was separated from Denmark in 1814, and was connected vrith Sweden as an independ ent state, the king, as before, being the head of the Church. Norway, three years before this (1811), had established its own university at Christiania. This university was, indeed, an offshoot from that of Copenhagen, where ration alism stUl prevailed ; but the Norwegian uni versity was fortunate enough at once to secure two men as professors of theology who had been emancipated from rationalism, namely, Hersleb and Stenerson. From their lecture halls there went forth preachers who had been tiained in the Evangelical Lutheran doctrines of their fathers, and rationalism soon disap peared. A conflict with rationalism in Denmark was begun during the earlier years of the present century. N. F. S. Grundtvig, afterwards famous as preacher and titular bishop, began to assail it in 1810. (See separate article.) But in 1825 he advanced some peculiar ideas concerning the relation of the Scriptures to the Apostles' Creed and the words of the Institution. These he re garded as originally communicated to the Church by the Lord, independent of the Scriptures. His -riews, for a while, were quite extensively accepted in Norway, until C. P. Caspari (bom of Jewish parents, at Dessau, 1814, died as pro fessor at Christiania, 1892), by a series of patris tic investigations disproved them. A tianslation of the Bible, made in 1607, and slightly modified from time to time, was long used in Norway and Denmark. The Norwegian Bible Society, organized in 1816, co-operated for a long time with the British Foreign Bible Society in circulating the Scriptures, or parts of them, in Norway. The British Foreign Bible Society vrithdrew in 1894, as its work was more needed in other countries. Since then the work has been carried on in Norway by the Norwegian Bible Society alone. It has had the Bible translated into Lappish (Finnish) for the Lapps, or Finns, of Norwegian Lapland. These number over 20,000. The Norwegian clergy man, N. V. Stockfeth (d. 1866), carried on, during the present century, the same work among these people which von Westen did about a century earlier. The translation of the Bible into Lappish was completed in 1885. A nev^ translation of the Old Testament into the ordinary Norwegian Scripture language (Dan ish-Norwegian) was issued by the Norwegian Bible Society in 1890, a translation of the New Testament being now in course of prep aration. A translation of the New Testament into the Norwegian country dialect was com pleted in 1889. Small collections of hymns in Danish were issued at Malmoe, Denmark, already during the Reformation period. These, however, were not widely distributed in Norway, But a hymn- book by Pastor Hans Thomisson appeared in 1569, which, with many additions, was used till 1699, when it was succeeded by the hymn-book of Bishop Thomas Kingo. 'The latter is stUl used here and there in Norway. Guldberg's hymn-book was published in 1778, and in sev eral places of Norway and Denmark superseded Kingo's. But, as a frait of rationalism, there was issued, in 1798, a so-called " Evangelical- Christian H3rmn-Book," which in many Nor wegian parishes, though less than in Denmark, took the place of the other two hymn-books. From the diocese of Bergen alone did Bishop Bran succeed in keeping it out. All these hymn-books have, in most Norwegian parishes, been superseded by " Landstad's Hymn-Book," which, by royal resolution, was introduced Oct. 16, 1869. This book contains very many of the ancient and best hymns in the Lutheran Church from Luther, Bishops Kingo and Bror son, the Norwegian clergyman Peder Dass (d. 1707), and from later h3Tnn-writers, such as Bishops Bran and Grundtvig, and the editor, Pastor Landstad. A number of congregations have adopted a " Supplement " containing 150 hymns in Norwegian country dialect by Prof. Blixt. This was approved by royal resolution of March 4, 1892. The "Dissenter Law" of 1845 granted to Christians of all confessions freedom of worship within the bounds of order and propriety. The constitutional prohibition against the settlement of Jews in Norway was abrogated in 1851. The followers of H. N. Hauge have always had laymen regularly engaged in preaching. In order that this might be put upon a sure and sound basis an association called " Lutherstif- telsen " was formed in 1868, with its manage ment at Christiania, where it conducts a publi cation house. It is also engaged in inner mission work. The Norwegian Church, like most of the other branches of the Luth. Church, did not, for a long time, consider the duty of providing for the preaching and spread of the gospel among heathen nations. Not till in 1842 was the "Norwegian Mission Society" organized, at Stavanger, where it has its headquarters, and where a mission school was established in 1850. Mission societies have since then been formed all over the land. These have carried on mis sions among the Zulus of South Africa, the Santals of East India, and in Madagascar. A " Mission Society for Israel " was organized in 1861. The Evangelical Luth. Church of Norway was divided, after the Reformation, into four dioceses : Akershus, Christiansand (formerly Stavanger), Bergen, and Trondhjem. Tromso diocese was separated from that of Trondhjem in 1803. The diocese of Hamar was re-estab lished in 1863 by separation from Akershus dio cese. The latter, in ancient times, was known Norwegian 345 NorYregian as the diocese of Oslo ; at present it is known as the diocese of Christiania. The resident population of Norway in January, 1891, according to the last official census, was 2,000,917. The great majority belonged to the Evangelical Luth. State Church. Of other ec clesiastical connections there were : Luth. Free Church, 8,194 ; Reformed, 293 ; Roman Cath olics, 1,004 ; Greek Catholics, 52 ; Irvingites, 170 ; Swedenborgians, 8 ; Free Apostolic, 610 ; Methodists, 8,187 ; Baptists, 4,228 ; persons in cUned to the Methodists or Baptists, 1,374 ; Quakers, 231 ; Jews, 214 ; Mormons, 348. Be sides these there were, vrithout special denom inational designation, 127 persons who had left the State Church, and 493 Dissenters ; and also 5,095 persons who stood entirely aloof from aU denominations. J. Bel. Norw. Ev. Luth. Synod (The Hauge's). No conect conception of Christianity, a lack of interest in it, and a low state of morals ; — such was the condition in which rationalism left the church of Norway at the close of the last cen tury. Then appeared Hans Nilsen Hauge, a layman, and -with him began a religious awakening. A new period commenced in the history of the Norwegian Church. The followers of Hauge were called " vakte " (awakened) or " Hauge- anere. " (See Hauge. ) Among the many who emigrated to America about 1840 were some of the followers of Hauge, and one of them was ElUng Eielsen, who be came their leader. He was ordained Oct. 3, 1843, and was the first Norw. Luth. minister in America. Under his direction the first synodical organi zation of the Norwegian Lutherans was made, April 13-14, 1846, at Jefferson Prairie, Rock Co., Wis. A constitution was adopted, and the name of the organization was "The Ev. Luth. Church of Amenca." The chief aim of the or ganization was to gather and unite the ' ' awak ened ' ' in order to work more efficiently for the salvation of souls. Eielsen did not see the im portance of any further organization either of congregations or the synod as a whole. This became the source of repeated tioubles and sep arations. Mention must be made of the separa tion in 1856, when Rev. P. A. Rasmussen, with his followers, left the synod ; a loss from which it never could recover. In 1876 the synod made a radical change. A new constitution was adopted and the name changed to " Hauge's Norw. Ev. Luth. Synod." In this work for outward organization, Eielsen saw a new spiritual tendency, which looked down upon Christianity in its simplicity and strove toward high-churchism. He, therefore, -with a few followers, continued the old organi zation. In 1876 the Hauge's Synod had 23 ministers. According to the secretary's report of 1898, the S3mod has at present 86 ministers, 217 congre gations, with 31,707 members, 17,483 of which are communicant members. After several attempts the synod succeeded, in 1879, in opening a school for the education of ministers and teachers. This school, which is called the "Red Wing Seminary," and is located at Red Wing, Minn., has two depart ments, a preparatory department, -with a course of five years, and a theological department with a course of three years. It has 7 professors and about 150 students. The "Jewell Luth. College," a co-educa tional institution with five instructors, is owned and contioUed by the Iowa district of the synod. The synod supports a home mission and an orphans' home. It also has a foreign mission in China vrith nine missionaries. It possesses a printing establishment and a book concern. It publishes two weekly papers, Budbareren, the official paper, and a Sunday-school paper. The value of the whole church property is about 1550,000. The idea of uniting the various bodies of the Norw. Luth. Church has, in later years, taken hold more and more and has also made itself felt in the Hauge's Synod ; but as yet the ma jority do not favor the idea, and in this, as well as many other respects, preserve the original tendency of the synod. O. S. M. Norwegian Evangelical Luth. Synod of America. This is the second oldest Scandina- -rian Church organization in America, having been organized in February, 1853, at East Koshkonong, Wis., by seven ministers, who were serving about forty congregations. The historical forerunner of the Norwegian Synod was Rev. I. W. C. Dietrichson, a clergyman of the State Church of Norway, who -risited this country in 1844 and preached at ten different places in Wisconsin and Illinois. A pious dyer named Sorensen, of Christiania, advanced ^500 as tiaveUing expenses. But so closely did Dietrichson economize while on his missionary trip to the New World that, upon his return to Norway, he refunded $168 to Sorensen. The leading founders of the synod were the Revs. J. A. Ottesen, H. A. Preus, and A. C. Preus, all of whom had been ordained in Norway. From the very start the clergy of the synod defended the inherited doctrines and practices of the Luth. Church with great vigor, and this body has always been looked upon as the bulwark of conservatism among the Norwegian Lutherans in America. But many could not brook the strict order prevailing in the synod. Rival organizations grew up. These were not on the friendliest of terms among themselves. But they agreed fairly weU in making the synod a common target for their attacks. In spite of all antagonism from the outside, however, the association enjoyed a steady and healthy growth, far outstripping its rivals. The paro chial reports for 1886 put the number of minis ters at 194, who were serving 77,399 communi cants, and 143,867 persons of all ages. Then came the greatest reverses in the history of the, synod. In 1880 a controversy about the doc trine of election and predestination had been started between Prof. F. A. Schmidt, D. D., of the theological seminary of the Norwegian Synod, and Prof. C. F. W. Walther, D. D., of the German Missouri Synod, the main charge against the latter being that he and his synod held Calvinistic views, whUe he made the countercharge of synergism. Nor-wegian 346 Norwegian The contioversy soon found its way into the Norwegian Synod, and in a few years this body was in a state of turmoil, which finally re sulted in a schism. Prof. Schmidt and his ad herents, who constituted over one-third of the association, formaUy withdrew from it during the years 1887-89. This was a great trial for the synod. But now there was perfect peace vrithin its own ranks, and once more it is en- jo3dng a prosperous and highly promising growth. The following statistics for 1898 give the numerical stiength of the synod : ministers and professors, 279 ; congregations served by ministers of the synod, 735 ; communicant members, 66,000 ; members of all ages, 115,500. For administrative purposes the synod is di-rided into four districts, each district managing its affairs through its annual meeting ; but every third year the district meetings are waived, and a meeting for the whole synod takes their place. Of leading men in the synod, the late Rev. H. A. Preus deserves first mention. He served as president of the synod from 1862 until his death, in 1894, and has rightly been called the patri arch of the synod; for no other man exerted such an influence upon its history as he did. Prof. Laur. Larsen, president of Luther College since it was started m 1861 until now, has been a powerful factor in moulding the character of the younger clergy of the synod. Another strong and influential man is Rev. V. Koren, the president of the synod since the death of Preus. One of the most noteworthy traits of the synod is the zeal and spirit of sacrifice which it has always manifested in its efforts to educate all classes of Norwegian Americans. Luther College, at Decorah, Iowa, is the oldest Scan dinavian institution of learning in America, and it ranks with the leading colleges of the North west. Luther Seminary, the theological sem inary of the synod, which has had a checkered career, will soon be removed from Robbinsdale, Minn., to new quarters between Minneapolis and St. Paul. Besides these, the synod operates a normal school and an orphans' home, and $15,000 has been raised for a home for aged people. Nine flourishing colleges and sem inaries are contioUed by private corporations within the sjmod. The total enrolment of all the schools con nected vrith the synod is about 2,000. Missionary work is supported in Utah, South Africa, India, China, Armenia, and other places, the annual contributions to which aggregate about jS6,ooo ; and at least double this amount is devoted to the home missions. For some years the total of all contributions has exceeded |50,ooo. J. J. S. Norwegian Luth. Church in America, The United. Although the church organiza tion bearing the name The United Norwegian Lutheran Church in America has not, as yet, completed the first decade of its existence, yet, by reason of the uniqueness of its character and constituency, as a product of an evolution, that is coeval -with Norwegian immigration, a com plete history of its formation would comprise the history of the development of Norwegian Lutheranism in America. OrdinarUy associa tions trace their origin to some conspicuous leader with a stiong personality, and a more or less distinct declaration of principles ; and such a leader with his avowed principles, and a few devoted followers, generally form the nucleus around which the new society gradually forms and develops. Such has been the general rule also throughout the history of the Christian Church. But this rule has not always served the best interests of the Church. In too many instances a prominence has been given to such leaders and a deference paid to their opinions which is utterly unwarranted by the Divine Word, and sadly disastrous to the good cause. Fortunately the United Norwegian Luth. Church in America stands as one of the excep tions to this rale. As a distinct organization it cannot be said to have been founded by any in dividual person. It is simply the inevitable result of a half a century of eamest straggles and experiments by a people, indeed of the same faith, but in a strange land, and under unaccustomed conditions, and striving to adjust their ecclesiastical self-government to the im mutable principles of the faith received from the fathers. It is only too true that doctrinal controversies and divisions have marred the history of the American Norwegians almost from the day of their settlement in this country. And it is also trae that this may be accounted for, to some extent, on the ground of their national characteristics — traits which they have inherited in some measure from their Viking fathers, such as a strong individuality, a love of freedom and personal independence, a dogged determination, firmness, and even stubbornness ; but to say that these have been the predominant motives, or that they have been allowed to figure to any very appreciable extent in the development of the past Norwegian American Church history, would betray either a wilful misrepresentation, or a very superficial knowledge of the underly ing facts. Why not allow some of the nobler characteristics of this humble race to have fig ured a little more prominently during these years of schism and controversy ? It is gener ally admitted that a deep religious nature, honesty, and truthfulness are also noticeable characteristics of this people. It is said of the old Viking that " he had a sense of honor which led him to sacrifice his life rather than his word." We certainly believe that the early Norwegian American pioneers were moved, in their heroic labors for God and the Church, by nobler motives than intolerance of restiaint and self-aggrandizement. A knowledge of the rep resentative men in each of the contending par ties, coupled with a fair knowledge of their pioneer work, is sufficient guarantee for the statement that their predominant motive was loyalty to the tiuth, unyielding and inviolable respect for the Dirine Word and the Confessions of the Church, so far as they were understood. Moreover, that the early church work of the Norwegians was attended with so much dis agreement ought certainly not to be marvelled at by any one who wUl take the trouble to com pare their conditions under the old state church in Norway, vrith the new and radically changed conditions in America. It could hardly be ex pected that the founding of a free church, by a people utterly unaccustomed to anytiiing but Norwegian 347 Norw^egian the old state church polity, the vast majority of them haUing from the poorer and less educated classes, and sunounded by a host of proselyting sects, could be achieved without more or less clashing of personal views and opinions. But there were other and more serious causes, that perhaps more than anything else led to the synodical separateness of these early Norwe gians. By the grace of God the refreshing showers of a Pentecostal rerival had followed in the desolate wake of eighteenth century rationalism in old Norway. This wave of spiritual awakening was brought about by the pietistic revival preaching of the layman, Hans Nilsen Hauge, also called "the Norwegian Re former." (See art. Hauge.) This movement among the lay people was followed by a similar revival among tiie clergy, which emanated from the national university, through the labors of the eminently pious and learned theological professors, Gisle Johnson and Caspari. Thus a twofold reaction set in against rationalism, the one among the laity headed by Hauge, and the other in the state church, led by the scholarly university professors. The former was extiemely subjective in its character, mainly seeking to awaken the masses from the spiritual lethargy which rationalism had brought forth ; while the latter was more objective in its character, being especially directed against the vital error of rationalism, the ignonng of confessional doctrine, and a liberal interpretation of Scrip ture, adjusting divine revelation by the standard of human reason. Both of these tendencies were highly needed to restore to a healthy con dition the parched and down-trodden spiritual fields of Norway ; but mutual suspicions arose between the state church and the followers of Hauge, for which perhaps both sides were, to some extent, if not equally, responsible. Al though Hauge was by no means a dissenter from the state church, yet he had broken vrith its established order, and given serious offence to many of its members by introducing the inno vation of lay-preaching, contiary to its usages and laws. On the other hand, the state church had given a lasting offence to the Haugeans, as they were called, by its very unkind treatment of tiie pious leader, to whom they had become so warmly attached, and by the general opposi tion which it fostered against the Haugean revival work. This so sorely grieved the Hau geans, that the state church came to be regard ed by them as being almost synonymous with Pharisaism and dead formalism ; and many of their subsequent leaders, who were less prudent than the noble Hauge, did not hesitate, in word and --svritings, to brand the state church as " Babel," "the great harlot," etc., and pass the most rash and sweeping judgments upon every thing and everybody that did not square exactly with the theories and practices of the Haugeans. Thus arose the unfortunate suspicions and prej udices which divided the more subjective from the more objective pietistic element in Norway into two quite distinct tendencies, and which was destined to play so conspicuous a part also in the early history of Norwegian Lutheranism in America. As both of these tendencies were represented among the early Norwegian immigrants, and as the government of their adopted country gave them absolute religious liberty, the result was that the two tendencies, almost from the very beginning, assumed organic shape in the forma tion of separate synodical organizations. EUing Eielsen, a staunch disciple of Hauge, became the pioneer leader of the Haugeans, who, in 1846, organized themselves into a synod of con gregations under the name of " The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America." The element that adhered more rigidly to the ritualistic usages of the mother church, and insisted upon an educated and regularly called and ordained ministry, was led by such men as Rev. C. L. Clausen, Rev. J. W. Dietrichson, Rev. A. C. Preus, Rev. H. A. Preus, Rev. U. V. Koren, Rev. J. A. Ottesen, and Prof. Laur. Larsen ; and in 1853 this element also effected a synodical organization, under the name of " The Norwe gian Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. ' ' As immigration increased and new members were added to these organizations, the two ten dencies soon became to some extent intermixed in both synods, a fact which naturally paved the way for future raptures. The first division of the so-called "Eielsen 's Synod " occurred at a meeting held in the Fox River Settlement, IU., in Sept., 1848, where the constitution and discipline of "The Franckean Evangelical Luth eran Synod of New York "was temporarily adopted, and also a resolution passed favoring temporary union with that body — a resolution, however, that was never canied out. Perhaps one of the chief causes that led to this di-rision was the disposition which the synod made of certain charges, which had been prefened against Rev. Eielsen, which he and his most intimate followers highly resented. From this time Eielsen simply ceased to co-operate with the rest of the brethren, among whom the most prominent were Rev. Paul Andersen, Rev. Ole Andrewson, and Rev. O. J. Hatlestad. Two years later, at a meeting held in Kosh konong, Wis., in October, 1850, a synodical constitution was adopted by the ElUngians, which was soon found to contain donatistic and other errors. As soon as this was discovered. Rev. P. A. Rasmussen, who was also one of the original signers of this constitution, made an earnest effort in favor of a revision, and he also advocated a form of public worship more in keeping vrith the old Norwegian ritual, against the determined unchurchliness of Eielsen. The result was a controversy between Eielsen and Rasmussen, which culminated in a di-rision at a meeting in Primrose, Wis., in June, 1856. This was the second division of the "Eielsen Synod." {The Ev. Luth. Church in Am.) Owing to the serious flaws in the constitution new discords soon began to brew in the ' ' ElUng's Sjmod" ; and when, in 1876, a re-rised constitu tion was finally adopted, and the name changed tothe " Hauge's Norwegian Evangelical Luther an Synod," Eielsen, with a few of his friends, withdrew and effected a reorganization under the old name. This body stUl exists, but has, during the last 20 years, made no appreciable progress. The element which became separated from Norwegian 348 Norwegian Eielsen in 1848, although it fratemized more or less vrith the Franckean Synod, was never for mally united -with it, but remained in fact inde pendent, until about three years later, when, together -with a number of Swedish Lutherans, it identified itself with the Synod of Northern Illinois at its organization in the fall of 1851. In this connection it remained until i860, when the Norwegians and the Swedes, on ac count of doctrinal differences, withdrew from the Northern Illinois Synod, and organized at a meeting held on Jefferson Prairie, Wis., June 5, i860, "The Scandinavian Evangelical Luth eran Augustana Synod. " On the 17th of June, 1870, at a meeting held in Andover, IU., a friendly separation of the Nor wegians from the Swedes took place, the Norwe gians organizing themselves immediately under the name of the Norwegian Danish Augustana Synod. Through a most unfortunate difference of opinion among the pastors of the Norwegian Aug. Synod, as to whether the Andover organ ization should be regarded as permanent, or simply as temporary, a new dirision occuned about two months after the separation from the Swedes, at a conference held at St. Ansgar, Iowa, about the middle of August, 1870. At this conference, which was called chiefly for the purpose of endeavoring to effect a union be tween Rev. C. F. Clausen and the Norwegian Augustana Synod, and had a lay representation of only three delegates, a resolution was passed to dissolve the Norwegian Aug. Synod, and a new organization was created under the name of the Norwegian Danish Conference. Those who regarded the Andover organiza tion as permanent protested against the organ ization of the conference as unconstitutional, and declared it null and void at a meeting of the synod held on Jefferson Prairie, Wis., October 5, 1870. Thus the number of synodical organizations among the Norwegians had reached four with in the first thirty years of their history in America. Another and more serious rupture occuned about seventeen years later in the Synod for the Norwegian Ev. Luth. Church in America. Through the affiliations of this body with the German Missouri Synod a violent controversy about election and predestination crept into the Norwegian Synod, and finally culminated in its division at the general synodical meeting held in Stoughton, Wis., June 3-9, 1887. From this time withdrawals from the synod occurred in rapid succession, until the so-caUed Anti-Mis sourian element numbered about 100 pastors and professors, with about 270 congrega tions. It would seem to an impartial observer, how ever, that while the predestination controversy indeed hastened this division, yet there were important secondary causes which, in course of time, might have brought about a similar re sult. More recent developments clearly prove that two divergent tendencies had arisen in the synod. The more recent accessions and younger stock had become more and more im patient of the rigid Missourian orthodoxism, objectirism, and exclusirism. They favored a more subjective presentation of the truth, and a more tolerant spirit in non-essentials. Deplorable as the division of this powerful and well-organized body must have appeared both to the Missourian and the Anti-Missourian element, yet, by an overruling Providence, it yielded a harvest of blessing to the Norwegian Luth. people of America, that may never be fuUy appreciated, inasmuch as it resulted in separating heterogeneous elements in the synod and the conference, and giring a vigorous start to the uniting of homogeneous elements from all Norwegian Luth. sources. Meetings were held at various times with a •riew to a better understanding and closer or ganic union among the Norwegian Luther ans. The idea of a united Norwegian Luth. Church was by no means a new one. But the initiative towards its vigorous and practical re alization was taken by the Anti-Missourian Brotherhood, headed by Dr. F. A. Schmidt and Rev. P. A. Rasmussen at a meeting held by their temporary organization at Minneapolis, Minn., Feb. 22-29, 1888. At this meeting the question of synodical connection was discussed, the re sult of which was the unanimous adoption of the following among other points : " 1. We ought to do what we conscientiously can to prevent the formation of a fifth synod ical body. "2. We ought much rather to work to the end, that the number of the existing Norwegian Luth. bodies might rather be reduced, so that those who sincerely -will hold fast the heritage of our Norwegian Luth. Mother Church, may eventually constitute one Norwegian Luth. Church in America. "3. In order, if possible, to realize a God- pleasing result in this respect, we respectfully recommend to the Conference, the Hauge's Synod, and the (Norw.) Augustana Synod at their annual meetings — "{a) To pass a resolution to hold a joint meet ing -with us. " {b) To appoint a committee of seven members from each body, whose duty it shall be, together with a committee of seven from us, to do the necessary preliminary work, and appoint time and place for such a joint meeting. "4. This meeting to appoint two committees, one of seven members to meet with like com mittees of said bodies ; and one of five members to visit the annual meetings of the respective bodies, and with their permission present this motion." This recommendation was hailed with joy especially by the Conference and the Augustana Synod. All the three bodies appointed the stipulated committees, and the same Fall, Aug. 15-23, the joint committee meeting was held at Eau Claire, Wis. , followed by the general joint meeting in Scandinavia, Wis., Nov. 15-21, of the same year. Having adopted substantially the joint committee's recommendations for articles of settlement (opgjor) (with regard to past doc trinal controversies), constitution, and articles of union, the Scandinaria meeting (excepting the representation of the Hauge Synod) recom mended this constitution and articles of union Nor-wegian 349 Nova Scotia to the respective congregations of the Anti- Missourian Brotherhood, the Conference, and the Augustana Synod, to be passed upon at their next synodical conventions. Properly sanc tioned by the local congregations and respective annual synodical meetings in 1889, the consti tution and art. of union were adopted, and the union completed at a joint meeting held imme diately after the annual conventions of the three bodies in Minneapolis, Minn., June 13, 1890. Such is briefly the history of the formation of the United Norwegian Luth. Church in America — a body numbering nearly one-fourth of a million of souls, or about one-fourth of the entire Norwegian population of America. Its 350 pastors serve 1,059 congregations with a total communicant membership of 123,575. Its motto is : " Veritatem Facientes in Cari- tate." J. C. J. Norwegian Luth. Free Church is as yet only an incipient organization among Norwegian Lutherans in the United States, its fundamental principles and rules being adopted by a meeting held at Minneapolis, Minn., June 8-12, 1898. This organization is a result of the work of Augsburg Seminary and the strong opposi tion against its growing influence among the Norwegian Luth. churches in America. Augs burg Seminary stiongly maintains that minis ters should be Christian men, with personal Christian experience, and that the congregation is a real brotherhood of believers, in which the means of grace and the spiritual gifts should be used for salvation of souls and the edifying of the body of Christ. Augsburg Seminary was, from 1870 to 1890, connected with a synodicai body commonly known as the ' ' Conference ' ' ; and already during this period there was consid erable opposition against the strict principles of the seminary ; but the opposition was more and more overcome as the influence of the seminary grew stronger. But in 1890, when Augsburg Seminary became the divinity school of the United Norwegian Luth. Church, formed by the union of the Conference, the Anti-Missou rian Brotherhood, and the Augustana Synod, things were changed, and the opposition against the principles of Augsburg Seminary became stronger and more concentrated. So bitter grew the fight that, in 1893, the United Nor. Luth. Church severed its connection with Augs burg Seminary, and vrithdrew its support from it. The result was that, after many vain attempts at reconciliation,^ an entire separation followed. The supporters of Augsburg Seminary formed, step by step, an organization now known as The Lutheran Free Church. The governing ideas of The Lutheran Free Church may, in shortest possible form, be expressed as follows : After the pouring out of the Holy Ghost (Acts 2) until the second coming of Christ, the congregation (or indi-ridual church) is the right form of the Kingdom of God in the world. By congregation is meant the organization formed by Christian believers in every place, for the purpose of using the means of grace and the spiritual gifts for the salvation of souls and the edif3dng of the body of Christ. A Luth. Free Church is held together not by consti tution or ceremonies, but by the Luth. Con fession. The church is not a higher unity above the congregations, and has therefore no authority over them. Free congregations co operate for common interests, such as missions, schools, etc. , only according to their own will and resolution. The Luth. Free Church shows great activity. It supports a theological school, and is active in home mission, foreign mis sion, mission to the Jews, deaconess-work, orphans' home, etc. , the principle being strictly adhered to that the individual churches support such institutions so much and so long as they themselves desire it. The Luth. Free Church entertains the conviction that the Word of God in regard to the congregation is just as authorita tive as in regard to the Christian doctrine. And it cherishes the hope that when the Church again becomes what it was from the beginning, and should have continued to be, a people of God living in faith and love, Christianity will develop more power, and wield greater influ ence than it possibly can as long as it is essen tially a concern of the State, or of the clergy alone. G. S. Novalis. See Hardenberg. Nova Scotia, The Luth. Church in. The beginning of the Luth. Ch. in N. S. is contem poraneous with the founding of the city of Hal ifax, the capital of the province and the first English settlement in British North America (1750-1752). The earliest existing document relating to its history is the record of a deed from John Samuel Gross conveying property to it (1752). Many Lutherans were among the first colonists. These, under the leadership of their Gemian school-teacher, Johann Gottfried Jor- pel, organized and maintained their separate existence many years. They erected St. George's Church, which was consecrated, 1761, and also the edifice known as The Round Church, but lost them both to the Church of England, under the pastorate of the Rev. Ber nard Hausihl. A few Lutherans reside in the city, and occasional services are yet held there by the pastors resident in Lunenburg, but no or ganization has existed among them since 1807. In Lunenburg, the shiretown of Lunenburg County, the second oldest settlement formed by the English in British North America, the Luth. Church has had an existence since the founding of the town (1753). Led by Andreas Jung, the Luth. forefathers organized and main tained regular services, purchased ground and erected a church, without a pastor. For almost twenty years they waited, prayed, and tried to have a minister of their faith settled over them. In 1772 the Rev. Fr. Schultz became their pas tor and continued as such until April 28, 1782. On the following Sunday his successor, the Rev. Johann Gottiob Schmeisser, took charge. His pastorate extended to the time of his death, Dec. 21, 1806. After him the Rev. Ferdinand Conrad Temme, Ph.D., served the congregation untU he died, Jan., 1832. Jan. 17, 1835, the Rev. Carl Ernst Cossmann, D. D., began his long and successful pastorate, which terminated vrith his death Sept. 22, 1897. Up to the time that Dr. Cossmann took charge only the one congregation was organized, and Nuessman 350 Nuremberg Reformation the serrices were conducted entirely in the Gemian language ; but during his pastorate the English language was introduced and became dominant, many new churches were built, and new congregations sprang up in the vicinity of the parent organization. As the result of the efforts of the Rev. Dr. H. W. Roth, who visited the Lutherans of Nova Scotia in 1873-4, all the congregations united -with the Pittsburg Synod. They are, with the regular preaching stations, twenty-eight in num ber, a communicant membership of about 2,000 and a population of cir. 8,000. In 1877 these congregations were organized as a conference of the Pittsburg Synod ; Dr. Cossman, the Revs. J. H. Hunton, J. A. Schaeffer, and D. Luther Roth, with one layman from each parish constituting the organizing delegates. The tenitory of the conference is divided into the Lunenburg, Mahone Bay, Bridgewater, Rose Bay, and Midville parishes. Each parish has its own parsonage. The Church of Nova Scotia, while progressive in the best sense, has always been conservative in doctrine and ritual. The clerical robe is worn by all her ministers, and the well-founded customs of the Luth. Church in her purest forms are everywhere observed -without the admission of modern sen sational and unchurchly practices. Her people are of the salt of the earth, devotedly attached to their Mother Church and living in the prac tice of the virtues of Christianity. The conse quence is a vigorous and healthful development and a bright outlook for the future. For com plete history see Acadie and the Acadians, hy the Rev. D. Luther Roth. D. L. R. Nuessman, Adolph, one of the founders of the Luth. Church in North CaroUna, b. in Ger many, 1739, in Roman Catholic Church, became a Franciscan monk, after conversion to Prot estantism studied at Helmstaedt, and was sent in 1773, by a missionary society there, under presidency of Dr. Velthusen, to America ; his home was in Cabanus County, N. C, but his labors extended into Mecklenberg and Rowan Counties : d. 1794. Nunc Dimittis. See Liturgy. Nuremberg Bible is another name for the Ernestinian Bible, called thus after Ernst the Pious, Duke of Gotha (d. 1675). Arranged as a plain commentary by several theologians, it was revised by John Gerhard, and after his death by Sol. Glassius, and published with a preface at Nuremberg ( 1640) . Nuremberg Convention (1522-1523). After the Diet at Worms, the whole affair of the Reformation was still unsettled. Besides the all-important religious question, social and political questions demanded to be solved. Charles V., who had purposed to do away with Luther and his followers, found him self tightly bound by circumstances, which positively forbade all actions against the friends of the Reformation. Charles V. needed just at that time the good will of his German subjects, and he was wiUing to compromise with the Lutherans. The Nu remberg Convention was to accomplish this result. Hadrian, who became pope (Jan. 9, 1522), sent his Nuntius Fransoesco Chierigati, to this diet, demanding in his " breve " that the diet should, ' ' after the holy and glorious example set by their forefathers, now do with Luther what they once did -with Huss and Jerome of Prague." But times had changed, and the public opin ion was so much in favor of the Reformation, that this convention declared that it greeted the promises of the Pope to reform the Church with gratitude, but that an execution of the decrees of the Diet at Worms were inopportune and impossible ; that in the near future a church councU shoiUd be held in a German city ; and that Luther and his friends should not publish any rebellious books, but should be allowed to preach the gospel according to their conscience. We see the resolutions of the Nuremberg Diet were so much in favor of the Reformation, that Ranke correctly says ' ' that they were indeed the counterpart of those at Worms. " S. F. Nuremberg Diets. The first of these diets during the Reformation was held in 1522 and 1523. (See Nuremberg Convention. ) In the year 1524 another diet was held at Nuremberg. This was marked by the downfall of the board of regents, and the denial by Campegius, legate of Clement VII. , of the promises made by Chierigati, looking toward reform. Campegius simply insisted on the Edict of Worms. The Lutherans were obliged to promise compliance with this demand, but with the qualification ^' so far as possible." The third diet was held in 1543, in the midst of the pressure to which Charles V. was subjected by France and the Turks, which caused the armistice of five years, granted to the Protestants, to be guaranteed anew, which was so unsatisfactory to them that no aid against the Turks was voted. G. F. S. Nuremberg Normal Books are the twelve writings accepted by the preachers of Nurem berg and Brandenburg-Ansbach (1573), as the rule according to which in agreement with the Bible books were to be judged. They are the oecumenical symbols, Luther's Catechisms, the Augs. Conf. {invariata), the Apology, the Smalcald Art., Confessio Saxonica, the Loci of Mel., Examen ordinan. of Mel., Definitiones appelationum of Mel., Responsio ad impios articulos Bavaricos, Resp. de controvers. Stan- cari.the Brandenburg-Nuremberg Church Order. They were edited in one volume (1646, again 1721). Nuremberg Reformation. The first im pulse was given the Reformation in the old picturesque city of Nuremberg, by the staunch and noble friend of Dr. M. Luther, the General- Vicar of the Augustin Order, Johann v. Stau pitz. This man, who never became himself an outspoken Lutheran, but died the 28th Dec, 1524, as Abt at Salzburg, Germany, was always a good friend of the great Reformer, and, wher ever he could be, a promoter of the good, cause. It was Staupitz who consoled Luther in his deepest spiritual distress. It was he who was the cause that Luther became professor of theology Nuremberg Reformation 351 Nystedt Peace at the University at Wittenberg. It was Stau pitz who heralded and advocated the scriptural ideas of the young professor. While Staupitz as General-Vicar had much travelling to do, he loved to stay at Nuremberg, and between 1512-1516 he lived there entirely. Here he found a circle of men, who loved and esteemed him, and admired his gifts, espe cially his eloquence as a speaker. There were Pirkheimer, Scheurl, H. Ebner, Martin Tucher, A. Diirer, the famous painter, W. Link, Lazarus Spengler, and many others. In this circle of pious and learned men. Dr. Staupitz opened his heart, and spoke of Luther, and the great work done by him. It was especially Spengler, who was very soon foremost in advocating the cause of the Refor mation. After he had met Luther, who passed Nurem berg in order to go to Augsburg, 1518, he openly declared his adherence to Luther in a pamphlet. For this he was excommunicated and retract ed as he should not have done. But this weak ness lasted only a short time. Very soon we find him at Worms, where he was officiaUy an eyewitness of that wonderful declaration of Luther before the diet. His letters from that place are full of admi ration for Luther, and from that time on he did everything in his power to make the Reforma tion victorious in Nuremberg. The adversaries did not rest ; and the city council in 1521 prohibited the sale of Lutheran books and pamphlets, and in 1522 all doubtful preaching. But public opinion decided more and more for the divine truth, so that even the city council had to follow the pressure of this opinion. In the two years, 1522 and '23, three men were called to preach the gospel in its purity : An drew Osiander, Probst of St. Lorenz, Domin- icus Steupner, Probst of St. Sebald, and Thomas Venatorius, Pastor of the Hospital Church (Spital Kirche). These three men very soon changed the whole church at Nuremberg. With great caution they moved on. They did not revolu tionize, but in fact reformed. When, at the end of the year 1522, the Diet of Nuremberg was held, the orator of the diet complained openly, that even at that time these men could preach the gospel unhindered. But the city council defended their ministers, and even went so far as to encourage them to go on in their evangelical work. In the last week of Lent, 1523, the Prior ofthe Augustin Cloister, Wolfgang VoUprecht (whose wonderful admonition before the Lord's Supper we have iu the German edition of Lohe's Agen de), administered the Lord's Supper in the old apostolic form. It is said that he had about 3,000 communicants in the one week, and that he for the first time distributed the cups with the words: "Sanguis Domini nostri Jesu Christi proficiat tibi in -ritam setemam." Probst Osiander of St. Lorenz Chmrch ad ministered the Lord's Supper in the same way ; and among his communicants was the sister of Charles V., Queen Isabella of Denmark. But it was necessary to battle once again with the old enemy. The monks and preachers of the mendicant orders, the Dominicans, and other Catholic orders did all they could do to hinder the work of the Reformation. The city council became alarmed, that the city should be harmed by their constant coun termining, and ordered that a meeting should be held, in which certain ministers of both sides should defend their positions. On the side of the Lutherans there appeared A. Osian der, Steupner, Venatorius, and others ; on the side of the Catholics A. Stoss, Mich Fries, etc. More than 300 patricians and the whole coun cil of the city were present. Scheurl opened with a speech. Lazarus Spengler, auditor of the councU, read 12 arti cles, which were debated upon. The result was, that in the beginning of the year 1525 the Catholic orders had to quit preach ing, that some of the priors of these orders were forced to leave the town, that many unevangel ical abuses were corrected, and that the whole city from that time became a Luth. fortress (Burg) ; so much so, that Nuremberg had a great influence among other cities and towns of Germany, and that in many instances the ad vice of this city fostered the spreading of the Reformation. S. F. Nuremberg Religious Peace. The forma tion of the Smalcald League in 1531, and the threatening attitude of Sultan Soliman, who, in AprU, 1532, assumed the offensive vrith an army of 300,000 men, caused Ferdinand of Austria to grant this religious peace. Ferdinand had made humiliating overtures to Soliman, and as long as he hoped for a favorable response, was not inclined to grant the peace which the Prot estants demanded at the Diet of Regensburg, which met in April, 1532. But as the army of Soliman drew nearer, he yielded, and on July 23, 1532, the peace was concluded at Nurem berg, where the final deliberations took place. Those who had, up to this time, joined the Ref ormation, obtained religious liberty until the meeting of a council, and in a separate compact all proceedings in matters of religion pending before the imperial chamber court were anested. This was the first religious peace. G. F. S. Nyberg, Lorenz Thorstansen, a Swedish pas tor sent to America in 1744, to become pastor of the German chmrch at Lancaster, Pa., who had come under the influence of the Mora-rians in Europe, and caused a division in his charge in 1746, when he went with his followers to that communion, to which he had been long in clined ; he also created disturbances and divi sions at Conewago and Monocacy, Md. Author of a number of hymns in Moravian collections ; b. 1720; d. 1792. Nystedt Peace, concluded Sept. 10, 1721, be tween Sweden and Russia, guaranteed the Luth. Church of Livonia and Esthland the unalter able continuance of their privileges and rights, but the Greek orthodox were to be permitted to settle in their provinces -with full rights. This agreement was partially broken by the at tempts of Russia ag. the Lutherans under Czar Alex. IL Oberlin 352 Offerings o. Oberlin, John Frederick, a pioneer of home missions, b. at Strassburg, Alsace, of L^th. par ents, 1740, and d., known everywhere as "the pastor of Steinthal, ' ' 1826. As a child he already showed his active sympathy with the poor and helpless. He graduated with honors in Strass burg University. He thought of going to Penn sylvania as an itinerant preacher among the Lutherans. Offered a chaplaincy in the French army, he finally (1767) prefened to accept a call to the parish of Waldbach in the Steinthal in the Vosges Mountains, west of Strassburg, an extremely rough district in every way. The people lived like savages in lawlessness, ig norance, and wretched poverty. O. preached at Waldbach and its four hamlets the plain gospel, established and maintained schools, introduced new methods of tillage and house hold industries, built roads, improved the economic and social conditions, and above all made of practical heathens devoted Christians. During the French Revolution he vrisely acted as the " Brother Speaker," managing to preach nothing but the gospel. O. was the first cor respondent of the British and Foreign Bible Society on the Continent. His Christian philan thropy had many imitators. His best helpers were his wife and his housekeeper, Louisa Scheppler. His motto was, ' ' Nothing without the Lord; everything for him." Dr. Hase calls hira a "Saint of the Protestant Church." Steinthal is still in a prosperous condi tion. W. W. Oberlin, Magdalena Salome, daughter of Prof. Witter of Strassburg, became J. F. O.'s wife in 1768, and his helpmeet unto him in all his manifold labors to better the religious and social condition of his large parish. She was charity personified. Her death, in 1783, was a great loss to her husband and the Steinthal. Oftheir nine children four were living at O.'s death, the only remaining son being a pastor and a physician. W. W. Oberlin Society, for crippled chUdren, the chief institution of which is at Nowawes, near Potsdam, Prassia, connected with the Deaconess Institution, " Oberlin House," whose 170 sisters nurse, at 113 stations, sick and deformed chil dren and keep day nurseries. Similar institu tions are found at other places. Field-Marshal Moltke for many years was a trustee and visitor of the Oberlin Home at Nowawes. W. W. Oculi. See Church Year. Oehler, Gustav Friedrich v., D. D,, b. 1812, at Ebingen, Wuertemberg, d. 1872, at Tii bingen. He studied at Blaubeuren (1825), and Tiibingen (1829), where Steudel and Chr. Fr. Schmidt had a decided influence on his religious and theological development. He was teacher at the Basel Mission House, together with his friends Blumhardt and Staudt, and always con sidered this period as a peculiarly happy time of his life. In 1837 he went to Erlangen, Mu nich, and Berlin, where he continued his studies, particularly in oriental languages. In the fall of that year be became repetent (tutor, or fellow) at Tiibingen, and began to deliver lectures on Sanskrit, Religions and Philosophy of India, Messianic Prophecies, and Old Testa ment Theology (first in 1839). He became as sistant preacher {Stadt-Vikar) in Stuttgart (1840), professor at the pro-seminary in Schoen thal (1840), professor of theology at Breslau (1845), where he lectured on O. T. theology, systematic theology, and N. T. exegesis. He took an active part in upholding the interests of Lutheranism in the Prussian state church, and was a member of the church diet, since 1849. In 1852 he accepted a call to Tiibingen, as ephoras of the theological seminary {Stift), and professor of O. T. theology. In 1867 he declined a call to Erlangen, to succeed Franz Delitzsch. He was universally acknowledged as an authority in the field of O. T. theology, though the pressure of his manifold active and administrative duties did not allow him to pre sent the results of his indefatigable researches in permanent and finished form, during his lif e- time. Besides his Prolegomena io the Old Tes tament (1845), he only wrote a few small trea tises, on O. T. Eschatology, Prophecy, and Manticism, and O. T. Wisdom, and a number of encyclopsedia articles. After his death, his son Hermann published his lectures on Old Testa ment theology {Theologie des Alten Testaments, Tiibingen, 1873 ! 1874, translated into English and French). Of his Symbolics the first edi tion was published by Johannes Delitzsch, the son of Franz D. {Lehrbuch der Symbolik) 1876 ; the second edition by Theodor Hermann, dia conus in Goeppingen, 1891). (See Gustav Friedrich Oehler, Ein Lebensbild, von foseph Knapp, Tiibingen, 1876.) A. S. Oetinger, Frederick Christopher, Wuer temberg theosophist and mystic, whose theol ogy was composed of elements from the philos ophy of Wolff, the mysticism of Bohme and the extravagancies of Swedenborg, as well as other factors from Bengel and Zinzendorf. ' ' He has left a name in the history of exegesis, the his tory of preaching, and the history of theology. ' ' Called by cotemporaries, ' ' The Magus of the South," b. at Goppingen, May 6, 1702, d. as prelate at Murrhard, 1782. Oettingen, Alexander von, b. 1827, near Dorpat ; student at Dorpat, Erlangen, Bonn, and Berlin ; professor of systematic theology, from 1854, until his death in 1890. Of his numerous writings, the most important is his work on Moral Statistics, 2 vols. ; he was also founder of the Dorpat Zeitschrift fiir Theologie. OflFerings (see also Coi,i,ECTioNS). The members of the church at Corinth were exhort ed to lay by them in store upon the first day of the week as God had prospered each, for the collection for the saints (1 Cor. 16 : 2) ; every man as he purposed in his heart (2 Cor. 9:7). At an early period it was customary to make an offering of bread and vrine in the service Csee Liturgy), as representative ofthe fraits of the earth which God had given to his people, and of the fraits of their works. Out of this offering they took what was necessary for the communion, and the remainder was distributed with other gifts among the poor. This offering Offertory 353 Old Lutherans was made in close connection vrith the congre gational prayer. It afterwards became the Oblation in the Roman Mass. These gifts were thought to be meritorious ; the unconse crated bread and vrine were offered to God ; and afterwards the consecrated elements were of fered as a propitiatory sacrifice. The Reformation cast this corrupt offertory out of the service. Offerings were approved, but it was denied that they brought any merit. In some of the Reformed churches a coUection was taken up during the general prayer or the sermon ; in the Lutheran churches, the collec tion of offerings formed no fixed place in the service. In some they were gathered before the sermon, or during the general prayer, or during the communion, or after the service at the church door. The proper principle of our offerings must be kept in riew. First, it is a thank-Bering we give ; second, it must not be a part of our sub stance but ourselves, our broken and contrite hearts. In the Luth. service the "offertory," sung after the sermon, the " collection," and the gen eral prayer are one act in three parts. First we offer ourselves to God, our hearts — our broken and contrite hearts. Then we consecrate to him what he hath given us — our "offerings" so-caUed are but representative of all we are and all we have, which are held at the Word of the Lord ; and vrith this offering of ourselves and our means, and between the reception of his Word and the reception of himself in the sacrament, we set before God all our need and the need of all his people in prayer. It is a response to God in our fellowship with the Father and with his Son, Jesus Christ. How far from this ideal a " penny coUection " is, there are not words to say. No words or music are admissible in this whole act which are not in harmony with it as a whole. The offerings of Christian people are made to Christ for the benefit and edification of his whole body of faithful people ; and should be applied by the congregation for its own partic ular uses, for the relief of the poor, for mis sions, education, and general works of charity, with the same conscientiousness which each believer ought to use in making and distribut ing his gifts. E. T. H. Offertory. See Liturgy. Office, Ministerial. See Ministry. Ohio, Lutherans in. statistics for 1890: congregations, 588 ; communicants, 89,569. The Joint Synod of Ohio contained by far the largest number of conp-egations (191) and com municants (31,261). The General Synod had 189 congregations and 18,438 communicants ; the General Council was credited -with 118 con gregations and 15,915 communicants, including, however, 28 congregations of the German Synod of Iowa, with about 5,000 communicants ; the Synodical Conference, in 54 congregations had 15,440 communicants. The strength of the Church is in the north and centre of the State. In Cleveland, vrith their 12 churches and 7,162 communicants, and in Toledo, with their 12 churches and 5,042 communicants, the Lu therans were the stiongest Protestant denomi nation. Ohio District Synod. See S-vnods (IL). Ohio (East) Synod. See Synods (L). Ohio Joint Synod. See Synods (V.). Ohio (Miami) Synod. See Synods (I.). Ohio (Wittenberg) Synod. See Synods (L). Olafsson, Stefan, b. c. 1620, d. 1688, dean at Vallanes, Iceland. Studied in Copenhagen, was well versed in antiquities and modern lan guages. Translated into Icelandic the famous hymns by the Danish poet, Thomas Kingo, printed in 1686, as an appendix to the Key of Paradise. He was a productive lyrical poet. His poems were printed in Copenhagen (1823 and 1885-1886, 2 vols.). While in Copen hagen he was engaged by Cardinal Mazarin through hissecretary,IsaacPreydre, to transcribe and translate into Latin a codex of the younger Edda, and negotiations were carried on for some time to have him go to Paris as librarian of the cardinal and professor at the College Mazarin, which negotiations were broken off by Bishop Brynjiilfur Sveinsson, who undoubtedly was anxious that this gifted young man should not be lost to his native country. F. J. B. Oldenburg, Luth. Church in. Rev. E. Boling at Essenshamm first preached Luth. doctiine in 1525. Countess Anna (d. 1531) opposed the Reformation. Her son. Count Anton, was indifferent. His successor, John. XVL, was a strict Lutheran. On recommen- dation of Nicholas Selnecker, he appointed the celebrated Hamelmann as first superintendent of the country. Selnecker and Hamelmann. drafted the Constitution of the Church of Olden burg, which was published July 13, 1573, and established the Lutheran as the state church. Synods and visitations were held annually. The government hailed the Formula of Concord vrith deUght. Pestilence interfered with the convocation for signing it, but pastors were obligated to teach in accordance therewith. During the Thirty Years' War Oldenburg suf fered less than other states of Germany. From 1667-1773 it belonged to Denmark, but church affairs remained as they were. Church and State were separated in 1849. Re-united April II, 1853, they remain so to this day. F. W. W. Old Lutherans is the name originally given the independent Lutherans of Prassia, who, not vrilling to accept the Prassian Union, sought separate church organization. (See Indep. Lu theran ; Huschke ; Scheibee. ) They were called^ old Lutherans because they sounded the return to the old Luth. confessions, the old Luth. theology, the old Luth. liturgy, in oppo sition to that modern position which abandoned the precious peculiarities of Luth. faith in tem porizing vrith unionistic tendencies. The Im manuel Synod of Germany, the Sachsische Freikirche (Missourian), the Missourians inl America, are old Lutherans. Their strength is the clearness, firmness, definiteness, consist ency, and historical truthfulness of position ; their weakness — the lack of adaptability to modern thought and life, formalism in positions often simply adopted and not truly digested,) Old Peoples' Homes 354 Open Questions overstatement of pure doctrine in its intellectual bearing, intolerance of every thought, state ment, and act not finding actual parallel and sanction in the sixteenth century. J. H. Old Peoples' Homes. See Statistics. Olearius. Of the many prominent German theologians of this name tiie following deserve special mention : I. Johann, D. D., b. 1546, at Wesel, d. 1623, at Halle. He studied at Marburg and Jena, was rector of the gymnasium in Koenigsberg, pro fessor of theology at Helmstedt (1578), super intendent in Halle (1581), the son-in-law of T. Hesshusius, a stiict Lutheran in the theo logical controversies of those days. 2. Gottfried, son of the former, b. 1604, at HaUe, d. 1685. Author of Idees Dispositionum Biblicarum, five volumes of Sermon Outlines ; Annotationes Biblices ; Aphorismi Biblici. 3. Johann, D. D., b. 1611, at Halle, d. 1684, at Weissenfels. He studied at Wittenberg (1629), was adjunct of the philosophical faculty (1635), superintendent at Querfurt (1637), court-preacher and private chaplain of Duke August of Sachsen-Weissenfels, in Halle (1643), Kirchenrath (1657), general superintendent (1664). Author of a commentary on the whole Bible and various devotional works, hymn- writer, and hymnologist. Geistliche Singe- kunst (Leipzig, 1671), a collection of more than 1,200 hymns, 208 by himself, among them "Gelobet sei der Herr" (Trin.) (O praise the Lord, his name extol), Ohio Hymnal; "Herr Jesu Christ, Dein theures Blut" (Lord Jesus Christ, Thy precious Blood) , trsl. by C. H. L. Schuette, Ohio Hymnal ; " Hen, oeffne mir die Herzensthuer " (Lord, open Thou my heart to hear), tr. by Dr. M. Loy, Ohio Hymnal ; " Nun kommt das neue Kirchenjahr " (The new Church Year again is come), tr. by E. Cronen wett, Ohio Hymnal ; "Troestet, troestet meine Lieben," (Comfort, Comfort ye my people), tr. by Miss Winkworth, Ch. Book for England (1863), Church Book, and Ohio Hymnal. 4. Johann Gottfried, son of Gottfried, b. 1635, at Halle, d. 1711, as superintendent and consistorial counsellor at Amstadt. He studied at Leipzig, was assistant to his father, in Halle (1658), diaconus (1662), pastor (1685), chief pastor and superintendent at Amstadt, and pro fessor of theology in the gymnasium. Author of Geistliche Singelust (Arnstadt, 1697), and of the hymn "Komm du werthes Loesegeld " (Come, O Lord, our sacrifice), tr. by A. T. RusseU, (1848). 5. Johann, D. D., brother of the former, b. 1639, d. 1713, as senior of the theological faculty in Leipzig ; learned and humble theologian, suspected by Carpzov and Loescher of partiality towards Pietism. Author of Her- meneuticcs Sacres ; Synopsis Controversiarum cum Pontificiis, Calvinistis, etc. 6. Johann Christian, son of J. O. No. 3, b. 1646, d. 1699, was superintendent at Querfurt (1672), in Halle (1685), an orthodox Lutheran who exerted himself in the interest of peace during the pietistic controversies. 7. Johann Christopher, son of J. G. No. 4, b. 1668, at HaUe, d. 1747, at Arnstadt, where he had been diaconus, librarian, and finally chief pastor and superintendent. A prominent hymnologist, who wrote, Evangelischer Lieder schatz (1705) ; Jubilirende Liederjreude, and Nachrichten von Aeltei^ Lutherischen Gesang- buechem (1717), Evangelische Lieder-Annales ueber 100 Gescenge (1721). He was also a prom inent authority on numismatics. A. S. Olive Branch (Indiana) Synod. See Synods (L). Olshausen, Detlev Johann Wilhelm, b. at Nordheim, Hanover, March 30, 1766 ; received his theological training at Gottingen. After serving as tutor for some years, he became preacher at Oldesloe, Holstein, 1794 ; soon after removing to Hohenfelde, and in 1801 be coming pastor primarius at Gliickstadt. In 1815 member of the consistory and superintend ent at Eutin. Father of Hemian O., noted exegete, and Justus O., orientalist. D. January 14, 1823, at Eutin. A man of distinguished piety. Noted as pulpit orator. H. W. H. Olshausen, Hermann, b. 1796, in Oldesloe, Holstein, studied at Kiel and Berlin, became prof, extraordinarius at Koenigsberg, joined the pietistic circles of Ebel, was called to Erlangen (1834), opposed the SUesian Lutherans (1835), and d. 1839. O. was a great exegete of Re formed tendency, who rejected the so-called grammatico-historic and dogmatic method. He emphasized the centrality of living faith, which includes the desire for sanetification. His greatest work is Bibl. Kommentar iiber sdmll. Schriften des N. T. (4 vols.). Omcken, Gerdt, read Luther's writings as student at Rostock and went to Wittenberg (1527). L. recommended him to Lemgo. From there he went to Soest, where he wrote a church order following Bugenhagen. After several changes he was supt. at Giistrow, (1552) founded the " Domschule " (1553), and was prominent in the great church visitation (1557). Open Cluestions. a controversy between the Synods of Iowa and Mo., as to tiie extent of necessary agreement in doctrine for the pur pose of church-fellowship, culminated in a con troversy on open questions, i. e. questions, a difference of opinion concerning which does not destroy church-fellowship. Both synods agreed that perfect agreement in the doctrine ofthe gospel, i. e. the doctrine of faith, is indispens able, but there was a difference of opinion in the question, whether an agreement in the doc trine of faith was sufficient for church-fellow ship or not. Iowa maintained that, according to Art. VII. of the Aug. a difference of opinion concerning such doctrines of the Scriptures which are not doctrines of faith did not destioy church-fellowship, that it would tolerate such difference, and consider such doctrines as open questions. To guard against possible misunder standings it was emphasized that open ques tions were not understood to mean questions not yet decided by the confessions, or that an agreement concerning them should not earnestly be striven for, or that they meant doubtful or uncertain questions, concerning which a certain persuasion could not be attained, or that they could be arbitrarily adopted or rejected, but Opitz 355 Ordination that the term was exclusively applied to such doctrines, a difference of opinion concerning which does not destioy church-fellowship, be cause they are no articles of faith. To this position exception was taken by Mo. This synod declared that it would, indeed, tol erate a difference of opinion concerning doc trines of which the Scriptures do not say any thing, but denied that any doctrine contained in the Scriptures could be considered an open question. Any difference on any such question, be it ever so unimportant and not in the least affecting the doctrine of faith could, indeed, be tolerated for a while, but, if proper instraction failed to bring about the desired harmony it would destroy church-fellowship. Later on, however. Mo. declared — though not approving the principle of open questions — that it made a distinction between such doctrines of Scripture which are doctrines of faith on which saving faith depends, and such in regard to which this is not the case, that concerning the latter it would not go to extreme measures and would not on this account dissolve church-fellow ship. S. F. Opitz, Josua, b. 1542, pastor in Burkhardts- dorf. Saxony (1562), deacon in Gera (1566), first pastor and supt. in Regensburg (1571). Here he advocated Flacianism, was dismissed by the city council (1574), called by the Evan gelicals in Vienna, where he preached with great power. His attacks on the papacy caused his banishment (1578), and he d. 1585 as pastor in Blidingen. Opitz, Martin, b. 1597, at Bunzlau, SUesia, d. 1639, at Danzig. He studied in Frankfurt a. O., Heidelberg, Strassburg, Tiibingen, was appointed professor of philosophy and poetry at Weissenburg, Transylvania, by Prince Bethlem Gabor (1622). Emperor Ferdinand crowned him as poet (1625), and raised him to the nobility, as Opitz von Boberfeld (1628). He was in the service of Count v. Dohna when that nobleman began the Counter-Reformation in Silesia by means of the Lichtenstein Dragoons, and assisted the Romanists against his own brethren in the faith. He became historio grapher to King Wladislaw IV. of Poland, at Danzig (1637). He was without strength of character but a master of form, and by his Buch der Deutschen Poeterey (Breslau, 1624), as well as by the example of his own writings, he became the reformer of Gemian prosody. He wrote many poems. Psalm versions, and hymns, among them " Brich auf und werde lichte" (Zion, awake and brighten), tr. byE. Cronen wett, Ohio Hymnal. A. S. Opus Operatum. A scholastic expression that has become cunent in modern theology. As intioduced by the later scholastics, it may have meant little more than the absolute ob jective efficacy of the sacraments, in contradic tion to the thought that faith or any other dis position of the recipient gives to a sacrament its efficacy and validity. But as generally used, it came to mean that the benefit and grace of the sacrament can be received without faith, Biel says : " A sacrament is said to confer grace ex opere operato, so that from the very fact that a work, as e. g. a sacrament, is tendered, it fol lows that, unless an obstacle of mortal sin be interposed, grace is confened on those thus using it, so that, in addition to the tendering of the sign tendered, no inner movement in the recipient is required." This means that there must be a conscious purpose of the vrill to repel the offered grace, or, whether the act of the sacrament be known or not, or its promise be recognized or not, grace is given. This doc trine, which was approved by the Council of Trent, the Reformers everywhere repudiate as contrary to Mark 16 : 16 ; Acts 22 : 16 ; 1 Cor. II : 27. It is condemned in the Augsburg Confes sion (Art. XIIL), and frequently elsewhere in the confessions. See Luther, Sermon on Sacrament (1519, Erl. ed. XXVII. 41 sqq.) ; Chemnitz, Examen (Preus ed., pp. 250-3) ; PhUippi's Kirchliche Glaubenslehre, V. 2 : 117 (133) ; Loofs, Leitfaden zur Dogmengeschichte, pp. 301, 311, 337; Seeberg, Lehrbuch d. Dogmen geschichte, II. Ill sq. H. E. J. Order of Salvation. That portion of chris tian doctrine that treats of the application of redemption, "the divinely-appointed order for the subjective appropriation, on man's part, of communion with God" {Philippi). It includes " justification " and "faith," and the divine acts whereby " faith " is imparted and saves {Soteriology). Popularly used also of appen dices to The Small Catechism, treating of the above topic, composed by Christian Starcke and others. See B. M. Schmucker, Lutheran Church Remew (articles on Translations of Luther's Small Catechism), vol. v. 198, sqq. H. E. J. Ordination. The Augsburg Confession, Art. XIV. says : " No one should teach in the Church or administer the sacraments, unless he be reg ularly called." Ordination is a public testi mony by competent authority that a certain person has been regularly called. This testifi cation is addressed both to the Church and to the candidate. It is given by the Church, act ing through its constituted authorities. The candidate is ' ' admonished concerning orthodox faith, and honesty of life and manners, and bidden consider that he has been wholly dedi cated to the ministry of God," and he is assured of the divine protection, guidance, and assistance in the performance of tiie duty to which he is called. He is commended to God by the com mon prayers of the Church, in answer to which God gives him the Holy Spirit in all his minis try. I. The candidate must have been examined by proper authority in the Church, in reference to his general fitness for the office, his Christian character, and his knowledge of and consent with the true faith. He must also have been called by the Church. It is not right to ordain a man to a general and indefinite min istiy. His ordination confers no powers beyond the limits of his call. (See Loy, The Ministry, 164.) A candidate must be approved by the Church and by the ministry of the Church. 2. The ordination of one caUed to be a pastor should be performed in the church to which he has been called. But for convenience our church regulations allowed ordination at the Ordination 356 Organ principal ecclesiastical centres, and this became est manuum impositio quam oratio super homi- customary in Saxony. nem ; and even the ultra-mysticism of Dionysius 3. No particular time is recognized as the Areopagitica finds no other meaning in it than exclusive season for ordination. Some orders that of fatherly ' sheltering and subjection to prescribe that it shall be done on a Sunday ; God" {Die. Chr. Ant.). Luther likens the one expressly requires that it shall be on a week- laying-on-of -hands to testification by a notary. day ; and while Pommern (1535) says, " It shall He bids the superintendent say, as he lays his be after the epistie," Brunswick, (1543), says, hand on the candidate, the Lord's Prayer, and after the sermon. the prayer, " Merciful God, Heavenly Father." 4. The sixteenth century orders generally ap- In the Sacramentary of Gelasius, the presbyters point the superintendent to perform ordina- vvho are present are directed to place their hands tion, with the assistance of other and neighbor- near the hand of the bishop. Pommern, 1535, ing pastors. In the Church of Sweden bishops adds: "The hands of certain of the congrega- ordain, but episcopal ordination is not thought tion." Cassel, 1539, says: " Receive the hand to be essential to a valid ministry. In Mark and help of God the Holy Ghost, to teach and strengthen thee, that thy ministry may be fruit ful through our Lord Jesus Christ. ' ' Wuertem berg, 1547 : " He shall lay his right hand on his head, and say, ' Dear brother, inasmuch as we, assembled together in the Holy Ghost, have called upon God, our heavenly Father, through Jesus Christ our Saviour, and have prayed for thee, and therefore do not doubt that he has heard us according to his gracious promise, and granted our petitions ; therefore do I ordain. Brandenburg, whose bishops accepted the Ref ormation, it was at first provided that all can didates should be ordained by them, but before the close of the century these bishops gave place to superintendents. Ordination must be by those appointed by the regularly constituted authority of the church. 5. (See Hofling, Liturgisches Urkundenbuch, Loehe's Agenda.) Luther's form of ordina tion is found unaltered in most of the Luth. orders, and is the basis in many more. The confirm, and institute thee, by the authority of Veni sancie Spiritus was sung in Latin. Later Almighty God, and of our gracious prince, as a in the service the people sing. Nun bitten wir minister and pastor {Seelsorger) of this congre- den heiligen Geist. After the Veni, etc., gation, with the solemn charge that thou wait follows the collect, "O God, who didst teach upon this office honestly and without offence, the hearts of thy faithful people by sending to a^nd with all diligence and fidelity, as thou vrilt them the light of thy Holy Spirit, grant us by answer before the judgment seat of our Lord the same Spirit to have a right judgment in all Jesus Christ, in the name of the Father, and of things, and evermore to rejoice in his holy the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." Then fol- comfort" During the song and prayer, candi- lovvs the commission : "Go then and feed the dates and the ministrants kneel before the altar, flock of God," ending with the words, "The That the Church believes the prayer for the blessing of the Lord be upon thee, that thou Holy Ghost to be answered is shown, for in- mayest bring forth fruit, and that thy frait may stance, in Waldeck, 1556 : " You hear that the Holy Ghost has called you, and set you to be bishops in his flock or Church. Therefore be lieve and be assured that you are called by God himself. The Church which sent you here and the magistracy have called and chosen you, and what the Church and the magistracy do here, God does through them. You have not come without being sent. " (It was the ancient cus tom to present candidates for ordination to the people, for their approval and their prayers.) remain." The ordination service closes with the Holy Communion. The Wuertemberg order, however, closes vrith the Te Deum and the Benediction. The rite of ordination therefore certifies that a person has received a certain call from God through the Church, and within that call is as sured of the gifts of the Holy Ghost required for his office. It does not confer an indelible character. ;g_ f. H. Oregon, Lutherans in. The census of 1890 The usual lessons were 1 Tim. 3:1-7 and Acts reported 21 congregations and 1,080 communi 20:28-31. Then followed an exhortation to the cants, divided among five synodical bodies. candidates. (See Mecklenburg, 1552 :" You The most numerous were those of the Swedish hear that we who are bishops, i. e. , preachers Augustana Synod, viz. 4 congregations and 305 and pastors, are not charged with the care of communicants. The Synodical Conference had geese or kine, but of the Church of God, pur- 5 congregations and 274 communicants • the chased with his own blood, in order that we United Norwegian Synod, 5 congregations and should feed it with the pure Word of God, and 204 communicants. The rest had less than 100 watch and guard it, that wolves and factions communicants each. break not in upon it ; and therefore ours is Organ. The first organ in Germany (c 811) called a precious work We should live chastely was a gift to Charies the Great, and by 004 there and becomingly and keep and govern our were organs in Erfurt, Magdeburg, and Halber- house, wife, children, and servants, Chnstianly. stadt. Instead of keys they had levers some- If you are ready to do this, say yes." This is times a yard long, to be pressed with the fist • "ttt^t /^""- f°'^-"'' ^'^f.:- f'^^ ?^ liencetheorganiftwascaKhe^OrgetLhte: pledge to the confessions IS of later date.) The ger." The Halberstadt organ (1361) had answer of the candidates IS a solemn oath in the i-"'!- '- „~ t,_ii ,., » , y'-s^'-} presence of Almighty God. The superintendent and his assistants lay their hands on the head of the candidate " The significance of tiiis rite is ,„„,, , ^„._„„,.. ^.„j,,, ,^^ ^,^„„^ clearly stated by St. Augustine : jJ^joT aliud brought tiie organ to its present Itlte keyboards, 20 bellows, blown by 10 men and only 22 keys. Short keys and pedals (fifteentii century), swell-box (1712), composition pedals (1809) pneumatics (1832), and electricity (1851), Organ 857 Original Sin In the fourteenth century it only accompanied the plain-song, introduced by a " preambulum, ' ' -whence our "prelude." In the sixteenth cen tury the organist sometimes played alone the Credo and Gloria, and was accused of curtaU- ing the Lord's Prayer and the Epistle. Because of its misuse, the Reformers spoke disparag ingly of the organ, and Luther gave it scant notice. In Eisenach and Wittenberg (c. 1540) the Kyrie was taken alternately between choir and organ, and the Gradual verse by verse be tween choir (in Latin) and congregation (in German) vrithout organ. This represents -the general custom untU the eighteenth century. The organ was always thought of in connection vrith artistic choir music and never accompanied the congregation. The Church Orders of the sixteenth century say Uttie about the organ. In Hildesheim (1544) one organist sufficed for all the churches. The minister, occasionally with the school-choir, led the congregational singing. In the absence of hymn-books, the organ was used to give out the choral and then the congregation sang it alone. Gradually the organist played between the verses. Later the verses were taken alter nately between congregation and organ, as at present in East Frisia. Choir music came to be based upon choral melodies, with the melody in the soprano instead of the tenor as formerly, and when the choir thus led the congregation, the organ accompanied. The early Church Orders of the eighteenth century say the organ may play occasionally one verse of the hymn vritii the congregation. Ulm (1747) recom mends the organ to support and keep together the congregational singing. The choir began to sing vrithout organ, but sometimes with trom bones. At present, in Germany, the organ ac companies the congregation, but not, as a rule, the choir, except where the singers are incom petent. Interludes between lines and verses are hap pily gro-wing obsolete. The choral prelude, based upon the choral melody, was cultivated by Scheldt and Pachelbel and reached its high est development under Bach. The choral mel odies are the best resource for motivization for independent organ music. Their relation to the Word, the history of the Church, and the life of the people make it possible to attain the highest ideal of edif jdng serrice. Without such association, independent organ music in the service wUl be more or less meaningless and ir relevant. In Germany there are three examinations ananged for organists, a Royal Institute of Church Music (Berlin) and summer schools for practical instmction ; and in Scandinavia organ schools and church-song unions are a great stimulus. The Convocation of Church Musicians and the widening circle of students of Luth. sources wUl aid in fostering a distinctive use of the organ in our Church in America. Because of the responsive service, the organ should be at the end of the church opposite to the altar. Pastors should consult a competent organist before purchasing or remodelUng an organ. See G. Rietschel, Die Aufgabe d. Orgel, and Fr. Zimmer, Der Kantor u. d. Organ ist. W. B. Original Sin. The inborn sin which all human beings, naturally engendered, inherit at their origin from their parents, and whichis the source whence the actual sins of every in di-ridual proceed. Its nature is characterized, on the one hand, by an inabUity of man, in his own strength, to apprehend, desire, or do that which is spiritually good, i. e. to fear, love, and trast in God above all things ; and, on the other hand, by a propensity to know, desire, and do that which is evil. It originated in our first parents, who, tempted by Satan, transgressed the dirine command, forbidding them to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and e^ril, " Whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our woe." This first sin of Adam is to be distinguished from all his subsequent actual sins in this re spect, that it originated the corraption of his human nature and entailed upon himself and his posterity physical and spiritual death. The nature propagated from parent to chUd is in fected -with sin and entails guilt upon each in di-ridual, because the human nature of each in dividual was contained in Adam when he sinned. Participating in what Adam did, it must partake of the properties and guilt of his sinful nature, just as a grain of wheat partakes of the properties and qualities of its parent seed. It is a law of nature, in the vegetable and animal world, that every Uving thing shall propagate its own kind. When, therefore, the image of God, in which man was created, be came corrupt, our first parent could no longer have offspnng in the perfect likeness of God, but he begat a son in his own likeness, after his image (Gen. 5:3). For this cause the original sin of Adam became the sin of each individual. His guilt is our guilt, and the punishment which he suffered all his descendants justly merit and endure. ' ' Therefore, as through one man sin entered into the world, and death through sin ; so death passed unto all men, for that all sinned" (Rom. 5 : 12.) " In Adam all die " (i Cor. 15 : 22). The declaration of Scripture, that, "The son shall not bear the iniquity of the father, neither shaU the father bear the iniquity of the son " (Ezek. 18 : 20), refers to the actual sins of each individual and not to the sinful nature which the son inherits from his parents. If a father commits any overt act of crime, his son is not held responsible for that sinful act, yet the son inherits from his father the sinful propensity, which leads both into the actual sins of which each is guilty. The chief passages of Scripture which teach the doctrine of original sin, in addition to the foregoing, are as follows : "Who can bring a clean thing out of an un clean? Not one" (Job. 14 : 4). "Behold, Iwas shapen in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive me" (Ps. 51 : 5). "That which is born of the flesh is flesh" (Jno. 3:6). "The mind of theflesh is enmity against God " (Rom. 8:7). " We were by nature children of wrath ' * (Eph. 2:3). While original sin has conruptedthe entire nature of man, impairing his powers of body Original Sin 358 Orphans' Homes and soul, it is to be distinguished from the sub- born ?S^-}>y^^^^,^l-i^%,Zl ^^ this ^cTor Lence of rrrh^ro^rmad^^^^ (For further ex^-ation r^;^-- ,, ?S.rebe^een our nature, as it was created Art. IX. ; Schmid, Dogm., Hay and Jacobs' ^onc" SoT Dec I ¦ 57). The necessity for Ch. 2 ; Reimensnyder, obsenring this distinction between original sin Luth. Quar vol. xviu.. No 3- and the essential nature of man is apparent^ ^ Orphans' HomeS,__Luth.^,^ when we consider that ' Lect. on Original Sin,' S. A. H. in America. Christ assumed our One "of the noblest manifestations of Luth. human nature, without our sin (Heb. 2 : i6, benevolence is found in the care the Luth. 17 • 2 Cor 5 - 21) that our essential human Church takes of her orphans and halt-orphans. nature can be cleansed from original sin (i Jno. The founding of orphans' homes is closely con- I • 7) and that the substance of the human nected with the progress and extension of the nature of the believer, even of his body, shaU Luth. Church in this country With the exist in the eternal world, free from sin (l Cor. growth of the Church coincides the growth of IS -49 5° ¦ Pliil- 3 • 2i)- Nor are we to regard her benevolent work as an illustration of the God as the immediate Creator of the soul of faith which brings forth fraits of love. each individual, in the sense in which he first The Luth. Church has 45 orphans' homes, breathed into the body of man the breath of the oldest, located at Middletown, Dauphin Co., life when man became a living soul (Gen. 2 : Pa., dating back to 1813 ; the youngest, located 7) 'but, " together vrith the nature which God at Milwaukee, Wis., about two years old. They creates ' and effects in men, original sin is prop- are well spread over the country, and North and agated by natural generation, by seed cor- South as well as East and West are vvitnesses to ruptedby sin, from father and mother " {Form, these monuments of the Luth. spirit of love. Cone. Sol. Dec. 1 : 7). Accordingto the theory The polyglot character of the Church finds ex- of Immediate Creationism, "God creates a pression in the orphans' homes also, inasmuch perfect, spotless, holy soul, and then places it in as there are those in which the English, Ger- a polluted body ; that is, he takes what is abso- man, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish and Icelandic lutely innocent, and places it, where it inevi- tongue is used. tably, not by choice, but of necessity, is tainted The General Council claims 12 ; the Synodical vrith sin, justly subject to damnation, and in a Conference, 12 ; the General Synod, 7 ; the great majority of cases actually reaches eternal United Synods of the South, I, and 6 single damnation. . . . the -view ot Traducianism, or synods, 11; i. e. Synod of Ohio, 4; Hauge's mediate Creationism ; the theory that both body Norw. Ev. Luth. Synod of America, 1 ; and soul are derived from the parents, corre- Synod of the Norw. Ev. Luth. Church in Amer- sponds vrith the prevailing and clear statements ica, 1 ; Synod of Iowa, 2 ; Icelandic Church, of Holy Scriptures, as, e. g. Gen. 5:3; Acts 2 ; and the Dan. Ev. Luth. Church in Amer- 17 : 24-26. It is a doctrine absolutely de- ica, i. The homes are within the boundaries manded by the existence of original sin, and of 16 synods and are located in 19 different the doctrine that God is not the author of sin ' ' states. Pa. has 6 homes ; N. Y. and Wis. each (Krauth, Cons. Ref, p. 370). Another truth connected -with the doctiine of original sin is, that this sin and the consciousness of it inhere in the beUever during his earthly life. The 5 ; 111., Ia., and Md., each 4 ; Ind. and Minn., each 2 ; Wash., S. D., Neb., Kan., O., Mass., Va., Mo., Tenn., La., and Cal., each 1. The superintendents of these homes are either Apostle Paul, twenty-two years after±iis miracu- ministers or laymen ; a few of the homes are lous conversion, said : " I see a law in my mem- managed by matrons. The value of the prop- bers, warring against the law of my mind, and erty owned by Luth. orphans' homes amounts bringing me into captivity under the law of sin to a million dollars, while the endowments which is in my members " (Rom. 7:23). The cover as large a sum, if not a larger one. guilt of original sin is, however, removed, 2,100 children, boys and girls, are taken care when the believer is ' ' born again by baptism of in the 43 homes, the ages of reception rang- and the Holy Spirit " (Jno. 3:5; Acts 22 : 16 ; ing between the age of a few months and 12 Rom. 7 : 24, 25). Its power is gradually weak- years, the dismissal usually taking place when ened by the believer's sanetification (i Thess. the children are adopted by a Chnstian family 4 : 3-5 ; I Cor. 6:11; 2 Pet. 3 : 18), and in or are well able to earn their own livelihood. death it is separated from the believer forever To provide a Christian home and education for (Ps. 17 : 15 ; 2 Cor. 3 : 18; i Jno. 3:2). destitute orphans and half -orphans and to guide Art. II. Augsb. Conf. states the doctrine of their physical, mental, and spiritual training so original sin as follows : ' ' We teach, that since as to make them acceptable unto God and man, the fall of Adam all men, who are naturally en- these are the ideas and principles underlying gendered, are conceived and born in sin, that and governing the foundation and management is, that they all are, from their mother's womb, of the homes. In most cases a board of di- fuU of evil desires and propensities, and can rectors or trustees is entrusted with the govem- have by nature no trae fear of God, no true ment of the same. According to the time of faith in God; and that this innate disease, or foundation, the homes have come into existence original sin, is truly sin, which brings all those in the following order : under the eternal wrath of God, who are not Middletown, Dauphin Co., Pa. (1813) ; Zelie- Orphans' Homes 359 Orthodoxy nople. Pa. (1852) ; Germantown, Pa. (1859) ; Toledo, O. (1862) ; Buffalo and Sulphur Springs, N. Y. (1864) ; Andrew, Jackson Co., Ia. (1865) ; Vasa, Muin. (1865) ; Mt. Vernon, N. Y. (1866) ; Des Peres, Mo. (1867) ; LoysriUe, Pa. (1867) ; Andover, 111. (1867) ; W. Roxbury, Boston, Mass. (1871) ; Addison, IU. (1873) '< Richmond, Ind. (1879) ; Mariedahl, Kan. (1880) ; New Orleans, La. (1881) ; Stanton, la. (1881) ; Wit tenberg, Wis. (1882) ; Frederick, Md. (1882) ; Delano (Denny), Pa. (1882) ; Indianapolis, Ind. (1883) ; Jamestown, N. Y. (1883) ; Chica go, IU. (1884) ; Syracuse, N. Y. (1885) ; Wit tenberg, Wis. (1885) ; CoUege Point, L. L, N. Y. (1886) ; Madison, Wis. (1889) ; Salem, Va. (1890) ; Knoxville, Tenn. (1890) ; Poulsbo, Wash. (1890) ; Beloit, la. (1890) ; Joliet, IU. (1891^ ; Fremont, Neb. (1892) ; Elk Hom, la. (1892) ; San Francisco, Cal. (1892) ; Baltimore, Md. (1893) ; Lauraville, Md. (1893) ; Beresford, S. Dak. (1894) ; Muscatine, la. (1895) ; Lake Park, Minn. (1895) ; Waupaca, Wis. (1896) ; Topton, Pa. (1896) ; Milwaukee, Wis. (1897). J. A. W. K. Orphans' Homes of the Augustana Synod. Hee(Ung the apostolic injunction and moved by the noble example of the late Dr. Passavant, the Augustana Synod, already at its fourth meeting (1863), Chicago, IU., decided to enter this blessed work. The farm at Paxton, 111., secured for an "Orphans' Farm School," was sold in 1867 to the Augustana Seminary. The home temporarily opened Jan., 1868, in Berlin, IU., Father Lindell, supt., was finally estab lished on a farm bought near Andover, IU., in 1870. In 1876 the Illinois Conference took charge of the home. A new spacious building was erected in 1881. Through the liberality of our congregation at Joliet, IU., the 111. Conf. established there another orphans' home, in 1891. This necessitated dividing equally be tween the two homes the annual Sunday-school contribution. Soon a magnificent building was erected at Joliet and the new home opened in 1895. Through the energy of Dr. E. Norelius an orphanage was begun already in 1865 at Vasa, Minn. A small building was erected in 1866. In 1876 the Minnesota Conference took charge of the home and erected a comfortable building ini877. In the night of the third of July, 1879, the home was struck by a cyclone, five children killed and many wounded. Aroused sympathy enabled the conference to dedicate a new building Oct. 14, the same year. At the meeting (1870) of the Iowa Conference, it was decided to begin anangements for an orphans' home. The farm bought in 1871, near Stanton, Iowa, was by rent, and by a special subscription in 1876, finally paid for. A suit able building was erected and dedicated Refor mation Day, 1881. The Kansas Conference, having received the donation of a tract of land from the U. P. R. R'y for a home, elected in 1875 the first directors for their orphanage. In 1880 a farm was bought near Mariedahl, Kans., and a spacious building was dedicated the same year. The New York Conference appointed at a meeting in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1881, a com mittee to mature plans for an orphanage. At a meeting in 1883, Jamestown, N. Y., was selected as site ; 86.7 acres having been bought adjoining the city, a stately building was erected and dedicated in 1885. Statistics, 1895 Location, Orphans Property Debt Exp. Supt. Andover, 111. Vasa, Minn. Stanton, Iowa Mariedahl, Kas. Jamestown.N.-V 40 56 3734 62 15,00017,75017,06512,580 41,584 4,000 434 7,235 4,836 5,618 2,6914,2718,410 A. Lincoln. J. A. Hultgren C. G. Lind B. Berg J. S. Swensson A. P. F. Orthodoxy, Orthodoxism. The Luth. Church has always laid great stress on purity of doctrine, soundness in doctrine. By this is meant, the confession of the doctrines revealed in the Word of God, the Canonical Books of the Old and New Testament, for the salvation of mankind. In the work of the Reformation, the purification of the Church from doctrinal enors was felt tp be pre-eminently necessary. Ortho doxy, the acceptance and promulgation of the truths of the Christian religion, is the primary requirement of Christianity. It lies at the very foundation of the Church's life, and is its living fountain. Orthodoxism, on the other hand, is a mere travesty of orthodoxy. By orthodoxism we mean that counterfeit of trae religion, which has the form of godliness, and yet practically denies the power thereof. There is always danger that orthodoxy may degenerate into orthodoxism, for that which is holiest and best is most liable to abuse. Pharisaism, vrith its external parade of, and its internal contempt for, the living verities of God's Word, is a strik ing historical instance. Both the Greek Church, which boasts of being the "Holy Orthodox Apostolic Church," and the Church of Rome, which claims to be the only true visible Church, have given abundant proof of orthodoxism in their attitude toward the truth, and in their treatment of those who differ. Nor has the Luth. Church been free from the evils of or thodoxism ; in fact no part of the Church has ever been. But the trath is mighty, and vrill prevail. G. F. S. Orthodoxy, Period of. in the Luth. Church the seventeenth century is known as the period of orthodoxy. After many straggles during the sixteenth century, the union which was marked by the adoption of the Formula of Con cord resulted in such unamimity of teaching, in conformity vrith the confessions of the Church, as to give to this period a character of exceptional solidity and compactness in doc trine. There ¦were unquestionably giants of theological abUity and learning in those days. The genius of Chemnitz had prepared the way. John Gerhard of Jena followed in his wake, whose contemporaries honored him by assign ing him the place next in order to Luther and Chemnitz. His greatest work, the Loci Theo logici, is recognized as the opus palmare of Luth. dogmatics. As the work of Leonard Hutter preceded, so the works of Calovius and Quenstedt foUowed, the latter marking the Osiander 360 Osiander climax of the scholastic tendency. Nicolas Hunnius in dogmatics and Solomon Glassius ih the field of philology also deserve men tion. The iron industry of men like Gerhard and Calovius even now attracts attention. Calixtus belongs to this period, but is not of it ; so does Spener, but as the father of the pietistic movement. G. F. S. Osiander, Andrew, prominent theologian of the sixteenth century ; the reformer of the city of Nuremberg ; b. Dec. 19, 1498, at Gun- zenhausen, in the margraviate of Ansbach. He was sent to school at Leipzig and Altenburg, and afterwards to the University of Ingolstadt, where he laid the foundation of his knowledge of the Hebrew language. In 1520 he was or dained priest, and was called to Nuremberg, as instructor in Hebrew. He there soon joined the Reformatory movement ; called as preacher to the church of St. Lawrence, in 1522, he gained a most decided infiuence, which he used for the introduction of the Reformation into Nurem berg. From the very beginning he was a decid ed adherent of Luther, though he afterwards advocated -riews directly in opposition to the fimdamental doctrine of justification as held by the Luth. Church. With much -wisdom he conducted the affairs for the improvement of the Evangelical Church at Nuremberg. He married in '1525 ; fought successfully against the fanatic and Anabaptistic tendencies at Nu remberg, and figured prominently at the com position of the Brandenburg-Nuremberg Church Order. Taking an active part in a number of important assemblies of the Church of the Reformation, he became widely known as a prominent theologian. In the sacramental con troversy he opposed the Swiss reformers ; in 1529 he took part in the Marburg Colloquy ; in 1530 he was present as deputy at the Diet of Augsburg ; in 1537 at Schmalkald, and in the same character at Hagenau and Worms, where conventions were held aiming at the union of the churches. In consequence of his reckless, dog matic, and imperious conduct repeated conflicts arose between him and the city council and his colleagues. The Interim being introduced into Nuremberg, he left the city. Duke Albert of Prassia, whom he had won over to the Refor mation, and who honored him as his spiritual father,received him gladly at Koenigsberg, where Osiander at once was called as pastor and pro fessor of the university. In 1551 he was appoint ed -rice-president of the bishopric of Samland. His inaugural address, in which he advocated his peculiar views in reference to the doctrine of justification, was the very trumpet sound for the ensuing bitter controversy (the so-called Osiandrian controversy). His doctrine of justification was pubUshed in several writings, especially in his work : Of the eternal Mediator, Jesus Christ, and of justifica tion by faith. In opposition to the teaching of the Reformers, which holds justification to be a declaratory act, a pronouncing righteous, Osian der demands a positive, real justification instead of a negative one. He regards justification as an actus physicus, by which man is in reality made righteous, i. e. the righteousness of Christ is imparted to him. Accordingly he looks at justification and sanetification as being identical. He distinguishes between justifica tion and redemption, by regarding redemption as a liberating act only, freeing man from sin ; by justification, on the other hand, Christ comes to dwell in the believer. In the Word of God Christ is, according to his divine nature, essentially present, and through it he imparts himself to the believers in such a way that they themselves obtain an essential righteousness, through this life of Christ in them. His doc trine differs from that of the Roman Catholics in this, that he (i) maintains the sola fide, to the ex clusion of all human merits ; (2) derives justi fication from the iSotained justitia, and not from the caritas. Against this heresy, which aimed at the very heart of the gospel, the stiongest opposition arose in the persons of Frederick Staphylus and Joachim Morlin. Of the many opinions of other theologians submitted to the duke at his request, only that of Brenz sought to reconcUe. When the battle was at its height, Osiander died, Oct. 17, 1552. Funk, his son- in-law, confessor to the duke and main sup porter of Osiander's -riews, was beheaded in 1566. The Luth. doctrine now gained the victory over that of Osiander. Besides his prac tical work Osiander displayed an extraordinary literary actirity, the best fruit of which is found in his Harmonia Evangelica. An excel lent biography of Osiander is written by W. Moller (Elberfeld, 1870) . (For connection vrith English Reformation, see Cranmbr ; E^fG- I.AND.) -w. P. Osiander, Luke, the older, son of Andrew, b. in 1534, at Nuremberg ; 1555, deacon at Gop pingen ; 1557, pastor at Blaubeuren ; 1562, su perintendent at Stuttgart ; 1567, court-preacher and counsellor of the consistory ; on account of his candor he was held in disfavor for a time by Duke Frederick ; d. in 1604. He was present, in 1564, at the Maulbronn Colloquy ; was one of the composers of the Maulbronn Formula ; took part in the Mompelgard Colloquy vrith Beza, 1586, and in the conespondence with Jeremias II. , Patriarch of Constantinople. His most im portant works are his Bauernpostille (Farmers' PostU), his Bible Work, and Outline of the Magdeburg Centuries. -w. P. Osiander, Luke, the younger, son of the former ; b. in 1571 ; after holding several eccle siastical offices, he was made professor at the Seminary of Tiibingen, in 1619 ; after 1620, provost of the Stiftskirche (CoUegiate Church), and chancellor of the university ; d. in 1638. Known especially through the active part he took in the Kenotic-cryptic controversy, and his opposition to John Amdt. W. P. Osiander, Andrevr, the younger, older broth er of the former ; b. in 1562 ; d. in 1617, as ChanceUor of the University of Tiibingen ; pub lished the Bibelwerk of his father anew, and -wrote The Wuertemberg Kommunikan- tenbuchlein ; the basis of the well-known Wuer temberg Confirmationsbiichlein. W. P. Osiander, John Adam, nephew of Andrew and Luke II. ; b. m 1622 ; chancellor of the University of Tiibingen, where he d. in 1697 ; opposed the syncretistic and unionistic move- Osiander 361 Otto ments ; friend of Spener ; distinguished theo logian of his time. W. P. Osiander, John, son of the former ; b. 1657, at Tiibingen ; d. 1724 ; held important ecclesi astical and secular offices in Wuertemberg. Its church owes to him the introduction of toe rite of confirmation. W. P. Osiander, John Ernest, b. June 23, 1792, at Stuttgart ; d. as prelate at Goppingen, April 3, 1870 ; a very learned theologian, faithful pastor, and the author of several theological writings. W. P. Osiandrian Controversy. Andreas Osian der (b. 1498), the Nuremberg pastor and reform er, recoiling from the exclusive emphasis laid on the forensic nature of justification, and hold ing that thereby the subjective element (which, however, is present in faith as the subjective condition) is overlooked, confounded justifica tion and sanetification, the divine act yor man and the divine operation in man. According to the orthodox teaching, Christ ha^ring been offered once for all for the sins of the world, God imputes the merits of his vicari ous sacrificiaLdeath to every individual believer as though it had been his own. A forensic act declares the sinner righteous apart from making him so, the latter operation foUo-wing on the ground of the sinner's acceptance as righteous and as a consequence of it — a sanctifying proc ess effected by the communication of a new life from Christ and penetrating progressively the whole earthly life of man. This view clearly sets forth the distinction which inheres in the two-fold work of redemption. Fundamentally, Osiander agreed vrith the Luth. -riew, clinging firmly to the doctrine of justification by faith alone over against the Romish enor of justification by works, but he was a mystic, and, deeply concerned for the ethical import of Christianity, he claimed that the meaning of justification was "to make just, "and that only by metonymy could it mean "to declare just." God does not pronounce a man to be what he is not, just and holy. He makes him just and holy. Justification is, therefore, not a juridical, but a therapeutic, act, " a constant inflowing of the righteousness of Christ," who as God-man sustains an organic connection with man. Our mystical union vrith Christ is the absolute principle of righteous ness, and the believer is so embodied in Christ as to sustain the most intimate life-communion -with him. Christ's atoning death is -riewed as only the negative condition of justification, the positive being Christ's incarnation, and justification is the formation of Christ in the believer, the re production of the incarnation. This led further to the propounding of the view that justification is to be refened not to the human, but rather to the divine nature of Christ. It is not the im putation, but "the infusion of the essential righteousness or divine nature of Christ. " " The indwelling of Christ's dirine nature is our righteousness before God." Osiander's approximation to the Tridentine dogma and his antagonism to Luth. ortho doxy are unmistakable. The latter assures the believer's salvation in -riew of his faith in what Christ has done for him — the only firm rock, whereas his theory makes salvation depend on what a man has become through Christ dwelling in him and transforming him — ^which must ever leave him in doubt. A keen and bitter contioversy over these opinions spread from the university among the clergy, and thence to the people of all classes. "The Church, with great unanimity, saw that the cential doctiine of our faith was here in volved by this inversion of the order of salva tion, and, although Osiander was not without some followers, they were soon silenced," and their -riews were explicitly condemned in the Form, of Concord. Lit. : Planck, Geschichte des prot. Lehr- begriffs ; (Frank, Theol. der Concordienformel, ILiff.— Eds.) E.J.W. Ostzwald, Henry Sigismund, SUesian hjmin-writer, b. 1757, d. 1834 ; author of " Hoeh iiber Erd und Welt und Zeit, " and " Ich lebe, aber doch nicht ich." Otther, Jacob, reformer of Esslingen, b. Lau- terburg, in Alsace, about 1480 ; studied at Frei burg under Wimpheling ; translated and pub lished a Latin translation of the sermons of Geiler, 1510; became a convert to Lutheranism in 1520 ; vritli 150 of his parishioners, left Ken- zingen, in Breisgau, when charged with admin istering communion in both forms, and in the German language. After various temporary positions, he was called to Esslingen in 1532, to continue the work begun the preceding year by Ambrosius Blaurer, composing both a church constitution and a catechism. Otther was deeply influenced by Bucer, inclined at first toward Zvringlianism, and did not for a time realize the serious nature of the errors of Schwenkf eldt, until after he had admitted him to intimate friendship. He was one of the signers of the Wittenberg Concord, and participated in the proceedings at Schmalkald. Otto, Anton, b. about 1505, in Herzberg ; a cooper, educated by Luther ; pastor in Grafen- thal and Nordhausen, turned to Flacianism, and also taught that the normative use of the law was the source of synergism and Majorism ; it belonged wholly to the State, and not to the Church. Even Flacius repudiated this follower of his. Otto, Henry, of the Palatinate, accepted the Reformation (1538), and introduced it in Neu- burg and Sulzbach, where he then reigned. When he succeeded his uncle, Fredr. II. , -with full power (1553), he ordered that only Luth. doctrine should be preached, had a church- order ananged by DiUer, Stolo, and Marbach, after the Wuertemberg Order, and called Heshu sius to reorganize Heidelberg Univ. He favored the Lutheranism of Melanchthonian type until his death, Feb. 12, 1559. That Lutheranism was afterward crowded out was due partly to his tolerance of Calvinism and Melanchthonianism. He had signed the Frankfurt Recess, and called the Reformed Piene Boquin to Heidelberg. Otto, Karl Wilh., b. 1812, in Konitz, w. Prussia, pastor in Zirkwitz (1839), chaplain in Stargard (1842), superintendent at Naugard otto 363 Pacbelbel (1846), pastor at Saal (1854), superintendent in Glaucha (1855) ; retired, 1879, to devote his time to theology ; d. May i, 1890. Deputed by Bishop Ritschl to -write against Nagel and the Luth. separatists, he was by study turned to Lutheranism, but opposed the separation of Lutherans from the union church government. He was an exact, but at times enatic exegete, and wrote on Romans and Hebrews, seeking to understand the N. T. -writers from the an titheses, which they had to contend against, which were the culture of Greek phUosophy and Jevrish thought as found in Philo. Otto, Leopold Martin, b. 1819, in Warsaw, Poland, pastor in Petrikau and Warsaw ; ban ished for taking part in the revolution of 1863, he served the Luth. Church in Teschen, Austria, until 1875, when he was recalled to Warsaw. O. d. 1882. He is known by his theol. treatises in Polish, e. g. his work on the confessions of the Evan. Augs. faith (1852), the Lord's Prayer (1868), etc. Oversight. The Luth. Church has always appreciated the necessity of proper supervision in the Church. The object in view is the high est possible efficiency of the Church's life in all the congregations, which are entrasted with the teeasure of the Word and sacraments, and which enjoy the benefits imparted by those means of grace. To the end that all things may be done decently and in order, to the glory of God, and the welfare of souls, there is a min istry of the Church which is primarily charged with the duty of oversight in all matters per taining to soundness of doctrine and purity of life. Apostolic precept and practice, based on the principles laid down by the Lord himself, have been the ideal of the Luth. Church in her efforts to secure conformity -with the gospel in every department of Christian activity. At the beginning of the Reformation, the general office of oversight was vested in the episcopate, which arose soon after the time of the apostles, and speedily developed into a hierarchy. Never theless the Luth. reformers relinquished dioce san episcopacy with regret, as expressed in the Apology (XIV. 217): " We have frequently testi fied in this assembly that it is our greatest wish to maintain church polity, and the grades in the Church, even though they have been made by human authority. For we know that church discipline was instituted by the Fathers, in the manner laid down in the ancient canons, -with a good and useful intention." This accords ¦with the sentiment voiced by the Aug. Conf. XXVIII. The bishops might easily retain law ful obedience, if they would not urge men to observe such traditions as cannot be kept -with a good conscience." However, Art. Smalc: "When the regular bishops become enemies of the Church, or are unwilling to administer or dination," in that case, "the churches retain their own right" (See Bishops. ) Not that the churches are to be isolated because of the au thority inherent in them. This protest against hierarchical afeumption was not applied so as to conflict -with the comprehensive idea of the Church. " Neither the Church Orders of the various countiies, nor our confessions, were adopted by popular or congregational de cisions." The actual beginnings of the work of super- -rision were made by appointment on the part of the magistrates as chief members of the churches. Though regarded as a temporary expedient, this was in effect but another phase of episcopacy, vrith this difference, that the actual direct oversight was committed to cleri cal superintendents, termed "bishops " in some countries. Superintendent is a distinctive name over against the tenn "bishop," with its pe culiar Roman excrescences. Jerome, Augustine, and Gabriel Biel had already used the term superintendent in a simUar way, and the Witten berg Faculty states the office and duties in the Visitation Articles of 1528. He is to see to the doctrine and life of the pastors, to the discipline of those who offend in these particulars, and to the proper supply of vacant parishes. The Church Orders follow -with detaUs conceming the "superintendency" which become more elaborate in the later orders of the sixteenth and in those of the seventeenth century. In this connection the visitation of the churches is of great importance, and the later orders in particular devote much attention to the instractions to be given to the super intendent, or -risitator, who conducts the examination of the pastor and church officers concerning the affairs of the congregation. In 1543 a board of administration was created at Wittenberg, which introduced a new element into the polity. It was called the consistory, was composed generally of an equal number of theologians and jurists, -with jurisdiction of both temporal and spiritual matters, to which the superintendent reported and whose regula tions he carried out. Another step in the same direction is marked by the office of general superintendent found in some parts of Ger many, e. g. Saxony and Mecklenburg. Synods were originally held chiefly in order to assist in the work of supervision. In the Luth. Church in America, the early polity and supervision of the Dutch and Swed ish Churches was carried out under the auspices of the mother churches. The master spirit whose work was to tell for the future, was Muh lenberg, who carried the work of organization and supervision into efficient operation. He was the -rirtual founder of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania. After Muhlenberg there came a period of deterioration, but of late years there has been a stiong desire for more efficient oversight manifested in the old Mini sterium. In some portions of the Luth. Church in this country, e. g. the Missouri Synod, the main features of visitation already stated as customary in our mother churches in Europe, have been retained and practised vrith abundant results. G. p. s. P. Pachelbel, Johann, b. 1653, at Nuemberg, d. 1706. He studied music at the university m Altorf, and at Regensburg, Gymnasium Poeti- cum. He was assistant organist at St. Stephen's, Vienna (1672), organist at Eisenach (1677), Er- Pack 363 Palatinate furt (1678), Stuttgart (1690), Gotha (1692), Nuernberg (1695). He may be called the fore runner of Bach in the organ treatment of the German Chorale. The tune, " Was Gott thut, das ist wohl gethan," is ascribed to P. by v. Winterfeld, and various choral books after him ; but there is hardly any doubt that it was composed by Severus Gastorius, the friend of Rodigast, in 1675, when the hjmin was written. Pachelbel used the fine tune in one of his can tatas, aud Bach took it for a theme in several cantatas. A. S. Pack, Otto von, the administiator of the Chancery of Duke Geo. of Saxony, who, in Feb., 1528, deceived Philip of Hesse at Dresden -with a document, which apparentiy proved that the German Catholic princes had united to exter minate the Evangelicals. Philip at once formed a league vrith Elector John of Saxony (March 9, 1528), tioops were called, and an attack was prevented only by the warning of Luther and Melanchthon. The whole deception was dis covered when Philip, who had already entered the domain of his supposed enemies, turned to George of Saxony. Pack was imprisoned a year, then wandered through England and France, and was beheaded in the Netherlands (1536), upon instigation of Duke George. The rashness of Philip of Hesse in these so-called Pack' sche Handel, hurt the evangel, cause. Lit.: St. Ehses., Gesch. der Pack'schen Handel (1881) ; W. Schomburgk, Die Packschen Handel; Hist. Tascheub. (1882) ; Ranke, Deutsche Gesch., etc., vol. iii. Paedobaptism. See Baptism and Infants, Faith of. Palamcotta, in Tamil Land, see of Anglican bishop since 1877, with seminary, normal school, girls' high school, church Miss. Society's chief station, ¦with 132 ¦rillage churches and 8,000 Christians. Lutheran missionaries, e. g. C. P\ Schwartz, Jaenicke, and Gericke, labored here untu 1806. W. W. Palatinate, Emigration from. German emigration to America began in 1683 with the founders of the Germantown settlement, sent out from Frankfort-on-the-Main, composed of Menonites, followed by other sects. The main stream of German emigration had another source. The devastation of the country along the Rhine by the wars with France, an unusuaUy severe ¦winter destioying the crops, and dis satisfaction because of ecclesiastical regulations had rendered the people restless, and prepared them for a change of home. In 1704 Pastor Kocherthal of London, immediately after the Frendi invasion of the preceding year, visited London, to anange for the emigration of his people to America. In 1706 he published a book that was extensively circulated, and which appeared, in another edition, a few years later, grring full details conceming the countiy, the voyage, etc. In 1708 he led a band of 53 per sons first to London, and then to New York. They were followed, the next year, by a wave of emigration to London, that taxed to the ut most the generosity of Queen Anne, and alarmed the government both at home and in England. A contemporary account fixes the number at 32,468, of whom 7,000 retumed to Germany, and over 3,000 were sent to Ireland. That summer, 650 were sent with a Swiss colony under Count Graffenried to North Carolina, and were among the founders of New Berne, but suffered from an Indian massacre and the peculations of land-agents. A portion of this colony settled in 1714 at Spottsylvania, Virginia, where they were joined in 1717 by reinforcements direct from the Palatinate, who were shipwrecked on their way to Pennsylvania. In 1710 the sur vivors of a band of from 3,000 to 4,000 reached New York, vrith Kocherthal, on a second voyage, and were settied by Governor Hunter along the Hudson, to manufacture naval stores. Impoverished, a large proportion of the people forced their way in the midst of the winter of 1712-13, against the wiU of the Govemor, to lands they secured from the Indians in the neighborhood of Schoharie. Unable to secure from the colonial government a clear title to these lands, which they had brought to a high stage of cultivation, thirty-three families, in 1723, crossed to the headwaters of the Susquehanna and descended into Pennsyl vania, to the mouth of the Swatara (Middle- town), and up the Swatara to the Tulpehocken. The wrongs which the Palatines believed they suffered in New York were published in Ger many, and turned the tide of emigration again towards Pennsylvania. Thither many of the relatives and acquaintances of these pioneers were attiacted. Even cotemporaneously vrith the emigration to New York and before it (1709-10) other Palatines and their neighbors found their way by a more direct way to Penn sylvania, and settled particularly in Montgom ery and Berks Counties. Prior to 1727, 50,000 Germans, mostly from the Rhine provinces, had settied in Pennsylvania. An official record of immigrants was begun in that year, and is in cluded in I. D. Rupp's Thirty Thousand Names. In 1732 the movement had reached such pro portions that Caspar Wister, a prominent PhUa delphia German, endeavored to check it. In 1751, Benjamin Franklin expressed his appre hension that "the Palatine boors" would Germanize Pennsylvania. While the Palatines were most numerous, ¦with them were mingled people from Wuertemberg, Alsace, Hesse- Darmstadt, and other parts of Germany. The emigration was clearly marked by de nominational lines. The earliest settlers of Pennsylvania were from the sects ; then the Reformed predominated among the immi grants ; then came the Lutherans ; and after tiiem, the Mora-rians. The Reformed were numerically stiongest up to the middle of the last century. Proceedings of Pennsylvania German Society, vols. -vU. and -riii., and litera ture there cited, including foUovring mono graphs, also published separately : Sachse, J. F., The Fatherland ; Diffenderffer, F. R.' The German Exodus to England in ijoo ; Jacobs H. E., The German Emigration to America 1709-1740. H. E. J. Palatinate, Eeformation in. The Refor mation obtained a foothold very slowly in the Palatinate, and was established at a compara tively late date. Throughout the whole period Palm Sunday 364 Paramentics the influence of the princes makes itself felt pecuharly and irregularly. The influence of Melanchthon is another powerful personal factor readily noticeable. From the very start, at the time of the Heidelberg Disputation (1518), we find the Elector Louis V. rather favorably in clined to Luther's cause, as seen in his personal interest in the Reformer at the Diet of Worms. In 1522 when Brenz and BUlicanus attempted to expound the New Testament after the manner of Luther, this occasioned so much excitement among their theological colleagues that they were forbidden to lecture ; but in the country, especially in the domains of the knights, Protestant preachers were allowed to teach vrithout hindrance. Sickingen introduced the new form of worship in his territories, and the Count Palatinate Louis abolished the Mass in Zweibruecken, and directed a Luth. order to be observed. The Elector called on the Univer sity of Heidelberg to express its dispassionate opinion of Luther's doctrine, and the opponents were sharply admonished to moderation. Louis V. was succeeded in 1544 by his brother, Frederick II. , a man somewhat advanced in years, and not particularly inclined to theology, who went a step farther. After obtaining Me lanchthon's opinion, he introduced the German service, the communion in both forms, and permitted priests to marry. On January 3, 1546, the Luth. service was used for the first time in Heidelberg. Although politically af filiated with the Protestant party, the Elector did not join the Smalcald League, because he did not -wish to break with the Emperor. When the Smalcald League was defeated, Frederick II. readily allowed the Interim to be introduced in the Palatinate. He died a few years later and was succeeded by his nephew. Otto Henry, who abolished the Interim. Diller, Stolo, and Mar bach prepared a new Church Order after the norm of the Augsburg Confession. The Orders of Neuburg, Wuertemberg, and Strassburg were the basis of this New Order for the Palatinate, which was strictly in accord with the Augsburg Confession. But all pictures and crucifixes were removed from the churches, only one altar retained for the administration of the I/)rd's Supper, and exorcism at baptism omitted. A Consistorium was established with a general superintendent at its head. Unfortunately men of Zwinglian and Calvinistic tendencies obtained positions of influence in the direction of church affairs. Prominent among these were : Thomas Erastus, prof, of medicine, the father of Erastianism, Christopher Ehem, prof. of law, and Peter Boquinus, prof, of theology. Opposed to this Calvinistic party was Tilemann Hesshusius, prof, and general superintendent. Under the Elector Frederick III. the struggle was virtually closed by the Calvinizing of the Palatine in 1560 ; although this was followed by a brief reaction in favor of Lutheranism under Louis VI. (see art), 1576-83. G. F. S. Palm Sunday. See Church Ybar. Palmer, Christian David Friedrich von, b. at Winnenden, Wuertemberg, January 27, 1811, entered, in 1824, the evangeUcal theolog ical seminary at Schonthal ; 1828, Tiibingen, where he was strongly influenced by Prof. Schmid; 1833-1836, vicar at Bissingen and PUeningen. In the fall of 1836, repetent at Tiibingen, in the seminary. January, 1839, deacon at Marbach, and 1843, second deacon at Tiibingen. 1851, -pastor primarius at Tiibin gen. In 1852, upon the death of Prof. Schmid, appointed professor in ordinary of practical theology and Christian morals. In 1853, hon ored with degree D. D., and ennobled by the king. 1857, rector of the university. 1869, vice-president of the first Wuertemberg synod. 1870, representative for Tiibingen in the diet. D. May 29, 1875. P. was a man of sound learning and great teaching power. He was equally strong in the pulpit and the professor's chair, and an earnest Christian in profession and life. As to his theological position, he belonged to the extreme right of the Schleiermacher school, known as the " Vermittelungstheologie," i. e. that branch of German theology which endeav ors to mediate between confessional and crit ical or speculative theology. Nitzsch charac terizes him as the most distinguished "Prak- tiker " of this party. A productive and independent writer. Some of his works are : Evangelische Homiletik (Stuttgart, 1842) ; Evangelische Katechetik (Stuttgart, 1844) ; Evangelische Pddagogik (Stuttgart, 1852) ; Evangelische Pastoraltheologie (Stuttgart, 1860^ ; Evangelische Hymnologie (Stuttgart, 1865) ; Die Moral des Christenthums (Stutt gart, 1864) ; Predigten (Stuttgart, 1867) ; Evangelische Casualreden (Stuttgart, 1843- 1855) ; Geistliches und Weltliches (Stuttgart, 1873) ; Predigten aus neuerer Zeit (Stuttgart, 1874) ; Gemeinschafien und Sekten WUrtem- bergs (Stuttgart, 1877). H. W. H. Palnad is a fertile lowland district in Telugu Land, south of the River Krishna. Besides American Baptists, missionaries of the Am. Luth. Gen. Synod are working around Narasa- rawapetta and Dajanapalli, west of Guntur. Dr. Heyer entered the field in 1849. W. W. Pappus, Johann, D D. , b. 1549, at Lindau, on the Lake of Constance, d. 1610, at Strassburg. He studied at Strassburg (1562), and at Tiibin gen, was vicar in Reichenweyer, near Colmar, Alsace (1569) ; taught Hebrew in Strassburg (1570), and soon afterwards became prof essor of theology and pastor at the cathedral (1578). He was active in the interest of Lutheranism against Sturm and the Tetrapolitana. In 1598 he was charged by the magistrate to prepare a Kirchenordnung, by which the Strassburg clergy should be bound to the Formula of Con cord. Some ascribe to him the hymn, "Ich hab mein Sach Gott heimgestellt" (My cause is God's and I am still), tr. by Miss Winkworth, Ch. Book for England (1863). But the author of this hymn is probably Joh. Leon. A life of Pappus was written by W. Horning (Strassburg, 1891)- _ A. S. Paramentics. (From Paramentum, an or- riament.) This article will treat of the hang ings and vestments ot the altar, lectem, and pulpit, their names, materials, shapes, and or namentation, and the proper way to take care of them. An interest in this subj ect was revived by Paramenties 365 Parish Pastor WUhelm Loehe, who, in 1858, organized a Society for Paramentics. The art is cultivated in his deaconess house at Neuendettelsau and elsewhere. Moritz Meurer and the artist Beck did much to further it. Theodor Schaefer has written a little book, Ratgeber fuer Anschaf- fung und Erhaltung von Paramenten. (See also Der niedere Kirchendienst, H. Brand, 1897; M. E. Beck, Monatsbldtter fiir kirchl. Stickerei, and Columbus Theol. Mag., June, 1897, and the catalogues of dealers.) The linen cloths for the altar consist of the Altar-cloth, the Corporal, and the Veil. Be sides these, fine linen napkins of different sizes should be pro-rided, all embroidered vrith the same simple device in a comer. The Altar- cloth should cover the whole top of the altar, hang over the front not more than a hands- breadth, and at the sides as far, or even halfway to the floor. The top should be without orna ment, but the sides and front edge may be em broidered in white thread or silk -with some simple device. This cloth should always be on the altar — not at the communion only — over the other vestments; to signify that tiie altar is the Table of the Lord. The Corporal is a square of fine linen, embroid ered only on its edge, laid on the centre of the altar at the Holy Communion, over the Altar- cloth, that the sacred vessels may rest on it. The Veil is a square of the finest linen pro curable, delicately embroidered vrith a cross in the middle of one edge. It is used to cover the sacred vessels when they are on the altar. All these should be of smooth white linen, not damask, to avoid an unchurchly pattern. The altar should be protected by a cover of thick unbleached linen or of woollen stuff, cut to the exact shape of the top, under the vest ments. The other vestments may be of broad cloth, silk damask, or silk velvet. Broadcloth is best ; silk velvet is marked by everything set on it. Plush is hard to embroider and does not look well. Cotton plush soon becomes shabby. Gold and silver may be used in embroidery, but easily become tarnished. Silk can be used and appliqu6 work. Strong colors are preferable. The embroidery should not be allowed to neu- traUze the significant ground color. Yellow silk vrill heighten the color it is used upon. Gold should be used on green and crimson ; silver and scarlet on white ; and white on -riolet and purple. If gold is used on white, a fine edge of scarlet vrill make it stand out. The Dossal is a hanging above and behind the altar. The Frontal is a cover for the altar, covering its front and sides. Sometimes an ex tra cloth falls over the top of the Frontal, mak ing a heavily embroidered border around the top of the altar. This is the Super-frontal. If the altar itself be a work of art, only a broad piece is laid over it hanging down in front and covering but a half or third of the front. The portion hanging in front is richly embroidered. Itis called the Anlependium. Similar Antepen dia may be hung before the lectem and pulpit. All the cloths in use at one time should be of the same color and material and of harmonious design, and should indicate the season of the Church Year. If a congregation can have but one set, we would advise that it procure the red cloths (Schaefer says the green). The ecclesias tical colors are by consent these : From the be ginning of Advent to Christmas, Violet ; from Christmas Evetothe First Sunday after Epiph any, White ; from the Second Sunday after Epiphany to Quinquagesima inclusive. Green ; IromAsh Wednesday to Palm Sunday inclusive, Violet ; from Palm Sunday during Holy Week, Black ; from Easter to Eve of Pentecost, White ; Pentecost and Trinity Sunday, Red ; Sundays after Trinity, Green ; minor church festivals. Red ; Harvest, Reformation, etc.. Red. It is not necessary to relate the symbolism of these colors. Violet belongs to a penitential season ; white is the expression of heavenly joy. Some will pre fer white on all the Sundays untU Quinqua gesima ; others perceive that the lessons on Septuagesima-Quinquagesima are a preparation for Lent, and would connect these Sundays with those that follow ; and in many churches the black is used on Good Friday only. In reference to the designs for embroidery, we may say, they should be large, clear, and distinct. Almost any of the familiar Christian emblems may be portrayed ; and if words of Holy Scripture be used, the text should be brief and in harmony -with the device. Great atten tion should be given to the care of these cloths. They should be guarded against too bright sun light, dust, damp, want of air, gas-fumes, and coal-dust. They should not lie uncovered ex cept at service. They should not be handled, or rolled, and in folding the embroidery should be guarded. A special press should be made to keep them in. In putting them away, gold and silver embroidery should be covered with several sheets of yellow silk paper, in which there is no chlorine, and then -with a clean white cloth. Cleansing. — ^The altar linen should be washed apart from other cloths. Wax droppings may be removed by carefully scraping them vrith a knife, and then soaking the part in spirits of wine. Linen should be washed in lukewarm water with white soap. The soap should be rubbed on the linen in the water. Wine stains may be removed by holding the stained portion in boiling milk. Embroideries with yellow silk need much blueing ; -with turkey red it is well to drop a littie -rinegar in the water, and let the embroidery lie in it a little while. To take out rust stains, use oxalic acid. E. T. H. Parent Educational Society of the Evan gelical Luth, Church was organized at York, Pa., in 1835, and reorganized at Hagerstown, Md., in 1837. "The object of this society is to educate indigent pious young men for the gos pel ministry, in the Evangelical Lutheran Church." In the first twenty years the society gave the Church about two hundred pastors. When the work of beneficiary education was assumed by the district synods, the Parent Soci ety was left to depend on legacies and special donations. The headquarters of the society is at Gettysburg, Pa. J. W. R. Paris, Luth. Church in. See France. Parish. The term used in the U. S. for the entire sphere of the responsibility and activity of a pastor. It may comprise but one congrega- Parishes Parochial Sehools tion or be extended indefinitely, according to the vrillingness of the pastor and people con cerned, and the disposition of the Synod to which they belong. The grouping of congrega tions into parishes is, as a rale, by synodical authority, and is often exercised through the conferences, with consent of the congregations concerned. Efforts to accurately determine parish boundaries, and rigidly enforce their observance, have not met with general success in the older synods. Pastors are forbidden to perform official acts within the parishes of other pastors, unless by their consent. Owing to tem porary removals, and unwillingness of people to sunder their connection with their home churches, a congregation is sometimes widely scattered. (See report in Minutes of Minis terium of Pennsylvania for 1891.) Parishes, Large. It is unfortunate that there are large parishes in certain portions of our Church. They originated, at first, from the great lack of ministers to supply the rapidly multiplying number of congregations ; they are still maintained, in some districts, to the great detriment of the congregations connected vrith them. No one man can properly care for from four to eight congregations, whose members are scattered over a large extent of territory. The supply of ministers is still inadequate to es tablish a normal condition of things, as a pastor for every congregation ; but even if this want could be supplied, the congregations that have for a century or more been united in a parish are not prepared to assume the responsibility of maintaining their own pastor. For the present this state of affairs must be tolerated as a neces sary evil ; but it must be regarded as a great hindrance to the proper development of the Church in the various spheres of church activity. This state of affairs is found to exist especially in the older synods, in the country districts, where the other necessary evil of so-called union churches still exists. Here the Lutherans can, at best, use the church building only every alter nate Lord's day for divine service ; and hence a pastor's labors can be extended to two or more congregations and still be able to supply them with as many services as the condition of things -will admit. It is due to the Church that this evil be done away -with as soon as possible, and the normal condition established. S. E. O. Parlin, Olaus, Swedish American pastor, arrived in America 1750, pastor at Wicaco (Gloria Dei Church,) Philadelphia, preached in both Swedish and English, succeeded Acrelius as provost of the Swedish churches on the Dela ware, 1756 ; d. 1757. Highly commended by Acrelius. Parochial Schools. The establishment of schools with religious and secular instruction, organized and controlled by parishes and su pervised by the clergy, can be traced back to the sixth century, although the first official enact ments regarding such schools seem to havebeen issued in the seventh century at the Council of Constantinople, a. d. 680. The system appears to have been in operation for several centuries, until the instraction of the youth gradually passed into the hands of the various religious orders and became confined to the monasteries and convents. . -a . A new impetus to more extensive diffusion of secular and religious knowledge among the young was given by the Reformation. The uni versal ignorance of the people appealed power fully to Luther and his co-laborers, and through their efforts, in the absence of provision by the State for the maintenance of schools, a systematic plan was worked out, according to which the pastors were held to teach the children of their parish the fundamental principles of religion, as laid down in the Catechism, and as far as possible to raise the>tandard of intelligence by embracing the so-called common branches in their school plans. By degrees larger parishes elaborated this duty to such an extent, that special teachers were employed, superintended, and salaried by the Church. Such schools were named parochial or congregational schools. With modern provisions for instraction by the State, where due regard was had for re ligious branches, the parochial schools were abandoned and merged into the public school system, the Roman Catholics and Jews only maintaining separate schools for the inculca tion of their peculiar tenets. Of all the Protestant denominations the Luth. Church alone stood prepared to grasp the situation intelligently and vigorously to prosecute its purpose, to retain the youth vrith in its fold by a careful and thorough indoctrina tion and a school discipline based on Christian Ethics. [When H. M. Muehlenberg and his co-laborers organized the Luth. Church on this West ern Continent, the cause of parochial schools had, from the very beginning, a prominent place in the work of those fathers. At the first meeting of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania (1748), Brunnholtz made a full report on " The Condition of the Schools." {See Documentary History p. 10.) In 1750 flourishing schools are reported in all the congregations, except one. In 1796 the steps taken by the Assembly towards the introduction of "Free Schools" aroused the fear of the Ministerium that its parochial schools might suffer injury thereby, and a committee was appointed to address a petition to the Assembly on the subject. {Doc. Hist. p. 283 sq.) In 1804, 26 congregations re port 89 schools ; in 1813, 164 schools are reported by 52 pastors ; in 1820, 206 parochial schools in 84 congregations. But the system of public schools introduced in the fourth decade of this century graduaUy wrought a change. StUl up to the third quarter of the century many excel lent parochial schools are found in the Minis- teriums of Pennsylvania and New York. The mother congregation, St. Michael's and Zion's, in Philadelphia, was particularly active in this field. In 1744 Vigera is mentioned as its school master. In 1 76 1 the schoolhouse on Cheny St. was opened. In 1800 the congregation had four schools -with 250 children. At the time when the old congregation was divided into four parts (c. 1870) it had about 1,000 children in Its parochial schools in different parts of the city. Among the schoolmasters there were ex cellent Christian men, like Schmauk, Haas, Parsimonius 367 Passavant Lang, Schnabel, whose memory will forever be blessed in the Church. In the New York Min isterium the number of parochial schools is considerably larger in proportion than in Penn sylvania. The serious difficulty with which the parochial school system had to contend in these two oldest synods is the lack of a teachers' seminary. In 1871 a society for the founding of such an institution was organized in New York, and Rev. J. H. Baden brought the matter before the General Council, where it was heEurtily recommended. Rev. G. W. Drees, as the agent for this cause, secured about $7,500 subscriptions, but the plan finally failed from lack of proper support. A. S.] A new impetus was given the parochial school by the immigration of a Saxon colony of Lu therans and the organization of the Missouri Synod. Besides the eamest desire to bring up their children in the faith of the fathers, the apparent necessity to maintain and propagate their mother tongue in their midst was a power ful second factor to foster schools in which both these ends could be accomplished. Hence the organization of a school in every congregation or parish, if at all possible, was at once effected, the pastor in most cases supplying the lack of properly trained teachers by his own devotion. From this centre principally the interest in parochial schools gradually radiated in every direction, untU all Luth. bodies in the United States took up the question with more or less zeal, and these educational institutions soon became indispensable adjuncts of the Church in the Middle and Western States. The ownership of the parochial school is vested in the congregation, which exercises contiol over all matters pertaining thereto through a school board elected from its member ship. The immediate supervision is generally delegated to the pastor. As a rale the teachers are regularly called by the congregation with out time-limit and with fixed salaries. All funds required for conducting the schools are furnished by fixed and graded tuition, or by the congregational treasury, or from both sources combined. The school year embraces from 35 to 48 weeks vrith holiday and summer vacations, frequently conforming to the public school year. In the branches taught a wide di versity is noticeable. Religious instruction, em bracing Bible history. Catechism, hymns, and Bible reading, is the distinguishing feature of all parish schools ; elementary German and the common branches are carried as far as time and opportunity permit. In schools, where from three to six teachers are employed, the graded system prevails, adapting itself as nearly as pos sible to the corresponding grades ofthe common schools. More and more the availability of thoroughly trained teachers has worked gratify ing changes in this respect, and has led to a decided elevation of efficiency in the whole system. According to the latest obtainable official statistics, the Luth. synods of the United States report a grand total of 210,234 children in parochial schools, instructed by 2,892 regular teachers and pastors. T. M. Parsimonius, George. The name was Karg, which, after the custom of the times, was Latinized ; b. Heroldingen, 1512 ; superintend ent of Bayreuth ; denied the doctrine of the active obedience of Christ, but retracted in 1570; d. 1576. Parsimonius (Karg), John, a Wuertem berg pastor, who was a pupil of Luther and Melanchthon, and from 1569-89 was head ofthe cloister-school and evangelical abbot at Hir schau. Passavant, William Alfred, D. D., b. of Huguenot ancestry at Zelienople, Butler Co., Pa., Oct. 9, 1821 ; grandson of the agent of Frankfort-on-the-Main in Paris during the French Revolution ; graduate of Jefferson Col lege, Canonsburg (1840) ; and of the seminary at Gettysburg ; pastor at Baltimore (1842-1844), and Pittsburgh (1844-55) ; during his student days, published the first Lutheran Almanac ; and while at Baltimore was on the staff of the Observer; in 1845, began a small missionary periodical, which grew into a large family weekly. The Missionary, and was continued until, in 1861, it was merged into The Lutheran of Philadelphia, of which he remained for many years co-editor ; founded at Pittsburgh, in 1880, The Workman, ot which he was editor at his death. His life was devoted principally to the founding and administration of benevolent institutions. While attending as a delegate the sessions of the Evangelical Alliance in London in 1845, he became interested in an institution of mercy, and founded in Pittsburgh in 1849 a hospital, and, about the same time, an orphan age, from which the orphanages at Zelienople and Rochester, Pa. , grew. In the interests of these institutions, and by the co-operation of Pastor Fliedner of Kaiserswerth, the order of Protestant deaconesses was established by the introduction of several of the sisters from that institution. These were the first deaconesses in America, andj'although this form of church serv ice is now generally adopted by the various Prot estant churches, it encountered at first strong prejudice on the part of those who pronounced it a symptom of Romanizing tendencies. Hospitals were founded in Milwaukee, Chicago, and Jacksonville, 111. ; and the orphanages at Mount Vernon, N. Y., Germantown, Pa., and Boston, Mass., owed their beginnings more or less to his agency. In the educational interests of the Church, he founded and fostered Con- noquenesing Academy at Zelienople and Thiel Hall at Water Cure, Beaver Co., the latter of which, by the generosity of A. Louis Thiel, act ing under his suggestions, became in 1870 Thiel College at Greenville, Pa. The first steps to wards the founding of the Theological Semi nary at Chicago were taken and the ground for it presented by him in 1868, although the semi nary did not open until 1891. For his various institutions he secured over f 1,000,000. During the Civil War he co-operated vrith Miss Doro thea L- Dix and others in the care of the sick and wounded soldiers. He was the founder of the Pittsburgh Synod, one of the founders of the General Council, and the chief organizer of the home missionary work of both bodies. He had superior gifts as a preacher. D. Pittsburgh, Pa., 1894. H. E, J. Passion Ilistory 368 Pastoral Theology Passion History, a harmony of the accounts of the Evangelists of the Lord's Passion. The one prepared by Bugenhagen had the widest ac ceptance. Others authorized by the national churches of Hanover, Wuertemberg, and other countries have attained local usage only. The Passion history is read in consecutive portions in place of the Scripture lessons at the Lenten services of the Church. (Cf. Herold, Passah ; Schoeberlein, Die heilige Passion. ) G. U. W. Passion Music, a musical arrangement and rendering of the Lord's Passion. The reading or chanting of the Passion history during Holy Week is an ancient custom of the Christian Church. Since the fifth century the records of the different Evangelists were used for differ ent days, Matthew on Palm Sunday, Mark on Tuesday, Luke on Wednesday, John on Good Friday. To make it more dramatic, the chant ing was distributed among different priests {per personas), the parochus taking the words of Christ, the deacon those of the Evangelist, the sub-deacon those of the other persons. Very soon the collective utterances {turbes) were written in parts for the choir. This form is still in use in the Roman Catholic Church. The Luth. Church of the sixteenth century re tained it in many places, though Luther did not favor it. Some Agenda ordered the Passion history to be read (Brunswick, 1528), or it was arranged in hymns, the different stanzas being sung between the reading of the Bible text. (See Sebald Heyden's hymn "O Mensch, bewein dein Suende gross," 23 stanzas of 12 lines. ) John Walther arranged the Passion of Matthew and John for ¦ German text, 1530, and another with four part settings, in 1552. Sim ilar anangements for the Luth. service were made by Ant. Scandellus (1570), Keuchenthal (1573), Selnecker (1587), Melchior Vulpius (1613), and others, either purely recitative, or with four part choruses for the turbes. (See Schoeber lein, second vol., p. 357 sqq. He gives the Passion music of Thomas Mancinus, aud that of Barthol. Gesius.) These musical settings of the Passion held their place in some Luth. churches until recent times, the congregation taking part with the singing of appropriate hymns. A new style of Passion music was inau gurated by Heinrich Schuetz in the seventeenth century, substituting here and there the modem form of the recitative for the ancient chant, and working up the choruses in a more dramatic style. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century the influence of the Italian opera rapidly helped to modernize and degrade the solemn Passion music. But the reaction came through Joh. Sebast. Bach, in his Johannes Passion (1724), and particularly his Matthseus Passion (1728), the master pieces of sacred music in our Luth. Church. But even these soon fell into oblirion, until Mendelssohn, March, 1829, once more brought out the Matthaeus Passion in the Sing-Akademie, at Berlin. A. S. Passion Season. See Lbnt. Passion Sunday or Judica. See Church Ybar. Passion Week, See Church Ybar. Pastor. See Pastorai, Theology and Ministry. Pastoral Conferences. Besides the district conferences, into which synods are divided, and which consist of ministers and congrega tions, it is usual for pastors living near to each other to organize voluntary pastoral confer ences, in which the Word of God is studied, and papers on various theological or practical topics are read and discussed. They furnish op portunity for common worship, with especial prayer for one another in the trials and temp tations of the pastoral office, and for mutual confession and encouragement. In order that there may be no waste of time, they should ad here to a set of rules and an order of busi ness. E. T. H. Pastoral Theology is that part of practical theology which treats of the activity of the minister as pastor. It is not the specialization of general moral principles for the pastor as in dividual, but the theory of his official pastoral conduct. It is also called Poimenik (Greek, poimen, shepherd). The pastor is shepherd (Eph. 4 : II ; cf. i Pet 2 : 25 ; John 10 : 12 ; Ps. 23), to feed the Church of God, which He purchased with his own blood (Acts 20 : 28), to seek the lost, bind up the broken, heal the sick, care for the weak, defend the strong (Ezek. 34 : 16 ; Acts 20 : 29). The subjects are, not only the whole Church, but also individual members in their indiv. class, need, weakness, and others who are to be won for the Kingdom. The latter are embraced in inner mission activity, which, indi-ridual or organized, ought to be in cluded under pastoral theology. The Church is to be made more spiritual by contending ag. common sins and dangers, such as e. g. drunk enness, abuse of the Lord's day, unbelief and superstition, antichristian press, etc., and by offering larger spiritual advantages in increased services, Bible-hours, etc. The individuals in their class feeling (capital, labor, socialistic tendencies), or as sick, dying, mourning, af flicted, doubting, spirituaUy dead, insane, crim inals, are to be approached vrith the special chastisement or consolation of the Word appli cable to them. The carrying out of the pastoral activity presupposes confession and absolution, whether in the original Luth. form of private absolution, or the prevalent general declaration of forgiveness before communion, or the vol untary confession of the sick, etc. The en forcement of pastoral work necessitates church discipline. For all this work the pastor must be qualified by personal faith, love, patience, humility, courage, intercession, by his gifts (spiritual discernment, power of applying the Word, aptness to teacn, knowledge of the human heart, tact, etc.) improved by constant study of the Word and the hymnology of the Church and the spirituality of life in his own home. Lit. : Vorta, Pastorale Lutheri ; Ti^ehe, Luther as Pastor ; Hartmann, Pastorale Evangelicum ; Deyling, Instit. prudenties pastoralis ; Wal ther, Amer. Luth. Pastoral-Theol.; Lohe, Der evang. Geistliche; Biichsel, Erinnerung. aus dem Leben eines evang. Landgeistlichen ; Pal- Pastoral Tlsltation 369 Pastors' Salaries mer, Pastoral-Theol.; Harms, Pastoral-Theol.; Vilmar, Lehrbuch der Pastoral-Theol.; Kiibel, Umriss der Pastoral-Theol.; also the pract. theol. of V. Zezschwitz, T. Harnack, Knoke, Achelis. J. H. Pastoral Visitation. This is an important part of individual soul-cure, or individual poi- menics. The pastor as a fisher must go out to catch men (Matt. 4:19; Mark 1:17; Luke 5 : 10) . As a servant he must go wherever he can reach outsiders and compel them to come in ( Luke 14 : 23) . As a shepherd he must know his sheep, feed them, and seek the lost (John 10:3, 4, 14, 16, and 21:15-17; Luke 15:4; Acts 20:28; I Pet. 5:2). As a watchman he must warn all who are in danger ( Ez. 3 : 17-21 ; 33:7-16; Heb. 13:17). AU this he can do only by -risiting and personally intervie-wing all who need his ministrations, have no other pas tor, and are in his reach. In this he must follow the footsteps of Christ (Is. 40:11; John 4:6 ff.; 10:3, 4, 14, 16; Luke 10 : 38-42 ; 22 : 31 ; Matt. 26 : 6). Thus also did Paul (Acts 20 : 20, 26, 31 ; 1 Thess. 2:11). Next to his public ministiations such -risita tion is of the most vital importance. He who neglects or perverts it must give account for souls lost through his neglect. A real pastoral visit is not a merely social -risit, nor an inquisitorial visit, nor a cold, per functory, official call. Its purpose is to win the confidence of, know and do good to each indi- -ridual thus -risited. A kindly and tactful treat ment is to open each heart and life to him. He is to give instmction, counsel, comfort, or warn ing as each case may require. Every such visit ought to leave encouragement, inspiration, and resolution for a better life. After such a visit the impression should be that a man of God has been in the house. Thus this practice can substitute and compen sate for that evangelical private confession which we have, to a large extent, and, perhaps unfor tunately, lost. It is of -wider application than the latter, because an evangelical church could never make confession compulsory. But the pastor can go to those who would not come to him. The spirit and method of soul-cure {Seel sorge) will be influenced and determined by doctrinal views. What and for whom is the Church ? What is the office and function of the ministry ? Is the Word the organ of the Holy Spirit ? Are the sacraments channels of grace ? What is the relation of baptized children to the Church ? What is the relation of conversion to regeneration, and how is conversion effected? What is the nature of justification and what is its relation to sanetification ? The peculiar primitive and biblical doctrines of the Luth. Church on these and other subjects make the visitation of a Luth. pastor differ from that of a Reformed pastor. But on this account the Luth. should be all the more eamest and dili gent. G. H. G. Pastors' and Widows' Funds. From 1783, the Mother Synod distributed annually the income of legacies in part to aged and feeble pastors, and the widows of pastors. Similar Synodical provision continues to. the present. although the number of persons benefited is small. Special funds were provided within a number of synods, as the New York Ministerium and Maryland Synod. The N. Y. Ministerium resolved ( 1834) to use the income of the hymn-book of 1816, which was enlarged, for the support of disabled pastors and their vridows, orphans, etc. In 1837 this was called the Widows' Fund, to which any one pa3dng $3 annually is entitled. The Streit Legacy money (see Nicum, Gesch. des N. Y. Mm., p. 901) was also paid into this fund. Its present capital is 115,591.24. Besides, the N. Y. Min. has had a tieasury for assistance of minis ters, as many of the later pastors did not join the Widows' Fund. For a number of years a discussion has been carried on, without result, to create a universal effective sustentation fund. In the General Synod the subject was agitated in 1831, but a beginning was not made until 1837, when profits from sale of hymn-books and catechisms were set apart to this service. Its efficiency for an entire generation was exceed ingly contracted. Great progress has been made since 1872, when it assisted five persons, at an expenditure of five hundred dollars, to 1899, when its beneficiaries numbered seventy, and its expenditures f 15, 000. It has an endow ment of $17,000, and the synods are asked to secure ten cents per annum from each com municant for this purpose. Its assets are increased by occasional legacies. The project of a sustentation fund, similar to that of the Free Church of Scotland (which now distrib utes over jSi,ooo annually to each pastor,, whether in service or superannuated, thus af fording a support for those in the weakest fields)^ was _ agitated some twenty years ago in tha Ministerium of Pennsylvania, but thus far has borne no fruit. H. E. J. Pastors' Salaries. That the churches are under obligation to properly support their pas tors is clearly stated in the Scnptures : Matt. 10 : 10 ; Luke 10 : 4-8 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 1-14 ; Gal. 6 : 6 ; 1 Tim. 51: 17. The salary should be adequate to the needs of the pastor, and should be cheer fully given. Some people do not consider that it cost their pastor many years of preparation, that he could not earn anything during these years, that he also spent a considerable sum for board, tuition, clothing, and books, and that he has thus a capital invested whicli is by far greater than that which the average business man has to begin with. Moreover, a stiong constitution is required in order to endure the strain of years of preparation, and in addition a good memory and a quick and ready mind in order to grasp and master the many subjects, as languages, mathematics, sciences, philosophy, etc. If all this capital had been invested in business pursuits, what returns could not rea sonably be expected ? The support which Dr H. M. Muhlenberg and Dr. J. C. Kunze re ceived was meagre, indeed. Dr. M., in a letter dated March 14, 1754, states that he contemplates seUiug his 80 acres of laud at Tulpehocken and moving South where land is cheaper, and found an asylum for himself and family and for his destitute co-laborers. Dr. Kunze, fifty years later, says that he has difficulty in meeting his Patristics 370 Patristics obligations and providing his children with clothing for the winter, although he derived, besides his salary, an income from boarding members of Congress, then in session in New York, and as official German translator to that body. The salaries paid in the East at present range from between f400, generally including par sonage, and $3,ooo.with or without parsonage. In the large cities, where the population is dense, some ministers have a large income, in addition to their fixed salary, from baptisms, confirmations, marriages, and funerals. The average amount of salary paid is between $700 and f 800. In the South and West salaries are lower. Some of the general boards of home mis sion in the West provide their missionaries with a small sum of money, about $25, and a horse, and send them away to their destination, with the understanding that they look out for their support as best they can ; in other words, they receive no salary. J. N. Patristics. The study of the lives and teachings of the writers of the Early Christian Church. The Council of Trent forbade the in terpretation of the Holy Scriptures in a sense contrary to the unanimous consent of the Fathers. Mohler inhis Symbolik (8th ed., p. 381) acknowledges that ' ' any student of the Holy Fathers will find that they exhibit a great variety in unity in the manner in which they appropriate the one Gospel or demonstrate or develop it or philosophize or reflect upon it. One has a deeper, another a sharper and clearer, apprehension ; one uses one talent, another, another. The Catholic may prefer one of the Fathers before another. Some of their theories may not be accepted by the Church. In one sense they may be called representatives of be lieving antiquity as witnesses of the original doctrine, while they may have had their special views and speculations. But where it is the faith of the Universal Church that speaks through them, and not their own opinion, they have a binding authority. It is not their per sonal authority, but the authority of tradition, by which they themselves are bound, and which they only echo. Only one doctrine is present through the entire history of the Church. We will not and cannot believe anything else than what our fathers believed before us. But we are not bound to their peculiarities. All of the Fathers derive the same doctrine of faith and morals from the Holy Scriptures, each in his especial manner, so that they are a model for all times. A wider knowledge of language and more abundant exegetical means of every kind do indeed enable us to explain many things better than they did, without departing in the least from the unanimous exegesis of the Church Fathers. The appeal to the Fathers is grounded on a claim of the Catholic Church to be that institution of the Lord in which the doctrine of salvation and the right understand ing of it has been deposited by the immediate instruction of the Apostles and the divine power ofthe Holy Ghost." We have given this most favorable statement of the Romish position in order to set against it the very words of our Confessions and of Luther. In the introduction to the Epitome in the Formula of Concord, the declaration is made, " Other writings of ancient and modem teachers, whatever reputation they may have, should not be regarded as of equal authority with the Holy Scriptures ; but should altogether be subordinated to them, and should not be received other or further than as witnesses in what manner and in what places since the time of the Apostles the doctrine of the Prophets and Apostles was preserved." The Augs. Conf. (after Art. XXI.) says: "This is about the sum of doctrine among us, in which can be seen that there is nothing which is discrepant with the Scriptures or with the Church Catholic, or even with the Roman Church, so far as that Church is known from the writings of the Fathers. ' ' There are numerous appeals in the Augs. Conf. to the Fathers. In the Apology, as might have been expected from the tenor of its argument concerning sin and grace, the appeal is almost exclusively to the Fathers of the Western Church. Their holy life is com mended ; " their writings testify that sometimes even they built stubble on the foundation, but this did not overthrow their faith ; " " there is a great diversity among them ; " " they were men and could err and be deceived;" "were they alive and saw their sayings alleged as pretexts for the notorious, falsehoods which the adver saries teach concerning the opus operatum, they would interpret themselves far differently." Their authority is appealed to as to our need of mercy, and to show that they taught that we are justified for Christ's sake and not for the sake of human services. ' ' We have testimonies for our belief not only from the Scriptures but also from the Fathers. " " The adversaries mutilate and distort many of their expressions. The Apology quotes the Fathers to confute the Romanists, but always with discernment and in subordination to the Holy Scriptures. The Catalogue of Testimonies, which Andrese and Chemnitz added to Art. VIII. of the Formula of Concord, appeals principally to the Greek Fathers to establish the harmony of the de veloped doctrine of the Person of Christ vrith the teaching of the Early Church ; but they are careful to add, "These testimonies of the teachers of the Early Church have been here set forth, not because our Christian faith has been founded on human authority, for the true saving faith should be founded on no new or old church teachers, but on God's Word alone." Many characteristic remarks on the Fathers are preserved in Luther's Table Talk. He says : "In reading their writings, we feel that they believe in Christ as we do. Bernard is golden when he preaches ; but in disputing he often contradicts himself. Augustine is easUy first, Ambrose second, Bemard third. Tertullian is a very Carlstadt ; Cyril has the best sayings ; Cyprian the Martyr is a weak theologian ; Theophylact is the best exegete and interpreter of St. Paul ; Chrysostom was a rhetorician, and did not always hit the mark. The Fathers lived better than they wrote. Jerome on Matt. , Gal. , Titus, is cold ; Ambrose on Gen. is thin. The Patronat 371 Pedersen Papists do not interpret the sayings of the Fathers by the context and the occasion. We must read them with discernment, weigh and consider them, for they mingle what is irrele vant and monkish, and build wood, hay, and stubble, which the fire vrill consume. If Augus tine lived now, he would be on our side." Melanchthon also was a close student of the Fathers. (See his De ecclesia et autoritate verbi Dei, 1560 ; and Sententia veter^m de coena Domini, i$2,o, C. R. 23.) Chemnitz con siders the Canon of Trent {Examen, I. viii.), and confutes the Roman position from the Fathers themselves. Besides Chemnitz, Flac- cius lUjrricus is especially to be mentioned. The Luth. doctrines, e. g. on the person of Christ, the Holy Supper, and justification by faith, cannot be appreciated apart from the teachings ofthe Greek Fathers and the Doctors of the Westem Church. The Reformers asserted the sole authority of the Holy Scriptures. On one hand, it has been argued that the first ages, the ages of the "undirided Church," could claim the guidance of the Holy Spirit in a peculiar measure. This was the theory of George Witzel in the Reformation era ; of Calix tus afterwards, and of many writeirs of the Anglican Communion. But the Holy Spirit is the guide of the Church from the beginning to the end of its course, in and through the Holy Scriptures. In the progress of time, Christian experience and means of interpretation, and the development of doctrine, have accumulated, so that these ages can understand the Scriptures better than the early ages did. The Fathers are of peculiar value to us as witnesses to the esti mation in which the Scriptures have been held from the beginning, to the unaltered and un alterable faith of the Church, and to the interpretation of Scripture given in their times. They show the beginnings and progress of institutions and doctrines. When some of them wrote, the language of the New Testa ment was a spoken tongue, and they were not distant from the customs and the habits of thought in which the New Testament was writ ten. The great contrast between their methods and resiUts and ours is useful as a check and a corrective. And we learn from a study of their books that our beliefs are the proper de velopment of their fundamental positions. The same principles and reasoning apply to the so- caUed Fathers of the Luth. Church. E. T. H. Patronat. OriginaUy, the right of the lord of the soil, as owner and protector of the church thereon, to appoint and remove the pastor. At present, the right of certain persons in Europe to nominate, and in some instances to appoint, a pastor. F. W. W. Patzke, Johann Samuel, b. 1727, at Frank furt a. O., d. 1787, atMagdeburg. He studied at Frankfurt and Halle, was pastor at Worms- feld and Stolzenberg (1755), Linzen, Kurmark (1759), Magdeburg, Church of the Holy Spirit (1762), Senior Ministerii (1769). Authorofthe hymns " Der Du das Loos von meinen Tagen " (Wuertemberg H. B.) and "Lobt den Herm! die Morgensonne " (Praise the Lord, the sun of moming), tr. by Dr. J. A. Seiss, General Coun cil's S, S. Book, old edition. A. S. Pauli, Joachim, hymn-writer, b. in Wils- nack prior to 1656, known espec. for "Zion, gib dich nur zufrieden," "O Jesu, Christe, Gottes Sohn." Paulus, Nelaprolu, Telegu missionary, b. in the Palnaud, about 1842, a convert and spiritual child of Heyer and Groning ; after serving with great success as colporteur and catechist, ordained according to resolution of Ministerium of Pennsylvania, in 1878 ; baptized 8,000 converts ; d. 1897. His field was in the Jagurapud district, south of Rajahmundry. Feasants' War. This great social upheaval, in 1524 and 1525, was not a fruit of the Refor mation, although closely connected with it. The condition of the peasants of Germany, de prived of political rights, oppressed by taxation, and despised by the nobihty (among them ec clesiastical princes), was deplorable. Since the last decade of the fifteenth century repeated out breaks had occurred. Then came the Refor mation with its doctrine of evangelical liberty. The peasants understood this to mean liberation from their burdens. This mistake was foment ed by fanatical Anabaptist preachers, especially Thomas Muenzer. He disseminated his revolu tionary doctrine of a heavenly kingdom of earthly equality, and thereby the seeds of re volt, from Saxony to Wuertemberg. The insur rection began in southwest Germany, where the proximity of free Switzerland was not without influence. The uprising soon spread through the pro-rinces on both sides of the Rhine. In this region the movement partook more of the character of a social revolution. But in Thu ringia, where Muenzer carried on his agitation with the reputation of a prophet, there was more religious fanaticism. Everywhere the peasants resorted to violence and destraction to attain their ends. They were put down by force and with fearful slaughter, in southwest Germany by the Suabian League (a combination of princes and cities covering all Suabia and Franconia) ; in Thuringia by the evangelical princes, John of Saxony and Philip of Hesse. In the latter region their fate was decided at the bloody battle of Frankenhausen. Muenzer was executed with fearful torture. The peasants had expected sympathy from Luther, and in a measure ob tained it. But he had no patience vrith their revolt. In March, 1525, he wrote an " Exhorta tion to Peace Concerning the Twelve Articles of the Peasants in Suabia ' ' ; but soon afterwards he wrote " Against the Peasant Bands of Mur derers and Robbers." The movement ended as it began, in violence and cruelty, and produced no salutary effect. A. G. V. Pedersen, Christian, 1480-1554, after study ing at Paris became chancellor of the Arch bishop of Lund in 1522, but fled in 1525 to the exiled Danish King, Christian II. , in the Nether lands, where he became an advocate of the Reformation. When Christian II. was im prisoned at Sonderborg, in 1532, Pedersen set tled as a printer at Malmo, where the last years of his life were spent. He may be regarded as the founder of modern Danish literature. He published at Antwerp, in 1529, a translation of the Old Testament into Danish, and of the Pedersson 373 Pericope Psalms in 1531, and was one of the translators of the Danish Bible issued by Christian IIL, in 1550. His writings were numerous and varied, dealing with religious, historical, medical, and philological subjects. E. G. L. Pedersson, Geble, Bishop of Bergen, 1537- 1557. and first Luth. Bishop of Norway, for which position he had been ordained by Bugen hagen. He established and conducted a school at Bergen for the training of an evangelical clergy, and succeeded before his death in intro ducing the doctrines of the gospel into nearly all the congregations of his diocese. E. G. L. Pelagianism. Contemporaneously with Nestorianism, the rationalistic heresy which constructed a Christ who could not have been the Redeemer of the world, another rationalistic error sprang up about 410, whereby the Re deemer was made superfluous. Peiagius, a learned British monk at Rome, and his friend Ccelestius, denied the relation of sin and grace as taught in the Scriptures. Earlier teachers, as Clement of Rome, Justin, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Lactantius, Cyril of Jerusalem, Hilary, Chrysostom, had used objectionable language on this subject occasionally. But Peiagius and Ccelestius went far beyond them and maintained that Adam must have died even if he had not sinned ; that Adam's sin had harmed him only and not the whole human race ; that infants were born in the same state in which Adam was before the fall ; that the law as well as the gospel was able to lead sin ners to heaven ; that before Christ was come there were men without sin ; that God did not demand what he knew man could not perform ; that man might do the will of God without the aid of grace, though less easily than when as sisted by grace ; that man, by the proper exer cise of his free will, might acquire faith and prepare himself for grace. Pelagianism for a time succeeded, by an amphibolical use of the word ' ' grace " and other subterfuges, to pass for orthodox, as at the Synods of Jerusalem and Lydda (415), and before Zosimus of Rome, but was condemned by the Synods of Carthage (412, 416, and 418), and by the Council of Ephesus (431). Its chief opponent was Augustine, who, however, committed himself to an error in ex- cessu by teaching the irresistibility of grace in the elect. In its later form as Semipelagianism this heresy continued to leaven the theology of the Middle Ages, and was the chief error of Erasmus in his Diatribe de Libero Arbitrio, against which Luther upheld the doctrine of grace in his book De Servo Arbitrio. Arminian ism is also permeated by Pelagianizing elements, which are, likewise, the unsound principle in the various forms of synergism to this day. A. L. G. Pennsylvania, Lutherans in, statistics for 1890 : Congregations, 1,292 ; communicants, 219,725, divided as follows : Cong. Comm. General Synod, . . . 596 78,938 General Council, . . . 616 124,163 Synodical Conference, . 26 3,097 Joint Synod of Ohio, . 32 5,552 Norwegian Church, . . 4 184 Immanuel, 4 1,450 Independent 18 3,063 In the following counties the Lutherans are particularly strong, as shown by the number of communicants : Berks, 21,044 ; York, 12,836 ; Lehigh, 12,641 ; AUegheny, 11,870 ; Northamp ton, 11,850 ; Schuylkill, 9,504 ; Lancaster, 8,271 ; Montgomery, 7,374; Bucks, 7,420; North umberland, 6,234 ; Dauphin, 5,994 ; Westmore land, 5,252; Lebanon, 4,911. In Philadelphia there were 41 churches with 11,653 communi cants. Lutherans were reported in all counties but three. A revision to-day would reduce the number to one. The General Council had con gregations in all but 13, and the General Synod in all but 15 counties. The strength of the former is in the eastern part of the state ; that of the latter in the centre and the central south ern counties. Pennsylvania Germans. Immigrants from Germany settled in Pennsylvania asearlyas 1683. In the eighteenth century they arrived in increas ing numbers. So great was their number by the middle of the eighteenth century, that the EngUsh Governor expressed his fear that they would have the controlling power in the colony. Pennsylvania Germans are the descendants of German immigrants born in Pennsylvania. The early settlers and their descendants had many trials, but by their industry, economy and honesty, and services in the home, school, busi ness pursuits, state and church have made Penn sylvania a prosperous commonwealth. Many Pennsylvania Germans settled in other parts of the Union, and have been important factors in the development of other states. The services of Pennsylvania Germans have heretofore been ignored by many writers of American history. The Pennsylvania-German Society, organized in 1891, is in a prosperous condition and is ren dering most valuable serrices in preserving the history of German and Swiss settlers and their descendants, as may be seen in the successive large volumes of the Proceedings of the society published annually. F. J. F. S. Pennsylvania Ministerium. See Syn ods (ii.). Pennsylvania (Central) Synod. See Syn ods (L). Pennsylvania (East) Synod. See Syn ods (I.). Pennsylvania (West) Synod. See S-vn- ODS (I.). Pentecost. See Church Year. Perichoresis is the Greek dogmatic term for most intimate union, communion, and inter penetration. It was appUed by the old Luth. dogmaticians to the Trinity, where an essential perichoresis takes place (John 14 : 11 ; 17 : 21), and to the natures in Christ, where there is only a personal and not mutual interpenetration, i. e. only the human nature is filled and pene trated by the divine because the centie of the person is the divine ego. Pericope. a Greek word, meaning a section, applied to the sections of the Gospels and of the Epistles selected to be the fixed lessons of the Sundays and Festivals. In the ancient syna gogue, the Law and the Prophets were each divided into 54 such lessons. It is probable Pericope 373 Persecution of Lutherans that such lessons were ananged for the prin cipal feasts in the Christian Church, probably from the Old Testament from the beginning, and from the New Testament as soon as it was written and in the possession of the churches. At pther times, the choice of the lessons may have been free, or the Bible may have been read in course ; but the fixed anangement may be traced in the Greek Church to the time of St. Chrysostom. The system of the Western Church, which differs from that of the Eastern churches, and also from the Galilean, Moza- rabic, and Ambrosian lectionaries, doubtless can be tiaced to St. Jerome, who confessedly found ed it on customs obtaining in his time. This, variously modified, had reached substantial completeness in the time of Charlemagne. It is preserved to us in MSS., each of which bears the name Comes, i. e. Companion. At first, Luther criticised the system of Gos pels and Epistles. The latter he thought had been selected by one blindly attached to good works over against faith. He favored reading chapters in their order. Osiander agreed with the Swiss and Strassburg reformers in decided rejection of them, because they were short pas sages, taken out of connection. But in the German Mass (i52(r),'lja.tnex advised that they be retained and be supplemented by continuous exposition of the Old and New Testaments in the minor services. This became and has re mained the custom of the Luth. churches. The Luth. system of pericopes is found in old service-books and in the sermons or postils of Luther and others. They took the list as they found it, making few changes ; the most note worthy of which is the addition oithe parable of the Ten Virgins as the Gospel for the Last Sunday of the Church Year, a change by some ascribed to Luther, by Ranke to Bugenhagen or one of his assistants. There was some confusion in the pre-reformation Missals. The introduc tion of Trinity Sunday in 1264 disarranged the order somewhat, and some of the Epistles were attached to different Gospels. The Council of Trent finally fixed the present order of the Roman Church. Except in the Christmas Gospel, the order of the Luth. Church agrees vrith that of the Carolingian Comes. It is in teresting to note that a Missal of Bamberg (1499) and one of Constance (1498) both number the Sundays '^ post Trinitatis," after Trinity, and have the same pericopes which are in our Luth. service (and in the Book of Common Prayer, taken from the Saram Missal), while a Nuremberg Missal of 1498 (like the others, in the library of the Seminary at Mt. Airy, Phila.) numbers the Sundays '^ post Pen- tecosten," after Pentecost, and has the lections of the modern Roman service. In some Luth. churches alternate lists of pericopes have been arranged (Hanover, Sweden), and others have been published by Scholars ; but they have not borne the criticism ofthe Church. It is the rale in the Luth. Church to preach at the principal serrice on the Gospel for the day. This is prescribed as a duty in some Chnrch Orders. Devout persons read the Gos pel and Epistle before coming to church, and expect to hear the pericope expounded and ap plied, and all the parts of the service are in harmony with it. Instead of becoming weary of these familiar passages, they expect their re- cunence. Their richness, order, relations, and completeness raise the service of the church above the idiosyncrasies of the preacher and the tone of the world, and ensure the systematic and complete instruction of the people. (See Church Year. ) E. T. H. Persecution of Lutherans. The Reforma tion was from the beginning confronted by the spirit of persecution inherent in the Roman Catholic Church. It was not owing to the enemies of Luther that he was not made a martyr. The first martyrs of the evangelical faith were the two members of the Augustinian order, Joh. Voes and Henry Esch, whose death Luther celebrated in "A Song of the Two Christian Martyrs Burned at Brussels" (July i, 1523) . The adherents of Luther were especially persecuted in the Netherlands, in Austria, and in Bavaria. Caspar Tauber, who suffered mar tyrdom at Vienna in 1524, and Leonhard Kaeser, who was burned at Passau in 1527, are noted victims of persecution. The north of Germany was not free from religious oppression. Henry von Zutphen sealed his faith with his blood in Ditmarsh in 1524. The Peasants' War furnished an easy opportunity for persecution, and many were killed solely on account of their evangel ical faith. After the unhappy defeat of the Protestants in the Smalcald War, the introduction of the Interim in 1548 brought great hardships upon the Lutherans, especially upon the pastors in South Germany, hundreds of whom were driven into exile. Among the notable confessors were Martin Frecht, pastor of Ulm, and John Brenz, whose escape from Spanish soldiers was almost marvellous. The Counter-Reformation, which began im mediately after the Peace of Augsburg m 1555, was accomplished largely by force. The be ginning was made in Bavaria, where evangel ical pastors and laymen were expelled from the country. Other Catholic princes, especially the bishops with secular power, followed the ex ample of Bavaria. In Austria and the coun tries united with it, the Luth. and Reformed faith, which had spread very extensively, was almost exterminated during the Counter-Ref ormation and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War, to which Roman Catholic oppression finally led. A final outbreak of Catholic fanaticism and •riolence occurred in 1731 in the bishopric of Salzburg, when over 20,000 Lutherans were driven into exile. The relations between Lutherans and Re formed were often maned by mutual intoler ance. In the Calvinizing of Luth. pro-rinces like the Palatinate, Anhalt, Hesse, and Bran denburg, Luth. pastors were forced out of the country. The life of John Arnd furnishes an instance. The efforts made at different times by the princes of Brandenburg to bring about a union between their Luth. and Reformed sub jects, caused much annoyance to resisting Luth. pastors, like the famous poet Paul Gerhardt in Persia 374 Petri the seventeenth century, and in the present century issued in positive persecution of the Old Lutherans of Prussia ( 1834). The efforts of the Russian government to unify that empire in language and religion has led to much oppres sion of the Lutherans in the Baltic provinces -. during the last decade. A. G. V. Persia, Lutherans in. since 1880 a Nesto rian, Pera Yohannes, who was educated at Her mannsburg and is aided by Lutherans in Al- satia, Germany, is pastor of a Nestorian Luth. Church and some preaching stations near Wa- sirabad, West Persia. W, W. Perspicuity of the Scriptures. The the ologians of the Luth. Church unanimously hold that iu the Holy Scriptures all things neces sary for salvation are expressed in language that is sufficiently intelligible to all who come to their study in a devout spirit, and with the req- - uisite knowledge of the tongue in which the words are written. They concede that there are obscurities in the Scriptures, but hold that these do not affect the articles of faith ; and declare also that there are degrees of clearness even in those things that may be known. (See Gerhard, J., Loci Theologici, book i., chap. XX.) H.E.J. Perthes, Friedrich Christoph, b. at Rudol stadt, April 21, 1772. Apprenticed to Leipzig bookseller (1787). From 1793 with Hoffmann, Hamburg. Began his own business in 1796 in Hamburg, 1822 in Gotha, Saxony. D. May 18, 1843. A German publisher of historical and theological works. Conespondent of the leading theologians of the first half of this century. A man distinguished for patriotism and personal piety. H. W. H. Petersburg, St., Luth. Church in. See Russia. Petersen, Balthasarj b. May 7, 1703, in Tondem, Silesia, pastor in Leek (1739), provost and chief pastor in Sonderburg (1746), chief pastor and consist, counsellor in Tondem, until his death, Jan. i, 1787. He educated pastors personally until 1742 when univ. education was demanded, then trained teachers, and left a legacy from which the seminary for teachers at Tondem was founded. Petersen, Johann Wilhelm, b. 1649, at Osnabraeck, d. 1727, near Zerbst. He studied at Giessen, Rostock, and other universities, was lecturer on philosophy and rhetoric at Giessen (1673), visited Spener at Frankfurt a. M. (1675). He became pastor of St. Egidien in Hanover (1677), court-preacher and general superintend ent in Eutin (1678), pastor and superintendent in Lueneburg (1688), was suspended on account of his fanatical and chiliastic views (1692). Some of his hymns appeared in the pietistic hymn-books of the time, and in Freylinghausen (1704). Among them " Liebster Jesu, liebstes Leben " (Jesus, Lord of Life and Glory), Mora vian H. B. (1808). A. S. Petri, Laurentius, b. in Sweden, 1499, d. 1573- Through his brother Olavus he was early won for the gospel and the Reformation at Strengnas. Having for some years been professor of theology, he was, in 1531, instaUed as archbishop by Petrus Magni, who is said to have been consecrated bishop in Rome. As the elder brother Olavus was more congenial to Luther, so Laurentius had the more pliant but conservative spirit of Melanchthon. The chief services of Laurentius are his care for training evangelical preachers, his translation, in 1541, of the whole Bible into Swedish, his hymns, and The Church Discipline of 1572. N. F. Petri, Ludwig Adolf, b. 1803, d. ' 1873 ; from 1829 pastor at Hanover, probably the most eminent Hanoverian theologian of the century. Though brought up in the rational istic theology of his time he became the leader of the confessional Luth. movement in Hanover. Himself a truly pious, sincere Christian, he de voted all his eminent gifts and scholarly attain ments to his Church and preached the gospel with such powerful effect that his influence went far beyond the bounds of his congrega tion. He was one of the founders of the Han overian Missionary Society, Luth. Conference, Gotteskasten, etc., published a series of coUec tions of sermons and other books, among which is a valuable text-book on religion still in use in many schools. J. F. Petri, Olavus. The pure gospel of Christ, which Luther preached in Germany, came, in 1519, to Sweden through Ola-vus Petri, who for some years had studied at Wittenberg. This Swedish Reformer, b. 1493, began his evangel istic work at Strengnas, where he, in 1523, met vrith King Gustavus Vasa, whom he afterwards followed to Stockholm. There he was made a preacher and a secretary of the city council, and exerted a great influence in the capital, but, preaching the gospel faithfuUy and diligently, he was often hailed vrith stones by a super stitious crowd, who thus would prove righteous ness by works. The Swedish version of the New Testament, published anonymously in 1526, is without any doubt his work, and the same year appeared his able Replies to Twelve Questions about the Evangelical and Popish Doctrine. After sev eral religious tracts, e. g. On Priests and Lay men ; On the Sacraments ; On Marriage, he published, in 1530, his Postil, an excellent book of short, plain, and evangelical sermons; further, a catechism and a hymn-book, of which some hymns were originals, others tians lations from Luther. The most of them are still used. A Handbook for Di-vine Service and The Swedish Mass were edited by him about the same time, and both these books are evan gelical and the foundation of the present Swedish Agenda. When Olavus at last had to oppose the king's Csesaro-papism, he was accused of high treason and immediately condemned to death in 1539. Olavus was, however, pardoned, and in 1543 appointed pastor of " Storkyrkan " in Stock holm, where he continued to preach untU his death, 1552. Sweden has at last acknowledged how much it owes to Olavus Petri. A statue of him is erected in the front of his church, the Church of St. Nicolaus, in Stockholm, and the statue was un veiled, September 30, 1898, in the presence of the king, the royal family, the members of the mmistenal cabinet, and the General Church As- Petursson 375 Peucer sembly, and of the professors and pastors from Stockholm and Upsala, etc. The pastor pri marius of Stockholm, Dr. Hohl, made the festival oration, calling Olavus Petri " the great reformer of our Church. " N. F. Petursson, Hallgrimur, b. 1614, d. 1674, pastor at Saurbse, Iceland. Bishop Gudbrandur Thorldksson made his father sexton at H61ar, , and -the son, Hallgrimur, followed him to that seat of learning, where he pursued ele mentary studies. For some unknown reasons he was sent to Gliickstadt and thence to Copen hagen, where he was apprenticed to a black smith. But soon Bryn]Ulfur Sveinsson, later bishop, found out his whereabouts, took him into his care, and sent him to Our Lady's Col lege, Copenhagen, in 1632, where he made rapid progress during a four years' stay. In 1627 Mohammedan pirates had attacked the population of the Vestmanna Islands off the southern coast of Iceland and deported a num ber of people to Turkey. In 1637 some of these, 38 in number, were released for a pecuniary consideration paid by the Danish King, Chris tian IV. When these poor people returned to Copenhagen they were found to be more Mo hammedan than Christian in matters of faith. H. P. was then appointed by the king as their spiritual adviser, and one of the flock became later his wife. With her he returned to Ice land without having completed his studies. In 1644 he was, however, ordained by his patron, Brynjiilfur Sveinsson, and soon became one of the most prominent men in his diocese and famous all over the island as an excellent poet. In his youth he devoted himself to romantic and secular themes to some extent. But later he lent his eminent gifts entirely to religious song, and became the famous hymn-writer of the Icelandic Church, whose inspiration has been justly compared to that of Frantz Xavier and Jacopon^ da Todi, the author of ' ' Stabat mater dolorosa," but especially to that of the German hymn-writer of the Reformation period, Paul Gerhardt, with whom he has most in com mon. In 1659 his production reached the climax as he finished his 50 Passion Hymns, the result of at least ten years' labor. These hymns are a wonderful treasury of faith and tenderness, combining sublimity and simplicity in a wonderful degree, taking both head and heart captive. If these hymns had not been written in that out-of-the-way comer of the world, in a language spoken only by 70,000 people, they would long ago have been translated into all the languages of the Protestant nations and become common heritage of all Christendom. Bishop Jdn Vidalin translated these Passion Hymns into Latin hexameters, but did not complete the difficult task, which was finished by another after his death. The hymns were printed in Copenhagen (1785). Rev. Kolbeinn Thorsteinsson (1765-1783) also translated the work into Latin in the original metres, and the governor of Iceland had this translation printed in Copenhagen (1778), and distributed the beau tifully printed copies gratuitously. Neither of these translations, of which the first is con sidered the best, does, however, justice to the original. P.'s life was full of physical pain, suffering as he did from leprosy. In 1669 he had to resign his pastorate. On his deathbed he composed two hymns, and perhaps never has a human soul sent more heartrending appeals to the throne of grace. He died Oct. 27, 1674. The Passion Hymns were first published in 1660, and have passed through about 40 editions up to the present time, which is indeed to be wondered at among a population so small (70,000). His works were published in two large vols, in 1887-1890. F. J. B. Petursson, Petur, b. 1808, graduated in the ology at the University of Copenhagen in 1834, ordained pastor in Iceland, 1838. In 1847 he was appointed president of the tiieological sem inary in Reykjavik, serving in that capacity for 19 years, pastor of the Cathedral Church for one year (1854), ordained Bishop of Iceland (1866), which office he held for 23 years, until spring, 1889. D. 1891. He was one of the honorary presidents of the British and Foreign Bible Society. He was a very productive author. He continued the Historia ecclesias tica Islandies, by Finnur J6nsson, from 1740 down to 1840. He published sermons on the gospel lessons of the Church Year, and three volumes of meditations. In the seminary he taught New Testament exegesis, dogmatics, pastoral theology, and catechetics. F. J. B. Peucer, Caspar, M. D., "the confessor of Melanchthonianism," and chief of the " Crypto- Calvinistic " party in Electoral Saxony, b. at Bautzen, Jan. 6, 1525 ; d. at Dessau, Sept. 26, 1602. He entered the University of Witten berg in 1540, studying medicine, mathematics, and cognate branches, and finaUy mastered the most varied humanistic, historic, philosophic, and theological culture. Upon his arrival at Wittenberg he became an inmate of Melanchthon's home, and after marrying his youngest daughter (1550) he re mained under the same roof till the death of his father-in-law, whom • he enthusiastically revered as his teacher, and with whom he main tained the most intimate relations, rendering to him invaluable services as a devoted disciple and friend, a discreet counsellor, his trusty physician and companion in travels, the admin istrator of his meagre income and of his domes tic affairs, and the active, sympathetic sharer of his private and public cares and of his the ological opinions. In 1545 he was appointed instructor in the philosophical faculty, in 1554 prof. ord. of mathematics, and in 1560 Dr. and prof, of medi cine. Introduced at the Dresden court, his acquirements and his devotion to academic pur suits gained him the unrestricted confidence of the Elector Augustus, who made him general superintendent of the Latin schools, and in 1570 appointed him his physician in ordinary, with fixed salary and the retention of his professor ship. He stood in high favor with the Elector and vrielded a powerful influence over him. An active, zealous " Philippist," a man of his make up and in his position could not keep aloof from theological interests, and it was soon obvious that he was furthering Crypto-Calvin ism, fiUing all the vacancies in the theological Peutingfer 376 Pfefflngfcr faculty vrith pronounced ' ' Philippists, ' ' whereas the Elector had meant Wittenberg to be the stionghold of strict Lutheranism. It was doubt less through his instigation that the Corpus Doctrines which looked to a union with the Cal- -rinists, and which was decried by the Gnesio- Lutherans as "Philippism," was publicly authorized in Saxony. So he promoted, in 1571, the publication and use of the Wittenberg Cate chism, which was denounced by the Gnesio- Lutherans because of its anti-ubiquitarian teachings. This work was so manifestly Cal- ¦rinistic on the sacraments aud the person of Christ that the Elector himself was forced to yield to the opposition. In all these things and in others, P. is charged -with haring deceived the Elector. No doubt he and his party were "complete Calvinists," ex cepting predestination, while they posed as genuine Lutherans. But P.'s apologists claim that the Elector himself, on political grounds, favored a friendly attitude toward the Calvin ists, and that this Philippist propagandism was vrith his full knowledge. He was, however, in due time brought over to the strict Luth. party, not only by the denunciation of the Calvinism of Peucer and the Wittenbergers on the part of Luth. theologians, but also by the pleas of Luth. princes, to whom a permanent religious peace seemed possible only on the basis of strict Lutheranism, and especially by the influence of the Electress, the " Mother Anna," who was a staunch Lutheran. In 1574 P. was suddenly anested, and on the eridence of numerous utterances contained in his private letters, the Elector cast upon him and his confreres the blame for all the innova tions which had been made, charging them vrith having deceived him and having sought to seduce him and his family and the whole Saxon people into Calvinism, and thus to com pass the ruin of their souls. In July, 1576, P. was separated from his family and taken to the Pleissenburg, Leipzig, where for twelve years he was kept in close confinement and under cruel tieatment, which he bore heroically, resisting all efforts for his conversion, refusing to recant Calvinism and to subscribe the Form, of Con cord. Soon after the death of the Electress he was released and survived yet sixteen years, serving as physician aud councillor to the court at Dessau, engaged in literary labors, and continu ing to the last a faithful champion of the Me lanchthonian theology. Among his numerous publications are an edition of Melanchthon's works (4 vols. foUo), a collection of his letters, Tractatus historicus de P. M., a journal of his im prisonment, many theological and medical treatises, etc. E. J. W. Peutinger, Conrad, b. 1465, in Augsburg, of patrician family, became town-clerk in Augs burg after studying in ItaUan Univ., and d. 1547- He was a hist, student, and edited im portant MSS. Friendly to the Reformation, he, however, never left the Roman Church. Pew System in the Luth. Church. The system of renting pews hardly accords vrith the genius of the Luth. Church, which is essentially a church of the people. StiU the practice pre vaUs largely in the General Council and in the General Synod. It is found in the Synodical Conference only by way of an exception, and this exception pastors seek to abolish. Among the Americo-Scandinavian churches "thereis not an instance anywhere, nor has there ever been, of rented pews." E. J., W. Pezel, Christoph, b. 1539, in Plauen, Saxony, studied under Mel. and Strigel, teacher in his birthplace, prof, and preacher at the castle- church in Wittenberg (1567), where he favored Crypto-Calvinism ; at Torgau (1574), he was finally persuaded to sign the Torgau Arts., but still leaning to Calvinism he was imprisoned at Zeitz and banished (1576). Called to Nassau (1577)1 he helped to introduce Calvinism, was pastor at Herborn, and composed the Nassau Conf. (1592) ; Bremen called him (1581), and there he laid the foundation of Reformed church life, wrote the Calvinistic Consensus minist Bremen eccl. ( 1595), used until the last century, and edited the Bremen Cat. agreeing with the Heidelberg. Pezel d. 1604. Pfaff, Christopher Matthias, b. Stuttgart, 1686, one of the most distinguished Wuertem berg theologians, advocate of unionism, and opponent of dead orthodoxy, marking the transition from Pietism to rationalism, author of the coUegial system of church government, and editor of a new translation of the Scrip tures ; a prolific writer in almost all depart ments of theology ; chancellor of the Univer sity of Tiibingen (1720-1756), when he assumed same position at Giessen, where he d. 1760. Pfefferkorn, Georg Michael, b. 1645, at Ifta, near Creuzburg, on the Werra, d. 1732, in Graefen-Tonna. He studied at Jena and Leip zig, was teacher in the gymnasium at Alten burg (1668), tutor of the sons of Duke Ernest the Pious of Gotha (1673), pastor at Friemar, near Gotha (1676), member of the consistory and superintendent at Graefen-Tonna (1682). The hymn, "Wer weiss, wie nahe mir mein Ende, " is sometimes ascribed to him. (See -Smiua JUWANNA.) A. S. Pfeffinger, John, b. Dec. 27, 1493, d. Jan. i, 1573. was brought up in the Roman Church, consecrated a priest, and served several charges m that Church. But accused of incUning to wards the Luth. heresy, he fled to Witten berg, studied again under Luther and Melanch thon, and after having been actively engaged in the Luth. ministry in some smaller charges, became, in 1540, pastor of St. Nicolai, first superintendent and professor of the University of Leipzig, where, in 1539, the Refor mation had been introduced. He was a very conscientious pastor and a scholar who enriched the Lutheran theological literature by more than_ 20 works. Unfortunately his irenic ten dencies played him false. He was one of the tramers of the Leipzig Interim, in which so many concessions were made to the Roman Church that it practicaUy amounted to a giving up of the position of the Luth. Reformers. He showed the same "conciliatory" spirit in the Synergistic Contioversy. j F Pfeil 377 [Philip the magnanimous Pfeil, Christoph Earl Ludwig, Baron v., b. 1712, in Gruenstadt, near Worms, d. 1784, at Deufstetten. He studied at Halle and Tiibin gen, was secretary of the Wuertemberg Lega tion at Regensburg (1732), counsellor at Stutt gart (1737). After holding various public offices ofimportance, as ambassador and counsellor, he retired to his estate at Deufstetten, near Crails heim. Frederick the Great appointed him Prussian ambassador to the Diets of Suabia and Franconia ; Emperor Joseph IL created him baron. He was a noble man of genuine piety. He wrote about a thousand hymns, among them "Wohl einem Haus, da Jesus Christ," tr. by Miss Winkworth, Ch. Book for the Church of England (1863), " Oh, blest the house, whate'er befaU," found in the Ohio H. B. A. S. Philadelphia, Luth. Church in. it was the first on the ground, the order being, Luth erans (1654), Quakers (1683), Baptists (1688), Presbyterians (1692), Episcopalians (1695), Gemian Reformed (1727), Roman Catholics (1731), Moravians (1742), Methodist (1769). The first Lutherans were Swedes at Wicacoa, in the southern part of the city, forming at first an outlying post of the parish that had its centie at Ft. Christina (Wilmington, Del.), founded in 1638, and afterwards of the church at Tinicum, 12 miles south on the Delaware. The first pastor was Lars Lock, and the first place of worship, a block-house, consecrated, in 1677, by Rev. J. Fabricius. This was replaced in 1700 by the venerable Gloria Dei Church, still standing, although in the hands of Epis copalians who claim to have inherited its his torical associations, although not only the pastors buried on its grounds, but the church itself, were pledged to the Luth. Confessions. With the settlement of Germantown in 1686, came the beginning of German emigration, con sisting at first almost entirely of sectarians seeking immunity from the restrictions of state churches. Mystics and millenarians, most of Luth. antecedents, settied under Kelpius and Koester in the valley of the Wissahickon in 1694. The latter, during his five years' stay, not only acted as missionary among the Germans, but was the pioneer of English preaching in the limits of the present city, when the at tendance of large numbers of the English at the German services induced him to make pro vision also for English services. The origin of the German churches in Germantown and the city proper is in obscurity. The earliest records of the church in Philadelphia are of 1734 and give the list of 95 communicants. Prior to this a number of the Swedish pastors had preached German regularly in Gloria Dei. The record refened to is made by Rev. John Caspar Stoever. The earliest authentic statement re fers to services in Germantown in 1737, held by the Swedish pastor Dylander. Less certain is the tradition of the activity at a sUghtly earlier period of Rev. Gerhard Henkel. The deed of the ground owned by St. Michael's, German- town, is dated 1730. Before Stoever, the church in Phila. had been served by Rev. John C. Schultze, services being held on Arch Street below Fifth, who accompanied del egates from Phila., the Trappe, and New Han over to Europe in 1733, for the purpose of securing pecuniary aid and a pastor. When, in response to this appeal, Muhlenberg arrived in 1742, he found the congregation in charge of Zinzendorf, who yielded only after he found Muhlenberg determined to assert the rights that his call gave him. With the arrival of Muhlenberg the permanency and regular or ganization of the congregation were assured. The mother congregation in the city proper (Zion and St. Michael's) remained an undivide'd corporation with several pastors and churches, untu within the sixties of the present century. The congregation at Germantown (St. Mich ael's) long since became entirely anglicized. The attempt to intioduce English catechiza tion and preaching in the congregation in Phila. having met vrith determined opposition, St. John's English congregation was organized in 1806, followed a few years later by St. Mat thew's. (The movement began in 1815, and congregation was finally organized in 1818.) According to the U. S. census of 1890, there were in the city 40 organizations, with 11,653 communicants. Of these 31 organizations, -with 9,529 communicants, belonged to the General Council; the Missouri Synod had one cong., with 340 communicants, and the General Synod, seven cong., vrith 1,358 communicants. The Public Ledger Almanac for 1899 shows an increase of 16 organizations since the Census. They may be classified as follows : General Council, 43 : viz. 22 English, 17 German, 2 Swedish, 1 Norwegian, to which should be added a Danish mission, not belonging to the Gen. Council, but receiving aid from one of its synods. General Synod, 10, all English ; Mis souri Synod, 2 ; Independent (German), i. The first successful efforts for synodical or ganization in America were made in Phila., in 1748. The theological seminary, the orphans* home, the Mary J. Drexel Deaconess Home, the publication houses of both the General Synod and the General Council, the offices of the Lutheran, Lutheran Observer, andLutheran Church Review, the Boards of Foreign Missions, Church Extension, and English Home Missions, make Philadelphia a most important centre of church work, in close contact with 322 Lu theran congregations in nine of the eastern counties of Pennsylvania (Berks, 72 ; Lehigh, 50 ; Schuylkill, 48 ; Northampton, 44 ; Lancas ter, 43 ; Bucks, 26 ; Montgomery, 26 ; Chester, 10). See particularly Dr. B. M. Schmucker in Stall's Lutheran Year Book for February 1, 1888. H. E. J. Philadelphia Seminary. See Seminaries. Philip III. , duke of Nassau-WeUburg and Usingen, b. 1503, began to reign 1523, and favored the Reformation. With the assistance of Henry Stress and John Chun, he empowered John Beyer and Erhard Schnepff to introduce evang. trath. Schnepff began his work 1526. Philip joined the Smalcald League, and d. Oct. 5, 1559, honored with the title " the Reformer. " Philip the Magnanimous, Landgrave of Hesse, the most eminent of the Protestant princes at the time of the Reformation. B. at Mar burg, Nov. 23, 1504, he came into power at the Philip the IHagnanimous 378 Philippi age of only 14, his father ha-ring died in 1509. Successfully he held his own against Francis of Sickingen and the rebellious peasants. His biblical knowledge and his frank and noble dis position drew his sympathies to Luther, vrith whom he became acquainted at the Diet of Worms (1521). Notwithstanding the opposition of his mother and of his father-in-law, George of Saxony, he embraced the Protestant cause and opened his country to Protestantism (1527). Over against the coalition of the Catholic princes, Philip with the Protestant princes formed the Torgau Union, thus preventing the enforcement of the Edict of Worms which had been the aim of the Catholic party at the Diet of Spires (1526). At the next diet, held in Spires (1529), the Catholics annuUed the decision of 1526. Philip devoted his whole energy to unite the Luth. and Reformed Protestants into one great party, but the diversity between the two confessions frustrated this plan. Philip ananged an inter view between Luther and Z-wingli at his castle in Marburg ( 1529) , but the only result was that the Lutherans suspected him of being a Zwinglian at heart, whilst the landgrave feared that they might make peace by sacrificing the interests of the Zwinglians. But at the Diet of Augsburg (1530) the Lutherans, seeing the manly stand which Philip took against the pretensions of the emperor, though he subscribed the Confessio Augustana with an express reservation in re spect to the Lord's Supper, they once more ral lied around him. He formed the League of Smalcald ( 1531 ) , but was not able to procure the admission of the Swiss Reformed. His ne gotiations with Denmark, England, and France, his splendid victory at Laufen, by which he compelled the emperor to restore Duke Ulric of Wuertemberg to his possessions, the admis sion of Wuertemberg, Pomerania, and An halt to the League, and the union with the mighty cities of Upper Germany in consequence of the Wittenberg Concord, strengthened the cause of Protestantism to such an extent as to compel the emperor to grant its desires. This, however, was frustrated by the bigamy of PhUip with Margaretha von der Saale, -with whom, in 1540, he contracted a second marriage with the consent of his legal wife. Reluctantly Luther had given his consent, urging the Landgrave to keep the matter secret. This, however, could not be done, and as a result Philip was alienated from his confederates, and in order to escape the capital punishment to which his bigamy exposed him, he sought the good ¦will of the emperor, who forgave him under the condition that Philip should guard the interests of the emperor. This brought him into conflict with the League, which, in consequence, was so much weakened that the emperor did not hesitate to declare war (1546) . After the defeat of the Smalcaldic army at Miihlberg Philip surrendered to the emperor, who treacherously seized him, and kept him in prison for five years. Through the treaty of Passau (1552) he regained his liberty and de voted the rest of his life to the care of his dis tressed country, and to the mediation between the religious factions. He d. March 31, 1567. Lit. : Rommel, P. der Grossmiitige (Giessen, 1830) ; Wille, P. der Grossmiitige u. die Resti tution Ulrichs von WUriemberg (Tiibingen, 1882); Heidenhain, Die Unionspolitik Landgraf Philipps, etc. (HaUe, 1890); Herzog, Real- Encyclop. W. L. Philippi, Ferdinand, son of the distin guished professor at Rostock, F. A. Philippi, and Uke his father a strictly orthodox Luth. theologian. B. at Berlin in 1840, he served as pastor at Hohenkirchen in Mecklenburg, where he d. in 1890, and wrote several books, among them a treatise on The Book of Enoch and an excellent monograph on The Biblical and Ec clesiastical Doctrine of the Antichrist. He was also a contributor to the excellent Kirchliches Handlexikon edited by Dr. Meusel. A. G. V. Philippi, Friedrich Adolph, a leader of Lutheranism in the nineteenth century, who realized the preciousness of the doctrine taught by Luther and the old Luth. theologians in the experience of his soul. He was a convert from the Jewish faith. B. in Berlin in 1809, the son of a wealthy banker, he received Christian impressions in his youth. While a student of philology at the university he attended the lectures of the famous Neander and the ser mons of court-preacher G. F. A. Strauss, re ceived instruction in the Christian religion from the latter, and finally was baptized while a student at Leipzig in 1829. After filling various positions as a teacher he was induced by Heng stenberg to devote himself to the study of theology. He became Privat-dozent at Berlin in 1838, and professor of systematic theology at Dorpat in 1841. His services to the Luth. Church in the Baltic provinces of Russia were fruitful of good results. But the name of Philippi is chiefly associated with Rostock, whither he was called in 1852, and where for three decades he was the foremost educator of the future ministers of the Church in the prov ince of Mecklenburg. He d. in 1882. PhUippi's theological views were fully fixed and matured from the beginning of his career as professor. He was an Old Lutheran, and he tnade it the work of his life to restate and vin dicate the traditional orthodox theology of the Luth. Church by the means and in the form of modern scientific methods. He succeeded in an extraordinary degree, aided in a large measure by the perspicuity and attractiveness of his style as a lecturer and a writer. He was outspoken in his opposition to modern altera tions of the old faith. He set himself not only against rationalistic theology, but also against the progressive Luth. theology taught at Er langen, rejecting Hofmann's theory of the atonement, the doctrine of kenosis taught by Thomasius, and other points. His two chief works are a Commentary to the Epistle to the Romans (first published in 1847), and his famous dogmatics. The Doctrinal Teachings of the Church, in six volumes (1853-1879). He had the ability to make the orthodox Lutheranism he defended to be respected and, what is more, to be received in -wide circles. If Dorpat and Rostock are even to-day strong holds of sound Lutheranism, and if the Church in the Baltic provinces and in the pro-rince of Mecklenburg is firm in its Lutheran faith, these conditions are in large measure due to the ful- Philippists 379 Philosophy ness of faith and the -rigorous personality that characterized Philippi. Professor Frank of Er langen said of him: "The provincial church which has such a teacher as the educator of its ministers must be counted fortunate." A. G. V. Philippists, a name given to the theological school of Melanchthon, in the contioversies that followed after the death of Luther. It came into use particularly with respect to the discussions conceming the points involved in the Leipzig Interim of 1548, in which Flacius and Amsdorf were the chief representatives of the Gnesio-Lutherans, and Camerarius, Major, Menius, Craciger, Eber, and Strigel of the Phil ippists. Wittenberg became the educational and literary centie of the Philippists, and Jena of their opponents. The controversy culmi nated iu the victory of the opponents of PhU- ippism in the Formula of Concord which, how ever, discriminatingly condemned the position of Flacius on Original Sin, and of Amsdorf on Good Works. Philosophy, Influence on Theology. Philosophy, tiie universal science of being, and theology, the science of divine things, are dis tinct sciences. The source of philosophy is the thinking mind, the source of theology reve lation. The method of philosophy, whether deductive or inductive, demands consistency of thought ; theology, however developed by thought, requires scripturalness. The content of philosophy is the universe in its inmost being and truth ; the content of theology the com munion of man vrith God. The aim of philos ophy is to find the one all-embracing prin ciple ; the aim of theology is the saving recog nition of the Divine. But despite this differ ence there is a relation. Theology in its thought often uses the formal terms of philos ophy ; and philosophy reckons with such terms as God, immortality of the soul, which are really theological. But even in material there is a point of contact, inasmuch as philos ophy seeks to arrive at and embrace the abso lute, which theology also holds as God, and judging all things in relation to him, becomes universal, the science of sciences. Consequently theology has been influenced mostly in form, but sometimes also in material, by philosophy. Not only of the Early Church, but also of-the Church of the Reformation is this trae. Luther, however much he objected to Aristotie as in juring the substance of faith, employed at first the form and organization of the scholasticism of an Occam, d'Ailly, Biel, whom he studied. In philosophy he was a nominalist. In his early work on the enslaved will ag. Erasmus there are traces of Augustinian philosophical fatalism, colored by Thomism, but this did not materially influence his whole theology, and was counterbalanced by the prominence of jus tification. Melanchthon, who at first depre cated Aristotelianism and Platonism, neverthe less later commented on Aristotle, published philosophical ethics, and in his modification of the doctiine of free -will, although emphasizing the ethical ag. stoic necessity, was uncon sciously under scholastic Aristotelian influence. The early dogmaticians of the Luth. Church after Chemnitz developed a new scholasticism. and largely used old terminology, as Luther had in single instances. Nor was it restricted simply to formal method, for in those doctrines, which had not been in controversy, much of old scholasticism was simply transferred. The doctrine of God with its abstract formulation is evidence of this. In the tieatment of sin the philosophical distinction of substance and ac cident, arising from Flacius' unfortunate enor, is rather incongraous and not without danger to the content. But the introduction of articuli mixti, such partly taught by reason, and the modification of the absolute conception of reve lation by Calov {ex requisitis veres religionis, non absurda, non nova, non interiit), still further weakened by Buddeus, helped to form the transition to rationalism. But in this whole early period only individual points and vrith most dogmaticians rather the method than the thought are philosophically colored. The substance is scriptural. With Wolff, the great philosopher, and his common- sense Leibnizianism, making revelation agree able to reason, a new period began. It pro duced rationalists and supranaturalists. The last impulse of Wolff in the supranaturalists met with the new power of Kant, whose critical degeneration of being into pure categories with his practical moralism had large influence, not abated by the phUosophy of Jacobi with his Christian heart but pagan head. The most powerful factor has been, however, that line of thought, which originating -with the idealistic intellectualism of Des Cartes, was developed into the absolute abstract being of pantheism by Spinoza, whose philosophy found lodgment in Schleiermacher to influence through him many theologians even to the present. From Kant through Fichte's individualistic idealism and Schelling's intuition of monism, to Hegel's dialectic identity of the real and ideal with its movement toward the completion of the abso lute, a new, strong influence issued. The Hegelians ruled with unbounded enthusiasm, branching into a right positive wing (Daub, Marheinicke), and into a left pantheistic party, ending in the brilliant intellect of F. C. Baur, the genius of the new Tiibingen school. With the reawakening of faith modem theology has sought, after the biblicism of a Bengel and Beck, to be freer, but von Hofmann as well as Frank show at least the formal power of Schleiermacher. The outcry ag. philosophy by the RitschUan school is only a covert attack ag. what they conceive as metaphysical ideas in Christian trath, from the presupposition oftheir own philosophical Neo-Kantianism, which de nies the reality and only treats of the value of things. The emancipation of theology from philosophy can never be complete. The only safeguard ag. injury to the content of dirine trath is an ever new study of the Word and the construction of systems from it after the man ner but not with the enors of von Hofmann's Schriftbeweis. (Kahnis, Innerer Gang des Protestantismus; Frank, Gesch. u. Kritik der neueren Theologie ; Zockler's Handbuch (4th ed.), p. 73 ff- ; Seeberg, Dogmengesch., p. 207 ; von Hofmann's Encyclo. (ed. by Bestmann), p. 40; Luthardt, Christi. Glaubenslehre, p. 17 Pietism Pietism ff. ; Philippi, Kirchl. Glaubenslehre, I., p. 125, note 2.) J- H. Pietism. In the nanower and proper sense, this is the name of the religious-theological tendency which, after the last part of the sev enteenth century, opposed the rigid and exter nalized orthodoxy in the Luth. churches of Germany. Its main guide and moulder was PhiUp Jacob Spener. As preludes to this move ment, aiming at the vivification and dissolution of the conditions of Luth. churches at that time, we may regard phenomena appearing since the inception of the seventeenth cen tury, partly in Lutheranism, partly with the Reformed. Thus in the Luth. camp several spiritual relatives of Spener, were active as John Arnd, J. Val. Andrea, Joachim Liitke mann, H. Miiller, Christian Scriver ; among the Reformed of the Netherlands were Tcelinck, Gisbert Voetius, Theodor k Brackel, Jodocus of Bodenstein ; vrith those of the Rhine prov inces, Joachim Neander in Diisseldorf, Theod. Unter-eyck in Miihlheim a. d. Ruhr, Nethenus, and others. For the preparatory history of Pietism no small importance belongs to these witnesses of life before Spener's time, who em phasized his earnestness of sanetification and active Christianity. But it would be unhistori- cal to trace back the characteristics of pietistic Christianity to them instead of Spener. In his recent attempt to represent (see vol. i. of History of Pietism, Bonn, 1880) these pious Dutch and Rhenish mystics as the true origi nators of the pietistic movement, A. Ritschl has been guilty of a one-sided point of view in several directions. He disregards the merely local importance of the mystic efforts of the Rhenish Pietists and their inclination to sepa ratism, which is fundamentally different from the Christian churchly rerival of life, aimed at by Spener and the German Luth. Pietists. He also overlooks that where Spener pointed to older mystic devotional writers recommend ing them, this was habitually and prefer ably done -with such as belonged to his own church (as e.g. Arnd, Jacob Bohme). Finally, Ritschl does not take into consideration, that the stimulating and awakening influences ex ercised upon Spener in his youth by the Re formed were mediated much less by those Rhenish or Dutch circles, than partly by Swiss, partly by pious English Christians, e. g. by devotional writers like Sonthom, Bayley, Dykes, Baxter. In general the influence of English Reformed mysticism and asceticism upon the receptive German Luth. circles of the seven teenth century is altogether disregarded and omitted in that one-sided historical construc tion of Ritschl, which looks only to Holland and the Rhine provinces. We are satisfied to have summarily pointed to these phenomena before Spener, which belong only to the pre paratory history of Pietism. The development of this religious movement itself we date from the reformatory activity of Spener, following the lead of J. G. Walch {Histor. theol. Einl. in die Religionsstreit. der Luth. K., 730 ff.) and of more modern writers (especially H. Schmid, also E. F. Sachse, cf. below). I. Spener's Activity in Frankfort. Referring to the special article Ph. Jac. Spener (b. Jan. 13, 1655, d. Feb. 5, 1705), in reference to the history of his youth, and to his work as preacher and teacher in Strassburg (1663-1666), we begin our account with the part of his life and activity, through which he became the father of Ger man Pietism ; with the beginning of his official activity for twenty years as preacher at St. Catherine, and senior of the spiritual ministe rium at Frankfort-on-the-Main ( 1666-1686) . He was in his 34th year, as old as Luther at the be ginning of the discussion on his theses (1517), when he was impelled to stimulate and lead earnest endeavors of piety among the evangeU cal population of Frankfort, in consequence of the considerable commotion which a ser mon on the Sixth Sunday after Trinity, 1669, on the gospel of this Sunday, i. e. conceming the false nghteousness of the Pharisees, effect ed among a part of his congregation. As a result of this and other subsequent sermons, small devotional private meetings were held (1670), designated Collegia pietatis by Spener, and led personally by him twice a week. They aimed at mutual confirmation of the participants in faith in the Word of God, and were connected partly with the sermon of the preceding Sun day by Spener, partly vrith devotional writings of others, e. g. Arnd, Liitkemann, Bayley. Beside this influence mediated by private de votional meetings and Bible-hours, the exceUent catechetical instruction of Spener exerted an awakening, beneficently vivifying power upon his ecclesiastical surroundings. From 1675 Spener began to give literary form and to open to wider circles the principles of this Christian endeavor, which until then had been only used practically. The Pia Desideria, the celebrated programme of his reformatory ac tivity (published at first in German, as preface to a new edition of Arnd's postil (1675); then (1678) in Latin, as a separate pamphlet) , contains six demands, addressed to the evangelical churches, through whose fulfilment the author expects "a divinely acceptable improvement" of the Church. They are (1) more general and diligent study of the Scriptures ; ( 2) real enforce ment of the spiritual priesthood of Christians (in accordance -with Luther's interpretation, not in fanatical-enthusiastic form) ; (3) con fession of Christ by deed, instead of fruitiess search after knowledge (in accord with Eph. 3 : 17) ; (4) prayer for unbelievers and those of false belief, instead of useless dog matic contentions ; (5) change of theological study for the procurement of genuine theology of the heart and life ; (6) devotional anange ment of the sermons, in opposition to the formal schemes and rhetoric which had en tered in everywhere. The same stiong cry of this book, Back to the Bible, was also heard in several other pubUcations of Spener in the following years, e. g. " Vom geistl. Priesterthum;" ''Allgemeine Gottesgelehrtheit aUer gldubigen Christen und rechtschaffenen Theologen " (1680). The movement thus kindled affected ever grovring circles. From Frank fort—where the name " Pietists " for its adher ents first arose (1680)— it spread over nearly all parts of Germany ; human suspicion was Pietism 381 Pietism cast upon it, and zealous opposition was offered by the representatives of orthodoxy. 2. Spener's Dresden Period (1686-1691). From the summer of 1686, when Spener was called as chief court-preacher to Dresden, he received an opportunity to carry out his pur poses in Electoral Saxony, the mother-country of the German Reformation. More important than his only partly successful endeavors to plant earnest Bible Christianity in the residence of Elector John Geo. IIL, and among his cour tiers, was his co-operation in -winning adherents among the teachers and students of Leipzig University. The movement gained an academic- scientific foundation, after the two Leipzig masters, Paul Anton and August Hermann Francke, together with several others of the same academic degree, founded a Collegium philobiblicum, i. e. a society for scientific- exegetical as well as devotional exposition of Holy Writ. Through this Spener's Collegia pietatis had put on a learned garb. Under Spener's blessing and advancing influence — for a time also furthered by the Leipzig theo logical professor, Val. Alberti— this pious society of masters grew to be a power in the University of Leipzig. But soon enough, on occasion of several exaggerations and excesses of its student-adherents, it called forth an or thodox counter-movement. This, headed by the influential professor and university preacher, J. B. Carpzov (the younger), effected an aca demic prohibition of the philobiblica collegia (1690), and the removal of the chief leaders, Anton and Francke, from their activity as teachers in Leipzig. Instead of Leipzig, which the jurist Christian Thomasius, who had stepped in to protect the Pietists, had to leave, the univer sity Halle-on-the-Saale, became the seat and centre of the Pietistic tendency. This university was then founded by Elector Frederick III. , of Brandenburg, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia. Thomasius' action as adviser in the erection of this university brought about the call of his friend Francke, as also that of J. J. Breithaupt, who favored Spener's tendency, as professors in the new institution. But that this university, especially its theological faculty, became the influential nursery of pietistic endeavors, and therefore the successful rival of its two orthodox neighbor universities, Leipzig and Wittenberg, was principally due to the aid of Spener. 3. Spener's Berlin Period (1705). Spener, after an activity of fifteen years in the Electoral Court, accepted a call of Elector Frederick to Berlin, where he was active as provost at St. Nicolai, and chief consistorial counsellor dur ing the last fourteen years of his life. In his appointment of the Halle theolog. professors, as well as in much else which could further his cause, Spener was able in this position to exert an influence. Naturally he was also involved in the numerous disputes, which the spreading of his pietistic tendency called forth in van ous places. In some of these, which more closely concerned him, he had to suffer more or less severely ; thus, in the banishment of his brother-in-law, Horbius, by the anti-pietistic party in Hamburg (1693), as also in the agita tion against private confession (1696-98), begun by his Berlin colleague, Casp. Schade, deacon at St. Nicolai. S. died by no means a victor in all points in which he was graduaUy drawn into literary contention with his orthodox oppo nents. Many of these survived him and dis turbed the peace of the German Luth. Church a full generation afterward. To this the advance of a part of the Pietists of the second genera tion, beyond the standpoint of a wise modera tion, always observed by Spener, contributed in an essential manner. 4. Main Points of Controversy between Pietists and Orthodox. The chief points of difference in which there was controversy, partly in Spener's time, partly in the decades foUo-wing, concerned : (i) The doctrine of regeneration, which orthodoxy conceived of as coincident with bap tism. Pietism as generally belonging to a later period and identical with conversion ; with this the difference between ' ' theologia viatorum seu irregenitorum " and " theologia regenitorum " is connected (i. e. the difference between the ostensibly more outward and superficial view of Christian life by the orthodox and the view of the Pietists, according to which true illumination and knowledge of divine things can be fonnd only in one regenerate in their sense) . (2) The doctrine of justification, which Pietism, recurring to the synergism of the Philippists, represented as arising only from living faith, wherefore the orthodox Loscher said : ' ' The confusing of righteousness by faith with works is a characteristic feature of this pietistic religious evil." (3) The doctrine of the Church, which to the orthodox had the value of an institution of sal vation, for the preservation of the Word and Sac raments (institution of means of grace) ; to the Pietists on the contrary of a communion of sal vation or communion of believers, which must necessarily show itself in a multitude of smaller communions of faith and life {ecclesioles in ecclesia) . (4) The doctrine of the means of grace. These the orthodox explained as effective for salv. in themselves, o-wing to the gratia rninis^ terialis of the servants of the Church, who cele brated them ; but the Pietists denied the gratia ministerialis, approached to the standpoint of the Donatists, and declared only truly regener ate ministers capable of preaching and dis pensing the sacraments effectively for salva tion. (5) The authority of Church Confessions Spener recognized fully and wholly {quia et quatenus cum Scrip. S. concordant), but his successors, who advanced beyond him and be came precursors and prepared the way for rationalism, depreciated their value. They wished to recognize them as foundations for doctrinal obligation in the Church only ' ' as far as" they are in accord vrith the Scriptures {quatenus, etc.). (6) Individual elements of churchly cultus and ceremonies, which were depreciated or combated by Pietism ; esp. private confession (ag. which Schade in Berlin was very zealous) ; exorcism with baptism ; recitation of formu- Pietism Pirkheimer lated prayers in the liturgy, preaching on the old churchly pericopes, etc. (7) The question of the moral permissibility of certain worldly pleasures and enjoyments, esp. playing, dancing, visiting theatres and taverns, smoking (then called drinking to bacco), yea, even taking a walk, laughing, etc. The strict Pietism combats all this as belonging to the class of acts of desire not permitted (Lusthandlungen) , while orthodoxy pointing to passages Uke Ps. 24 : i ; i Tim. 4 : 4, declared this as adiaphoron (therefore : ethical-adiaphoristic controversy, as parallel to the cultic-adiaphor- istic controv, of the Interim period of the Re form. ) . (See Adiaphora. ) (8) Concg. the last things of men, the ques tion was debated, whether a conversion on the deathbed {conver sio sera) was still pos sible, as the orthodox appealing to the robber on the cross (Luke 23 : 45) maintained, or whether God preriously set a goal for man {terminus peremptorius salutis) , beyond which no conversion is possible {lis ter-ministica). (9) Concg. the best things of the Church, the Pietists, in connection with Spener's book, "ofthe hope of better times " (1692), or even surpassing, favored decided chiliastic expec tations, while the orthodox opposed all chiliasm as fanatical heresy. 5. The persons participating in the pietistic- orthodox controversies. The theologians partici pating in the controversies of the pietistic period may be grouped into four main classes or ten dencies : {a) The strictly orthodox, who oppose Piet ism on the whole line, and consequently rec ognize neither its doctrinal innovations nor its practical endeavors as legitimate. Thus J. Deutschmann in Wittenberg (whose Christ- luth. Vorstellung ag. Spener (1695), endeav ored to convict him of 263 heresies) , J. Focht in Rostock, J. F. Mayer in Greifswald (anti- Spenerus, 1695). The most solid representative of the group is Val. Ernst Loescher in Dres den (d. 1749), editor of the critical periodical Unschuldige Nachrichten (1702), which is di rected ag. the pietistic abenations, also pub lished the monograph Vollstdndiger Timotheus Verinus {ly 18), which was reprinted fromthe Unschuldige Nachrichten. {b) The theologians mediating between or thodoxy and Pietism, who admit and seek to appropriate what is good in Spener's endeavors, without abandoning their strict, churchly posi tion. Thus the Jena theologian (Dogmatician and Moralist) Franz Buddeus (d. 1729) , the SUe sian Benj. Schmolck, celebr. writer of hymns and devot. works (d. 1757), the Pomeranian theologian David Hollaz (d. 1713), and Bar thol. Krakewitz (d. 1732). Some also of the so-called Schwabenvdter (Swabian Fathers), (i. e. the biblical theology of Wuertemberg so highly celebrated by its contemporaries and the subsequent generations) belong here, par ticularly the intellectual and learned leader, J. Alb. Bengel (d. 1752). {c) The Pietists proper, who remain essen tially in the point of view of Spener, and stand for it sometimes in more learned theological, sometimes in a simple and rather direct manner. Thus, esp. Aug. Hermann Francke in HaUe, and his colleague Anton (d. i73o),Breit- haupt (d. 1732), J. J. Rambach (d. 1730), Joachim Lange (d. 1744), of whom the latter participating in the controversial writings ag. Loscher, was at various times carried away to intemperate violence and thus approached the ultra-pietistic extreme. Then a large num ber of theologians, not belonging to the Halle group, as PhiUp Fresenius in Frankfort-on-the- Main, Abbot Steinmetz in Klosterbergen, J. Porst in Berlin, and many others. Finally the theologians of the Moravians founded by Count Zinzendorf (d. 1700), among whom beside Zinzendorf, J. Gottl. Spangenberg (d. 1792), must be mentioned as the most important. (d) The ultra-Pietists, a group of _ mystics and theosophists, more or less fanatical and inclined to separatism, who joined the move ment, introduced by Spener, only outwardly, without really sharing its churchly endeavors. To these ultra-Pietists, who represent a sickly accompanying phenomenon of the pietistic development, belong : as most solid and in tellectually most important, the Church-his torian Godfr. Amold (d. 1714), further the Bohmists J. Gichtel (d. 1710), J. A. Petersen (d. 1727), H. Horche (d. 1729), etc., the Wuer temberg separatists Gruber and Rock, and the original genius, J. R. Dippel (d. 1734), who at times strayed even into the most gross rational ism, and others. 6. Practical work and merits of Pietism. In reference to the most important and truly gratifying results of Pietism in a practical di rection, other special articles must be con sulted. Through the glorious testimony of faith of Francke in Halle, the way was de cided and opened for Christian philanthropy, and for the labors of evangelical inner mis sions of later date (the work of FUedner, Wichern, Loehe). (See Inner Missions.) From Francke's Institute there went forth as one of its best scholars H. M. Muhlenberg, the di vinely blessed missionary, who opened a way for German Luth. churchliness and piety in North America. (See H. M. Muhlenberg.) Partly the Halle Orphans' Home, partly the Moravians of Zinzendorf, who (from 1732, when they sent out their first missionary) enter into competition with it, have gained eminent importance as the nurseries of Evang. Luth. mission, work among the heathen. (Cf. Ziegen balg, Schwarz, Zinzendorf.) Finally the fructi fying influence of Pietism upon Lutheran cultus and evangel, hymnology must be mentioned. (See H-vmnology. Hili^er, etc.) 7. Literature. Beside the work of A. Ritschl (1880-1886), 3 vols., whose one-sidedness was mentioned above ; the monographs of H. Schmid (1863), H. Heppe (1879), G. F. Sachse (1884), must be especially mentioned as instructive descriptions of the history and importance of Pietism in its totality. O. Z. Pirkheimer, Willibald, b. Dec. 5, 1470, at Eichstatt. His father, a learned lawyer, be sides this son had seven daughters, of whom six became prioresses of various cloisters. P. con sidered Nuremberg, where the family had lived, his city. His life fell in the most prosperous Pistorius 883 Pohlman period of this city. He studied at home and in Italy, devoting himself to the classics and to law, was for years member of the city council, fulfilled diplomatic missions, and also led a company in the Svriss war. But his importance lay in the fact that he was a thorough exponent of humanism. Being progressive, he took sides vrith Luther when the Reformation began, but from 1524 on he again approached the old Church, influenced by his relation to the mon astery of St. Clara, where his sister Charitas was prioress. He d. Dec. 22, 1530, having been intimately connected -with the intel lectual movements just preceding the Reforma tion. G. C. P. H. Pistorius, Herm, Alex., b. 1811, near Eisle ben, pastor at Siipplingen (1843), where he contended for confess. Lutheranism ( Was u. wie ist die luth. Kirche, 1844). Becoming con vinced that the Luth. Church had no right in the Union, he joined the independents (Bres lauers). Afterward pastor at Wernigerode (1848), Wollin (1858), church-counseUor at Bres lau (1858), pastor at Basedow (1863), d. 1877. He opposed the separation of P. Dietrich (Im manuel Synod) . He was a man of clear logic, eamest manliness, and childlike faith. Pistorius, Johann, the elder, d. 1583, the great reformer of Hesse, pastor at Nidda and supt. at Alsfeld (1541), assisted Mel. at theCol- loquia of Hagenau, Worms, and Regensburg, furthered the Reform, of the archbishopric of Cologne (1543), opposed the Interim, which Philip of Hesse while imprisoned (1548) sanc tioned, and was present at the conferences of Naumburg (1554) and Frankfurt (1537). P. adhered firmly to the Augustana, but was irenic, and in the contentions on the Lord's Supper tried to mediate. Opposed to the severe rejec tion of Bucer, he yet did not favor the Heidel berg Cat., and took the part of the Wuertem bergers in the question of ubiquity. But the Form, of Concord was, by his advice, not ac cepted at the convent of Torgau (1577) as too exclusive. This indeterminateness later caused the uncleamess of the Hessian Church. Pistorius, Joh., the younger, son of the former, b. 1546, studied theol. at Marburg, but also law and medicine, physician of Chas. II. of Baden, and after his death counsellor of Mar grave Ernst Fredr., whom he largely influenced. Though P. had signed the Form, of Concord, he became a Calvinist, and soon after ( 1588) a Catholic. Ernst Fredr., whom he had led to Cal-rinism, did not follow to Rome. Therefore, P. went to Margrave Jacob, whom by diplo macy he moved to become Catholic (1590). But Jacob's death the same year made this conver sion of no effect. P., in his restlessness, came to Constance, was made provost at Breslau, and d. 1608 as house-prelate of the abbot of Fulda. Pittsburgh Synod (Gen. Council). See S-YNODS (II.). Pittsburgh Synod (Gen. Synod). See Synods (I. ). Planck, Gottlieb Jacob, theologian and his torian, b. Noertingen, Wuertemberg, 1751, studied at Tiibingen, pastor at Stuttgart ; pro fessor at Gottingen (1785-1823); author of three important works, History of the Protes tant System in its Origin, Changes, and Devel opment (1781-1800); History of the Protestant System of Poctrine, from the Formula of Con cord to the Middle of the Eighteenth Century (1831); History of Church Government (1803-5). These works, while in^valuable storehouses of information, are not trustworthy estimates of the men, tendencies, and events described. ' ' With him the subjective, pragmatic method reaches its height. History becomes only the dreary theatre of human interests and passions. Hence he everywhere obtrudes his individual sympathies and antipathies, and cannot com plain enough of the short-sightedness, stupidity, passion, and malice of man " (Schaff). "The author's own doctrinal indifference is trans fened to the agents of the dogma-forming pro cess, by the axiomatic assumption that doctrine alone would have been incapable of exciting so much interest or contention. In his eyes, doc trine is an antiquated matter that is prop erly destined to oblivion " {Domer). D. 1833. H. E. J. Platner, Tilemau, b. 1490, d. 1551, a native of Stolberg, was won for the cause ofthe Refor mation with his fellow-student, Justus Jonas, at Erfurt. He became an intimate friend of Lu ther and Melanchthon during his sojourn at Wittenberg as tutor of the Count of Stolberg. When appointed superintendent at Stolberg he introduced the reforms in doctrine and practice in that small principality. G. J. F. Plitt, Gustav Leopold, b. 1836, near Liibeck, d. 1880, as prof, of church history and theol. encycl. in Erlangen, known for his ed. of Mel.'s Lod, Einleit. in die Augustana (1867, '68), and Apologie (1878), and History of Luth. Missions (cont. by Hardeland, 1895, 2 vols.), was careful, objective, independent in judgment, though traly Luth. in position, and unfolded evang. truth clearly in its historical bearings. His monograph, Z?2> Albrechtsleute (1898), shows his interest in American religious life. Pluetschau, Henry, b. 1678, in Mecklenburg- Stielitz, arrived with B. Ziegenbalg at Tranque bar, July 9, 1706. P. devoted much of his time to the "Portuguese" Tamil, descendants of Portuguese sailors and traders and Tamil women. He superintended the Portuguese and Danish schools. P. retumed to Europe (171 1), reported to the King of Denmark (1713), went to Halle, became pastor at Beidenfleth in Holstein, where he d. 1747. Ziegenbalg and Gruendler esteemed him much for his quiet faithful ness. W. W. Pneumatology. See Hoi,y Spirit. Poach, Andrew, editor of Luther's Hauspos tille, studied at Wittenberg, deacon at Halle, archdeacon at Jena, pastor at Nordhausen, Erfurt, and Utenbach, prof, at Erfurt, d. 1585, or, as others assert, 1605. Joecher's Gelehrten- Lexicon. Pohlman, Henry Newman, D. D., b. in Albany, N. Y., March 8, 1800, and d. in the same place, January 20, 1874. He was licensed by the New York Ministerium in 1819. For a year he served Saddle River and Ramapo con gregations, and then took a pastorate comprising Pohlman 384 Polemics New Germantown, German Valley, and Sprace Run, where he labored 21 years. In 1843 he became pastor of the First Luth. Church in Albany, and resigned in 1867. He was president ofthe New York Ministerium 21 years, of the New York Synod 5 years, of the New York and New Jersey Synod 7 years, and three times president of the General Synod. W. H. Pohlman, William John, brother of the above, b. 1812, and raised in the Luth. Church at Albany, became an eminent missionary of the Reformed Dutch Church to Borneo and China ; drowned in an attack by pirates be tween Hong Kong and Amoy (1849). Poland, Luth. Church in. Until 1772 Poland was a large and powerful kingdom, comprising, besides the Russian Poland of to day, Livonia and Courland on the north, all of western Prassia and eastern Pomerania, together vrith Posen on the west, Galizia on the south, and Padolia, Ukraine, Volhynia, and the large territory of Lithuania in the east. The Refor mation first strack roots in Prussian Poland. Danzig was the first city to open its gates to the preaching of the gospel. King Sigismund I., in 1526, had a number of the foremost citizens executed and reintroduced the Roman Catholic services. But scarcely had the king left the city when the people re-established Luther anism. The cities of Elbiiig and Thorn followed Danzig's example, and, notwithstanding the watchfulness and cruelty of the king, the Ref ormation spread into Poland proper. His successor, Sig. Augustus, favored the cause of Protestantism, took an interest in Calvin's Institutio, and corresponded -with Melanchthon. He demanded of the Pope a national council, permission for the priests to marry, the cup for the laity, and services in the language of the people. These concessions the Pope refused to grant, and answered by sending, in 1556, a com missioner, charged with rooting out the Luth. heresy. In this the latter was powerfully aided by Cardinal Hosius, Bishop of Enneland. Lasco, who had preached the gospel twenty years before in Guesen, but who had been banished and had since labored among the Fri sians and in England, was now recalled. He rather inclined to Zwinglian views, co-operated ¦with the well-known Peter Paul Vergerius in bringing about a union between the Luth. , the Reformed, and the Moravian brethren who had taken refuge in Poland. This was at length ac complished in 1570, at the General Synod held in Sendomir. The articles of faith there agreed upon are called Consensus Sendomiriensis. It was, of course, a mere compromise. The Luth. doctrine of the Lord's Supper was, in a way, ac cepted, but the language used permitted also, as in the Augustana Variata, a Calvinistic inter pretation. The Lutherans were not satisfied. At the Synod of Thorn, in 1595, the Luth. pastor Paul Gerike vigorously protested against the syncretism of the consensus. But one of the noblemen threatened him vrith his dagger, and enforced silence. Gerike was deposed as a dis turber of the peace. In 1573 Catholics and Protestants were accorded equal political rights, which, however, until the dirision of Poland, in 1772, were more and more infringed upon as far as pertained to the Protestant portion ofthe realm. The religious conference held in 1645 in the city of Thorn between representatives of the Protestant churches and the Roman CathoUcs accomplished nothing. It destroyed, however, the formal union between Lutherans and Reformed which had existed since 1570. In 1717 the Protestants were inhibited from build ing new churches, and in 1733 they were declared ineUgible as representatives of the people to the national council as well as to any other office. The Jesuits became exceedingly bold and irritated the people to such a degree that they threatened the Jesuit coUege at Thorn. This afforded the government a most welcome opportunity for showing their hatred against the Lutherans. The mayor and wives of the most prominent citizens were beheaded. But what seems somewhat strange to us to-day, the Luther ans owed it to Russia that, in 1767, their rights and privileges were restored. The eastern prov inces of Poland, which became part of Prassia, are in church matters administered j ust like to the other so-called older provinces. The adminis tration of the Luth. churches is in the hands of the Oberkirchenrat in Berlin, the general su perintendents of the respective provinces, and the superintendents of the respective dioceses. In Poland proper, the czar attempted, in 1828, to consolidate the Luth. and the Reformed con sistories, but this measure proved a constant source of irritation. Since 1849 both consis tories are again separate. There are 65 Luth. parishes with 2,607,000 members. The evan gelical Augsburg consistory in Warsaw directs the affairs of the Luth. churches. Its spiritual head is the general supt., who is also called bishop, in Warsaw. There are, besides, four superintendents. Pastors are elected by the churches and confirmed by the consistory. The 136 Luth. churches, which, in the division, fell to Austria, are comprised in the Lemberg superintendency, number about 50,000 souls. The direction of affairs in all Protestant churches in Austria is vested in the evang. Ober kirchenrat in Vienna, which is divided into a Luth. and Reformed branch. Many of the Galicians have in recent years emigrated to western Canada, and are served by the mission aries of the General Council. J. N. Polemics, Luth. Polemics is derived from a Greek word {polemos) meaning war, and denotes the art of war or controversy. In theology it is the name of that branch which, in contradistinction to apologetics and symbolics, defends the trath by attacking the error oppos ing it. Since the Luth. Church lays the greatest stress upon purity of doctrine, it stands to reason that m it polemics has especially flourished. Our Confessions already bear a polemical character, as, in fact, they had to do, since there would not have been any necessity for them if there had not existed error that had to be opposed by the setting forth of the truth denied. In the Augsburg Confession this polemical character is not so prominent in the first part as in the second, the former being more of a thetical nature. The Apology, as its name implies, a justification or defence of the Augsburg Confession, cannot but be also, to a Polentz 385 Pomerania great extent, polemical in its character. The Formula of Concord partakes of the nature of the Apology, whilst the Smalcald Articles have justly been called the first polemics of the Luth. Church. But these Confessions natu rally lack the systematic character of what we now call polemics. The first, and at the same time foremost, Lutheran polemics, in form as well as in substance, was the ever useful clas sical work of our second greatest theologian Martin Chemnitz, Examen Condlii Tridentini, (first edition 1573, latest 1861). One of the most productive writers of the Luth. Church, in polemics also, was Abraham Calov. His Synopsis Controversiarum (1653) is an attack upon all Roman Catholic, Reformed, and sectarian errors. The Collegium Contro versiarum of John Musseus (1701), the Theolo gia Polemica of F. Bechmann (1719), and the Theologia Positivo-Polemica of H. Fromayer (1677) are also noteworthy. During the so-called times of orthodoxy, polemics was, of course, much cultivated in the Luth. Church ; and it cannot be denied that not infrequently it yielded to the temp tation, peculiar to the Luth. position, in itself correct, of going to the extreme of ignoring more or less the ground that every Qhristian de nomination worthy of this name has in common with the Luth. Church, and laying stress only upon the differences existing, and hence judging too harshly. But matters were not bettered by the syncretists, pietists, and ration alists, who successively, both in time and degree, went to the other extreme of underesti mating purity of doctrine. V. E. Loescher, in his Historia Motuum (1707), combats the unionistic tendencies that longed for a union of the Luth. and the Reformed churches without real unity in doctrine. In the present century Luth. polemics had to direct its attention first of all to this same unionism and its source, indiffer ence to purity of doctrine, which has proven to be the prevailing religious disease of our times. Rudelbach's work, Reformation, Luthertum und Union (1839), is the most prominent in this direction. Roman Catholicism,both in the ideal ized form given it by the ingenious Moehler in his Symbolik (1832), and in its trae ultra montane shape shown in brutal misrepresen tation of the Middle Ages and the work and person of Luther, in the doctrinal extravagances of later popes, especially Pius IX., and in a de fiantly aggressive attitude in religious and polit ical life, coupled with almost incredible super stition, could not but urgently invite Protestant polemics. Hase's Handbuch der protestanti- schen Polemik gegen die roemisch-katholische Kirche (1862 and later), ZschacT^ert's Evangel ische Polemik (2ded. 1887), and the incomplete work of John Delitzsch, L>as Lehrsystem der roemischen Kirche (1875), deserve special men tion, though Hase cannot be called a Lutheran even in the -wider sense. Cp. Meusel's A'z'nr^- liches Handlexikon, IV., p. 356 sq. F. W. S. Polentz, George von. Bishop of Samland in Prussia, b. in Saxony, 1478, educated in Italy, for a while private secretary to Pope Julius II. , served Maximilian I. , joined the German Order under Albrecht, chosen Bishop of Samland, and 25 confirmed by the Pope, 1519, and consecrated by bishops of Pomerania and Heilsberg. As early as 1523 began to forward the preaching of the gospel and sought the instruction of John Brieszmann, whom Luther sent. Assisted Duke Albert in the Reformation, and co-operated vrith Brieszmann, and Speratus in the Prussian Church Orders. He voluntarily resigned his worldly jurisdiction to the duke. He married in 1525, and, on the early death of his wife, again 1527. D. April 28, 1550. See Herzog- Plitt, V. 76. E. T. H. Poliander. See Gramman. Politics, Relation of a Luth. Pastor to. A Luth. pastor should not hold a political office except under very extraordinary circum stances, unless it pertain to education or moral reform. He should exercise his right and duty to vote at public elections for good men and wholesome laws, without identifying himself with any political party. On suitable occasions he may and should preach on duties Christians owe their country and ralers, but should not introduce partisan politics into his sermons or conversation. J. Fr. Polity. See Church Polity. Pollich, Michael, called from his birthplace Dr. Mellerstadt, physician to the Elector Fred erick of Saxony, and one of the founders of the University of Wittenberg. At first he was prof. in the medical faculty at Leipzig, but on the founding of Wittenberg taught both medicine and scholastic theology and was its rector. He was captivated by the earlier lectures of Luther which he heard, and prophesied the-: revolution that would follow. D. 1513. Pomerania, Luth. Church of. A number of influences helped to prepare the otherwise- tenaciously conservative population of Pom erania for the Reformation, the sale of in dulgences and the strife and misconduct of the clergy being among them. But the great direct influence was that exerted by John Bugen hagen, who had become an enthusiastic adherent of the doctrine of justification by faith by reading Luther's writings in the monastery of Treptow. The prince, Bogislav X., although strenuously attached to Romanism, was a calm and calculating person, and the Reformation spread rapidly throughout the territory, not vrithstanding serious conflicts during its prog ress. It was a movement from within. The monastery of Belbuck was its nursery. Witness the names of Boldewan, Suave, Kettelhudt. The princes Bamim and Philip favored the Ref ormation, and at the Diet of Treptow, 1534, they presented a plan for the work whicli was adopted and put into practice by means of a visi tation conducted by Bugenhagen after the Saxon model. Both dukes joined the Schmalkald League. After the battle of Muehlberg (1547), the country was moderately taxed by way of penalty, but the Interim was excluded. The name of Jacob Runge of Stargard deserves spe cial mention in connection with that of Bugen hagen, as that of one of the founders of the Pomeranian Church. On the introduction of the Union the Luth. Church was drawn into the movement, and thus became a part of the Pontanus 386 Practical Theolog^y United Church of Prussia. Independent of the Union there was formed a General Synod of the Luth. Church in Prussia, which was organized in 1841 at Breslau, and granted a general con cession by the king in 1845, and which in i860 was represented in Pomerania by two super intendents at Triglaff and WolUn. G. F. S. Pontanus. See brueck. ' Pontoppidan, Erich, b. August 24, 1698, in Aarhuus, Denmark. He came from a distin guished famUy, his father and grandfather were ministers, and the brother of the latter was the celebrated Dr. Erich E. Pontoppidan, Bishop of Throndhjem, Norway. The family name was Brobye, meaning city bridge, of whicli Pontoppidan is the Latin equivalent. There were 70 ministers in the relationship, and the family is traceable back to the time of the Ref ormation. Pontoppidan studied in the Univer sity in Copenhagen and there came under the instruction of the renowned Prof. Soren Lin trup. He served as pastor of the German churches in Norborg and Hove, and later in Hackenberg. He filled various important eccle siastical offices by the appointment of the king, and in 1748, in Frue Kirke, Copenhagen, he was ordained Bishop of Bergen by Bishop Hersleb. In 1755 he assumed the office of Chancellor of the University of Copenhagen. He d. suddenly, Dec. 20, 1764, whilst engaged in writing and in the presence of his wife, to whom he said, " Greet my friends and tell them that I die in the faith of the Son of God." He was a man of extraordinary ability and learning, and a pro lific author. His Collegium Pastorale Pradi- cum, written in Danish, is an invaluable work on pastoral and practical theology, — profound in thought and devout iu spirit. His Troens Speil, that is. Mirror of Faith, is such a presen tation of faith, in its various phases and fraits, as no one could write who did not possess and enjoy it in great fulness. His Explanation of Luther's Catechism has been of unspeakable value in the indoctrination of the young for 160 years. It was translated into English in 1877 by Belfour, and, in that form, is now (1898) in its 28th edition. E. B. Porta, Conrad, b. in Halberstadt, 1541, pas tor in Eisleben, d. 1585, known almost exclu sively for his compilation of passages from the works of Luther on Pastoral Theology, entitled Pastorale Lutheri. Postil is a collection of sermons on the peri copes of the church year, either the Gospels or Epistles. Its name is derived from the stereo typed introductory words ofthe minister, 'post ilia verba S. Scripturse ' ' (after these words of the Holy Script. ), which were used before hom ilies in the Middle Ages. With the Reform. the number of postils became very large. Best known are the church and house-postil of Luther, Brenz's Gospel-postil (1550), J. Matthe sius' Berg-postille (1562), ^g. Hunnius' postil on Gospels and Epistles (enlarged 1607), and later Herberger, Miiller, Brastberger. Loehe re introduced the name in this century. The postil in the time of dry rationalism sustained the faith of the common people. Postil, Luther's Church. Among the eariier postils are those of Gregory the Great, the Venerable Bede, Paul the deacon, etc. ; as more immediate predecessors of Luther were von Janow and Hus. At the very beginning of the Reformation, L. felt the necessity for the pubUcation of simple expositions of the pericopes not only for the people, but es pecially for the pastors, who were incom petent to prepare their own sermons, and could be trusted only with such discourses as they could read to their parishioners. So numer ous, however, were Luther's engagements, that he was unwilling to undertake the work until he had the positive command of the Elector. The Advent postUs were written and published first in Latin in 1521, and then in a German translation, not made by Luther, in 1522. He then made a second beginning in German, com pleting in 1525 the Winter Postils, i. e. those ending with Easter. The interruptions were so numerous that he was never able to complete the series according to the same plan. The rest of the Church Postils as first published were a compilation of his sermons made by others, par ticularly Stephen Rodt, without critical qualifi cations. The Winter Postils were afterwards reissued by Luther himself ( 1540) and the Sum mer Postils^by Caspar Cruciger at Luther's par ticular request (1543), Erlangen edition of Luther's Works, vols, vii.-xv. ; Walch's ed., vols. xi. and xii. H. E. J. Postil, Luther's House. Expositions of the pericopes made by Luther to his family and friends at his home, on Sundays from 1530 to 1534, when he did not preach in church. They were published in two editions, one from notes made by Veit Dietrich (1544), and the other by George Rorer (1559) \ Erlangen edition, vols. i.-vii. ; Walch's ed. xiii. H. E. J. Pouring. See Baptism. Power of Keys. See Keys. Practical Theology is the fourth general di rision of theology, in which the other three (exegetical, historical, and doctrinal) are to find their goal. As a separate branch of theol. sci ence it only exists since Schleiermacher. Orig inally in the Reformation practical theology vyas essentially pastoral theology. It was simply the instruction for the pastor in the con duct of his office, or his relation to his own sanetification. At present it is the theory of the practical work of the Church carried on by its official ministers, that the original ideal of Chris tianity be realized for the salvation of souls and the consummation of the kingdom of God. The doctrine of the Church, the ministry, and the means of grace wUl determine the special Luth. character of this branch of theology even in its formal unfolding, while in content it presup poses the whole substance of Luth. faith. Only where this clearly exists can practical theology be Lutheran in instruction and the resulting practice. As to the subdivisions of pract. theol. there is at present general agreement as to what is included, but not as to anangement. The grouping wiU be different, if with T. Hamack, Achelis, the present organized Church with its activity is made the starting-point, or if the whole subject be treated historically, beginning Praetorius 387 Prayer with that actirity which established the Church (v. Zezsch-witz, Knoke). The historical method seems to offer a more harmonious classification. The clearest and simplest division of this method is furnished by Knoke. (i) Activity of the Church through which it founds itself, or theory of missions (evangelistics) and catechumenate (catechetics) ; (2) activity of the Church, by , which it edifies itself, or theory of cultus (litur gies) and the sermon (homiletics) ; (3) acti-rity of the Church by which it guides itself, or care of souls {pastoral theology and diaconics), and Churchgovemment (church poUty) . ( For older works, see under Past. Theoi,.; Theod. Har nack, Prod. Theol. (1877); Gerh. v. Zezsch vritz, System der Prakt. Theol. (1876 ff.) ; Knoke, Grundriss der Prakt. Theol. (1896) ; Achelis, Lehrbuch der Prakt. Theol., 2d ed. (1898). _ J. H. Prae-torius. Latinized form of the Gemian Schultz, or Schultze, the name of a number of Luth. theologians, hymn-writers, and church musicians ; among them the foUovring deserve special notice : 1. Abdias, b. 1524, at Salzwedel, Altmark, d. I573> at Wittenberg, pupil of Melanchthon, rec tor in Salzwedel, suspended in consequence of the adiaphoristic controversy (1552), restored (1553) , professor of Hebrew, in Frankfurt a. Oder (1554), left on account of his contioversy with Musculus, and went to Wittenberg. He wrote : De Justificatione ; De novcs obedienties et bo norum cyperum necessitate. 2. Benjamin, son of Andreas, b. 1636, in Ober Greisslau, Saxony, d. about 1674. He studied theology, and graduated probably in Leipzig. Wasmade poet laureate, 1661. Author of the hjrmn ' ' Sei getreu bis an das Ende, " tr. by Miss Wamer (1858), "Be thou faithful tothe end." 3. Christophorus, b. at Bunzlau, Silesia, studied probably at Wittenberg, composed Me lanchthon's funeral anthem (1560). He was cantor at the Johanneum, in Lueneburg (1574 ) ; edited the Erotemata Musicae of Lucas Lossius (1568-1570-1574). 4. JEROME, b. 1560, in Hamburg, d. 1629. Cantor in Erfurt (1580), afterwards organist at St. James Church, Hamburg ; author of Cantiones Sacres (1591); Magnificat (1602); Te Deum (1613); Liber Missar^m (1616) ; Cantionum Sacrarum Liber IV. (1618) ; Opus Musicum No-mtm Perfectum ( 1622) ; Cantiones Noves offidoses (1629). A number of his compositions and settings are found in Winterfeld, Tucher, and Schoeberlein. 5. Jacob, son of Jerome, probably b. about 1580 in Erfurt, d. 1651, in Hamburg. Organist at St. Peter's Church, Hamburg (1603) ; took a prominent part in the preparation of the Ham burg 7lfif/ ; on John vi.-viu. ( 1532, 48 : 385). The references are to the serfdom of the Middle Ages, and are directed against the attempts of the peasants, by means of revolutionary meth ods, to throw oft the. yokes of their feudal lords. They must be read in the light of Luther's well- known attitude with reference to non-resistance to rulers — a theory which he had to modify. As when the gospel was first preached in the Roman world, where the slaves constituted a large proportion of the population, the New Testament writers had to lay the greatest em phasis upon the fact that the freedom of the gospel is internal and spiritual, and not ex ternal and corporeal, and taught that it is not the aim of Christianity to change immediately the entire framework of society, but to be a leaven, so also at the Reformation. The change is in the motives according to which duties are required and discharged. This cannot, how ever, be justly construed into any apology for the enslaving of those born in freedom, or for slavery such as was forced upon this country in its colonial days. The serfdom which Luther knew was where the subjects belonged to the land, and changed masters only with it. In 1619 (1620, according to some), a Dutch vessel landed the first cargo of slaves on the James River, in Virginia. As early as 1631, trade companies were regularly chartered by Great Britain for the slave trade. The Royal African Co., chartered by Charles II. in 1661, contracted to supply the West Indies with 3,000 slaves an nually. By the Peace of Utrecht (1713), Spain granted England a monopoly of the colonial slave tiaffic for thirty years, and England en gaged, during that period, to land upon the coasts of America 144,000 slaves, the kings of Spain and England to receive one-fourth of the profit. Between 1698 and 1707, 25,000 were im ported annually, and between 1713 and 1733, 15,000 annually by the English alone. The horrors of the slave-trade are described in Mc- Master's History of the People of the U. S. (II.) ; 16 sq. Of 60,788 negroes shipped from Africa (1680-1708), 14,388 died dunng the passage. "If the infamy of holding slaves belongs to the South, the greater infamy of supplying slaves must be shared by England and the North. While the States were yet colonies, to buy negroes and to sell them into slavery, had become a source of profit to the inhabitants of many New England towns " {McMaster II. ; 15). The Swedes on the Delaware are said to have prohibited the introduction of slavery as long as they controlled the government. The earliest protest against slavery came in 1688 from the Germans of Germantown. The New York Lutherans held a few slaves, but cared for their spiritual welfare, as the records of Justus Falk ner and Berkenmeyer show. Muhlenberg refers to his interview with a slave in New York who had been deeply affected by his ser mons. Among the Germans, as well as the Quakers of Pennsylvania, there were constant efforts to restrict and interdict the importation of slaves, that were persistently thwarted by the English government. No sooner had the colo nies become independent, than these efforts. were resumed, resulting in the bill of March i, 1780, by whicli Pennsylvania led the way in pro visions for emancipation. It provided for the registry of all slaves then in bondage, who were to be retained either for life or until thirty-one years old, and prohibited all others. Under the provisions of this law, the last trace of slaves in the state is in the census of 1840, when 64 are reported, while New York had but four, and New Jersey 674. In the South, Boltzius, the leading pastor of the Salzburgers, resisted and protested against slavery, as introducing a heathenism more to- be dreaded than that of the Indians, and as a great injustice to white labor. But he soon found it necessary to purchase slaves in order that the work of the colony be done, and sought in every way to ameliorate their condition and provide for their religious training. The vicious. principle of the system which regards the slave as a thing, and not as a person, thus disap peared. He appealed to friends iu Germany to provide him with money to purchase children directly from the slave-ships, in order to tiain them as Christians, and save their souls. At the death-bed of a slave child, one of these Georgia pastors exhorted its owner, a lady, to "become as this child." The venerable Mad ison Co. (Va.) congregation owned slaves, as a part of its endowment, ha-ring a precedent for this, however, in Gloria Dei Church, PhUadel phia, where the pastor "hired out the negress that had been purchased." The general influ ence of the Lutherans of the South was in har mony -with the example of the first Georgia pastors. The most prominent Luth. clerg-ym-an in the South of this century, Dr. John Bachman, ministered faithfully to a large number of slaves belonging to his congregation in Charleston, o. C. The slave trade to the United States was abolished in 1808. Slavery practicaUy ceased with the Emancipation Proclamation, which went into effect January 1, 1863. H. E. J. Sleidanus, John, b. 1506 or 1508, in Schlei- den in the Eifel, a humanist friendly to the Reformation in 1530, went to Paris and had political positions for nine years, sought to effect a union with German Protestantism, sent (1540) to Hagenau, he met the Reformers. Leay- Sick 449 South Carolina ing France (1542), he was called by Land grave PhUip of Hesse as historiographer of the Reformation (1544), material for which he had begun to collect. When it gradually appeared, SI. fairness made enemies of Evangelicals and Romanists. His work, De statu religionis et rdpublices Carolo Quinto Cessare Com. libr. XXVI., written in irenic spirit, is defective in method, at times inexact in facts, but just in spirit. He d. Oct. 30 or 31, 1556. Sick, Communion of. The practice of the early Church was retained upon the ground of the peculiar need that the sick have of the assurance of grace and forgiveness, and of the consolation against temptations that the sacra ment offers. Luther, while defending it as per missible, felt practical difficulties arising from the great number of such cases in time of pes tilence, and possibly because of manifest abuses, expressed the vrish that it were discontinued (Erl. ed. 55 : 256 ; 252. Cf. Koestiin Luther's Theology, Trans. 2 : 520). Calvin, on the other hand, regretted its disuse among the Reformed (Kuebel in Herzog-Plitt " Hauskommunion "). The objections of Reformed theologians, Ger hard has answered at length. Locus de Sacra Coena, Sec. 259 sq. The greatest care is taken to warn people that the sacrament offers only spiritual, but no physical reUef, and against deferring repentance and the reception of the Lord's Supper until sick or in prospect of death. The sick person must be tenderly admonished of anything in his life contrary to God's vrill, and especiaUy exhorted to forgive all with whom he has been at variance. The elements are consecrated in the sick room immediately before administiation, the bread being administered before the vrine is consecrated. See Kliefoth, Liturgische Abhandlungen, VIIL, 155-164 ; Calvor, Rituale, I., 765-771 ; 'Deyhng Prudentia Pastoralis, 478 ; Walher, American Lutheran Pastoral Theology, 291 sq. and the foUowing Orders : Mark-Brandenburg (1540) ; Veit Diet rich (1546) ; Mecklenburg (1542) ; Pomerania (1503) ; Bmnsvrick (1569) ; Lower Saxony (1585). H. E. J. Slueter, Jochim (Kutzker), b. 1484, at Doemitz, d. 1532, at Rostock. Teacher at St. Peter's School (1531), pastor of St. Peter's Church (1533) . The intioduction of the Refor mation into Mecklenburg is chiefly due to his efforts. He edited the Rostock hymn-book of 1531, with 147 hymns. A.S. Smalcald. See Schmalkald. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. An organization of the Church of England, founded in 1698, by Rev. Dr. Nich olas Bray, primarily as a book and tract society, but also for the establishment of church schools. It also did missionary work among prisoners. The chief field for its labors originally was in tended to be the American colonies. Among its corresponding members, it included prom inent pastors and professors of the Luth. Church in Germany and Sweden. Its relations with the authorities at Halle were close and cordial, and through them its aid was gained for Luth. mis sions, both in America and India. At present, an income of about a quarter of a miUion of dol- 29 lars a year is spent on its various operations, distributed into five departments, -riz. Bibles and prayer-books ; tracts and pure literature ; home missions and education ; foreign and col onial missions ; and emigrants' spiritual aid. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts. This society was also found ed by Dr. Bray, for the purpose of supplying missionaries and ministers to the English col onies. It dates from 1701. The sphere of its operations is not always clearly distinguished from that of its sister society ; as that also prosecutes foreign mission work. Substantial aid was afforded by this organization to the early Swedish pastors in America. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Germans, an organization sug gested by the London societies and projected about the middle of the eighteenth century by Dr. WilUam Smith, provost ofthe University of Pennsylvania, for missionary work among the Pennsylvania Germans. Sohm, Rudolph, b. Oct. 29, 1841, in Rostock (1870), prof, in Gottingen (1872), in Stiassburg (1887), prof, of " Kirchenrecht," in Leipzig noted for his original work on church Law, which claims that the very idea of law contra dicts the evang. trath. S. is a Luth. layman of great earnestness and high moral purpose. He has -written : Das Ve-rhdltniss von Staat u. Kirche (1873) ; Recht der Eheschliessung (1875) ; ICirchengeschichte im Grundriss (lotibi ed., 1896) ; Kirchenrecht, i vol. (1882), etc. Solida Declliratio. See Concord, Formula. of. Sommer, Peter Nicholas, b. Hamburg, Ger many, Jan. 9, 1709; d. Sharon, N. Y., Oct. 27,. 1795. Having received a thorough classical and. theological education, S. was pastor of the Luth erans settled in Schoharie Co., N. Y., from 1743-1788. His life abounds in heroic inci dents. (See Kapp's History of the Germans Emigration to New York; new biographical material in Belfour's Schoharie Jubilee Dis course, 1897.) D. M. G. Somundsson, Tomas, pastor at Breidabols- stad, Iceland, b. 1807, d. 1841. Studied theol ogy in Copenhagen, and travelled for a long time in England, Germany, and France, before entering on his pastoral duties. With some literary friends in Copenhagen he started a lit erary joumal, Fjlonir (1835), creating a new era in the literature of Iceland. S. excelled in patriotism of a pure and Christian type, and may be called the patriot preacher of Iceland, successfully endeavoring -with his pen and per sonal influence to create spiritual interest and -rigorous activity in almost all branches of social life. Died in the prime of his life, 1841. A volume of sermons appeared after his death. F. J. B. South Carolina, Lutherans in, are all in the United Synod of the South, and di-rided among the South Carolina and Tennessee Synods. In 1890, the statistics were : congregations, 74 • communicants, 8,757. They are found chiefly in Lexington and Newberry districts, west of the centre of the state, which had over 5 300 South Carolina Synod 450 Spangenberg communicants, and in Charleston, which re ported 5 congregations and 1,540 communicants. South Carolina Synod. See Synods, (IV.) South Dakota. See Dakotas. South Western Virginia Synod. See Synods, (IV.) Spain, Early Lutherans in. Spain's close connection with the Netherlands, and the elec tion of Charles V. as emperor of Germany, afforded many opportunities to get acquainted with Luther's teachings. But, only some of the better situated and educated classes took a lively interest in them. Spanish merchants who fre quently visited Antwerp, canied home copies of Luther's books, translated and printed at their expense. Some of Charles V. 's retinue being present when the Augsburg Confession was publicly read in 1530, became friends of the pure gospel. Alfonso Valdez (d. 1532), the privy secretary, and Alfonso de Virves and Ponce de la Fuente, the chaplains of the em peror, were forced to abjure Luther's doctrines. The Inquisition searched for Luth. books, and punished their possessors. Juan Valdez (1546), ha-ring been sent by Charles V. to Naples as secretary to the viceroy, spread the truth most earnestly and successfully by word and pen. Many gathered around him for the study of the Bible, e. g. the famous Vittoria Colonna and her friend, the great Michael Angelo. Rod- rigo de Val6r, also a layman of great courage, having put to shame the priests in many a pub lic doctrinal discussion, was kept a prisoner in a Spanish monastery until his death. Juan Gil, bishop of Tortosa, called Doctor Egidius, won over by Val^r, was thrown into prison, but lib erated in 1555, by Charles V., who loved the famous preacher. He died soon afterwards, but his body was disinterred and burnt. Francesco San Romano, a merchant, was burnt alive at Valladolid, in 1544, being the first martyr of the true faith. There, as well as at Seville, Toledo, Granada, Murcia, Valencia, in Leon and Arragon, were many bands of Lutherans who came together secretly for worship. Even some princes of the Church, e. g. Carranza, archbishop of Toledo, and Ayala of Se govia, favored the Reformation. Francesco Enzinas, called Dryander, being one of three famous brothers, had studied at Wittenberg ; he translated the New Testament, in 1543 was imprisoned, but escaped, in 1545, and went to Wittenberg ; from thence to England, Strass burg and Basle. After him Juan Perez trans lated the whole Bible. Cassiodoro de Reyna published it in 1569. Revised by Cypriano de Valera, the New Testament was published at London in 1596, the whole Bible at Amsterdam in 1602. About the middle of the sixteenth century the Luth. movement had spread so far that in a few years more it would have secured a firm foothold in Spain. Aroused by this dan ger the Inquisition began a systematic persecu tion in 1557. Charles V., repenting of his former moderation, resolved on harsher meas ures against the Lutherans. But his son, PhiUp II. , needed no urging. He, as well as the Grand Inquisitor, Valdez, and the twelve Tribu nals of Inquisition, persecuted them mercilessly. The first Auto-da-fe (actus fidei !) was held at Valladolid on May 21, 1559 ; two martyrs were burned at the stake, twelve were garroted ; in the same year thirteen more were burned, and at SevUle, twenty-one ; in 1560, at Seville, fourteen ; the other tribunals did their share of the cruel work, all of them burning Lutherans year after year. Julian Hernandez, who for years had zealously distributed portions of the Bible, was treated most cruelly in prison for three years, and finally burned at the stake, in 1560. Many Lutherans escaped from Spain to the Nether lands, to England, to Geneva, and to Germany. In 1570, the whole Luth. movement in Spain was completely crushed. E. F. M. Spalatin, George, b. Jan. 17, 1484, at Spalt, Bavaria. His real name was Burkhardt, but according to the custom of his time, he derived his name from the place where he was bom, Spalt-Spalatimer. Few men, besides Luther, were of greater importance to the cause of the Reformation than was Spalatin. At a very early date he came into communication with Luther. When Luther entered the University of Erfurt (1501), he there met Spalatin. After 1509 both were at Wittenberg, Luther as the Reformer, and Spalatin first as tutor of the Saxon princes, later on as the most intimate counsellor of three Saxon Electors. His influ ence over the Elector Frederick showed itself to be of the greatest importance for the progress of the Reformation. When Luther had met the papal legate Cajetan (1518), and was sum moned to Rome, he was on the point of leaving Germany. Here it was Spalatin who moved the Elector not to deliver Luther to the Pope, but to keep him in Germany and Wittenberg. And by his counsel it was that the great Elector protected the Reformer through those trouble some years from 1518 to 1525, the Elector's death, against the Pope and all his minions. Wolfg. Agricola, one of the Pope's followers, therefore said : "If there had been no Spala tin, Luther and his heresy never would have gained so much." At every imperial diet held at that time, Spalatin was present, and furthered the cause of the Reformation, thus at Augsburg (1518), at Worms (1512), and again at Augsburg (1530). Spalatin d. on Jan. 16, 1545, at Altenburg, where he had been pastor from 1525. He was buried in the vault of the St. Bartholomew church. A. E. F. Spangenberg, Cjrriacus, b. at Nordhausen, June 7, 1528, studied in Wittenberg from 1542- 46, and was made M.A. in 1550. On account of the Schmalkald War (1546), he went to Eisleben, where his father, Johannes Sp., in the same year was appointed superintendent of the Earldom of Mansfeld. From 1546-50, teacher at the gym nasium; 1550-53, preacher at St. Andreas ; 1553, he became diaconus; 1559, court-preacher and decanus in the town of Mansfeld. In January, 1575, he lost his place as an adherent of Flacius; 1580-90, pastor at Schiitz, in Upper Hessia; ex pelled (1590), he went, after a short retreat at Vacha, to Strassburg, where his youngest son, Wolfhart, a celebrated poet, lived and where he d. Feb. 10, 1604. In the Flacian controversy he sided with Flacius. He taught that through Spangenberg 451 Spener original sin also some of the substantial facul ties of men were corrupted, against the doctrine of his opponents that only accidental faculties were depraved. Among the last pupils of Lu ther Sp. is the most prominent. He wrote about 150 works. His best are, theological : Cithara Lutheri (1569), Theandrus Lutheri {21 sermons on Luther, 1589), Explanations of the Cate chism and many Epistles, Formularbuechtein der alten Adamssprache (1562), Ehespiegel (1561), Wider die boese Sieben in's Teufels Kamoeffelspiel (1562); historical : Chronicles of Mansfeld (1572), Querfurt {i$opi), Henne berg (1599), Adelsspiegel (1591), Bonifadus (1603); poetical: Gesangbuechlein {1568), Der Psalter gesangsweise (1582), and several bibli cal comedies. Lit.: j. G. Leuckfeld, Hist. Spang. (1712), W. Thilo, Cithara Luth. (1855), H. Rembe, Formulartruechlin, vrith a biographic, Der BriefwechselSp's. {i8&n-8). H. R. Spangenberg, Johann, b. 1484, at Hardeg- sen, near Goettingen, d. 1550. in Eisleben. He studied in Eimbeck and Erfurt, was rector of the school at Stolberg (1520) , pastor at Hard- egsen (1521), of St. Blasius Church, Nordhausen (1524), where he introduced the Reformation, pastor at Eisleben, and superintendent of Mans feld (1546). At Luther's request he prepared and published the Cantiones Ecclesiastices, — Kirchengesaenge Deudsch " (1545), a standard work on the order and the music of the Luth. service of the sixteenth century. A. S. Spegel, Hokan, b. 1645, at Ronneby, Swe den, received his university education in Lund and Copenhagen, but studied also in Holland and England. He was bishop of Skara and Linkoping, but died as archbishop in Upsala (1714). His fame rests on his merits as an author of hymns. His ability was of the high est order and he has rarely been excelled. His hymns are characterized by an unconscious and natural beauty. Nothing is written for affec tation, but every hymn is naturally effective and inspiring. C. E. L. Spener, Philipp Jakob, b. Jan. 13, 1635, in Upper Alsace, d. Feb. 5, 1705, at Berlin, is "with justice counted among those who retained their baptismal grace, and in it harmoniously con tinued to develop their Christian life. ' ' He was a man of fervent spirituality, spotless character, rich and broad intellectual attainments, and epoch-making influence. Entering the Univer sity of Strassburg in 1 651, he devoted himself entirely to his studies, ha-ring among his pro fessors Sebastian Schmid, the most famous exe gete of that day, and Johann Schmid whom he designated his "father in Christ." On the completion of the curriculum he spent a year at Geneva, where his mental horizon was widened, and where he found much to produce in him a charitable judgment of the Reformed, and leamed to value discipline for securing purity of life. There, too, he came under the fiery elo quence of Labadie, and read the ascetic writ ings of English Puritans, as well as the devo tional works of Amdt. In 1663, he became pastor at Stiassburg where he also delivered lectures in the university on history and philosophy. In his thirty-first year he attained the honor of being appointed pastor at Frankfort-on-the-Main and President of the Clerical Seminary, a position which he held for twenty years of "fraternal harmony," seeking to awaken earnest Christianity, and exerting even far beyond F'rankfort a powerful influence by means of his sermons, which, while chiefly didactic, were characterized by experience and a profound knowledge of the Scriptures. In 1686, he was made chief court-preacher at Dresden, and member of the Consistory, usually considered the first ecclesiastical position in Germany, offering him a larger sphere of in fluence. His zeal and conscientious firmness as the Elector's Confessor soon drew upon him the latter's displeasure. His attempt to re-in troduce here, as at Frankfort, and later at BerUn, thorough catechetical instruction, exposed him to ridicule and abuse. His private devotional meetings, collegia biblica were not new, they had previously found favor with the orthodox, but when the collegia for biblical study at the university grew into German Collegia in which laymen took part, and when they multiplied and developed peculiarities looking to Separa tism — a tendency which S. himself opposed — they evoked fierce opposition from the Leipzig theological faculty, who were indeed also anx ious for practical piety, but disliked S. as a stranger, envied his high position, and smarted under the censure which he had brought upon them for neglecting exegetical studies. Appointed in 1691 Provost of St. Nicolai at Berlin, and member of the Consistory, he pro moted the appointment of earnest pastors and secured the selection of Breithaupt, Francke and Anton, in the newly-founded University of HaUe. With the spread of Pietism over Germany there came attacks from abroad charging him with being the source of the many fanatical sects springing up everywhere, and a libellous publication emanating from "the mentally weak senior of the Wittenberg faculty, " Deutsch mann, imputed to him 283 heterodox opinions. This like all the other rancorous personal as saults which he endured, proved " a harmless fabrication. ' ' His answers show ' ' learning, research, and a deep piety,'' and at the same time courage, dignity, and equanimity — ^verify ing his own statement that his enemies never caused him " a single sleepless night. " He had no superior among them, and none more strictly devoted to the Luth. Church, and its confessions. He inveighed against prevalent abuses in teaching and in life, holding that pure doctrine and pure living do not always go to gether, while admitting that departure from the trath is followed by departure from a Christian life. He sought the cooperation of the laity in the Church's service and government in ac cordance with the doctrine of the spiritual priesthood of believers. He was not, according to Tholuck, the father of Pietism as later de veloped, although " the most influential centre of this movement. ' ' Amid all ecclesiastical con flicts he was ever incUned to peace. A trae conser vative, he distinguished between use and abuse, and he suffered more,as he himself laments, from his inconsiderate friends than from his enemies. Spengler 452 Spirit, Holy. S. was a voluminous author. In Canstein's Ust of his publications there are seven volumes folio, sixty-three quarto, seven octavo, forty- six duodecimo. (See Pietism.) E. J. W. [The fullest and most discriminating estimate and defence of Spener, and account of his con tioversial writings, with collection of testimo nials from both friends and opponents, are found in vols. i. iv. and v. of Walch's Streitig- keiten der Luth. Kirche, drawn from extensive cotemporary material collected by Walch's father-in-law, Buddeus. His book, Pia Desi deria, originally an intioduction to Arndt's Pos tils, published (1675), which had to the Pietis tic Controversy almost the significance of Luther's Theses to the Reformation, has been republished in vol. xxi. of the Bibliothek theol. Klassiker, Gotha (1889). Two of his sons, not withstanding frail health, attained distinction. Christian Max (b. 1678, d. 1714), after medical education, became a writer on heraldics and genealogy. Jacob Charles (b. 1684, d. 1730). after a theological course, devoted himself to jurisprudence, and wrote a leamed treatise, Deutsches Jus Publicum, largely occupied with the antiquities of Gemian law. The archaeo logical tastes of the sons were inherited from and cultivated by the father, who diligently pursued similar investigations as recreations from severer work. — Eds.] Spengler, Lazarus, b. 1479, at Nuemberg, d. 1534. He studied at Leipzig (1494), was town- clerk at Nuemberg (1507), counsellor (1516). He made Luther's acquaintance when the latter was on his way to Augsburg ( 1518) , and became one of the leaders of the Reformation move ment in Nuernberg. His name appears on the famous Bull of Leo X. as one of the condemned. He represented Nuemberg at the Diets of Worms (1521), and Augsburg (1530). Author of the hymn "Durch Adam's Fall ist ganz verderbt, " rather didactic, "like a system of theology in rhyme, but conceived in the spirit of deep piety " and very popular in the Refor mation period. It was translated by Coverdale in 1539, "By Adam's fall was so forlome." A paraphrase of the hymn by Dr. M. Loy, in the Ohio Hymnal, " Our nature fell in Adam's faU." A. S. Speratus, Paul (Sprett, Spretten), b. 1484, in Rottweil (?) or Roeteln, near EUwangen (?) d. 155 1, at Marienwerder. He studied in Paris, and Italy, was pastor in Dinkelsbuehl, Bavaria (1518), in Wuerzburg (1519), suspended on ac count of his evangelical preaching in 1520. He went to Salzburg and Vienna, where he preached a famous sermon in the Cathedral of St. Ste phen (printed in 1524), for which he was con demned by the theological faculty. He became pastor at Iglau, Mora-ria, and gained many ad herents for the Reformation, but was imprisoned in 1523. Being released after three months he went to Wittenberg, assisting Luther in the pre paration of the first hymn book of 1524, which contains three hymns of Speratus. Luther recommended him to Margrave Albrecht of Brandenburg- Prussia, who appointed him court- preacher at Koenigsberg (1524), and Bishop of Pomerania in Marienwerder (1529). There he was active in the work of ecclesiastical reor ganization on a purely evangelical basis. He was eminently gifted as a poet and a musician. Author of the hymn ' ' Es ist das Heil uns kommen her," on Rom. 3 : 28, written in 1523, the " true conf essional hymn of the Refor mation " tr. by Dr. H. Mills, "To us salvation now is come," in the Ohio hymnal. A.S. Spielmann, Christian, one of the pioneers of the Synod of Ohio, b. April 15, 1810, at Scherz- hesin, Baden, Germany, came to America 1831, entered the Luth. Seminary at Columbus, Ohio, 1832, the holy ministry (1835,) became editor of the Luth. Standard (1845), was President of Capital University (i854-'57), served the Luth. congregation at Lancaster, Ohio (i86o-'64). His failing health then compelled him to retire to his home near Lancaster, where, though an invalid in body, he in every possible way man ifested a never-failing interest in all matters pertaining to the welfare of his beloved Luth. Church. Author of a History of the Ohio Synod, Columbus, 1880. Died January 3, 1895. F.W. S. Spires, Diet of As Luther's firm stand im mortalized Worms, so has the unflinching firm ness of his followers immortalized Spires. Of the four Diets convened here during the Re formation, the second, opened March 15, 1529, is the most famous. Apparently the Turks and the religious innovations were to engage the at tention of the Diet. The real object, however, was the expulsion of the first gleams of religious liberty ushered in by the Diet of 1526, and the destruction of the Reformation, as agreed upon at Barcelona, June 29, 1526. It was believed that this could be best accomplished by annull ing the decision of 1526, which allowed each State to regulate its own religious affairs. After this had been rescinded by a majority vote and declared, by Ferdinand, as the decision of the Diet, the king haughtUy replied to the plead ings of the Evangelicals, "I have received an order from his imperial majesty, I have executed it. AU is over. Submission is all that remains. ' ' Ferdinand had considered a majority vote suffi cient to wipe out the Reformation. Hence he treated the whole matter as settled, forgetting that some questions cannot be settled by major ity votes, and that the great Reformation was one of them. As soon as the Evangelicals saw that remonstrances were in vain, they entered, April 19, a solemn protest against the decision. When Ferdinand declined the famous document, they published it. This noble protest maintained that for which Luther so firmly stood at Worms, advanced the great cause, gave to the Church of the Reformation its future name— Protestant, placed conscience above magistiates, and the Word of God above the -risible Church. J. J. Y. Spirit, Holy. ' ' The Holy Spirit is the third person of the Godhead, of the same essence -with the Father and the Son, who from eternity proceeds from the Father and the Son, and in time is sent forth by both, to sanctify the hearts of those who are to be saved." This definition given by Hollaz (Schmid's Doctrinal The ology, transl. by Hay and Jacobs, p. 153) con tains all the essential points to be considered Spirit, Holy. 4S3 Spitta here.^He is called " Holy Spirit " in contiadis-, tinction to the other persons of the Godhead ; though this name in itself could be applied to the whole Trinity and to the Father and the Son individually. For God is a spirit (John 4 : 24) and holy (Lev. 11 : 45 ; 19 : 2); hence also each one of the divine persons is a holy spirit, and this in the most perfect sense. The name "Holy Spirit" consequently must befit the third person in a special way. " Spirit " is the Anglicized form of the Latin spiritus, which is the equivalent of the Greek Pneuma and the He brew Ruach. Of all these the first meaning is breathing, breath, wind. The English word "Ghost," in German Geist, seems to denote originaUy an internal mo-ring power. As in man breath is the immediate manifestation of physical life and the spirit is the principle of nfe, so "the Spirit is the hypostatic life of the Godhead," whUst " the Father is the hypostatic essence, and the Son the hypostatic intelli gence." (PhUippi.) Thus the third person is called Spirit in a special sense. He is also called ' ' Holy ' ' in such a sense, because he, ac cordingly, has the special office of communi cating life, which, originating in God, is, as such, always holy, i. e. pure and perfect. That the Holy Spirit is not merely a divine attribute or power, but a person, is evident from those passages of Holy Writ that predicate of him what can be predicated solely of a person, e. g. being the Comforter or Advocate who is to take the place of Christ, continuing and com pleting his work (John 14: 16, 26 ; 15: 26 ; 16: 8, 1350.); bearing vritness and interceding for the chUdren of God (Rom. 8 : 16, 26), from whom he is distinct as a person (Acts 15 : 28) ; becoming grieved ( Eph. 4 : 30 ) ; being on a level vrith Father and Son (Matt. 28 : 19 ; 2 Cor. 13 : 14 ; comp. 1 Cor. 12 : 4-6 ; Eph. 4 : 4-6 ; 1 Pet. I, 2). And also that he is God in trath and es sence follows from 2 Cor. 13 : 14 and especially Matt. 28 : 19, where the Holy Ghost is made equal vrith tiie Father and the Son both as to revelation ("name," which word is put only once, referring to all three persons) and as to relation to a baptized person, which is that of the most intimate union and communion ( ' ' bap- tiring j«to"). He is also called God (Acts 5 : 3 sq. ; comp. 1 Cor. 3 : 16 -with 6, 19 and 2 Cor. 6 : l6) , and divine attributes are ascribed to him (1. Cor. 2 : 10 ; 12 : 8-11). — As to the relation of the Holy Spirit to Father and Son Hollaz says : " Holy Scripture teaches avToXt^tl and in express words, that the Holy Ghost proceeds from God the Father (John 15 : 26). That He pro ceeds from the Son of God is conectiy infened from the name, the Spirit of the Son (Gal. 4:6); from identity of essence -with Father and Son (John 16 : 15) ; from his reception of omniscience from the Son (John 16 : 13 sq.) ; from the apo calyptic -rision of the river proceeding from the throne of the Lamb (Rev. 22 : i); from the sending of the Holy Ghost by the Son (John 15: 26) ; from the breathing of Christ upon his dis ciples (John 20 :22), and from the order and distinction of the three persons." (Schmid, /. c., pp. 175 sq.) And Quenstedt adds : " The sending forth, in time, of the Holy Ghost upon and to the aposties and other believers, is the manifestation or consequence and effect of the eternal procession. The former is eternal and necessary ; the latter is gracious, intermitted and free, and likewise conditional ; neverthe less this sending forth is not local, and does not intioduce an inferiority, because it is not minis terial and servile." (Ib., p. 176). The office of the Holy Spirit, as already stated, is to complete the work of salvation -wrought out by Christ, in and through the means of grace announcing, offering, and conferring the merits of Christ, calling men to repentance, kindling and preserving faith in their hearts. Hence he could not enter upon the full exercise of his office, did not exist in that respect, before the death and resunection of Christ (John 7 : 39), though he, of course, existed and also manifested himself as the source and giver of life, physical as well as spiritual, already during the times of the Old Testament (Gen. 1:2; Psalm 33 : 6 ; 104 : 30 ; Job 33 : 4 ; Psalm 51 : 11 ; Isa. 63 : 10). F. W. S. Spitta, Friedrich, Dr., son of Karl j. p., b. 1852, in Wittingen, Hanover, studied in Gottingen and Erlangen, was teacher at the Young Ladies' Academy in Hanover (1876), assistant pastor in Bonn (1879), privatdocent (1880), professor in Strassburg (1887); promi nent writer on liturgies and church music ; author of Liturgische Andacht zum Luther — Jubilesum (1883), Haendel und Bach (1886); Heinrich Schuetz (1886); Der Chorgesang im Evangelischen Gottesdienst (1889); Drei Kirch liche Festspiele, Weihnachten, Ostern, und Pfingsten (1889); Zur Ref ormation des Evan gelischen Cultus (1891). A. S. Spitta, Karl Johann Phlipp, D. D., b. 1801, at Hanover, d. 1859, at Burgdorf. He studied at Gottingen (1821), was assistant pastor at Sudwalde, near Hoya (1828), military and prison chaplain at Hameln-on-the-Weser (1830), pastor at Wechold, near Hoya ( 1837) , superin tendent at Wittingen ( 1847 ) , at Peine (1853), at Burgdorf (1859). A faithful pastor of high poetical gifts, who, in his student years, had been intimate with Heinrich Heine. After 1825 he devoted his gifts only to sacred poetry. He published Psalter und Harfe (1833), second collection (1843), of which about fifty editions have appeared. Though his hymns were in tended for family and private use, and from their subjective and personal character are best fitted for that, many have been admitted into recent German hymn-books, and English trans lations are found in almost all recent collections of hymns in England and America. Psalter und Harfe was translated in full by Rich. Massey, as Lyra Domestica (1860-1864), and Julian mentions not less than fifty-nine different h3mins of his in English versions. A. S. Spitta, Philip, Dr., elder brother of Fried rich, b. 1841, at Wechold, studied at Gottingen, teacher in the gjTnnasium at Reval (1864), prof, at the gymnasium in Sondershausen (1866) , professor at the Nicolai Gymnasium in Leipzig (1874), professor of music at Berlin (1875), author of the classical biography of Johann Sebastian Bach, 2 vols. (1873-1880), editor of the complete edition of Heinrich Schuetz's works. A. S. Sponsors 454 Stark Sponsors. From ancient time it has been. customary that there should be sponsors for those brought to baptism in the Church. The foUovring, from the Brandenburg-Niimberg Order of 1533, is a just presentation of their office, as well as of the Luth. usage : "Sponsors should be retained, especially on account of the Anabaptists, who now pretend that they do not know whether they ever were baptized or not, so that the sponsors, especially, as well as others, may bear witness, and in the mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established (Deut. 19). And also that some may answer for the child, and if his parents are taken away from him early by death they may remind the child what they promised for him in baptism, and may have a diligent care of him that he may meet those promises and may learn God's commandments, the Creed, and the Lord's Prayer." Only such as are in the communion of the Church, and whose faith and life are ex emplary, should be chosen as godparents. After old custom, three sponsors were to answer for a child (Pomeranian Order, 1563), but not more than three (Electoral Saxony, 1580) . It was always understood that the promises made by the sponsors were made, not in their own name, but in the name of the baptized, and that they became subsequently responsible {Did. Christ. Ant., 1925). It is manifestly improper for a Christian to promise to bring up a child in a faith which he does not accept. E. T. H. Sprinkling. See Baptism. Staehlin, Adolf von, D.D., one of the most prominent Bavarian theologians, b. Oct. 27, 1823, at Schmachingen, Bavaria, studied theol ogy at Erlangen, was for eleven years " candi date ' ' at Nuremberg, pastor at Taubeschuken- bach, near Rothenburg, and of St. Leonard, then at Nordlingen, and, in 1866, was made member of the Consistory and first pastor of Ansbach. In 1879, he was called into the high consistory at Munich, whose president he be came in 1883, which office he held for fourteen years. From 1894, also president of the mis sionary society of Leipzig. He was a man of vast learning, deep insight into the needs of the Church, and of perfect soundness in doctrine. Wherever he had to act in his official capacity, he left a blessed memory. The affairs of his church he conducted with the greatest zeal and love, and -with marked success, winning by his administra tion the esteem of his supenors and the love of his subordinates. D. May 4, 1897. J. F. Stahl, Frederick Julius, b. a Jew, 1802, at Munich, became a Christian (1819), and four years later brought his entire family over to Christianity. He was professor of political and ecclesiastical law in the universities of Wuerz burg, Erlangen, and, after 1840, Berlin. A noted jurist and statesman, he was elected to the Prus sian diet, where he became the leader of the Con servative party, and exerted his energies and learning in the establishment of a " Christian State. ' ' A sincere member of the Church, inter ested in everything that belonged to the life of the Church, he accepted an appointment to the Prassian General Synod and a place in the high consistory, which, however, he resigned on ac count of his polemical attitude to the Prussian Church-Union. D. Aug. 10, 1861. An advocate of strict Luth. orthodoxy, he is known in the literary world for his Philosophy of Law (1830), and The Christian State; as a theolog ian for his Church Constitution (1840), and par ticularly The Lutheran Church and the Union (i860). He shows in the latter work that the chief obstacle to union with the Reformed is the antagonism of their entire doctrinal concep tion towards everything involving mystery, and applies this statement successively to the doc trine of the sacraments, the Person of Christ, predestination, power of the keys, church gov ernment and order of service. J. F. Stancarus, Francesco, b. Mantua, Italy, 1501; compelled to flee from his native countiy be cause of his sympathy with the Reformation, in 1543; prof, of Hebrew, at Cracow, Poland(i55o); filled the same chair at Koenigsberg from May until Aug. 23, 1550-1, when his extreme antag onism to the enor of his colleague, Osiander, caused his dismission. While Osiander had taught that Christ is our righteousness only ac cording to His divine nature, Stancarus taught that He is such only according to His human nature. The Formula of Concord condemned both. His later life was spent in Hungary and Poland ; d. 1574. Staphylus, Friedrich, v., b. 1512, at Osna braeck, d. 1564, in Ingolstadt. He studied philosophy and theology at Krakau and Padua, and in 1536 came to Wittenberg, where he be came intimate with Melanchthon, who recom mended him, in 1546, for the first professorship of theology in Koenigsberg. His entrance dis putation, De Justificalionis Articulo, was sound in doctrine, but his attitude towards Gnapheus, whom he caused to be expelled from Koenigs berg, showed a selfish and unchristian charac ter. In consequence of the contioversy with Osiander he left Koenigsberg (1551), and be came a convert to Romanism in Breslau (1552). The Emperor and the Pope showered honors upon him. Though a married man, and never ordained, he was made doctor of theology. In his Consilium de reformanda Ecclesia he de manded a limitation of papal preogatives, the cup for the laity, and the right of marriage for the priests. A. S. Stark, Johann Friedrich, b. at Hildesheim, Oct. 10, 1680, entered university at Giessen (1702); 1709-1711, preacher of the German Evangelical Congregation at Geneva, Switzer land ; 1715, city preacher at Sachsenhausen ; 1723, preacher at Frankfort-on-the-Main ; 1742. member of the consistory ; d. July 17, 1756. Stark belonged to the Pietist school of Luth erans, and was an earnest follower of Spener. His name is known in ten thousands of German families as author of Tdgliches Handbuch in guten und bosen Tagen, a prayer-book first ap pearing in four parts in 1727. In 1731 were added parts 5 and 6. The book has had a phenomenal circulation and has been translated into English. Lebenswege grew out of little tracts written for servants. Besides these he published numerous other religious works. H. W. H. Starke 455 Statistics Starke, Christopher, b. Freienwalde on the Oder, 1684, studied at Berlin and Halle, under* Spener's influence ; pastor, Nennhausen (1709- 37), Driesen (1737) untU death (1744). Author of the Order of Salvation, published as a supple ment to many editions of Luther's Catechism, including the 169 Questions and Answers often ascribed to Freylinghausen, and still popular. Best known from his now somewhat obsolete,but, nevertheless, soimd, valuable, and suggestive Synopsis a commentary covering the entire O. andN. T. First edition, 1733-7; 1741-4. The com mentary on N. T, has recently been republished. States of Christ. See Kenosis. Statistics, Luth. The Luth. Church in this country is not a foreign sect, recently tians- planted to these shores ; but the beginning of its interesting history dates back almost to the first permanent settlements in the country. As early as 1623, Lutherans were among the colon ists on Manhattan Island, and as early as 1638 an organized congregation existed on the banks of the Delaware, in the settiement known as New Sweden. From this point begin our statistical calculations. From this date the gro-wth of the Church has been regular, some times, during periods of immense immigration, remarkably rapid, until it has become one of the largest and most influential religious com munions of the country, standing third in numerical strength among the denominations. The foUovring tables present the growth and present status of the Church in the United States and Canada, and the numerical strength of the Church in all lands. GROWTH OF THE LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA. 1638.. 1738.. 1838..1848..1858..1808..1878.. year. Synods. 3045 5658 60 Ministers. 9 35° sis ».o341,748 2,914 4,4066,482 Congregations. Communicant Members. I 50 45 5,000 1,125 65,000 1,307 135,629 1.939 200,000 3,111 351.860 5. 136 655.529 7.505 1.033,367 10.513 ".535.551 LUTHERANS IN THE WORLD, 1898. COUNTRY. Germany *R. iDenmark R. Norway R. Sweden R. Iceland R. Faroe Islands R. Finland R. Poland R. D. Russia R. D. Austria R. D. Hungary R. D. Roumania R. D. Servia R. D. Turkejr D. Bulgaria D. Italy D. Switzerland D. Spain r). Portugal D. France R. D. Belgium D. Holland R. D. Heligoland R. England D. ¦Wales and Ireland D. Scotland D. Total in Europe Palestine D. Asia Minor D. Caucasia D. Persia ¦- ». F. India F. D. China... F. D. Japan F. D. Siberia D. Total in Asia Pastors. Churches. 17,500 1,700 869 2.5" 180 22 894 64 541 195 I.I95 8 124 3 69 2 33 3 4 6 4 13 2 260 105 5 23,200 1,900 960 2.514 300 22 1,022 J05 1,766 581 1.433 33 5 26 9 53 85 4 60 46 6 8 36,098 5 34 3 l.oSi 151 4 16 1,202 Baptized Members. 31,350,000 2,270,0002,060,0004,915,000 70,930 12,955 2,530,000 300,000 3,010,000 327,162 1,204,090 9.030 1,200 1,0001,000 10,00011,095 1,500 1,000 80,65s 2,000 86,000 2,086 61,000 2,000 2,500 48,323,203 80a 600 37.000 500 102,215 10,000 1,300 10,000 162,415 Parochial Schools. 61,000 3.100 7,875 10,700 180 lO 5.547 100 2,400 234 3,820 14 8 6 3 50 3 50 95,147 9 4 41 4 789152 4 17 Deacon. esses. $,040 2oa334 189 »59 34 92 3 9,221 IS 33 Statistic§ 456 Statistics LUTHERANS IN THE WORLD, i?,<)?,.— {Continued.) COUNTRY. Algeria 5' Egypt.... •• D- East Africa j!,. D. South Africa F- D. West Africa *,• Central Africa *,. Madagascar F. Total in Africa Australia D. F. New Zealand F. D. New Guinea D. Borneo ^. Sumatra F. Nias F. Hawaii D Total in Oceanica "Venezuela D. British Guiana D. Dutch Guiana D. Brazil D. Uruguay D. Paraguay D. Argentine D. Chili D. Peru D. Total in South America Greenland F. D. United States and Canada.. D. Mexico D. West Indies D. Total in North America... Total in the World 40 245 95 IS 94 64 IS 6,482 6.501 33.641 Churches. 39 3 26 436253 23 531 1,316 267 14 7 476 155 4 Z98 10,528 49,818 Baptized Members. 5,000 1,0001,200 117,694 17,204 600 58,000 200,698 110,500 11,000 400 1,693 36,436 2.381 1,000 163,410 800 500 3,200 160,000 3.500 1,000 15,000 20,000 300 204,300 10,000 8,000,000 1,000 4.500 8,015,500 57,069,526 Parochial Schools. 4 14 342 17s 552 1,107 118 10 7 18 165 168 3 9 3.500 Deacoa- 17 4 17 4 5 47 9.446 * R. Planted by Reformation. D. Diaspora Missions. F. Foreign Missions. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF THE EVANGELICAL LUTHERAN CHURCH IN AMERICA. GENERAL COUNCIL-i867. NAME. Ministerium of Pennsylvania Ministerium of New York — Pittsburg Synod District Synod of Ohio Augustana Synod Canada Synod Chicago Synod English Synod of the Northwest Manitoba Synod Total 1748177318451857 i8601861187118911897 337 163 139 38 445 3827 18 9 505 152 203 62 932 90 45 15 52 2,056 127,501 53.113 26,686 9,1 . 111,458 10,000 4.533 1.592 3.196 347.268 371 35 460 35 1,659 2.265 17,711 1,190 22,957 510 174 194 50 800 7540 15IS 1.873 22,18] 8,899 95.430 3.719 38.5S3 1.713 18,900 627 5.198 6,013 46.627 580 5.150 440 1.430 148 1.599 42 523 116,066.20 35.484- 59 24,846.69 5.929-44 90,139.34 4,565.002,400.00 898.15 160.00 $280,489. 41 SYNODICAL CONFERENCE— 1872. Missouri, Ohio and other States United German Synod com posed of 23 Wisconsin Synod 35 Minnesota Synod 36 Michigan Synod English Synod of Missouri Total 1847 1850i860i860 '.564 203 S8 ¦,879 1,986 309 107 14 35 392,651 102,897 17,476 3,000 3,500 519.524 1,603 193 71 1,675 1,872 10,000 2,434 556 450 102,642 27s 3,000 3,000 I 20,4397.57 30,000.00 7.097.13 2,280.61 t 243,775.00 Statistics 457 Statistics SUMMARY OF STATISTICS OF THE EVANGELICAL LUTHERAN CHURCH IN A.MER.ICA..— (Continued.) UNITED SYNOD, SOUTH— 1886. NAME. North Carolina Synod . . Tennessee Synod. South Carolina Synod... Vir^nia Synod Syiiod of S. W. Virginia. Mississippi Synod Georgia Synod Holston (Tenn.-; Synod. Total 1803 1820182418301842 185si860 1861 S3 120 64 7063 1419 24 207 Si2 Is, 6,392 8,462 8.408 6,159 4.774 816 2,176' 1.475I 38,642! 643375627 775332 22 229 92 3.095 5.290 3.793 4,880 5,641 3.654 243 1. 153 740 25.805 Cfi 2,858.92 1.569.955,667.86 6,024 . 94 2,648.84 14-55 1,566.34 555-87 $ 20,904.27 GENERAL SYNOD— 1821. Maryland Synod West Pennsylvania Synod Hartwick Synod (New York).. East Ohio Synod Franckean Synod (New York) Allegheny Synod (Penn'a) East Pennsylvania Synod Miami Synod (Ohio) Wittenberg Synod (Ohio) Olive Branch (Ind. Ky. and Tenn.) Northem Illinois Synod Central Pennsylvania Synod . . . Iowa Synod Northem Indiana Synod Pittsburg Synod (Second) Susquehanna Synod (Penn'a).. Kansas Synod Nebraska Synod New York and New Jersey Synod ' Wartburg Synod, German... California Synod Rocky Mountain Synod... . Nebraska Synod, (German... Central and Southern Illinois Total . 18201825 1830183618371842 1842 18441847 18481851185s185518551866 1867 1868 1871187218761891189118911897 110 98 4145 17 64 107 39 SO36344126 45 5958S8 4363 4320 16 48 35 1,196 131 120 36 54 23 149119 570 47 378726 75 92 77 43 354743 '.496 23.133 25,686 5.439 6.276 1. 93 1 14.763 22,680 5,997 8,767 4.725 3.077 9.494 2,062 S.917 10,600 11.577 2.9332,6329.103 5.255 1.214 528 3,5003.550 190,839 142 2,620 22,714 t 34,194.44 164 2.902 23,182 35,250.48 35 608 4.475 5,868.98 57 847 7,172 7,060.40 25 251 1,640 1,998.94 148 1.978 15.317 13.143.76 1,6 2,806 23.431 21,142.70 52 822 6,444 7,800.33 71 1,228 9.383 7.350.07 37 572 5.013 8,829.91 34 533 3,968 5,782.23 87 1.447 11,158 9,249.99 24 5"9 2,362 3,441-99 65 844 5.772 4.545-50 90 1,200 8,977 9,768.96 78 1,522 13,049 16,225.60 42 578 3,282 3.076.83 35 397 3,270 2.363.39 48 952 8,090 9,969.91 43 303 2,698 2,182.74 11 139 1,414 1,862.92 8 V 562 325.72 62 87 1,422 2,072 . 40 39 468 3.500 5,764-59 1.533 23,496 188,296 $ 219,272.78 INDEPENDENT SYNODS. Joint Synod of Ohio Buffalo Synod Hauge*s Norwegian Synod. Texas Synod Norwegian Synod German Iowa Synod Danish Lutheran Church America Icelandic Synod Immanuel Sjjnod, German.. Suomi (Finnish) Synod United Norwegian Church.. United Danish Ev. Luth. Ch. in America Michigan and other States.. Norwegian Free Church. . . Without Synodical Connection Total Grand Total, 60. 1818184518461851 1853 185418721885 1886188918901896 18971897 449 2689 1 25417 47 7 45 11 358 77 6550 83 1,986 6,482 608 39 217676 794 6625 SI 44 1,059 14s 88 60 4,083 86,097 4.300 17.483 1,289 65,00071,074 3,0006,1185,000 123.575 7.9837,8695,500 25,000 439.279 265 24 300 370 102 7 200 46 15 9 669 132 72 9.355 960 16 22,000 9.684 547 415 39.992 86,629 212,228 IS 64 233 206 82 1.383 148 85 146 120 3,301 739 54,998 29,948 180 600 15,913 1,200 974 1,350 5.101 57,153 487.694 $ 50,000.00 29,644.37 368.75 15,386.67 200,000.00 4,000. CO 500.00 1,095.00 1,500.00 42,357-06 6,350.002,500.00 t 353.701.85 $1,118,143.62 statistics 458 Statistics EDUCATIONAL AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. The numbers prefixed to names indicate the Synods to which the respective institutions belong; those marked with* belong to the General Synod ; those with ** to the United Synod of the South ; and those with § to the General Council, (i) No property; (2) No endowment; (3) Reported under Colleges; (4) Reported under Theological Seminaries; (5) Repsited under Academies ; (6) Reported under Orphanages ; (7) No report furnished. THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES. (See Seminaries.) Name. Location. ¦Value of Property. Amount of Endow't. ¦Volumes in Library. OT3 ^3 % Augsburg (Norwegian) Augustana (Swedish) , Chicago Theological Seminary, Concordia (Practical) " Seminary , German Evangelical Lutheran. German Lutheran Lutheran Seminary, German. . . German Theolo^cal Gettysburg Hartwick Luther Seminary, Norwegian . , Martin Luther United Church, Norwegian..., Philadelphia Red Wing St. Paul's English Practical.... Southern Susquehanna University Theol. Dept. Lenoir College. .. Trinity Wartburg Westem Theol. Seminary Wisconsin Synod Senunary. . . . Wittenberg 1869 i860 18911846 18301884188518261815 1876 1853 iSgo 186418791888183118581S92188618541895 18631845 Minneapolis, Minn Rock Island, 111 Chicago, 111 Springfield, 111 St. Louis, Mo Saginaw City, Mich Columbus, O St. Paul, Minn Chicago, 111 Gettysburg, Pa Hartwick Seminary, N. Y... Hamline, Minn Buffalo. N.V Minneapolis, Minn Mt. Airy» Philadelphia. Pa.. Red Wing, Minn Hickory, N. C Mt. Pleasant, S. C Selinsgrove, Pa Hickory, N. C Blair, Neb Dubuque, Iowa Atchison, Kan Wauwatosa, Wis Springfield, O 50,000 (3) 100,000 I2C,000 250,000 12,000 125,000 30,000 11,000 160,000 50,00055,00012,000 (1) 150,000 35,000 7,000 15,000 n 15,000 30,000 (0 30,000 20,000 $ 2,116 201,687 50,000 1,500 (2) 100,000 195,382 {^^(2) 6,000 43,000 (3)(2) 12,000 1,500 (2) 50,000 1,000 (3) 4,1002,500 10,000 250 6,000 600 2,400 12,000 4,000 goo 2,oao 22,00025,000 800900 1,000 200 6,000 300 1,000 3,000 ei 2861 54 171 192 234230 10 51 7 44 II 6092 25 48 25 53 8 35 36 Total— 25. 663,185 103,950 COLLEGES. (See Colleges.) Augsburg, Norwegian Augustana, Norwegian — Augustana, Swedish Bethany Capital University Carthage , Clifton Concordia Concordia (Concordia Concordia Concordia Concotdia Concordia (Concordia, English Elkhorn College Evaugelical Lutheran Gustavus Adolphus Holston Synodical College. Jewell Lenoir Lima Luther, Norwegian Martin Luther Midland Muhlenberg Newberry North Carolina Northwestern University.. Norwegian United Church. Pacific University Park Region Pennsylvania Pleasant ¦View Roanoke St. John's St. Olaf, Norwegian 18691884i8601881 1850 187018971839 188118941885 1897189118621897 1894 1891 1893 18611884 18871S671856 185918641D90 1C90 189218321896185318931874 Location. Minneapolis, Minn Canton, S. Dak Rock Island, 111 Lindsborg, Kan Columbus, O Carthage, 111 Clifton, Tex , Fort Wayne, Ind , Milwaukee, Wis Conover, Catawba Co., N. C. . Moorhead, Minn St. Paul, Minn Neperan, N. Y Giddings, Texas C^tavelton, Mo Elkhorn, ia Brenham. Texas St. Peter, Minn Mosheir.i, Tenn Jewell, la Hickory, N. C Lima, O Decoiah, la New Ulm, Minn Atchison, Kan AUentown, Pa Newberry, S. C Mt. Pleasant, N. C Watertown, "Wis Minneapolis, Minn Parkland, Wash Fergus Falls, Minn Gettysburg, Pa Ottawa, in Salem, Va Winfield, Kan Northfield, Minn Value of Property. $ 20,000 191,880 125,000 (4) 39,000 15*000 90,000 150,000 5,000 45,000 75,000 70,000 3(000 2,000 12,000 70,000 40,00022,00025,00045,000 92,00025,000 52,500 100,000 45,00020,00065,000 (4) 60,000 (7) 324,000 30,000 100,000 35»ooo48,000 Amount of Endow't. S SSjOOo (2)(4) 36,5< VoluMies in Library. (4) 1,100 16,000 5,000 (4) 5,000 200 3,8004,000 300 (7) (7) 400 (7) (7) 200 8, 000500 500 200 (7) 9,100 600 5,000 10,000 7,000 4,000 't) 1,000 (7) 24,000 200 21,000 300 2,500 0-T3 f53 166138 459 456 71 207 32 175 219 31 238 60 38 (7) 75 49 256200 103145 291 192 77 124 164l6t 75 136125 96 158 263 169 191 139 132 S M V ¦sir? 5? (7) 60 ¦73 219 (7) 3530 <7} (7) 5 64 16 3 II 2 14 5 JO (.J Statistics 459 Statistics COLLEGES.— Ctf«/i««tfrf, Name. Suomi College and Sem. Susquehanna University . Thiel Upsala Wagner Memorial Walther Wartburg Wittenberg , Watt's Memorial , Total— 46.. 1896 1858 1870189318831889 1868 18451873 Location. Hancock, Mich.... Selinsgrove, Pa. : .. Greenville, Pa East Orange, N. J. . Rochester, N. Y.... St. Louis, Mo Clinton, la Springfield, O Guntur^ India Value of Property. $ 5,000 60,000 50,000 65,000 40,000 60,00075,000 150,000 40,000 2,616,380 Amdunt of Endow't. (2) . (") $ 62,178 10,000 15,000 (2) (2) 200,000 (2) 856,273 Volumes in Library. 100 5.500 7,000 800750400 3,000 12,100 1,000 165,520 0*0 32 168120 8534 116 72 38s 470 ACADEMIES. Name. Ashland High School Betheden Collegiate Ins Bruflat Academy China Grove Academy Concordia Pro-Gymnasium . . "Danebod*' High School. .. . Danish High School Eichelberg Academy Greensburg Seminary Hartwick Seminary Hawkins Chapel Institute . . . Indian Mission School Luther Academy Luther Academy Luth. Normal School, Norw. Luther Seminary, German... Lutheran Normal School Male and Female Academy. . Mt. Horeb Academy Norwegian Institute Nysted High School Teachers' Seminary Parochial Teachers Sem Preparatory Seminary , . . Ridge Academy St. Paul's Academy St. Paul's Pro-Seminary St. Paul's Pro-Gymnasiun. . . . Scandinavia Academy School Teachers' Seminary . . School Teachers' Seminary . . Stoughton Academy Wartburg Teachers' Sem.... Whitsett Institute Willmar Seminary Wittenberg Academy Total— 36. 887 Location. Ashland, Mich Betheden, Miss Portland, Traill Co., N. Dak. China Grove, N. C Springfield, 111 Tyler, Lincoln Co., Minn.... Elk Hom, la Hanover, Pa • Greensburg, Pa Hartwick Seminary, N. Y... Rural Retreat, Va Wittenberg, Wis Wahoo, Neb Albert Lea, Minn Sioux Falls, S. Dak St. Paul, Minn Madison, Minn China Grove, N. C Mt Horeb, Wis St. Ansgar, la , Nysted, Neb *. Woodville, Sandusky Co., O. New Ulm, Minn Red Wing, Minn Henry,N.C Hickory, N. C Hickory, N. C Concordia, Mo Scandinavia, Wis Addison, Dupage Co., Ill ... 1 Seward, Neb Stoughton, Dane Co., Wis . . . Waverly, la Whitsett, N. C , Willmar, Minn Wittenberg, Wis Value of Property. 3,000 1,000 25,000 4,000 (4) 5,000 10,000 30,000 35,00040,000 6,000 (7) 20,000 40,00030,000 (4) 25,000 Amount of Endow't. n $60,000 (2) 25,000 ^ 542,500 85,000 Volumes Library. 20,384 CO lzi3 87 448 4 12 4 (7t 6 7 6 4575 224220 108 32 14s 90 350 6252 155 82 150120 20 no 97 74 952739 S3 ¦44101 40 13 3389 l8s 36 176 60 296 226 35 166 3,861 LADIES' SEMINARIES. Name, Location. Value of Property. Amount of Endow't. "Volumes in Library. Brunswick Seminary Elizabeth College Gaston College Girls' School Irving College Kee-Mar College Maryland College Manon College Mount Amoena Seminary. . . . Red Wing Luth. Seminary. . . West Green Street Institute. . Total— II 1890 1897 1S7918901856185 1 ¦8531873 185918911868 Brunswick, Md Charlotte, N. C Dallas, N.C Philadelphi*, Pa Mechanicsburg, Pa... Hagerstown, Md Lutherville, Md Marion, Va Mt. Pleasant, N.C... Red Wing, Minn Philadelphia, Pa 4,000 100,000 10,000 (i) 56,00075,000 50,000 20,000 10,000 100,000 w 425,000 300 (7) 600 (7) 1,000 8,000 800200 500 600 w 10,500 1418 9 14 statistics 460 $»tatistics ORPHANAGES. (See Orphans* Homes.) NAME. Location. Value of Property. Amount of Endow't. No. of Inmates. Augsburg Bethany Bethesda ¦ Bethlehem Bethlehem Child Jesus Children's Home • Children's Mission Home.... Concordia Danish Danish Emmaus Evangelical Lutheran Evangelical Lutheran German and English German Lutheran German Lutheran Gustavus Adolphus Home for Boys Home for Boys , Home for Girls , Home for Colored Orphans.. Ivy Lane Lake Park Loats Lutheran Lutheran Mary and Martha Martin Luther Martin Luther Martin Luther Martin Luther, Norwegian... Muscatine , Norwegian Swedish Swedish Swedish Swedish Swedish Tabor Topton Tressler Wartburg Wemle Wittenberg Total— 44. 1893189618941881 18861867 1897 18901S821884189218131859188318651873 185218641864 1893 1895 iSgo18711885 i8gs1890186518671880 188518961867 18661879 744-6 W. Lex. Ave., Baltimore, Md... Waupaca, Wis Beresford, S. Dak New Orleans, La College Point, L. I., N. Y Des Peres, St. Louis Co., Mo 388 26th St., Milwaukee, Wis gi8 State St., Knoxville, Tenn Delano (Denny), Butler Co., Pa 1 183 Maplewood Ave., Chicago. III.. Elk Horn, Shelby Co., Ia Middletown, Dauphin County, Pa.. .. 6950 Germantown Ave., Phila., Pa.. . . 3310 E. Wash. St., Indianapolis, Ind.. Andrew, Jackson Co., Iowa Addison, Dupage Co., Ill Toledo, East Side, O Jamestown, N. Y Zelienople, Butler Co., Pa Sulphur Springs, N. Y Buffalo, N. Y Lauraville, Bait, Co., Md Lauraville, Md Lake Park, Minn Frederick, Md Fremont, Dodge Co., Neb Salem, Va Poulsbo, Kitsap Co., Wash W. Roxbury, Boston, Mass Wittenberg, Shawano Co., Wash San Francisco, Cal Madison, Dane Co., Wis Muscatine, la Beloit, Lyon Co., Iowa Vasa, Goodhue Co., Milan Andover, Henry Co., Ill Mariedahl, Kan Stanton, Montg. Co., Ia JoUet 111 Syracuse, N. Y Topton, Berks Co., Pa Loysviile, Perry Co., Pa Mt. Vemon, N. Y Richmond, Ind Wittenberg, Shawano Co., Wis 20,000 4,000 [7] 20,000 25,000 75,000 26,000 4,000 3,000 80,000 150,000 12,000 5, 000 30,00030,000 40,444 50,000 90,000 3,000 $ 2,000 [7] 6,000 [2] 6,000 [7]t7] 4,000 [2][2] [2] 32,947 [2] 3,000 11,000 [7] 6,000 80,000 15,000 5,000 4,000 30,000 15,000 3,0005.500 30,00025,000 17.750 15,00012,580 171598 16,00010,500 25,00035i000 150,000 30,000 36,000 [2] 41,500 1,500 I2] 2,000 4,500 10,000 [2] 978.849 912.145 [7] 52 90 130 42 4585 33 27 2697 50 40 107 7263 7552 38 3 13 53 28 32 SO 97 3 63 16 84 69 40 34402228 4 150172 8350 HOMES FOR AGED, ASYLUMS, ETC. Name. 20 Aged, Augsburg Home for 1 Aged, Asylum for Aged, Drexel Home for Aged, Home for 20 Aged, Home for, Wartburg Aged, Marie Louise Home * Aged, Nat'l Luth. Home for 4 Aged, St. John's Home for 20 Aged, Home for, Lutheran 20 Aged, Home for 2 Aged, Home for 27 Aged, Home for 20 Deaf and Dumb, Asylum for iHomeless Women, Asylum for Women and Children, Ger. Home for. . . Epileptics, Passavant Memorial 4 Friendless, Home for Samaritan Home Total— 18. 185918891882 1876 1893 189418931896¦895¦873 ¦895 18941895 Location. Baltimore, Md Germantown, Phila., Pa Philadelphia, Pa Wittenberg, Wis Fulton St., Brooklyn, N. Y Mt. Vemon, N. Y Washington, D. C Allegheny, Pa Monroe, Mich Arlington Heights, 111 Buffalo, N.Y Muscatine, la North Detroit, (Norris) Mich.. Knoxville, Tenn Howard Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y. Rochester, Pa 912 State St., Knoxville, Tenn. 413 N. 4th St., Phila, Pa Value Amount of of Property. Endow't. 6] 6 6] 6 =1 2 3 6,000 6 40,000 2 [7] 7 40,000 2 24,000 2 26,000 $ 5,160 28,000 l7l 1,500 [6] ''f^t 20,000 4.650 500 2 [ 20,000 [7] [7] 206,000 [7] 13.384 No. of Inmates. 18 36 38 3045 ¦9 6 40 [7I 36 154 564 DEACONESS INSTITUTIONS. (See Deaconess.) Mary J. Drexel House Children's Hospital Deaconess Motherhouse German Hospital, Nursing in. Girls' School . Home for Aged Little Children's School, German. Parish Work Eastern Hospital, Nursing in ~1 ¦ Philadelphia, Pa. 6oo,c [2] 391 64 2,858 384197 2 727 statistics 461 Statistics DEACONESS INSTITUTIONS.— Con/iKwrf. ¦g 1 Name. 1 § Location. Value of Property. Amount of Endow't. No. of Inmates. 5133 1897 189018841893 1896 18831888 Chicago, 111 $ [1] 10,000 [I] E2 [2 200 [2 [2 Deaconess Institute, Immanuel 5 H 16 907-9 N. Fulton Ave., Baltimore, Md 4th Ave. and 46th St„ Brooklyn, N. Y. . . . ISth Ave. & E. 23 St., Minneapolis, Minn. 3.500 20,000 14,000 Total— 8 647,500 200 4,425 HOSPITALS. (See Hospitals.) Hospital . Hospital,Hospital,Hospital, Hospital, Hospital,Hospital,Hospital,Hospital,Hospital,Hospital,Infirmary,Hospital, Hospital,Hospital,Hospital,Hospital, Augustana Betnesda Emergency German Emanuel Lutheran Lutheran Milwaukee, Wis St. John's Passavant Memorial.. Lutheran Free Lutheran Norwegian Norwegian St. Luke, Norwe^an. , St. Olaf, Norwegian... Total— 17 1872i88418801885 1895 18901858 1881 1863i8g618491899 i8g6 1896 Jacksonville, 111 151 Lincoln Ave., Chicago, 111 249 E. gthSt., St Paul, Minn Chicago, 111 New York, N.Y Monmouth Park, Omaha, Neb O. Ave. & Potomac St., St. Louis, Mo. . . . East N, Y. Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y Milwaukee, Wis Allegheny, Pa Pittsburg, Pa Cor. i^ & N. Sts., Washington, D. C Franklin Circle, Cleveland, Ohio 4th Ave. & 46th St., Brooklyn, N. Y Zumbiotu, Minn Grand Forks, N. Dak Lansing Ave., Austin, Minn 100,000 [7] 200,000 [2] 46,000 1,500 6,000 250,000 [2] 30,000 [2] 15,000 [2] 48,000 [2] 250,000 25,000 20,000 7 70,000 7 [l] 2 [l] 4.0S4 20,000 2 2 5,000 30,000 2 8,000 2 1,098,000 30.554 187 200 50 [7] 204 30 174 43741 > ¦05 1.493 8170 18s [7] 540 4.187 IMMIGRANT AND SEAMEN'S MISSIONS. (See Emigrant Missions and Seamen's Mission.) Immigrant Mission, Danish Immigrant Mission, Finnish. . . . Immigrant Mission, German Immigrant Mission, German. . . . Immigrant Mission, German Immigrant Mission, Norwegian. Immigrant Mission, Swedish. . . . Immigrant Mission, Swedish . . . Scandinavia Seamen's Mission.. Scandinavia Sailors' Home . . . . Seamen's Mission, Norwegian.. 56 Total— II. 18731869 18731895 187818871876 193 9th St., Brooklyn, N. Y 53 Beaver St., New York, N. Y — 26 State St., New York, N. Y New York, N. Y 590 N. Gray St., Baltimore, Md. . . 8 State St., New York, N. Y 5 water St., New York, N. Y 14 Moore St., Boston, Mass William St., Brooklyn, N.Y 172 Carroll St., Brooklyn, N. Y.... Quebec, Can., and Pensacola, Fla. 12,000 2 [¦] 2 100,000 2 80,000 2 ,7, 7] 2] 3,000 2 [7] 7 24,000 6,500 r7j [2] [7] [7] 226.000 6,510 [7! [7] 6,125 2,981 420 1,666 2,000 [7! ,7,7, 7 General Summary : 60 Synods, 6,482 min isters, 10,513 congregations, and 1,535,552 com municant members ; 3,500 parochial schools, with 3710 teachers and 212,228 pupils (not all synods reporting) ; 4,919 Sunday-schools with 54,998 teachers and 487,694 scholars (not all re porting); and benevolent contributions amount ing to 11,188,143.62. The theological semi naries number 25, with property valued at $1,282,000; endowment amounting to 1663,185, having 103,950 volumes in their libraries, em ploying 86 professors and having 1,092 students. The colleges number 46,having property valued at$2,6i6,38o, endowment, 1865,273, with 165,520 volumes in libraries, 302 professors, 7,125 students, of whom 1,282 have the ministry in view. The academies number 36, having prop erty valued at )j542,5oo, endowment, $85,000, with 20,384 volumes in libraries, 166 instructors, 3,861 students, of whom 274 (in 16 institu tions) have the ministry in view. The ladies' seminaries number 11, having property valued at $425,000, endowment, $5,060, with 10,500 volumes in libraries, 137 instructors and 1,039 students. The educational institu tions number 118, having property valued at $4,865,880, endowment amounting to $1,609, 458, with 300,354 volumes in their libraries, em ploying 6gi professors, having 13,117 students, of whom 2,648 (48 institutions not counted) are in course of preparation for the ministry. The Orphans' Homes number 44, with property valued at $978,849, endowment, $912,145, hav ing 2,100 inmates ; homes for aged, 18, with property valued at $206,000, endowment, $13,384 and^564 inmates ; deaconess institutions 8, with property valued at $547,000 ; endowment, $200, and 271 inmates; 17 hospitals, with property valued at $1,098,000, endowment, $30,554 and 8,163 inmates ; and 11 immigrant and seamen's missions, with property valued at $226,000, en dowment, $6,500 and 13,192 inmates. The total number of this class of institutions is loi, having property valued at $3,156,349; endow ment, amounting to $962,793, with 26,468 in mates. The total number of institutions under church control, is 219, with property valued at $8, 122,229, ^nd endowment amounting to $2,572, 251, representing an investment of capital amounting to $10,694,480. But this is not an exact representation of the real condition of things in the line of education and benevolence, because a number of institutions have failed to report the various items necessary to make up staupitz 463 Steimle-gynod a correct report. There are published 152 peri odicals, of which 64 are in English, 49 German, 14 Norwegian, 8 Danish, 7 Swedish, 3 Icelandic, 2 Finnish, 2 Slavonian, and one each in French, Lettish and Esthonian. S. E. O. Staupitz, Johann, vicar-general of the Aug ustinian order in Germany at the time of the Reformation. The time and place of his birth are not known, but he came from a noble family and received a regular theological training. He assisted in the organization of the Univ. of Wittenberg (1500) and was professor there, be coming, a little later, vicar-general of his order. He met lyuther in the convent at Erfurt when he was undergoing his greatest spiritual trial, and comforted him by directing his thoughts away from himself to Christ. IvUther says his words were like "a voice from heaven." This was the beginning of their friendship, and Staupitz was influential in advancing Luther to a professorship in the university. Staupitz as sisted and encouraged Luther in his reformatory work, but lacked the moral courage to support him against the pope, and when urged to con demn Luther's doctrine he declared his willing ness to submit to the judgment of the pope. He died in 1524, having spent the closing years of his life in Salzburg as abbot of a Benedictine convent. J. P. Steck, John Michael, b. Germantown, Pa., Oct. 5, 1756 : d. July 14, 1830. Pastorates : Chambersliurg, Pa. (1784-1789); Bedford and Somerset counties, Pa. (i 789-1792); Westmore land Co., Pa. (1792-1830). J. A. W. Steck, Michael J., son of Rev. John Michael Steck, b. Greensburg, Pa., May i, 1793. Pas torates : Lancaster, O. ( 1816-1829) ; Greensburg (1829-1848). D. Sept. 1, 1848. Was one ofthe founders Pittsburg Synod. Published arrange ment of Luther's Small Catechism. J. A. W. Steffens, Henrik, naturalist, philosopher and poet, b. May 2, 1773, at Stavanger, Norway. He began the study of theology, but became interested in natural sciences through the cele brated Buff on. The years 1 790-1 796 were spent in travel, during which time he visited various German universities, studying, writing, and oc casionally lecturing. He became an ardent disciple of Schelling. He returned to Copen hagen (1802), but the reception he found there induced him to return to Halle, whence he left for Breslau (1811.) When. the Prussians rose against Napoleon he left his chair for the camp, serving his country until Napoleon's overthrow. He returned to Breslau as professor of natural sciences, and in 183 1 received a call to Berlin, where he died Feb. 13, 1845. While in Breslau he joined the ranks of the Lutherans, opposing the Union, and remained firm amid many difficulties. His experience is related in a book, "How I became a. Lutheran, and What Lutheranism is to Me." Steffens was a remarkably versatile man, of great powers, deeply religious and enthusiastic for all ethical progress. His writings include phil osophical, scientific, and theological themes, in fifty-three volumes. All his writings are per vaded by deep reUgious feeling. Vide his auto biography. H. R. G. Stegmann, Josua, D. D., b. (1588) in Sulzfeld, near Meiningen ; d. (1632) at Rinteln. He studied at Leipzig, was adjunct of the Phil osophical Faculty (1611), superintendent of Schaumburg, and pastor at Stadthagen (1617) ; professor of theology at Rinteln (1621.) The war drove him away (1623.) On his return, in 1625, he was appointed Ephorusof the Lutheran clergy of Hesse-Schaumburg. The edict of restitution (1629) gave him much trouble and annoyance. His hymns appeared in his devo tional works, among other hymns of earlier date, so that it is difficult to ascertain their authorship . The f oUowingis generally ascribed to him : Ach bleib mit Deiner Gnade, tr. in the Dalton Hospital (H. B. 1848), "Abide with us. Our Saviour," found in the Church Book ; another translation in the Ohio hymnal, " Abide with us, Lord Jesus." A. S. Steimle, F. W. T., b. in Wuertemberg, Ger many, in 1827 ; d. in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1880. Received his classical training in the schools of his native kingdom, afterwards entering the Missionary Institute in Basel, Switzerland, with the purpose of going to Africa as missionary. Was ordained and came to America in 185 1 ; pastor at EUenville, N. Y., for a short time. Assistant to Dr. C. F. Stohlmann, at St. Mat thew's, New York (1851-1855.) Pastor of St. Paul's, Williamsburg (Brooklyn), for a few months, when he came to Brooklyn proper and established the flourishing Zion's congregation, which he served with great fidelity for twenty- five years to his death. Dr. Nicum, in Gesch ichte des N. Y. Ministerium, says that in his later years he is said to have performed more ministerial acts than any other pastor in New York or Brooklyn. Virtually the founder of the German New York Synod (the so-called Steimle Synod) , he was its president during the six years of its existence. He was a member of the New York Ministerium till 1866. After the Steimle Synod was dissolved, he organized the conference of Luth. pastors of New York and Brooklyn, which met semi-monthly. It did not survive his death. He published : Das Gleichniss vom verlomen Schaf {1856), Vierzehn Predigten (1859), Die Reformation ein Werk Gottes {186-j) , and ser mons and tracts. A. L. S. Steimle-Synod. The official title of this synod was : " The German Synod of New York " ; it was called the Steimle-Synod after its president. It was organized in March, 1866, by several pas tors seceding from the New York Ministerium, then predominantly English, and still connected with the General Synod, on account of the " Ministerium's stand in regard to the confes sions of the Luth. Church. ' ' The new synod ac cepted all the confessions, took a decided stand with reference to pastors' membership in secret societies, and was very active in mission-work. It elected its officers for life, and adopted the rule that "all questions conceming matters of doctrine and conscience shall be decided ac cording to God's Word ; all other questions by a majority vote." A property was purchased in Danville, N. Y., for a seminary, but the latter never seems to have been in actual oper- 463 St. Panl ation. A church paper, Das Lutherische Kirch enblatt, was published as the official organ of the synod. In 1868 a fruitless controversy arose with the Buffalo Synod concerning the admission of lodge-members to the Lord's Supper. Formal union with the New York Ministerium was accomplished in 1872, after a colloquium, in Newark, N. J. The president never re-joined the ministerium. Literature : Nicum, Geschichte des N. Y. Ministerium ; Oestlicher Kirchen Convent der Luth. Synode von Buffalo (1868.) A. L. S. Stenger, John Melchoir, b. Erfurt, 1638, called as deacon and assistant to his father, the senior at Erfurt, in 1666, he preached and pub lished views concerning repentance departing from the received faith, occasioning a heated controversy, whose history is recounted in Walch's Streitigkriten der Luth. Kirche, IV. 919-1029. He distinguished between the law of Moses and that of Christ ; the former was said to be directed against all human faults, while the latter rebuked only intentional sins. H. E. J. Stier, Ewald Budolph, b. 1800, at Frau stadt, Posen, d. 1862, in Eisleben. He first studied law, then theology, was teacher in the Mission Institute at Basel (1824), pastor at Frankleben, near Merseburg (1829), at Wich- linghausen, near Barmen (1838), resigned in 1846 and devoted himself to literary work in Wittenberg. Superintendent in Schkeuditz (1850), in Eisleben (1859). He was a great biblical scholar, and associated with Friedrich von Meyer in the publication of the Revised Bible. Among his exegetical works we men tion Siebenzig ausgewaehlte Psalmen (1834- 1836, 2 vols.) ; Reden des Herrn Jesu (3d edi tion, 1870-1874, 7 vols. Eng. Translation, Words ofthe Lord Jesus, T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh) ; Reden der Apostel {2 \ols. 1861). Healso wrote in favor of the retention of the O. T. Apocrjrpha. He was prominent in the field of hymnology, as a hymn writer (some 220) , editor of a hymn- book, Evangelisches Gsgb. (1835), with 915 hymns, and particularly by his famous treatise Die Gesangbuchsnoth, Kritik unsrer modemen Gesangbuecher (1838). He published a num ber of sermons, Zwanzig Predigten, Kempten (1832), Epistelpredigten (1837, 1855), Evan- gelienpredigten (1854, 1862). His homiletical principles he laid down in his Keryktik (1830- 1844). In his theological position he developed more and more as an advocate of unionism over against confessional Lutheranism. His biogra phy was written by his sons ( 2 vols. 1867) . See also sketch by Tholuck in Herzog's Encyclo pedia and Nebe, Geschichte der Predigt 3d vol. A. S. Stip, Gerhard Chryno Hermann, b. 1809, at Norden, East Frisia, d. 1882, in Potsdam. He studied theology in Goettingen and Bonn, was tutor in the family of Bunsen, in London, pastor of the Luth. Church, in Potsdam, promi nent hymnologist, editor of Unverfaelschter Liedersegen (1851), with 876 hymns, among them four of his own. (See Allgem. Lutherische Kirchenzeitung, 1882, p. 1187-1190.) A. S. St. Louis, Mo., Luth. Church in. The Luth. Church in St. Louis, dates from the im migration of the Saxons under Stephan, ini839. Previous to that time only a small so called Protestant Church existed in the city, organized in 1832 by a German preacher, Korndcerfer. When, in 1839, the greater part of the Saxon Lutherans settled in Perry Co., Mo., a number of families remained in St. Louis, and there organized Trinity congregation, which is now the oldest Luth. congregation in the city. In the course of years the number of German Luth. congregations connected with the Mis souri Synod increased to 16 with a total mem bership of 1,945 (according to the statistics of 1897), 8,619 communicant members, and 13,916 souls. All these congregations have parochial schools with a total attendance of 2,718 chil dren. Several German congregations have also organized Sunday-schools. Besides these Ger man congregations there are in St. Louis 3 English congregations connected with the Synodical Conference, with a total membership of 129 voting members, 665 communicant mem bers, 1,227 souls, and 622 children in the Sun day-schools. Two of these congregations also have parochial schools. The General Synod is represented in one congregation, with a mem bership of 450 communicant members, and 300 children in the Sunday-school. This congrega tion has a mission in a distant part of the city, which was, in 1898, about to be organized as St. Paul's Ev. Luth. Church. The Luth. educa tional and benevolent institutions depending chiefly on the contributions of the German con gregations are Walther College, the Luth. hos pital in, and an Orphans' Home near the city. See, also, Wai,ThER, C. F. W., BuEnGER, Brohm, Wyneken, Schai,i,er, Brauer, Mis souri Synod, Concordia Coi,i,ege and Semi nary. A. L. G. St. Paul, Luth. Church in. The first Evan. Luth. congregation in St. Paul was organized (Feb., 1854), and was composed of Swedes and Norwegians. It had no regular pastor until i860, but was supplied by pastors visiting St. Paul from different parts of the country. In i860 Rev. E. Norelius accepted a call to the con gregation. Itis now the "First Swedish Evan gelical Luth. Church." In 1855 the first Ger man Luth. services were held in the city, by Rev. T. F. Wier, who came to Minnesota from New York. He preached in the court-house once every three weeks. This was the begin ning of Trinity German Evangelical Luth. Church. In 1857, Rev. C. F. Heyer (Father Heyer), labored in St. Paul, preaching in a schoolhouse both in German and English. Rev. G. Factmann became the first regular pastor of the congregation in 1862. June, 1883, Rev. G. H. Trabert organized Memorial English Con gregation. There are in St. Paul 12 German Luth. churches belonging to four different S3Tiods, Minnesota, Missouri, Iowa, and Ohio, with an aggregate communicant membership of 3,111; four Swedish congregations belonging to the Augustana Synod, with 1,638 communicants ; x Danish belonging to the Danish Luth. Church in America, and 5 Norwegian belonging to the stift 464 Storii Hauge's, Norwegian, andthe United Church Synods, aggregating together 1,045 communi cants. There are 4 English congregations, 3 belonging to the English Synod of the North west and one to Missouri, aggregating 540 com municants. Whole number of Luth. communi cants in St. Paul, 6,334. G. H. T. Stift, from the Latin " Stipendium," the popular name for the Luth. Theological Semi nary in Tuebingen, established by Duke Ulrich, after the model of a similar institution in Mar burg, for the free education of ministers of the Church. It was originally intended only for 12 pupils, but in 1548 the spacious Augustinian con vent in Tuebingen was given over to this insti tution, with room for 150 students of theology. The pupils are admitted on the basis of a very strict entrance examination, and, as a rule, come from the four pro-seminaries, Blaubeuren, Maulbronn, Schoenthal, Urach. They are ma triculated as university students, and enjoy free lodging, boarding, and an annual allow ance of 60 florins ($25.50). They are kept under strict supervision, though in recent times the former rigorous discipline is considerably relaxed. To aid and stimulate them iu their studies a number of tutors {Repetenten) are appointed who live in the seminary with the students, and have the right to deliver lectures like university professors. The prominent place which this institution holds in Wuertem berg appears from the old Latin verse inscribed on its walls : Claustrum hoc cum patria statque caditque sua. "This cloister stands and falls with its father land." Among its alumni and tutors are many most illustrious men, not only all the leading theo logians and preachers of the Luth. Church in Wuertemberg, since the sixteenth century, but pastors in all continents, professors in all Ger man universities, philosophers (like Schelling, Hegel, Baur, Strauss, Zeller), poets (like A. Knapp, K. Gerock, E. Moerike, Wilhelm Haun, G. Schwab), statesmen, jurists, physi cians, authors, and even a French minister of state (Reiuhardt). A. S. Stockfleth, N. J. C. V., 1 787-1866, as pastor of Vatso parish, Norway, had his attention called to the wretched moral and religious con dition of the Lapps, for whom little or nothing had been done since the days of Thomas V. Westen. During his subsequent pastorate at Lebesby he lived almost entirely with the Lapps, became their missionary, invented an alphabet, wrote a grammar, and translated a number of religious books for them. He finally became professor of Lappish language at the University of Christiania. E. G. L. Stoever, John Caspar, Sr., b. Frankenberg, Hesse (1685), a near relative of Fresenius, schoolmaster in Germany, came to America in 1728 ; became pastor of the congregation in Spottsylvania, now Madison County, Va. ; col lected three thousand pounds for his congrega tion in Germany, England and Holland, and d. on his return voyage (1738). Fresenius has left on record a tribute to his earnestness, devout spirit and faithful attempts, at a comparatively advanced age, to prepare himself fully for ministerial work. Stoever, John Caspar, Jr., son of the above, b. 1707, at Luedhorst in the Lower Palatinate ; studied under four pastors in Germany, emi grated with his father in 1728 ; began to preach on shipboard ; ordained in 1733 by Pastor Schultz ; but before then had been extensively active as a travelling missionary ; served con gregations at Philadelphia, Lancaster, York, Lebanon, Tulpehocken and elsewhere ; cordial relations with the missionaries from Halle were not established until 1763, when Stoever united with the Pa. Ministerium ; d. Lebanon, Ascen sion Day, 1779, in the act of administering con firmation. Stoever, Martin Luther, LL. D., great- grandson of the above, b. Germantown, Pa., (1820), graduated Pennsylvania College (1838), in whose service he spent the rest of his life, first as tutor and principal of the Preparatory Department, and afterwards as professor of His tory and Latin ; author of biographies of Drs. H. M. Muhlenberg (1856), and P. F. Mayer (1859) ; editor of Literary liecord and Journal (1847-8), and of the Evangelical Review (see article), during most of its existence, in which he published sketches of the lives of 83 pastors ; d. in Philadelphia (1870). Stohlmann, Charles F. E., D. D., b. at Kleinbremen, Germany, Feb. 21, 1810, studied at Halle under Tholuck, and after his gradua tion he came with his parents to America in 1834, settling in Erie, Pa. , where he established the first Luth. congregation. In 1838 he was called tothe pastorate of St. Matthew's German Luth. Church in New York, then the only German Luth. congregation in this and the ad joining cities. His successful efforts to meet the want of church extension and his stanch Lutheranism gave him a prominent position in his denomination, while his modesty, peace- fulness and eamest work commanded the esteem of every one. He d. May 3, 1868, the day of the dedication of his new church edifice. See Nicum, Geschichte des Ministeriums von New York, 1888. W. L. Stork, Carl Augustus Gottlieb, b. in Helm stedt, Brunswick, June 16, 1764, entered the ministry and called to North Carolina in 1788. Salisbury, N. C, was the centre of his efficient labors, until his death, March 27, 1831. A man of great learning, university bred, specially superior as a linguist ; of great piety and in tegrity, c. S. A. Stork, Charles Augustus, D. D., son of Theophilus, b. Sept. 4, 1838, near Jefferson, Md., a student at Gettysburg, Pa., Hartwick Seminary, N. Y., an alumnus of Williams Col lege, and of Andover Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass., became prof, of Greek in New berry College, S. C, in 1859, a relation termi nated by the civii war. He then took charge, for several months, of St. James' Luth. Mission in Philadelphia, leaving it to become assistant to his father at St. Mark's, Baltimore, three years after succeeding him as pastor, serving there in all twenty years. In 1881 he became prof, of Storli 465 Stuttgart Synod didactic theology and president of Gettysburg Theological Seminary. He was distinguished for his original thought, literary ability, exten sive and varied acquirements, spiritual in sight, commanding character, and force as teacher and writer. D. Dec. 17, 1883, at Phila delphia. C. S. A. Stork, Theophilus, D. D., son of Carl Augustus, b. in Salisbury, N. C, August, 1814, alumnus of Pennsylvania College and Theologi cal Seminary, Gettysburg. Pastor at Win chester, Va. ; St. Matthew's, Philadelphia ; founder of St. Mark,s, Philadelphia ; became president Newberry College, S. C, 1858 ; founder of St. Mark's, Baltimore ; distinguished as an author, preacher, pastor and scholar. C. S. A. Storr, Johann Christian, b. at Heilbronn, Wiirtemberg, June 3, 1712, educated at Tiibin gen, preacher at Hirsaw (1743), deacon at Stutt gart (1744), and in the same year court chap lain ; 1757, city preacher at St. Leonard, Stutt- gartt ; 1759, preacher in the seminary and member of the consistory ; 1765, prelate at Herrenalb, and later at Alpinsbach, d. at Stutt gart (1773). Storr belonged to the school of Wurtemberg Pietists. He was a pupil and earnest follower of J. A. Bengel, and an ardent admirer of Arndt and Spener. The influence upon his son, Gottiob Christian Storr, the head of the older Tiibingen school, undoubtedly pre served him from the wild speculation of the ra tionalism of his day : Author of Beicht- und Kommunion-Buch (1755) ; Christliches Haus buch zur Uebung des Gebets (1756), a book still widely used in Wiirtemberg. H. W. H. Strauss-Tomey, Victor Friedrich, v. , b. 1809, in Eueckeburg, d. 1899, in Dresden. He studied law and theology in Erlangen, Bonn, and Gottingen, was Archivrath in Bueckeberg (1840), counsellor of the Prince of Schaumburg- Lippe (1848), ambassador in Frankfurt. One of the most gifted modern hymn-writers, author of Lieder aus der Gemeinde fuer das Christliche Kirchenjahr (1843), Die Gesangbuchsnoth in Preussen (1846), Das Kirchenjahr im Hause, 2 vols. He also wrote a number of dramas and novels, and was a prominent Chinese scholar. A. S. Streit, Christian, b. near New Germantown, N. J., 1749 ; graduated. University of Pennsyl vania (1768) ; studied theology under Muhlen berg and Wrangel ; pastor, Easton, Pa. (1769- 1778) ; chaplain in Revolutionary Army (3d Va. regiment) ; pastor, Charleston, S. C. (1778-82), New Holland, Pa. (1782-5), Winchester, Va. (1785), until death (1812). Strigel, Victorinus, b. Dec. 26, 1524, at Kaufbeuren in Swabia; lost his father, a fellow- student of Melanchthon ( 1527) ; became a stu dent at Freiburg (1538) ; at Wittenberg, where he was one of Melanchthon's most zealous and gifted disciples (1542) ; Master of Arts and lec turer at Wittenberg (1544) ; professor at Erfurt (1547). Upon the advice of Melanchthon he was (1548) called as the first teacher of the new university at Jena founded by the former Elec tor John Frederick and his sons to fake, for them, the place of Wittenberg. Getting in 1557 as a colleague the most decided oppo- 30 nent of the later Melanchthon, Flacius, the conflict that Strigel had apprehended soon be gan. As he would not assent to the charges, sometimes extravagant, made against Me lanchthon and his friends, he was in 1539 rudely seized and put into prison. After his release, in 1560, he held the celebrated debate with Flacius at Weimar, where he defended Melanchthon's synergism, and Flacius made the unfortunate statement that original sin is the substance of man. 1562 he was again appointed to his professorship, and in 1563 went to Leipsig. Here he had to leave (1567), then publicly embraced Calvin's doctrine concerning the Lord's Supper, and d. as professor at Hei delberg (1569), only 45 years old. He was very gifted and leamed, but also vain, passion ate, and factious, and a Philippist to the core. Compare Herzog's Realency clopddie. F. W. S. Strohel, William Daniel, D, D., great- grandson of John Nicholas Martin (see article), b. Charleston, S. C. (1808) ; studied at Hart wick Seminary ; Missionary in S. C. (1829-30); pastor, Columbia, S. C. (1830-1) ; St. James, New York (1831-41) ; Principal of Hartwick Sem. (1841-44) ; pastor, Valatie, N. Y. (1844- 51) ; Red Hook (1851-60) ; Middletown, Md. (1863-67) ; agent for Md. Tract Society (1867- 71) ; pastor, Williamsport, Md. (1871-73) ; Rhinebeck, N. Y. (1873-81) ; d. 1884. Presi dent of General Synod (1879-81). Sturm, Jacob, b. 1489, d. 1553, in Strassburg. He studied in Heidelberg and Freiburg, was Master of Arts (1505), member of the Strass burg Literary Union (15 14), declared himself for Luther (1524), became Counsellor and after wards Burgomaster of Strassburg (1526). He- endeavored to bring the German and Swiss. Protestants together, and was present at the- Marburg Colloquy (1529). At the Diet of Augsburg, he, together with the Representatives; of Lindau, Memmingen and Constance, handed in the Confessio Tetrapolitana. Afterwards he took an active part in bringing about the Wit tenberg Concord of 1536. He was present at all the important conventions and diets of the second quarter of the Reformation century, and Sleidan, the celebrated historian, calls him justly " an ornament of the German no bihty." A. S. Sturm, Johann, b. i507atSleida, d. 1589, one of the foremost schoolmen of the sixteenth century ; professor in Strassburg (1537), where a gymnasium was opened under his rectorship (1538). He was repeatedly entrusted with im portant negotiations by the Strassburg magis trate and by the King of France. He attended the conferences at Hagenau and Worms (1540), and at Regensburg (1541). As he inclined more to the Reformed doctrine, he lost the con fidence and affection of the Lutherans in Strass burg . Things came to a crisis when he resisted the introduction of the Formula of Concord, in favor of the "Confessio Tetrapolitana." The conflict ended with his suspension from the office of rector (1589). A.S. Stuttgart Synod (1559), was the meeting at which, Dec. 19, the Stuttgart confession sanctioning the Luth. doctrine of the Lord's Subscription 466 Sunday Supper was adopted. It was largely formulated by Brenz, published in German and Latin (1560- 61). It was brought about by the leaning of Barth. Hagen, who was in favor with the mother of Duke Christoph, toward Calvin's teaching. It taught real presence, oral manducation, sacramental union, ubiquity of Christ, partici pation of unbelievers, in real agreement with the Augs. Conf. and Luth. teaching. Subscription, Two modes of subscribing to Confessions of Faith have been technically de signated as ^Ka^^««.y and ^wj'a subscriptions. A quatenus subscription is when a confession is subscribed to, " in so far as it agrees with the Holy Scriptures. ' ' In this sense, every Christian can subscribe to every confession of faith that has ever been formulated. No Lutheran will re fuse to accept the Decrees of Trent, or even the book of Mormon, " in so far as they agree with Holy Scripture." But such mode of subscrip tion would be of no value as a declaration of what is actually believed ; and would thus not be a confession of the faith of the one thus sub scribing. A quia subscription is where a con fession has been studied and its teaching, upon comparison with Holy Scripture, is believed to be a correct presentation of the doctrines that are therein taught. This implies that every ef fort has been made to ascertain what the writers of the confession intended, so that their judg ment of the meaning of Holy Scripture is ap proved as in harmony with what the subscriber is convinced is true. If the confession be regarded as a faithful representation of Scripture only in part or conditionally, a quia subscrip tion demands that every such exception be ex plicitly stated. To what lengths a quatenus subscription to confessions may be pressed, is illustrated by the famous Tract XC. of ' ' Tracts for the Times, ' ' in the Church of England, where it was argued that secret adherents of hierarchical views against which the XXXIX. Articles are an avowed protest, could, never theless, subscribe them by placing upon the terms employed a different interpretation. (See also C0NFESSIONAI.1SM:. ) H. E. J. Succession of bishops is not taught by the Luth. Church, and is not to be inferred from the ordination of the Swedish bishop Lars Petri by the Roman bishop Petrus Magni. The only succession she knows of is that of apostolic truth. The Brandenburg-Nuremberg Kinder predigten contain a passage, afterward trans lated by Cranmer in his catechism, and interpre ted by Dr. Hook for apostolic succession, which apparently teaches succession. "Thus the ministry, which Christ our Lord himself has begun, instituted and ordered, has come from one to the other, through the la3dng on of hands, and communication of the Holy Spirit, until this hour. ' ' But these words are a por tion of Luther's argument in " Von der Win- kelmesse " (1533), in which Luther maintains the identity of bishops and presbyters, and with his characteristic emphasis points to the apostolic mode of recognizing the call and in ducting into office by laying on of hands, and not ' ' by chrism or butter. " (See Jacobs, Luth. Movement in England, p. 323 ; also art. Bishop.) j. h. Suicide. Our teache/s in expressing then- horror of this crime are accustomed to refer to Augustine's treatment of the subject in his City of God (I. 20-27), '^'^ which he shows that, under no circumstances, is one allowed to take his own life. If the motive, he says, be to escape the ills of this life, the suicide incurs still greater in the life to come ; if it be that of wrongs done him, no remedy is obtained by a crime of his own ; if it be his own former sins, he has the more need of this life in order to repent ; if it be the hope of a better life, this hope of a future life is forfeited ; if it be to avoid temptation and the possibility of a fall, then every one should be slain, as soon as he is regenerate. Although, in its official declara tions, the Church wisely refrains from determin ing the question as to the eternal state of par ticular persons guilty of this crime, since no one knows whether, at the extreme moment, God may not bring them to repentance and faith, nevertheless to testify its abhorrence of the deed, and to deter others, it followed the prac tice of the Ancient Church in denying them Christian burial. An important limitation, however, is made : "It would be excessively rigorous, not to say impious, to deny those Christian burial, who, from melancholy, mania, or some other form of insanity kill themselves, especially if they have sufficient testimony of a previously well-spent life. . . . Nevertheless to deter others from such a deed, some of the ordinary ceremonies should be omitted " (Carpzov, Eccl. Jurisprudentia, II. , chap. xxiv.). For this reason, such funerals were without the tolling of the bells, and hymns were either omitted or were sung by only a few voices instead of the entire body of school chil dren, while the time of the funeral differed from that of those church members who died under other circumstances. The older teachers think that every case of suicide should be re garded deliberate and voluntary, unless the fact of insanity be clearly established. H. E. J. Sunday, Luth. view of. This is to be found in Art. XXVIII. of the Augsburg Confession, and in the expositions of the Third Commandment in the Catechisms of Luther. The obligation of the Christian to observe the day by cessation from other employments in order to give atten tion to the Word of God, and prayer, are clearly taught. The sanctity of the day, it is main tained, lies not iu resting ; but in the hearing and consideration of the Word, for which the rest is required. While, under the New Testa ment, no one day is better or holier than an other, the necessity of a uniform time, for this purpose, being absolute, and the Sunday being the order appointed for this end, its continuance is not an arbitrary matter, or one with which the Christian may dispense. So far there is entire agreement ; but between Luth. theolo gians of the highest standing, there has been a difference of opinion as to whether the Sunday be the Sabbath, or an entirely distinct institu tion. In support of the latter position, it is claimed that Col. 2 : 16 explicitly declares that the Sabbath is an ordinance of the ceremonial law, and that, in so far as the Sabbath de manded the devotion of all man's time to God's Sunday Scliools 467 Sunday Schools service, this pertains to every day of the Chris tian life, which thus becomes a perpetual Sab bath. The Lord's Day was observed by Chris tians from the first as the memorial of the resurrection, and, where the Sabbath was still held in esteem, it was observed on Saturday, alongside of the Sunday observance. During the sixteenth century this was the predominant ¦view, both in the Luth. and the Reformed churches. While Luther's statements on this side are both numerous and emphatic, it must be admitted that in his commentary on Genesis, the germs of the other view, identifying the Lord's Day and the Sabbath, are found, al though they can be harmonized with what is elsewhere taught. His conviction is firm that the Lord's Day has become a permanent institu tion, that dare not be set aside, and thus re places the Sabbath of the Old Testament. The Luth. theologians of the seventeenth century universally take the second view. Gerhard, Calovius, Quenstedt, Baier, all support it — the former at considerable length. The subject is discussed at length by various writers in the Evangelical Review (particularly 1857, 1869), Quarterly (Gettysburg), Lutheran Church Re view (1893), Dr. Walther in Lehre und Wehre (1864-1865), and Dr. S. Fritschel in Theologische Monatshefie lor 18-J2 (AUentown). H.E.J. Sunday-Schools in the Luth. Church. Their History and Character in this Country. — The Sunday-School may be said to have originated in the Bible-school of the an cient synagogue. The two essential character istics of the modern Sunday-School are the in terlocutory method of instruction, and the system of division into groups or classes. Of these the more important, by far, is the method of instruction. In the synagogue school, the method was catechetical. To trace the history of catechetical instruc tion is to connect this early Sabbath-School with the "Ragged Sunday-School" which A. H. Francke opened in 1695, nearly a hundred years before Robert Raikes began his famous work, with his paid teachers in England. In our own Church in this country, it is to be noted that Muhlenberg, imbued with the earnest spirit and influenced by the methods of Francke, brought to our shores a full appreciation of the value of this work. He was diligent in teach ing in the schools during the week. The Sun day-School, however, had to win its way against great opposition in this country also. It was introduced in America in 1786, by the Methodist Bishop Asbury. The first Luth. Sunday-School was that of St. John's Church, Philadelphia, founded in 1821. The general extension of this work in all our churches is well known. A Lutheran Sunday-School, however, is recog nized by certain well-marked characteristics. It does not stand with us as all-sufficient. It does not supplant the home training which is the due of every child, nor does it do away with the necessity for additional religious instruc tion, in the catechetical class and the parochial school, if possible, if not, by some other method. It is recognized as the Church at work in the training of its children. It is not something outside of the Church, nor auxiliary to the Church, but the Church, organized for a spe cific purpose, and employing means and per sons best fitted for that purpose. It is therefore under the governing body of the Church, the pastor, and church council. This conception demands a careful oversight of the teaching, and a careful selection of sound and qualified teachers. The Luth. Sunday-School, again, deals with the baptized children of the Churcli. It has as its material those who have been born again of water and of the Spirit, Christians, believers, not yet full-grown, but if babes, babes in Christ. Our conception of Baptism infiuences greatly our conception of the place and scope of the Sunday-School. The work of our schools is to develop the content of Baptism, to train and feed and strengthen the implanted grace, — not to convert, save in a peculiar and carefully lim ited sense. The Luth. Sunday-School isto work, in all its lower grades, toward a definite goal, — the preparation of the child for the best and most profitable use of the privileges of the pastor's catechetical class. To provide a full acquaint ance with the most prominent facts of Bible history, with a thorough memoriter knowledge of the Catechism, -with the ability to find any passage in the Bible and some working knowl edge of that book, — these would seem to be the least with which we, have a right to expect our Sunday-Schools to furnish the child, and yet we are often disappointed in this expectation. In the whole arrangement of the course of study, in the work of every individual teacher, at all times, the thought of the pastor's catechetical class, and of the best possible preparation of the pupil for it, ought to be a controlling influence. With these points guarded, there is no room for suspicion of the Sunday-School, nor for re garding it as an undesirable exotic, whose im portation is to be regretted. The Parochial School and Kinderlehre, it is to be noted, never flourished except under state control, and it may be questioned whether there, they produced, on the whole, more satisfactory results than the Sunday-School judiciously directed. The great need is a more general recognition of our clearly distinctive principles, and a thorough working out of these principles when recognized. Literature : The Publication Board of the General Synod publishes the ' 'Augsburg Series ' ' of Lesson Leaves, based on the international lessons ; the Augsburg Teacher, containing helps for the Sunday-School teacher ; and two collections of Sunday-School music. The General Council has had for years an ex cellent Sunday-School Book, recently supplanted by a new collection of hymns, of a churchly type. It has had also a series of Lesson Leaves, and a Bible History, but has undertaken under the auspices of a committee appointed by the general body, to provide a complete graded sys tem. In this system "Bible Story," for the Infant Class, " Bible History " for the interme diate department, and " Luth. Lessons, ' ' for the more advanced pupils have already been pub lished. The lessons are based throughout on passages of Scripture selected vrith reference to the Church Year. (See Sunday-Schooi, Course.) Sunday-school Book Supranaturalism The fullest presentation of the whole Sunday- School question, from a Luth. standpoint, is to be found in the Luth. Church Review, Oct., 1896, to which this article is indebted. C. A. M. Sunday -School Book. From the very be ginning the General Council recognized the im portance of giving to our Sunday-Schools a Tune and Service Book which, while " reject ing all sensationalism, and all conformity to a merely popular style" should be in harmony with the spirit of the Church, and help to edu cate the young to an intelligent and apprecia tive participation in the services of the house of God. In 1868 the Enghsh Church Book Com mittee was instructed ' ' to hasten their work upon a hymn book for Sunday-Schools." In 1873 the English Sunday-School Book appeared, containing orders for opening and closing the school, with a collection of Psalms and Prayers, Luther's Small Catechism, 11 chants and can ticles, and 233 hymns and carols. In 1876 the German Sunday-School Book appeared, follow ing, in the main, the plan of the English book, but containing also the principal parts of the main service {Hauptgottesdienst), and a col lection of German chorals in chronological order, with 234 songs. The musical editor. was J. Endlich, Esq., of Reading, Pa. In 1893 re vised and improved editions of both books were ordered. The revised English Sunday-School Book, which is essentially a new book, appeared in 1897 ; the German in 1896. Dr. J. Zahn of Neuendettelsau, at the request of the commit tee, had undertaken the musical editorship, making it a standard work in its generai musical character, and in the exactness of its dates. The new book contains all that was iu the first edition, but incorporates the choral tunes, and gives a number of additional hymns, making the whole number 366, including the liturgical pieces. A. S. Sunday-School Course. Sunday-School is the whole congregation at school. It is the only teaching service for old and young in which progressive and systematic instruction in Holy Scripture can be given to all by the cate chetical method. What is taught in the Church's school is of supreme importance to the Church. More people imbibe unsound doctrine, feelings and ¦views through the Sunday-School than through the pulpit. The church that does not control her own Sunday-School teaching, -will not in the end control the faith of her members. A Sunday-School course should possess the same elements of progressiveness, adaptability to mental condition of pupil, and practicability, that enter into any first-class course of study. No one would consider it wise to compel all classes of all ages in all schools and colleges to study the same grammar lesson on the same day. That is the principle of International Lessons. In 1895, the General Council, after serious opposition, unanimously decided to commit itself to a graded course of study, with proper text books, and was the first general religious body in America to do so. The system is now being developed, at the rate of one text-book a year, m the intermediate department of the schools, and without disturbing existing re lations. The class fresh from the primary de partment receives Bible Story, embracing separ ate text-books for teacher and scholar, hand somely illustrated. The following year, the class is promoted into Bible History, which weaves the stories into a continuous thread. A year later, this continuous history is set into its physical background in the text-book, Bible Geography, Bible Biography, Bible Teachings and Bible Literature (a brief study of the books of the Bible) , each a year in length, complete the pupil's preparatory study in the intermediate department, and only then in the seventh year does he enter into the minute study of detached portions of Bible Text. The system has been phenomenal in its endorsement and its suc cess. * * * Suomi Sjmod. See Finnish Suomi Synod. Superintendent. The official title of the chief pastor of a district of the Evangelical Church in Germany over which he has the oversight ; in Bavaria and Baden called decanus, in the Reformed Church the ephorus. The office was first practically introduced in connection ¦with the Visitation in Saxony, 1527-29, though the Stralsund K. O. of 1525 already made pro vision for it. Many of the subsequent K. O. O. especially those prepared by Bugenhagen, made similar provision. The office had for its object more especially the conservation of pure doc trine and the maintenance of uniform cere monies. At present 'Lhe superintendent as visitator has the direct oversight of the pastors, often examines candidates for the ministry, ordains and installs, supplies vacancies, con venes and presides at synods, and exercises a general supervision over the churches and schools of his district or diocese. A general superintendent is frequently placed over the superintendents of a province. Though the superintendent was originally meant to exercise episcopal functions as the organ of the Church, he has largely become an executive of the state. [Stahl's Kirchenverfassung, 328 sqq., the works on Church Polity of Carpzov, Boehmer and Richter ; report on " The Office of Oversight," by Philadelphia Faculty. Minutes of Minis terium of Pennsylvania for 1892.] J. F. O. Supper, Last. See Lord's Supper. Supranaturalism is that tendency in theo logy, which seeks to find the truth from the Bible alone without the authority of reason. Reason is only to search after the sense of Scripture and explain it. The doctrine of Scripture, even when foreign and displeasing to reason, must be accepted as the instruction of God. Supranaturalism is the opposite of Ration alism. In its actual historical development, though beginning ag. rationalism, it became rationalistic, so that there was a rationalistic Supranaturalism or a supranaturalistic Rational ism. Trinity, incarnation, mystic indwelling of Christ were not denied nor depreciated. Christ was held to be God's Son, subordinate to the Father, and deliverer from error, sin and death. Men fell because of an inclination to e^vil, but could partially effect their own salvation. Susquehanna 469 Sweden In the doctrine of the Church ¦wisdom and ¦virtue were as important as progress toward the true and good in eschataology. The morality of Supranaturalism was so close to Rationalism, that they could scarcely be distinguished. These principles were not those of the biblical or supernatural Supranaturalism of a Bengel, and the old Tiibingen school (Ston, Siiskind, Roos, F. J. and E. J. Flatt, Steudel, Knapp, and Holm), but rather originated under the in fluence of Wolff's philosophy with its non- denial of revelation, but assigning to it what did not contradict reason. It appears in Canz, Carpov, J. D. Michaelis, S. J. Baumgarten, and partly affected Mosheim. In the rationalistic supranaturalists Staudlein, Tzschimer, Titt- mann, Rosenmiiller, v. Ammon, Nitzsch it be gan to degenerate, though a nobler influence was exerted by the great Reinhard. These men StiU holding to revelation virtually emptied it by reducing it to a kernel of moral truth. (Kahnis, Inner. Gang des Protest. II, ii9ff. ; Realencycl. (2 ed.), 12, 507 ff.) J. H. Susquehanna (Pa.) Synod. See Synods (I.) Svebilius, Olof, was archbishop of Sweden and d. in the year 1700. As a member of the parliament he represented the clergy for many years. His influence over the noble king, Charles XL, was conducive to the welfare of Church and State alike. He has wielded a great power over the Church of Sweden by his explanation of Luther's Catechism, which has been used as a text-book for all elementary re ligious instruction in Sweden, from 1689 for two hundred years. C. A. B. Svedberg, Jasper, b. 1653, in Sweden, was ordained (1685), received the appointment as court-preacher (1689), was prof essor of theology in Upsala for ten years, and in the year 1702 he was elected bishop of Skara. He was also bishop of the Swedish churches in London, Lis bon, and New Sweden in North America. He d. 1735. His name is well known on account of his authorship of hymns. Assisted by men such as Spegel and Kolmodin, he edited the hymn- book of 1694. The original collection was re jected, but served as a basis for a new edition which was ready in 1695. A few hundred copies of the hymn-book of 1694 were sent to the Swedish churches in America. As a preacher he was a man of firm conviction and of fearless utterance, and his style was such that the mes sage was more prominent than the messenger, although he was an eloquent speaker. C. E. L. Sveinsson, Brynjulfur, b. 1605, d. 1675, bishop in Skdlholt diocese, Iceland, a man of profound learning, a theologian, and an anti quarian, by far the greatest man of the seven teenth century after the death of Gudbrandur Thorldksson. He was also of a broader and more liberal tum of mind than most ecclesiastics of his day. He defended Jdn Gudmundsson called " the learned " the author of a scientific treatise "on the different natures of Iceland " against accusations for -witchcraft. And it was through his aid that Hallgrimur Petursson (q.v.), the famous author of the Passion Hymns, got his education, and in this the worthy bishop ren dered his country a. better service than he realized himself. He carried on faithfully the work of the Reformation, so ably and energeti cally launched by his predecessor, Gudbrandur Thorldksson. F. J. B. Sweden, The Luth. Church of. The Refor mation of the Church of Sweden was accom plished through the influence of Dr. M. Luther and the German Reformation. The Swedish Reformer Olavus Petri had studied (1516-1519) at Wittenberg, and the leading men of the Diet of Upsala in 1593 had studied with Dr. D. Chytraeus at Rostock. Furthermore the most beloved devotional books in Sweden are those of Luther, Arnd and Scriver, and the spiritual hymns of Luther are sung in preference to . others. But the Swedish Luth. Church has al ways had a certain character of its own, which may be recognized by its conservative Bible translation and liturgy, and its peculiar episco pal church government. And this Church has enjoyed rich blessings from God, although it has suffered very much from worldliness and, its close connection with the state. The pure Luth. doctrine was preached in Sweden after the Parliament of Westeras in 1527, and the Assembly held at Orebro in 1529 under the auspices of King Gustavus Vasa, and the popish prelates tried in vain by their politi cal machinations and seditions to obstruct the victorious course of the gospel through the whole country. (See Arts. Oi,a-vtjs and Lau rentius Petri, and oe Gustavus Vasa.) During the government of King John III. (1562-1592), a Romish re-action entered espe cially in liturgy and church government. But after his death a Diet was held at Upsala in 1593, and there the mediating Romish liturgy was abolished, and the Unaltered Augsburg Confession was unanimously adopted as the faith of the Church. Since that time until lately, as Nicolaus Bothniensis, the president of this Diet exclaimed, " Sweden has become one man, and all its people have one Lord and one faith. ' ' The Reformation being well established in Sweden, its greatest king, Gustavus Adolphus, went with his brave soldiers to Germany for the protection of Protestantism. Now came the time of greatness for Sweden, and the strictest orthodoxy prevailed in the Church. This church has, however, not excelled in dog maticians or metaphysicians, on the contrary its best men have been exegetes as Gezelius, or preachers and hymnlogists as Spegel and Svedberg, or governors of church affairs like these men and a great majority of the bishops. (See Gezelius, Spegei, and Svedberg.) Unlike their German brethren the Swedish orthodox theologians took a very great in terest in the education and piety of the com mon people. The Pietism of Spener came later into Sweden, and was then also a potent factor in the revival of the Church, espe cially in Stockholm, and some other cities. The pietists, called in Sweden Readers, because they came together for reading the Bible, and the writings of Luther and Arnd, were greatly harassed, and persecuted by the authorities of , the Established Church by ¦virtue of the in famous Conventicle Law of 1726, which was at last revoked in 1858. Sweden 470 Sweden During the reign of the brilliant but im moral king Gustavus IIL, 1771-1792, and until the second decade of this century, a rational ism kindred to that of Voltaire prevailed in Sweden. This pestilence spread from the frivolous court down to the lower classes of the people, and even the clergy were more or less tainted by its influence, and gave to the people empty moral phrases instead of the Word of God. Then arose the terrible drinking habit, against which, in the latter half of this century, many have preached and worked suc cessfully and persistently. Notably among these temperance workers Dean Wieselgren and Bishop Thomander have excelled for zeal and prudence. The Gospel of Christ in those dark days of Rationalism took its refuge in the Pietistic conventicles and a few small Mor- a^vian societies, that existed in Stockholm, Go- thenberg, etc. With the beginning of our century a fresh and powerful north wind began to dispel the foreign fog that pressed so heavily on all hearts. The Pietists in the northern part of Sweden gathered together closer than before and read ¦with more devotion their Bible and the works of Luther. And contemporaneously in the southern part of the country arose a mighty preacher, Henric Schartan, who boldly testified against worldliness, rationalism, and all kinds of unsound doctrine. He and his followers are congenial to the biblical school of Bengel, but it has justly been added, "that as the Rational ists preached the first article of the Apostles' faith, and the Moravians the second one, Schar tan preached the third article of the faith." This spiritual movement is still influential and active with strong churchly tendencies in the southern and southwestern parts of Sweden. Meanwhile the Luther Readers in the northland were very aggressive and zealous, a few of them even became fanatics, e. g., Eric Johnson and his followers, who emigrated to Bishop Hill, 111. Many of the Readers took the most deter mined evangelical standpoint, and their foremost leader was Carl Olof Rosenius, whose activity as a lay-preacher and an author has been a heav enly blessing for many thousand souls. After his death some of his friends turned Antinomians, and some others, headed by P. Waldenstrom, went over to a certain legalistic extreme and entangled themselves in Socinian and other unchurchly views. Many of the Readers, however, kept steadfastly the Luth. faith and are generally to be found on the circles of the powerful mission society called the Evangelical Fatherland Organization. (See below. ) The Luth. Church of Sweden is an established church. The king is not only the protector aud defender of the church, but he is even consid ered its summus episcopus, as the church law expressly says : ' ' The oversight, care and pro tection of the Church and Congregation of God in Sweden are intrusted by God to the king." The king's power as such is, however, limited by the laws and the constitutional government of Sweden, and the king is by his solemn oath pledged to the Unaltered Augsburg Confession. Until 1866, when a new constitution was adopted and sanctioned, the clergy continued to form one of the four estates of the Parliament and exercised a powerful influence in both political and ecclesiastical matters. Since 1868, the General Church Assembly meets for a month every fifth year in Stockholm. To this assem bly belong ecclesiastical affairs referred to it either by the king or by its own members, but the resolutions of the Assembly are not binding law unless sanctioned by the king. The As sembly has, however, the power to veto all changes in the Church Law made by the king and the parliament. Members of the Assembly are the bishops and the pastor primarius of Stockholm ex-officio, two professors from each of the theological faculties at Upsala and Lund, one pastor from each of the thirteen dioceses and thirty lay delegates from the realm. The Church of Sweden is divided into twelve bishoprics, of which the first, that of Upsala, is called the archbishopric. The principal duties of the archbishop and the bishops are ' ' to preach the pure word of God, to carefully watch over its being proclaimed in the whole diocese, to ordain niinisters, to enjoin upon the people prayer and Christian charity, to convoke and conduct the diocesan synod every sixth year, and, together with the consistory, to govern the diocese in ecclesiastical affairs." It is further the archbishop's privilege to crown the king and the queen, to ordain bishops, and to preside over the General Church Assembly. The con firmation of the young is not a special privilege of the bishop, but the youth of a parish are con firmed by its own pastor. The confession of the Established Church of Sweden is, according to the Church Law, the Luth. faith, as expressed in the whole Book of Concord, and only an insignificant percentage of the Swedish population belong to other churches and sects. N. F. Sweden, Missions of the Church of. i. Home Missions. The Swedish Bible Society was organized (1815) in connection -with the British and Foreign Bible Society, and has been one of the active agents to furnish every Swedish home with the Bible. The Friends of the Church, a society organized in 1877, with head quarters at Nonkoping, has for its aim to cir culate good devotional and strictly Luth. litera ture. The Evangelical Fatherland Organisation from 1856, not only circulates devotional books and tracts, but sends out ministers and lay preachers for evangelizing the whole country. Prominent among the founders of this organiza tion were H. J. Lundborg and C. O. Rosenius (see art.), and it has earnestly tried to work m harmony with the Church and its confessions. The Swedish Missionary Association from 1878, is a kind of Free Church movement, under Waldenstromian auspices, with a mission school at Kristinehamn, and a host of active lay preachers, of whom many even administer the sacraments. The association had'in 1898 about 80,000 adherents, though not formally seceded from the Established Church. A Society Pro Fide et Christianismo was or ganized in 1771, with the aim to publish popular editions of good devotional Luth. books. It is still very active, and one of its originators, Rev. Swedenborg 471 Swensson C. G. Wrangel, had been provost {1759-68) Svedberg. Until 1743 his studies were in the in- in the colony New Sweden. terests of science and philosophy. But in that There is in Stockholm a very flourishing year he claimed that the Creator and Saviour Deaconess Institute, which has been under the appeared to him at night, assuring him of the care and guidance of the able and pious Dr. call he had to the human race. He now retired J. C. Bring, from 1862 to his death, 1898. The from worldly "pursuits and devoted himself ex- institute had in 1897 in 96 different stations 217 clusively to the study and description of the deaconesses. phenomena of the world of spirits. His Arcana II. Foreign Missions. Missionary work Ccelestia, in eight volumes, was completed in among the Lapps in the most northern part of 1756 ; this was followed by many other treatises Sweden was already begun by Gustavus Vasa, on similar subjects, among them De ccelo et in- although it succeeded first from 1606, during fernoini'!58. The Church of the New Jerusalem the reigns of Charles IX. and Gustavus Adol- which he founded dates from June 19, 1770. phus. The best missionaries in this field have He d. March 29, 1772. The main features of been P. Fjellstrom and P. Hogstrom. (See Lap- doctrine of the Church of the New Jerusalem land.) are : God the Father is of infinite divine es- The Church of Sweden supplied vrith pastors sence, the Sou is the human manifestation of for nearly 150 years the colony New Sweden in the Father for the purpose of redeeming man- North America, and tried to take up missionary kind, and in the Holy Spirit the Father sancti- work among the Indians in the neighbor- fies and regenerates ; restoring man to spiritual hoodof the colonists. Rev. J. Campanius (1643-48) freedom. Life is not created, only its outward translating Luther's Catechism into the Dela- forms. " Man has a spiritual body which is ware language ; and in the latter part of the fitted to receive and manifest the divine forces, eighteenUi century Rev. J. Kjernander es- and the mind' or spirit constitutes the spiritual tablished a mission of his own in the East body ; the material body is only the husk, and Indies. its death is caused by man's resurrection from The Swedish Missionary Society was organ- it ; the spiritual world is a substantial world, ized ( 1835 ) in connection with the Basel Society, the realm of causes, and exists in three divisions: and in 1845, through the efforts of Dr. P. heaven, the world of spirits, and hell ; the world Fjellstedt (see art.), the Missionary Society of spirits, which all enter after death, is the place of Lund, in conjunction with the Leipzig Mis- of preparation for heaven or hell ; according to sionary Society, was founded. The Swedish the character brought into it ; the life of this Society, and that of Lund, were united in 1855 intermediate state is similar to the one in this and, participating in the work of the Leipzig world, except that it is not a life of probation. Society, have sent to the Tamils in India, as but a life devoted to bringing discordant ele- missionaries, the learned Dr. Blomstrand, Revs, ments in man's nature into harmony, and to Ouchterlony, Sandegren, and others. receiving instruction ; but gradually the scene The Mission of the Church of Sweden was changes, and men rise to heaven or sink to hell, called forth through the General Church As- drawn by the invisible affinities of their true sembly of 1873. This mission has the arch- character." Still, "hell is not a place or state bishop as president, and receives yearly col- of constant punishment, but its inhabitants lections from all the Luth. congregations of have all the enjoyments of which their perverted Sweden. Having joined with itself the United nature is capable, living under restraint of pen- Swedish Missionary Society, it continues, -with alties which follow every -violation of law. " In six missionaries, the work among the Tamils, heaven each one finds his appropriate sphere of and, in 1876, it also took up a new field among activity, and is constantly growing towards per- the Zulus in Africa, where it has 15 mission- fection, which growth goes on forever. " In aries. Revs. O. Witt and T. Fristedt were the Scriptures there is a spiritual principle cone- first missionaries, and Oscarsberg was the first sponding to every natural act and object they mission station. record, a spiritual meaning distinct from, yet The Evangelical Fatherland Organization harmonizing with and based upon the natural in 1862 began foreign missionary work in a meaning of every word and sentence." — S's missionary institute in Stockholm, under Prof, doctrine found few followers in Sweden, but W. Rodin, as president. Its first missionaries, even in 1783 churches were organized in Eng- Carlsson, Lange, Kjellberg, and C. F. Johanson land, and Germany, Poland, Russia, and several (who is now pastor of the Augustana Synod), other European countries followed. The first were in 1866, sent to the Kumana people in congregation in America was established in 1792 the neighborhood of Abyssinia. Afterwards, in Baltimore. There are now organizations in in 1877, the Fatherland Organization also took twenty-nine states. J. N. up mission work at Narsingpur and Sagar, in Swedish Lutherans in America. See the Central Provinces of British India. AUGUST ana Synod. (Synods, II.) The Swedish Missionary Association {188-1) Swensson, Jonas, b. in Smaland, Sweden, opened a mission field m Kongo, -Africa, m jg^g^ ordained 1851. He was renowned as an connection with the Amencan Baptist Mission- earnest and popular pastor in the diocese ary Union. The Association has also sent out - . . j-. . ^^ . missionaries to Lapland, Finland, Russia, Persia, and China. N. F. Swedenborg, Emanuel Von, was b. in of Wexio, but ha-ving received an urgent call from the Swedish Luth. congregations at Sugar Grove, Pa., and Jamestown, N. Y., he anived at these places in 1856. Here he served ¦with Stockholm, Sweden, January 29, 1688, the son great fidelity and self-sacrifice until 1858, when of the Luth. bishop of Westgothland, Jasper tie removed to Andover, 111., where he d. in Symbol 473 Symbolics 1873 as the beloved pastor of that congregation. His memory will always be held in high esteem in the Augustana Synod as an evangelical and powerful preacher. He was Secretary of the Augustana Synod 1861-1870, and its President 1870-1873. • N. F. Symbol, Sjrmbolical Books. The word symbol is from the Greek verb cvuPaUu, to bring two objects together, make a comparison, and from such comparison reach a conclusion ; hence aii/j./3aMov, " a mark," expressing the re sult of such process : then "ticket," " check," and finally "creed," "confession of faith." The term, in classical Greek, sometimes means ' ' a covenant or treaty. ' ' It was applied by Cyprian to the Baptismal Confession, and from the fourth century was a common designation of the Apostles' Creed. Rufinus explains the application : " Every general gives his soldiers particular symbola, in order that if anyone be met of whom there be doubt, he may produce, when asked, the symbolum as a test as to whether he be friend or enemy." From the Baptismal Confessions, i. e., the Apostles' Creed, the term passed over -with Alexander of Hales (1230 A. D. ) to the other creeds. Luther ap plied it to the Apostles' and Athanasian Creeds and the Te Deum. The Formula of Concord calls the Augsburg Confession ' ' the symbol of our time." A symbol, therefore, is a contract or article of agreement, whereby Christians uniting in external association, declare and pledge to each other the faith that they hold and teach. A distinction is sometimes made between symbols and symbolical books. The former term is then restricted to concise thetical statements of doctrine, such as the (Ecumen ical Creeds, the doctrinal articles of the Augs burg Conf ession.and the Epitome of the Formula of Concord, while the latter present an elaborate discussion of the topics under treatment. By the "Symbolical Books of the Lutheran Church," the confessions contained in the Book of Concord are always meant. (See ar ticles, Concord, Book oe ; Creeds ; Sub scription.) H. E. J. Symbolics. A branch of theology marking the transition of historical into systematic theology. A cunent definition that " it is the science of the Confessions of Faith of the several churches " would limit its sphere tothe history and contents of the various confessions. But, as a scientific treatment inevitably leads to in vestigation into principles. Symbolics has be come ' ' the science that examines into the dis tinctive characteristics of church bodies that have stated their faith in historical confessions. ' ' The lack of definiteness and consistency in the teaching of numerous sects that are without documents which they recognize as confessions, excludes them from scientific consideration. The reference of some of these to the pathology of insanity would be more just than to the sphere of Symbolics. The practical application of this principle reduces Symbolics to a treat ment of the distinctive features of Catholicism and Protestantism, and of the two great branches into which each has been di^vided, viz., Catho- Hcism, into Greek and Roman ; and Protestant ism, into Lutheran and Reformed. A thor oughly scientific treatment cannot be confined to the confessions, but must keep in ¦view ethical, political, and social elements, and the application of these principles in the various branches of practical theology. The preach ing, the worship, the church government, the pastoral theology of the various churches re flect and illustrate the principles enunciated in their confessions. Symbolics investigates not only the doctrines themselves, but also the rela tive place, proportion, and emphasis of each doctrine. Nowhere can more numerous illus trations be found of the maxim : Quum duo idem dicunt, non est idem (When two speak the same thing, it is not the same) . All churches are historically rooted in what has been termed " (Ecumenical Catholicism." The Symbols of this (Ecumenical Catholicism are the Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athan asian Creeds. Upon this basis the Luth. Church has planted itself firmly in the First Article, and the conclusion to the Doctrinal Articles of the Augsburg Confession, as well as in the Schmal kald Articles and Formula of Concord. At this point a thorough treatment of the subject re quires that the misconception be guarded against that the common acceptance of these confessions could ever be considered as a common bond of union, as was advocated by Calixtus, or that the Catholic churches are on a solid foundation and need only to add to their confession thus made, as was urged by Kahnis. While the words used are the same, the meaning attached to these words is contradictory. This becomes manifest in the very first and fundamental word of the creed, the credo, itself. The Church, being both a "communion of saints " and an institution for the administra tion of the Means of Grace and the subjugation of the world to the Gospel, the distinction be tween Catholicism, in its historical sense, and Protestantism depends upon the emphasis placed on the one or the other side of the Church. When it is regarded chiefly as an institution, and the importance of personal faith retires into the background, Catholicism results. When, on the other hand, the institution is made entirely subservient and subordinate to the indi^vidual relation of its members to Christ, Protestantism is found. Schleiermacher's statement is often quoted : " Protestantism makes the individual's relation to the Church dependent upon his relation to Christ ; Cathol icism, on the other hand, makes the individ ual's relation to Christ depend upon his relation to the Church." Catholicism and Protestantism agree in mak ing the Holy Scriptures, in connection with tradition, the source of doctrine. But Cathol icism co-ordinates tradition with Scripture, while Protestantism recognizes Scripture as the sole infallible source, and accordingly tests all tradition by this standard. The Catholic, par ticularly the Roman Catholic, never has a com plete revelation, since the future Church, like the present, according to his conception, has the authority of adding to the articles of faith ; while the Protestant points to the Holy Scrip tures as the complete saving revelation of God, without affirming, however, that the Church Symbolics 473 Symbolics can ever exhaust the contents of this revelation in its progressive appropriation of the riches therein offered (Formal Principle.) Catholicism and Protestantism agree also in holding that faith in the work of Christ is an indispensable condition of salvation, and that the office of the Christian ministry is necessary. The Catholic, however, regards the work of Christ chiefly as rendering possible and calling forth man's own efforts, while the Protestant, although believing and teaching that a new life inevitably follows faith and jus tification, finds the sole ground of his forgive ness and acceptance with God to be the suffer ings and obedience to the Law of his Redeemer. The Catholic holds that the mediation of a priestly order is necessary ; the Protestant emphasizes the spiritual priesthood of all be lievers, whereby every Christian has direct and immediate access to Christ ( Material Principle). The chief emphasis is laid by the Greek Church upon the formal, and by the Roman Church upon the material principle of Cathol icism. The chief emphasis is laid by the Re formed Church upon the formal ; and by the Lutheran, upon the material principle of Prot estantism. The Greek makes the cultus ; the Roman, the organization ; the Luth., the doc trine ; the Reformed, the holy life of its mem bers, the centre of its teaching and efforts. ( See also Theses of Claus Harms, I.) The Greek and Luth. churches have been more influenced by intellectual ; and the Roman and Reformed, bypractical, considerations. The underlying cause of the division be tween the Eastern and Western churches was the aggressive spirit of the Western Church, in its struggles against the ultra-conservatism of the Eastern Church, which, like a dead weight, embanassed all the attempts of the former at progress. The controversies concerning the double procession of the Holy Spirit, and the observance of Easter, were only the occasions for making this inner antagonism felt. For over iioo years, since the death of John Damas cenus, the Greek Church has made no progress in the definition of doctrines. The consequence has been that while it has not participated in the more definite conceptions of matters that were brought to consideration by controversies in the West, nevertheless it has also escaped some of the more serious errors of the Roman Church, as works of supererogation, indulgences, wor ship of the host, withdrawal of the cup from the laity, purgatory, the denial of right of priests to many. But on the two most important ques tions, those of the formal and material principles, its position is as objectionable as that of the Ro man Church. The superstitious ceremonies are more numerous, and preaching is assigned a still less important place. The Symbolical Books are the decrees of the first seven general councils, including the Tmllan (692), which Rome ignores. Unsuccessful efforts were made by Melanchthon, and, a generation later, by Jacob Andrese, to bring the Greek Church to an ac ceptance of the doctrines of the Reformation. Its doctrines are repeated in a modern form chiefly in the "Orthodox Confession" of the XVII. century. It has besides a number of confessions of secondary rank (Shield of Ortho doxy, Confessions of Gennadius, Kritopulus, Catechisms of Platon and Philaretus). While the Greek Church occupied itself mostly in metaphysical speculations concerning the Godhead, the Roman Church, with its more practical tendency, entered upon the considera tion of anthropological and soteriological ques tions. But the work of thoroughly mastering, assimilating and canying to their conclusion the teachings of its great theologian, Augus tine, was prevented by the overshadowing prac tical problem of the conversion and training of the Germanic tribes, to which the Latin race then yielded the supremacy in Europe. It sought to deal with them as Moses did with the Israelites in the wilderness, ruling them in the spirit of the Old Testament, and, by the estab lishment of an elaborate hierarchy, after the pattern of the Levitical, also made conces sions and adaptations to the pagan opinions and practices of its converts. The organiz ing tendency culminated, in the sphere of doc trine, with the scholastics, who endeavored to run the material of the Church's faith into the moulds of the philosophy of Aristotle, while the Holy Scriptures continually receded from view. The deteriorations of doctrine, however, were not reduced to confessional statements until the Luth. reaction rendered their formulation and revision an unavoidable necessity. This was done by the Council of Trent (1545-63), whose Canons and Decrees, Profession of Faith, and Catechism are the authorized sources of the official teaching of Rome, to which were added, in 1870, the L)ecrees of the Vatican Council, which declared all decisions of the Pope, ex cathedra, infallible. The centra] and funda mental doctrine of the Roman Catholic system, is that of the Church, which is now centralized in the Pope. The chief doctrinal peculiarities are : i. In Anthropology, the theory of the original moral equilibrium in which man was created {puris naturalibus), with its appendage of the " superadded gift " of righteousness, by the loss of which, in the fall, nature itself is not impaired, but man's dominion over its lower impulses is destroyed, and he becomes subject to suffering and death. The spiritual infection thus derived is transmitted by inheritance ; its guilt is removed in baptism, while the concu piscence which remains in the baptized is not sin. 2. In Christology, the doctrine that the merits of Christ are provided for sins committed before baptism (original), and for actual sins only by commuting a penalty beyond man's powers to one within his power to pay. 3. In Soteriology, regarding justification an inter nal process, instead of an external act, teaching that it has degrees, and confounding it with sanetification, defining "grace" as a quality infused into man, instead of the unmerited favor of God, and "faith," as assent to the teaching of the Church, instead of man's confi dence in his Redeemer ; including man's " good works " in the meritorious ground of his salva tion ; esteeming Christ as a new lawgiver offer ing salvation only on easier terms than did Moses ; assigning to the sacraments an ex opere operato efficacy, ¦without regard to the Symbolics 474 Syncretism faith or unbelief of the one using them ; chang ing the Lord's Supper from a sacrament into a sacrifice, in which the Body and Blood of Christ, present by transubstantiation, are offered anew for the sins of living and dead; inventing "penance " as a sacrament for those who, hav ing fallen after baptism, can no longer avail themselves of its efficacy ; establishing in or dination a spiritual order to mediate between the sinner and his Saviour, and assigning to it ' ' an indelible character, ' ' without reference to the relation of the priest to a people or their call. 4. In Eschatology, the doctrine of pur gatory, with the accompanying doctrine of the Fund of superfluous merits of the saints obtained by works of supererogation, by drawing upon which deliverance from purgatory is possible. In the article Reformed and Lutheran, the relation between the two Protestant churches has been traced. In summing up the distinc tions, the suggestions of Bishop von Scheele have much force, that the Greek Church re minds us of childhood, the Roman Church of youth, the Luth. Church of mature manhood, and the Reformed Church of old age. The childhood of the first is seen in its being con tent vrith the assurance that its Fathers knew everything better than it can ever hope to know, and that one's only care should be to preserve its inheritance, without any concern as to its contents. The youth of the second, in its energetic, aggressive efforts to .subdue every thing, both in the sphere of thought, and in the outward world, combined with a prevalent superficiality that is captivated by mere appear ances, and amidst its absorption in present sur roundings often forgets the divine and eternal. The manhood of the third, in its sober estimate of the relation of the bodily to the spiritual, the temporal to the eternal, the seen to the un seen ; while the latter has always the priority, the former is not ignored. The old age of the fourth in its constant tendency to separate what belongs together. Lit. : Marheinecke, Phil., Christliche Sym bolik, 3 vols. (1810-13); Institutiones Symbolicee (1812); Winer, George Bened., Comparative Darstellung des Lehrbegriffs der verschiedenen christlichen Kirchenpa-rteien (1824), new edi tion (1866); also English translation, with most important parts untranslated, published by Clarkes, Edinburgh. Valuable for its compar ative tables, displaying at a glance the points of agreement and difference of the various churches. J. A. Mohler, Symbolik {182,2) ; 7th ed., 1864 ; English translation by J. B. Robert son, New York, American Catholic Publishing House. An epoch-making book, inaugurating an entirely new method of Roman CathoUc Polemics, answered by Nitzsch, F. C. Baur, Hase, etc. H. E. F. Guericke, Allgemeine Christliche Symbolik (1839); 3d ed. (1861); Karl Mattes, Comparative Symbolik (1864); R. Hofmann, Symbolik (1857); KoUner, Ed., Sym bolik aller Christlichen Confessionen (1837). (Reached only Luth. and Reformed); Gustav Plitt, Grundriss der Symbolik (1875); G. Oeh ler, Lehrbuch der Symbolik (1876); Scheele, Teologisk Symbolik {i8ti); in German (1881); Die Christliche Symbolik in Zockler's Hand buch ; Nosgen, Symbolik ; Kattenbusch, Lehr- buchder vergleichenden Religionskunde {Ritsch Uan); K. Miiller, Symbolik (Reformed); and the popular Symbolics of Buchmann, Graul (translated into English), Karsten, Debelius, Berger, Langbein, Giinther, Gumlich, Roh nert. H. E. J. Sjrncretism. The history of this word and its use is interesting. The Greek writer Plu tarch (A. D. 40-120) seems to have been the first one to use it. In one of his smaller philo sophical works he admonishes brothers to do as the Cretans did, who, whilst often in conflict and war with each other, always when an enemy from -without made his appearance be came reconciled and united ; and this was what they called syncretism {sunkretismon) . According to this statement the term would mean the Cretan way of acting together against a common enemy, though differing among themselves in other respects (from sun,-w'\tn, together, and kretizb, to act likea Q.retan{kres) . Erasmus then uses the expression in a bad, but also in a good sense, in a letter to young Melanch thon, calling upon the learned and educated to combine against their opponents. Zwingli also uses it in a good sense, exhorting the Protes tants to united action, not^withstanding the difference concerning the Lord's Supper. With Melanchthon we find it in both senses. The same is the case in the first half of the 17th century, though the bad signification already begins to predominate. When a Catholic writer had called upon his co-religionists to exercise syncretism, i. e., notwithstanding some differences to combine against the Protest ants, the Reformed theologian, D. Parens, met this by admonishing the Reformed and the Lutherans to do the same over against their common enemy, the Roman Antichrist, until they should have come to complete internal union. But the Luth. Leonhard Hutter, in a reply to the latter, earnestly deprecated such a syncretism, since the differences between the two churches were of a fundamental character (1614). About the same time a German Jesuit, fearing that a combination of the Lutherans and the Reformed would be injurious to the Roman Catholic Church, tried all he could to make such a confederation seem dangerous to the Lutherans. During the Thirty-years' War the term, as also the thing denoted by it, seems to have been used very little ; but about the middle of the 17th century its use was renewed and at the same time modified, so that the word syncretism from now on had only a bad sense. George Calixt was the occasion of its being used .so. He wanted the different Chris tian churches to lay more stress upon what they have in common, and especially desired the Lutherans and the Reformed to regard each other as brethren, their differences, as he main tained, not being fundamental. The strict Lutherans objected to this on conscientious grounds. In 1645 two theological opinions published by the Wittenberg faculty warned against the "syncretism of different religions," appealing to passages like 2 Cor. 6 : 14, 15 ; Rev. 3 : 15, 16 ; Eph. 4 : 5, 6 ; i Cor. 5:6. At the same time a Jesuit stigmatized the Syncretistic Controversy 475 Syncretistic Controversy tendency of Calixt as syncretism^ It seems that he was the first to comprehend under that name not only the partial cooperation of those that differ in faith, but also the mingling of different religions itself ; and this use from now on became prevalent, and at the same time the derivation of the word syncretism from sun- kerannumi, to mix together, came into use. The well-known Luth. , Dannhauer calls syncret ism every harmful mixture of what is dis similar, beginning with communion of Eve and the serpent. The great Luth. controversialist, Abraham Calov, then makes the term the tech nical designation of the tendency of Calixt and his friends. And this is still the usage at the present time. What, then, did Calixt teach to deserve the name of a syncretist? A great many errors were ascribed to him. Only the most impor tant can be mentioned. In the first place he held that there existed a certain union be tween the Luth., Reformed, and Catholic churches, and that this union should be recognized. In the second place he maintained that the bond of this union consisted in the Apostolic Creed, which was accepted by each one of these churches. In the third place he regarded the common doctrine of the first five centuries {consensus quinquesescularis) as a sec ondary principle of Christian faith, since it showed how the primitive Church under the guidance of the Holy Spirit understood the fundamental articles of faith contained in the Apostles' Creed. These points contain what may be called the theoretic syncretism of Calixt. The practical outgrowth of it manifested itself in a number of doctrines in which he more or less agreed vrith churches other than the Luth. , and still claimed to be a good Luth. ; but not infrequently unguarded expressions or mere theological opinions of his were by his over- zealous opponents magnified into false doctrines and heresies. Thus he renewed the expression condemned by the Formula of Concord, that good works are necessary unto salvation ; maintained that God can be called the acci dental cause of sin ; denied that Christ in his human nature is omnipresent outside of the eucharist, etc. He also denied the assertion of his opponents that the doctrine of the Holy Trinity is clearly revealed in the Old Testa ment. Even a theologian like Baur must admit that "everywhere Calixt is only concerned to weaken the differences, to break the point of the controversies, to soften the rigor of the antithesis as much as possible, or even to pass by those points altogether in which the proper momentum of the controversy lies. There is no doctrine of the orthodox system which he has held fast in its whole strictness." Still he did not wish a formal union of the Chris tian churches, but simply mutual recogni tion, love, and toleration. Compare Her zog's Realencyclopddie ; Walch's Religions- Streitigkeiten der Luth. Kirche, I., 219 sqq. ; Schmid's Geschichte der synkretistischen Strei tigkriten. F- W. S. Syncretistic Controversy. This controversy began in 1645 ; but before that time George Cal ixt in several publications, one as early as i6ii, had expressed opinions that showed a more liberal standpoint towards other Christian de nominations than the one customary among Lutherans, and the representatives of strict Lu theranism had given expression to their dissent and dissatisfaction. In 1645 King Wladislaus IV., of Poland, regarding it not only desirable but also possible for his Catholic, and Protestant subjects to come to a peaceable understanding, instituted a Colloquy at Thorn to be held by Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed Theologians. As Calixt did not succeed in being admitted as a member of the Luth. party, he assisted, and openly fraternized with, the Reformed, though he afterwards publicly, and no doubt honestly, declared his dissent from their confession adopted there. In Dec, 1546, the Saxon theo logians addressed a rebuke to the Helmstedt faculty, whose leader Calixt was, for their in novations and deviations from the confessions of the Luth. Church. This was the beginning of the long and heated, and in some respects scandalous, syncretistic controversy. From now on ponderous volumes as well as small pam phlets from both sides appeared in great num ber and rapid succession, few of them free from exaggeration of the differences that really existed. The universities of Helmstedt, and Konigsberg, aided to some extent by that of Rinteln, were arrayed on the one side, those of Wittenberg and Leipzig on the other, whilst that of Jena tried to mediate, siding in the points at issue as a rule with the latter, but dealing more fairly and charitably with the former. The principal combatants on the strictly orthodox side were Abraham Calov, A. Strauch, John Hiilsemann, Jacob Weller ; on the liberal side George Calixt himself and after his death his son Ulrich Calixt, who was in no wise his equal, Conrad Horneius, John Latermann, and Christian Dreier. The fore most of the Jena theologians was John Musaus, one of the profoundest thinkers that the Luth. Church has ever had. After the death of Calixt (1656), the controversy rested for some time. It was revived when, called by Landgrave William VI. , of Hesse, the representatives of the Luth. University at Rinteln and two of the Reformed at Marburg in a colloquy at Cas sel declared that, notwithstanding the great dif ferences between the Luth. and the Reformed churches, there existed a fundamental unity of faith, and that consequently a fraternal spirit should be cultivated mutually. In 1664, the Wittenberg theologians published a work pre pared already in 1655, the Consensus repeiitus fidei vere Lutheranee, where in 88 sections the pure Luth. doctrine and the deviations of the Helmstedt theologians were claimed to be set forth ; and it was the desire especially of Calov, the principal author and the most energetic and fertile opponent of Calixt and his friends, to have this work adopted by the Luth. churches as a new confession. But the work was justly regarded as too personal and onesided. As the Jena theologians, especially, were of this convic tion, they, and most of all Musaus, were vio lently attacked by their Wittenberg colleagues as also being deficient in orthodoxy, though nothing could be proven against them. When Synergism 476 Synergism Calov had d. (1686), this painful controversy, in which Strauch and Ulrich Calixt had de scended to the shameful depth of publicly call ing in question each other's moral character, gradually died. (For details see Calixt ; Calov ; and bibliography under Syncret ism.) _ F. W. S. Synergism, etymologically means the doc trine or theory of co-operation {sunergia, from sun, with, and ergon, work). As a theological term it denotes the doctrine that in conversion man, with his natural powers, in some way works together with God to bring about conver sion, is to some degree the efficient cause of it. Historically synergism was a reaction against the doctrine of irresistible grace and absolute predestination logically involved in the August inian view which at first was, more or less, em braced by all the leaders of the Reformation. Melanchthon is the father of this refined Pela gianism. At first, yielding in theological matters entirely to the powerful influence of Luther, he taught : " Since all that takes place does so necessarily according to divine predes tination, there is no liberty of our will " {Loci, 1521). "Is there then, thou wilt say, no con tingency ; to use that expression, is nothing an accident, nothing chance {nihil casus, nihil fortuna) ? The Scriptures teach that all things take place necessarily" {ib.). Afterwards, parting with Luther, he went to the other ex treme ; teaching that there are three ' ' causes ' ' of conversion, " the Word, the Holy Spirit, and the will (of man), which, indeed, is not idle, but fighting against its infirmity " ; that natural man has "the faculty of applying himself to grace " by "hearing the promises, and endeav oring to assent and casting off the sins against conscience. ' ' Thus he ascribed to natural man a germ ot positively good will which is stimu lated by prevenient grace. John Pfeffinger, an adherent of Melanchthon, held that natural man, when the Holy Spirit " rouses and stimu lates" his nature, can faintly assent, obey, and follow {Propositiones, 1555). And Strigel, the foremost champion of synergism, notwith standing all his explanations and restrictions, ascribed to the will of fallen man a remnant of morally good powers with respect to divine matters. Later Latermann held that in conver sion God simply gave man the power to convert himself, thus ascribing to natural man the ability to use these supernatural powers. As to the position of the Luth. Church, and the main literature concerning this matter compare, Con version. _ F. W. S. (Ohio.) Synergism is the theory asserting man's concurrence or co-operation in his conversion. The notion had crept into Christian theology very early, and even the term sunergein was employed, as by Clem. Alex, and Cyr. Hier. In the Luth. Church it was Melanchthon who led the way by his argument that, ' ' as the promise is universal, and there are no contrary ¦wills of God, it is necessary that there be in us some cause of the difference wherefore Saul should be rejected, David accepted." (Loci, edition of 1548.) This specimen gives the whole matter as to substance and principle. Synergism is a rationalizing effort to solve the question, why some are saved and others are lost, by a process of reasoning, and in a manner to satisfy human reason, by a logical necesse est, instead of abiding by the answer we have in Hosea, ' ' O Israel, thou hast destroyed thyself, but in me is thine help " (13:9). Synergism places in man the decisive factor which is sup posed to determine the conversion of one as well as the non-conversion of another, and assumes this factor to be the human will. The syner gistic argument, since Melanchthon formulated it, is this : Grace, as exerted through the means of grace on and in the human heart, has different results in different cases. The cause of this difference is not in God, whose grace is universal and in whom there are no conflicting wills ; it is not in the means of grace, which are efficacious everywhere and no where irresistible. Hence, it musi be in man, the different attitudes of the human will, which either accepts or rejects the grace offered in the Gospel. Synergism is thus a counterpart of Calvinism, which solves the same problem by placing the cause of the difference in God, as suming a will to save some and a will not to save others, in God, and thus accounting for the difference among those who hear the Gospel. In principle and methods Synergism and Cal vinism are akin. Both are rationalistic in principle ; both are destmctive in their meth ods. To remove the seeming incompatibility between the doctrine of universal grace and that of the spiritual death of natural man, the Calvinist eliminates the former, the Synergist the latter. Of course. Synergists have in various ways endeavored to cover their tracks in order to avoid the charge of heterodoxy. They have quoted texts from Scripture which ascribe to the converted a co-operation in spiritual things and have applied them to the unconverted. Or they have adduced texts which demand human compliance with the divine will and have com mitted the fallacy of deducing from or substi tuting for the duly to perform the ability to per form. Or they have confounded the external use of the means of grace, of which natural man is in a measure capable, with the internal, spiritual acceptance of grace, which God only can work in the human heart. Or they have invented a state of man in conversion between the two states taught in Scripture, the state of spiritual death before conversion and the state of spiritual life after conversion, and to the homo renascens as distinguished from the homo renatus and the homo non renatus, they have ascribed the concunence of the will in the work of conversion, while in fact both the homo ren ascens and his concurrence are synergistic fic tions. Or, they have claimed, that unless their position be correct, either all who hear the Gospel must be converted and saved, or a co ercive grace must be assumed in those who are converted and saved and that, consequently, a refusal to accept their doctrine of human con cunence in conversion must lead to or be tantamount to Calvinism. The synergistic subterfuge advanced more ex plicitly by the later synergists of the Helmstedt and Konigsberg school, Cahxt, Latermann, Synergism 477 Synergism Dreier, Horneius, was the assertion that man under conversion concurred in that work, not by natural power, but by energies engendered in the subject in the progress of conversion through its various stages, which were, again, synergistic inventions ¦without foundation in Scripture. To give color to these supposed stages of conversion, the distinction of gratia praeveniens,praeparans, operans, co-operans or adjuvans, and perficiens, as representing so many different stages of the operation of con verting grace, was resorted to, a distinction which in this sense never entered Augustine's mind, who knew of grace only as occupied with the sinner toward conversion, gratia praeveniens etpraeparans being the same as gratia operans, and with the converted sinner, as gratia co-op erans or adjuvans and perficiens, y^hich to Au gustine were also synonymous terms. Chemnitz, who employs the same terms in the same sense with Augustine, was with the same impropriety claimed as a patron by these later synergists. On the other hand, this synergism of the seven teenth century, though it was not censured with equal severity by all, did not find the approval of any contemporary theological faculty, much as it was sought, and the position as well as the arguments by which these synergists en deavored to uphold their theory were stigma tized as Pelagian, Semi-pelagian, Socinian, papistical, and synergistical. And this is the type of synergism prevalent in modern theol ogy, and these are the arguments chiefly ad vanced in its defence to-day. All forms of Synergism are covered by the Formula of Concord. The synergism, which the first and second articles of the F. C. had in view, was that of Melanchthon, of Joh. Pfeff inger, who had, in 1555, started the contro versy, by publishing two disputations, which held the position of Melanchthon, and were at tacked by Flacius, and of Vict. Strigel, the colleague, rival, and bitter opponent, of Flacius, whom he trapped into an opposite error during their public disputation at Weimar (1560). But the later form, of the seventeenth century, was not originated by Latermann and his con temporary synergists. Pfeffinger had not only seconded Melanchthon by saying : "Hence it follows (sequitur ergo) that there is in us some cause why some assent, while others do not as sent" (Propos. 17); but he also said: " Though this cannot be without the aid of the Holy Spirit, yet in these the will does not do nothing, nor does it behave like a statue ; but there is a concunence of the acting causes : The Holy Ghost, moving by the Word of God, the thinking mind, the vrill, not resisting, but obeying the Spirit already momng it ' ' (Propos. 13) ; and Melanchthon had used very much the same language. But the F. C. denies all concunence of the human will in the work of conversion. It says: "Therefore, here there is no co-operation of our will in the con version of man, and man must be drawn and . bom anew of God ; otherwise the thought of turning one's self to the Holy Gospel, for the purpose of accepting it, cannot arise in our hearts. M.,p. 598f. And again : " God must give us his Holy Ghost, by whom we are en lightened, sanctified, and thus brought to Christ through faith, and upheld in him ; and no mention is -made of our will or co operation." M., p. 598. It rejects the error ' ' that in man the human nature and essence are not entirely corrupt, but that man still has something good in him, even in spiritual things, namely, piety, skill, aptness or ability in spiritual things to begin to work, or to co- work for something good." M., p. 521. "Yea,' says the F. C, "as unable as a dead body is to quicken and restore itself to bodily, earthly life, just so unable is man, who, by sin, is spiritually dead, to raise himself to spiritual life." M., p. 524. For the conversion of our cormpt ¦will, which is nothing else than a re susdtation of it from spiritual death, is only and alone a work of God, just as also the re suscitation in the resunection of the body should be ascribed to God alone." M., p. 609. Pfeffinger and others ascribed to the human will a concurrence by non-resistance. The F. C. says: "Yet he can do nothing whatever for his conversion (as also has been said frequent ly above), and is in this respect much worse than a stone or block ; for he resists the Word and Will of God, until God awakens him from the death of sin, enlightens and renews him." M., p. 602. Synergists operated with a state between the state of natural man before con version and that of natural man after conversion, the homo renascens in progress of conversion. The F. C. knows of but two states, the state of the unconverted, who can not in any wise con cur, but only resist, and the state of the re generate man, who wills what is good. The Confession says : ' ' Therefore, the man who is not regenerate, wholly resists God, and is alto gether a servant of sin (John 8 : 34 ; Rom. 6 : 16). But the regenerate delights in the Law of God after the inward man." M., p. 608. And again : " Nevertheless to man, before his con version, a modus agendi, or any way of work ing something good in spiritual things, cannot be ascribed. But when man is converged, and is thus enlightened, and his will is renewed, man (so far as he is regenerate, or is a new man) wills what is good, and delights in the Law of God after the inward man (Rom. 7 : 22), and henceforth does good to such an ex tent, and as long as he is impelled by God's Spirit, as Paul says (Rom. 8 : 14) : For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, they are the sons of God." M., p. 603. Melanchthon and the other synergists had pointed out three concunent causes in conversion ; the F. C. says : "Therefore, before the conversion of man, there are only two efficient causes, namely, the Holy Ghost, andthe Word of God, as the instru ment of the Holy Ghost, whereby he works con version." M., p. 526. The synergists had con founded the external acts of hearing the Word, etc., and the inward spiritual act of yielding to the Word and accepting the grace offered therein. The F. C. carefully distinguishes between the two, and maintains its ground. It says : " Before man is enlightened, converted, regenerated, re newed, and led by the Holy Ghost, he can of himself, and of his own natural powers begin, work or co-operate as to anything in spiritual Synergism 478 Synods things, and in his own conversion or regen eration, as little as a stone or a block or clay. For although he can control the outward mem bers and hear the Gospel, and, to a certain ex tent, meditate upon it, and discourse concern ing it, as is to be seen in the Pharisees and hypocrites ; nevertheless he regards it foolish ness, and cannot believe it, and also in this case he is worse than a block, in that he is rebellious and hostile to God's will, if the Holy Ghost be not efficacious in him, and do not kindle and work in him faith and other virtues, pleasing to God, and obedience." M., p. 594. And: ' ' The reason and free vrill have the power, to a certain extent, to live an outward decent life ; but to be born anew, and to obtain inward ly another heart, sense and disposition, this only the Holy Ghost effects." M., p. 594. And the theory of co-operation, not by natural power, but by energies engendered by the Holy Spirit in the subject in progress of conversion through its various stages, and employed by man in its subsequent stages, is also forestalled in the F. C. , which ascribes the beginning and completion of conversion in no wise to man, but entirely to God. It says: "Thirdly, for the Holy Scriptures, besides, refer conversion, faith in Christ, regeneration, renewal, and all that belongs to their efficacious beginning and completion, not to the human powers of the natural free will, either entirely, or half, or the least, or most inconsiderable part ; but ascribe them in solidum, i. e. entirely, alone to the divine working of the Holy Ghost, as also the Apology teaches." M., p. 594. According to the F. C, man is purely passive in his con version ; and this passiveness is not a form of concurrence, but is tantamount to doing nothing whatever ; the co-operation begins after conversion, whereby man's will has been renewed. The Confession says : ' ' Also what Dr. Luther has written, viz. that man's will is in his conversion purely passive, i. e. it does nothing whatever, is to be under stood in respect of divine grace in kindling new motions, i. e. when God's Spirit, through the heard Word or the use of the holy sacrament, lays hold upon man's will, and works (in man) the new birth and conversion. For if (after) the Holy Ghost has wrought and accomplished this, and man's will has been changed and renewed alone by his dirine power and working, then the new ¦will of man is an instrument and organ of the Holy Ghost, so that he not only accepts grace, but also, in the works which follow, co-operates with the Holy Ghost." M., p. 526. The very ability to assent is only ascribed to the already truly re generate : ' ' Truly regenerate, they have now a liberated will, i. e. as Christ says they have been made free again (John 81 : 36) ; for this reason they afterward, not only hear the Word, but also, though in great weakness, are able to assent to it and accept it." M., p. 604. The later synergists speak of a beginning of conversion, after which man, to be fully con verted, must concur in his conversion in the narrower sense, his transition to the state of grace. The F. C. also speaks of a beginning of conversion and renewal, but in a far different sense ; for this beginning is conversion itself, the bestowal of faith, and when we are exhorted not to receive the grace of God in vain, this is not directed to the unconverted ; the co operation, though still in great weakness, is co operation in the converted man, and nothing else. The words of the F. C. are : " From this then it follows, that as soon as the Holy Ghost, as has been said, through the Word and Holy Sacraments, has begun in us this his work of regeneration and renewal, it is certain that, through the power of the Holy Ghost, we can and should co-operate, although still in great weakness. But this does not occur from our fleshly natural powers, but from the new powers and gifts, which the Holy Ghost has begun in us in conversion, as St. Paul expressly and earnestly exhorts . that ' as workers together, ' we ' receive not the grace of God in vain ' (2 Cor. 6:1). This, then, is nothing else, and should thus be understood, than that the con verted man does good to such an extent, and so long as God, by his Holy Spirit, rules, guides, and leads him." M., p. 604. Conversion, then, according to the F. C, is wholly a work of divine grace and power, as those who are converted, are " converted through the grace and power of the Holy Ghost, whose work alone the conversion of man is." M., p. 524. But is not this the doctrine of coercive grace ? No. The synergistic objection, that to deny all con cunence of the human -will in man's conversion would necessitate the assumption of coercive conversion, is met by the F. C, when it says : " And although God does not force man to be come godly (for those who always resist the Holy Ghost and persistently oppose the known truth, as Stephen says of the hardened Jews (Acts 7 :5i), will not be converted), yet God the Lord draws the man whom he wishes to convert, and draws him, too, in such a way that his understanding, in place of dark ened, becomes enlightened, in place of perverse, becomes obedient. And the Scrip ture calls this 'creating a new heart'" (Ps. 51:10). M. p. 6o2f. A. L. G. (Missouri). Synods are associations of congregations uniting for the confession of their fellowship in the faith, and co-operation in the various activ ities of the Church. As a matter of church order, the examination and ordination of all candidates for the ministry, as well as the general oversight and care of pastors and con gregations, are committed to the synods. The synods also anange for the collection of funds for specified church objects, such as home and foreign missions, education, etc., and for the distribution and administration of such funds. Some of them provide for their own colleges and theological seminaries. Declarations concem ing important doctrinal and practical questions also come within their sphere, some of the synods devoting a large portion of their sessions to the discussion of doctrines. Synods refer the administration of many local questions to con ferences which, however, can act only as the synods givethem authority, and which have the place only of committees of the synod. Synods also may unite in larger bodies, such as the General Synod, General Council, United Synod Synods 479 Synods (I.) of the South and Synodical Conference. In the General Synod, the centralizing process has been most active, with the result that most of the functions originally belonging to the synod are transfened to the General Body. In the General Council, boards are organized for the work that it is difficult for the synods to admin ister separately, such as foreign and emigrant, and home missions outside of the territory of the district synods, while the synods administer the work within their own bounds. Both these bodies have also their own Publication Boards. The Synodical Conference aims at little more than an association for the discussion of doc trinal questions, while all the benevolent activ ity is carried on through the synods. In the United Synod of the South, the centralizing process has not advanced as far as in the Gen eral Synod. The various synods are classified below alphabetically having regard, however, to the status, under their general bodies, which are arranged historically, and the accounts of which are given under their respective titles. The independent synods are placed last. I. General Synod. The Alleghany Synod of the Evangelical Luth. Church was organized Sept. 9, 1842, at HoUidaysburg, Pa., by ministers and lay dele gates of the Evangelical Luth. Churches of west ern Pennsylvania. Its conventions are held annually. Its doctrinal basis is " The Word of God as contained in the Canonical Scripture of ihe Old and New Testament, as the only infal lible rule of faith and practice, and the Augs burg Confession as a correct exhibition of the fundamental doctrines of the Divine Word, and the faith of the church founded upon that Word." By synodical action (1845), the ter ritory of Synod embraced originally the coun ties of Huntingdon, Bedford, Somerset, Indi ana, Jefferson, Cambria, Clearfield, Warren, Mc- Kean, and parts of Centre and Mifflin. At present, however, the counties of Huntingdon, Blair, Bedford, Somerset, Clearfield and Cam bria, comprise practically the synodical teni tory, few, if any, congregations having been organized in connection with this Synod in the Northern counties and Indiana county having been ceded in 1886 to Pittsburg Synod (G- S.). The Synod is divided into three conference districts, ¦viz. : North East Conference, Somerset County Conference, and Bedford County Con ference. From its organization, Alleghany Synod has taken a keen interest in the educating of young men for the Gospel Ministry, nor has she been indifferent to mission work, these vital interests of the Church always receiving careful attention in the annual conventions, and a due propor tion of the benevolent contributions. The Synod has made a steady growth m numerical strength and in benevolence, de spite the fact of her tenitorial contraction, 12 ministers and 10 lay delegates took part m the organization of Alleghany Synod and signed thi first constitution. The roll of 1897 numbers 64 ministers. The following statistics are taken from the minutes of the convention of 1897. No of Churches, 149. " " Communicants, 14,763. " " Sunday Schools, 148. " '¦ " Scholars, 15,317. Benevolent Contributions For Gen. Synod Treas., JI53.50- For Synodical Treas., $435.- 28. For Home Missions, $2,- 112. 15. For Foreign Missions, ^i,- 890.30. For Ch. Extension, $2,137.- 36. For 6d. of Education, $566.09. For Beneficiary Education, $1,063.36. For Pastors Fund, $616.19. For Orphans' Home, $1,162,- 27. For Deaconess Board, $316.- 85. For Home for Aged, $354.- 80, By Woman's Missionary So ciety, $1,039.18. Estimated value of Church property, $784,525.00. L. N. F. Synod of California, The Evangelical Luth. , is a District Synod in connection vrith the General Synod of the Evan. Luth. Church of America, and accordingly accepts the same doc trinal standard, viz. : The Word of God as the only infallible rule of faith and practice, and the (unaltered) Augsburg Confession as the conect exhibition of the fundamental doctrines of the Holy Bible. Its boundaries are coincident ¦with those of the State of California. It was or ganized in San Francisco in the newly-built First English Luth. Church, March 21, 1892, with eight ministers and four laymen, repre senting six congregations resp. missions. The missionary work on the Pacific Coast, which the Woman's H. & F. Miss. Society of the General Synod has from its very start most heartily supported, was actually begun in the spring of 1886, when Rev. O. C. Miller, of Cedar Rapids, la., entered upon the work in San Francisco, and on the i8th of June, 1886, organized the First English Luth. Church, with 39 charter-members. Mission work was subse quently begun, and organizations were effected in Los Angeles and San Diego, in Sacramento, Oakland, San Jos^, and Riverside ; the German Luth. congregations at Sacramento, Oakland, San Francisco, and Alameda, afterwards also joining the California Synod. And at its last convention, held in Sacramento in the German Luth. Church, April 21 to 23, 1898, this body reported a membership of 20 ministers and 11 mostly flourishing congregations, with 1,214 communicants, 1,414 Sunday-school scholars, and church property representing the value of $184,965, sho-wing a decided gain over each and all of the preceding years. The California Synod holds its annual meetings in the second week after Easter. C. F. O. The Franckean Synod was organized in Minden, N. Y., May 25, 1837. The reasons for such organization are stated in a circular letter issued to the Luth. ministers and churches in the State of New York, by the Western Confer ence of the Hart-wick Synod, ¦viz. : I. "To license pious, intelligent men, sound in faith, although they may not be classically educated, or have pursued a regular theological course." This was not with the intent to encourage an illit erate ministry, but to meet an emergency, then existing, of insufficient ministers to supply the churches and missionary fields. 2. "To license, or admit none to the ministry, who are unac quainted ¦with experimental religion." Then a Synods (I.) 480 Synods (I.) significant position. 3. " To license applicants in the recess of Synod." Other minor reasons are also given. The organization included 4 ministers, 4 dele gates, and 19 commissioners. The movement provoked bitter controversy, iu which the Synod, by vicious misrepresentation, was de clared un-Lutheran, notwithstanding both her "declaration of faith" and practice disclose nought but a firm Luth. position, though of a Pietistic type. [Vice-Chancellor Sanford, of New York, said of this declaration : " It does not maintain and declare the doctrine of the Trinity, or that the three persons constituting the Godhead are equal in power and glory ; or even that there are Three Persons constituting the Deity. 2. It does not declare or admit the di-rinity of Jesus Christ, or his equality ¦with God the Father. 3. It does not teach or declare that man will be condemned to punishment in a future state, because of original or inher ited sin, unless it be repented of ; or that it con demneth all those who are not bom again of water and the Holy Ghost." — Ed.] Her early advocacy of the abolition of slavery, and temperance, were far in advance of the prevailing sentiment of that period. This Synod has figured conspicuously in the mission ary actirities of the Luth. Church in America. Rev. Monis Officer, one of her members, -with her support, organized, in 1854, the Muhlenberg Mission, iu Liberia, Africa ; and through the efficient labors of another, the late Rev. D. A. Day, D. D., the work has developed to its pres ent high standing. More than 50 churches have been organized, by her aid, in the several states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Canada. Many of these have since become identified with other synods. This body was united with the General Synod at York, Pa., in 1864. The present roll shows a membership of 17 ministers, 31 churches, and 2,161 communi cants. A. S. H. The Hartwick Synod was organized in St. Paul's Church, at Schoharie, N. Y., on October 26, 1830, in accordance with a resolution of the Western Conference of the N. Y. Ministerium, held at Brunswick, N. Y., on September 8, of that year. Six of the seven foimders were members of that body. Among the reasons that led to the formation of a new synod, the un-wieldy size of the Min isterium, the desire for united action in the General Synod, a more advanced Luth. position by the formal adoption of the Augsburg Con fession, the scant encouragement of rerivals in the Ministerium, and an earnest wish to do more in the way of home and foreign missions, seem to have been the most prominent. At this time the Ministerium was spread over the States of New York and New Jersey. The first delegates of the Hartwick Synod to the General Synod were elected the following year. With a membership of 2,000, in 1831, they re ported the next year additions of 1,162 as the fruit of revivals. The benevolence grew from about $100 the first year to nearly jSi,ooo at the fifth annual session ; moreover, the Ministerium recognized the efficiency and Christian activity of the Synod by appointing a fraternal delegate in 1832, and this, notwithstanding the inegular ities in the organization of a new synod by- some of its former members. In 1837 four members left the Synod to form the Franckean Synod. Since then there has been a steady growth, so that to-day the statis tics show that the members have not been idlers in the vineyard of the Lord. Comparative View. 1831. Pastors II Congregations 32 Infant baptisms 602 Other accessions 185 Communicants 2,087 Benevolent contributions fa8 40 36 116 309 5,439 15,868 J. G. T. Illinois, The Synod of Central, a de scendant of the Synod of the West, which a half a century ago included the churches of the General Synod in the States of Tennessee, Ken tucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri. In its twelfth annual session, held in Luther Chapel, Harrison Co., Ind., June 10, 1846, a resolution was passed authorizing the ministers in the State of Illinois to organize a synod of their own. A preliminary meeting was held by these brethren at this convention. The Rev. Daniel Shere'r was appointed temporary chair man. The name adopted was the Synod of Illinois. It held its first regular session in Zion's Evangelical Lutheran Church (Hillsboro, Ills., Oct. 15, 1846.) The Rev. Francis Springer, of Springfield, Ills., was chosen president. The Synod of Illinois continued its annual sessions until 1867. This meeting was convened in Pulaski, Ills., August 22. It was a crisis meet ing for this synod. Owing to certain differences involring loyalty to the General Synod, a num ber of the brethren -withdrew from the Synod of IlUnois, and in the lecture room of the church at Pulaski, organized, August 24, 1867, the Synod of Central Illinois. The Rev. Ephraim Miller was chosen presi dent. The old constitution was retained. Among ministers of prominence who have been connected -with this synod from time to time are the following : Rev. and Prof. Wm. Rey nolds, D.D. ; Rev. and Prof. S. W. Harkey, D.D. ; Rev. Francis Springer, D.D. ; Rev. Conrad Kuhl, D.D. ; Rev. Daniel Sherer, Rev. Geo. A. Bowers, D.D. ; Rev. A. H. Trim- per, Rev. Ephraim Miller, D.D. In October, 1897, at Olney, Ills., a union was formed be tween the Synods of Central and Southern Illinois, the title now being the Synod of Cen tral and Southern Illinois. The Synod of Cen tral Illinois, at the time of this union, numbered twenty -seven ministers and thirty pastor ates. M. F. T. Illinois, The S-vnod of Northern. The entire state was at first embraced in one synod — the Synod of Illinois — which was organized at Hillsboro, in October, 1846. When the synod met at Oregon, in 1850, steps were taken Synods (1.) 481 Synods (1.) to form a new organization on account of the great distance that some of the members were obliged to travel. Accordingly, a committee, consisting of Revs. N. J. Stroh, G. J. Don- meyer, J. N. Burkett, and C. B. Thummel, was appointed to organize another synod. May 14, 1851, pursuant to call of the committee, a pre liminary meeting of ministers and laymen was held at the home of Dr. Thummel, in Palmyra, Lee County. A constitution was drafted, and the time and the place of holding the first con vention were fixed. The first regular session of the Synod of Northern Illinois was held in the Methodist Church, at Cedarville, Stephenson County, Sept. 8, 1851. Eight ministers and six laymen were present. Rev. E. Miller, of Oregon, was chosen president ; Rev. G. j. Donmeyer, of Buena Vista, Stephenson County, secretary ; Mr. I. P. Lilly, treasurer. These eight ministers had twenty congregations and seventeen preach ing stations. There were but three Luth. church buildings in the entire district. The southern boundary line passed through a point a little south of Peoria, continuing due east to Indiana, and the synod included within its area parts of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Out side of Illinois the synod now embraces only Southern Wisconsin. But two charges in that state are -within the bounds of this synod. Thirty-four ministers are at present (1898) en rolled as members of the Synod of Northern lUinois. It contains forty congregations, vrith a communicant membership of 3,077 {Historic Sketch of the Ev. Luth. Synod of Northern Illinois). J. K. R. Illinois Synod, Southern. Owing to ex tensive territory covered by the Evangelical Luth. Synod of the South West, making annual conventions impossible, that body dissolved by mutual consent. Members residing in Middle Tennessee were directed to unite -with the Ken tucky Synod, and members in Southern Illinois, and in South East Missouri, and West Tenn. , to form a new synod. Accordingly on Friday, Nov. 7, 1856, mem bers from the above-named territory met in St. John's Ev. Luth. Church, five miles south of Jonesboro, Union county. 111., Rev. D. Jenkins, pastor. There were present 8 clerical members ; 3 from HI., 3 from Mo., and 2 from West Tenn. Four lay delegates were enrolled. These dele gates formed themselves into a synod to be kno-wn as the Evan. Luth. Synod of Southern Illinois. The first officers were Rev. D. Jen kins, pres. ; Rev. J. Krimminger, sec. ; and Mr. J. Bamhart, treas. Rev. Prof. S. W. Harkey was present as an ad-risory member. The Luth. material in this territory was mostly from North Carolina, with a few Pennsylvanians in Jackson Co., 111. Resolutions looking to the formation of the Synod of Middle Tenn. were introduced at the 2 1st annual convention ; letters were then granted to the pastors in West Tenn., in 1879. The Synod held 41 yearly conventions, the last at Olney, 111., Oct. 13, 1897, when it dissolved to unite vrith the Synod of Central Ilhnois, where, on Oct. 14, 1897, the new synod was formed, receiving the name of The Evan. 31 Luth. Synod of Central and Southern Illi nois. J. G. M. H. Illinois, Synod of Central and South ern. The Evan. Luth. Synod of Central Illi nois, at its 49th annual convention, resolved to send an overture to the Synod of Southern Illi nois to unite and form a new synod on the same territory with a view to complete these steps at its 50th anniversary, at Hillsboro, 111., Oct., 1897. The plan was favorably received, a joint committee arranged the basis of a union so as not to invalidate the property held by the two synods. Brief closing sessions were held at Olney, 111., Oct. 13 and 14, 1897. On Wednes day, Oct. 14, 1897, . in St. Paul's Ev. Luth. Church, Olney, 111., the delegates of the two synods formally organized the Evan. Luth. Synod of Central and Southern Illinois ; elect ing for its first officers. Rev. J. G. M. Hursh, pres. ; Rev. C. W. Leitzell, sec. ; and Rev. J. H. Walterick, treas. J. G. M. H. Indiana, The Synod of Northern was organized October 27, 1855, at Columbia City, Ind. The initial members comprising this organization came out of the Olive Branch and Wittenberg synods, and were the following per sons : Revs. D. Smith, Camden, Ind. ; F. Tem- plin. North Manchester, Ind. ; J. Wolff, Coesse, Ind. ; J. Cather, Norristown, Ind. ; G. Walker„ Syracuse, Ind. ; W. Waltman, Spencerville„ Ind. ; R. F. Delo, Lisbon, Ind. ; and Messrs^ H. Snyder, Columbia City, Ind. ; J. W. Kitson, Syracuse, Ind. ; J. G. Biddle, Spencerville, Ind^ The first officers were. Rev. Hugh Wells, presi dent ; Rev. G. Walker, secretary ; and Rev. D- Smith, treasurer. The territory of the Synod includes the northern part of the State of Indiana as far south as the fortieth parallel of latitude, and the entire State of Michigan. This Synod is one of the five synods com posing the tenitory of Wittenberg College located at Springfield, Ohio. In 1880, the Synod gave $3,000 toward endo-wing the institu tion, and in 1896, $ro,ooo more. According to the rules of the College the Synod is entitled to a quota of the Board of Directors governing the institution. A practical and conservative sys tem of beneficiary education is canied on by a board of the Synod. The doctrinal basis of the Synod is that of the General Synod, with which body it united in 1857. The present membership is 5,000 commu nicants, 41 ordained ministers, and 76 congrega tions. A number of missions have recently been founded. B. F. G. Iowa, Synod. " The Evangelical Luth. Con ference of Iowa " was organized in 1852. This assumed synodical form, known as the " Evan gelical Luth. Synod of Iowa, " in the year 1855, when Rev. G. W. Schaeffer was elected president and Rev. J. G. Schaeffer secretary. Revs. G. W. Schaeffer, John Heckenlively, F. R. Scherer, D. TuUis, G. W. Scheide, J. G. Schaeffer and H. F. Ealy, constituted the original clerical mem bership. It consisted of nine pastorates -with a communicant membership of 248. In 1857 it was admitted into the General Synod. Early attention was given to higher education. Before formal organization as a synod, the con- Synods (I.) Synods (I.) ference from which it originated took initiatory steps in founding a college at Des Moines, and called Rev. Reuben Weiser as its president. The citizens of Des Moines made a grant of five acres of land, as a college site, and subscribed |io,ooo as a building fund. A school was opened March 19, 1856. The corner-stone of a college building was laid May 21 of the same year. The structure was completed at a cost of $25,000, and a goodly number of students secured. After a few years, in consequence of financial embar rassment the entire property was lost to the church. In i860 the " Marshall County High School Company ' ' offered the Synod a building (45 by 70 ft.), located at Albion, Marshall Co., to gether with fi,ooo on lands and $3,000 in scholarships, on certain conditions. The prop osition was accepted, and a school opened un der the name of "The Iowa Luth. College," -with Rev. A. M. Geiger as president. In 1862 it reported 96 students in attendance, which in 1865 was increased to 185. Through some legal technicality this property was wrested from the hands of Synod by the original owners, and our church thus left without an institution of learn ing. In 1887, in point of benevolence, this was the banner Synod of the General Synod. At this -writing, Aug. 8th, 1898, it numbers 26 ministers, 26 churches, and a communicant membership of 2062. The total contributions for all purposes last year were $14,989.72. J. A K. Kansas, The Evangelical Luth. Synod of, organized Nov. 5, 1868. Pursuant to a call published in the Luth. Observer, for " a conven tion of Luth. pastors and laymen favorable to the formation of a synod in the States of Kansas and Missouri," Revs. J. B. McAfee, A. W. Wagenhals, A. J. Hesson, J. G. EUinger, S. P. Harrington, G. M. Boyer, (licentiate) and Messrs. A. P. Benson, J. G. Schmucker, G. W. Householder, J. H. Stover and G. W. Crotzer, met atTopeka, Kansas, Nov. 5, 1868, and organ ized the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Kansas. In May, 1869, it was received into the Gen eral Synod of the Evangelical Luth. Church in the United States of America, then in session at Washington, D. C. With this general body it still retains its membership. The following table shows its comparative growth for periods indicated : Year. Number of. Communicant Churches. Membership. General Be nevolence. Value of Church Prop erty. 186918801898 13 31 43 344 1143 3077 $ I2S-55 827.46 3150.70 $ 6,300.00 253.390.00 This Synod includes all of the General Synod Luth. churches in Kansas and five in Missouri. While its territorial boundary takes in the entire State of Kansas nearly all of its churches are in the eastern half thereof. Upon its territory are two General Synod institutions of learning, to wit : Midland College, Rev. J. A. Clutz, D.D., president, and The Western Theological Seminary, Rev. F. D. Altman, D.D., President. From its beginning it has been the friend and patron of Christian education. One-fourth of its pastorates are now served by those who received instmction in the above-named institutions. A. E. W. The Synod of Maryland, now in its 79th year, holds a first place in the history of Lutheranism in the U. S. When it had but fifteen members, in - 1820, the first steps were taken in Hagerstown towards organizing the General Synod [Two years before, at the 71st convention of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, at Harrisburg, Pa. , it was resolved that a plan for a General Synod be prepared. This plan was submitted to the Ministerium at its 72d convention, in Baltimore, Md., in 1819, and after adoption was transmitted over the signa tures of the officers of the Mother Synod to the various Luth. Synods in the country. In re sponse to this appeal, the delegates of the Ministeriums of Pennsylvania and New York and the Synods of North Carolina and of Mary land and Virginia, met at Hagerstown, Oct. 24, 1820, and organized the General Synod.^Eds.], to which it has always given loyal allegiance. Of the first twelve meetings of the General Synod, nine were held in Maryland. Its first president was Rev. Dr. J. D. Kurtz of Baltimore. Fostering always and faithfully Pennsylvania College, in 1821 the Synod of Maryland agitated the founding of the Theological Seminary, now at Gettysburg. The Luth. Observer, the Pastors' Fund, the Luth. Ministers' Insurance League, the Missionary Institute, now Susque- hana University, were all born in this venerable Synod, which was also first to suggest the observance of Reformation Day. Lutherville and Hagerstown Female Seminaries are within its bounds. It has always been abreast of the most advanced, evangelical and catholic life of the Church, giving no uncertain sound upon the Divine obligation of the Lord's day, and against the saloon. With a few churches skirting upon its territory in Virginia and Pennsylvania, from the days when it was known as the Synod of Maryland and Virginia, Balti more city and county, with Washington city, and Carroll, Frederick, Washington, Allegany and Ganett counties, are its geographical bounds. Among its noted pastors were such men as Rev. Drs. J. D. and B. Kurtz, J. G. Morris, F. W. Conrad, S. W. Harkey, S. D. Finckel, the Drs. Theophilus and Charles A. Stork, all of whom rest from their labors. [To the same rank among the departed belong Drs. D. F. Schaeffer, Charies Philip and Charies Porterfield Krauth, S. S. Schmucker, H. L. Baugher, Sr., W. A. Passavant, Sr., J. A. Brown, and Ezra Keller.— Eds.] The Synod had in 1898, iio ministers, 131 congregations, 23,133 commu- ¦nicants, 142 Sunday-schools, with 22,714 mem bers ; contributions, $20,107.53. The contri butions of the Synod in the past year aggregate $155,292.81. J. G. B. Synod of Miami. The Evangelical Luth. Synod of Miami, one of the bodies composing the General Synod, was organized in Xenia, Ohio, Oct. 16, 1844. Rev. Ezra Keller, first president of Wittenberg College, preached the opening sermon. Originally the boundaries of the Synod were not definitely marked. It included, however, Southern Ohio, Northern Kentucky and South- Synods (I.) 483 Synods (I.) ern Indiana. In 1849 its territory was limited to Ohio, and the boundaries were the National Road on the north, the Muskingum River on the east, the Ohio River on the south, and the state line on the west. A few of the churches were beyond these limits. The same is true to day. It was the Synod of Miami that recommended to the General Synod in 1855, the establish ment of a mission in Africa. The recommen dation was adopted. This body was also among the first of the local synods to organize a Woman's Synodical Missionary Society. In 1845 the Synod was composed of 32 con gregations and 1723 communicant members. The report for 1897 shows 51 congregations, 5,997 communicants, 882 officers and teachers in the Sunday-school, with 6,444 scholars. Benevo lence for the year amounted to $7800, while the total contributions for all objects were $53,568. Church property is valued at $493,650. The semi-centennial of the Synod's organiza tion was appropriately observed at the annual meeting in Urbana in 1893. S. G. D. The Nebraska Synod. In 1858, Rev. H. W. Kuhns, D. D., left Pittsburgh, and, after nine teen days of continuous travelling, he arrived in Omaha, then an Indian trading-post, with a commission in his pocket from the Alleghany Synod, appointing him as the representative of the Luth. Church to Nebraska and adjacent parts. A glance at the old Mitchell Geography, then in use, will show the interested student of American Home Missions the sweeping character of that commission. From this beginning the Nebraska Synod grew. A meeting of General Synod Luth. ministers was held in Emmanuel, now Kountze Memorial Luth. Church, Omaha, on the 27th of April, 1871, to take preliminary steps toward organiz ing a Nebraska Synod. A committee was ap pointed to draft a " Constitution and By-Laws." The formal organization of the Synod took place on September i, 1871, in Emmanuel Luth. Church, of Omaha. At this meeting Rev. A. G. R. Buetow was ordained at the Sun day services, September 4, 1871. From its organization to the time of its second convention, which was a called meeting, June II, 1874, at Fontenelle, for a ministeriai trial not for heresy, and attended by five ministers and two laymen, there was an interval of three years. Four years after its organization the Nebraska Synod was received into the General Synod at its biennial convention held in Balti more in May, 1875. At the fifth convention of the Synod, at West Point, September 20, 1877, the District Confer ences were established. The sixth convention of the Synod was held at Nebraska City, October 10, 1878, when resolutions were adopted calling for the organization of a Woman's Home and Foreign Missionary Society, but nothing came of it until September 14, 1880, when the first annual convention of the Synodi cal Woman's Home and Foreign Mission Society held their meeting in connection -with synod at Ponca. At Ponca, in 1884, at the 12th convention of the Synod, a preamble and resolu tions were adopted, praying the General Synod to appoint a Board of Education. The move ment presented in the memorial resulted in establishing the General Synod's Board of Education. From its organization, a travelling missionary, or secretary, had been a desired agency. With varying success it had been tried, but the goal seemed to have been reached at the r4th con vention held in Auburn. After this meeting of Synod, and in 1887, Rev. C. Huber became travelling secretary, and acted as such until October 26, 1893. A headquarters for this work has been built in Omaha. The most important event in its recent his tory was the formation in 1890 of the German Nebraska Synod. This occuned at Sterling, Nebraska, August 24-27, 1890, and was effected by the withdrawal of fifteen German pastors. Resolutions discouraging this movement were adopted by the Nebraska Synod at its i8th con vention, in Denver, September 9-13, 1890. The ranks of synod were again depleted by the for mation of the Rocky Mountain Synod. It has 44 ministers, 37 churches, and 6 stations, 2,418 com municants, 3,615 Sunday-school scholars, and a benevolence for synodical and local objects amounting to $48,029.02. L. M. K. The Nebraska German Ev. Luth. Synod was established in July, 1890, at Sterling, Johnson Co., Nebraska. The Ev. Luth. Ne braska Synod, the most western district-synod of the Luth. General Synod, embracing the tenitory from Missouri to the Pacific ocean, became so large, that it was necessary to sep arate the east from the west. On account of the difference of language, and the impossibil ity of entertaining so large a body, the founda tion of a purely German synod was justified. President J. Wolff (1890) and Chr. Moessner (1891) effecting the new organization. The General Synod, during its session at Lebanon, Pa. (1891), gave its president the power to in corporate the new synod, if it was organized properly and its constitution in agreement with the rules of the General Synod. The German Ev. Luth. Synod of Nebraska was accepted into the fellowship of the General Synod, Sept. 8, 1891. The Synod then numbered 22 pastors, 30 churches (property valued at $48,600), 17 sta tions, 1,925 communicants, 23 Sunday-schools, 834 scholars ; for benevolence there was raised $1,189. The Synod has grown steadily. The congregations are mostly missions in Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Colorado and Dakota. New fields are opened and new congregations estab lished every year. President of Synod since 1892 is Theo. R. Neumaerker, St. Joseph, Mo. In August, 1898, there were 52 pastors on the roll of Synod. The record of 1897 shows 64 churches, 20 stations, 3,608 communicants, property valued at $110,215 ! 57 Sunday schools -with 1,635 scholars ; raised for benevolence, $2,011 ; for all church purposes, $22,557. The pastors are in part educated at the German Seminary in Chicago, 111., in the theological schools at Breklum and Chrischona, Germany, and in German universities. The variety of characters produces great zeal in the work for the Luth. Church, and in the mission work. Faithfulness to the General Synod, and con- Synods (I.) 484 Synods (I.) servative loyalty to Luth. doctrine are ac knowledged. The Synod has, with the Ger man Wartburg Synod, since 1897 issued the Lutherischer Zionsbote as its official synodical paper. T. R. N. NEW York and New Jersey, The Ev. Luth. Synod of. In the year 1859 seven pastors connected with the Ev. Luth. Ministerium of New York, but located in New Jersey, withdrew and formed the Synod of New Jersey. In 1866, when the Ministerium of New York withdrew from the General Synod, fifteen clerical mem bers separated from it, and with their congre gations organized the Ev. Luth. Synod of New York, in connection vrith the General Synod. The organization was effected at Red Hook, N. Y., Oct. 22, 1867, ¦with 17 clerical members and 10 congregations. In the year 1872, at Hudson, N. Y., the Synod of New Jersey united -with it, and the new synod first appeared with the present name, "The Ev. Luth. Synod of New York and New Jersey." It numbered 32 pastors and 33 congregations, with 5,249 com municant members. The officers elected were, Rev. H. N. Pohlman, D.D., president; Rev. J. C. Duy, English secretary ; Rev. G. U. Wenner, German secretary ; and Rev. A. C. Wedekind, treasurer. The present synodical roll comprises 63 clerical members, 40 congre gations (and five independent but contributing) and 8,352 communicant members. Value of church property, $962,000 ; annual expend itures, $125,000 ; 191 clerical members have been enrolled, of whom 25 have died. There have been but five presidents. The ter ritory of the Synod extends from Oswego, N. Y., as far south as Trenton, N. J. It is unique in the General Synod in haring about an equal number of English and German com municants. "Doctrinally, it is conservative," said Rev. Wm. Hull, D.D., in an historical discourse, at its 25th anniversary in New York city, Oct. 13, 1896. " Our creed is the orthodox and Scriptural Confession of Augsburg, which needs no amendment, and which has stood the test of centuries." In worship, the Synod recommends its congregations to use the Luth. Common Service, and the clerical robe is largely worn by pastors. J. B. R. The East Ohio S-stnod. The German Ev. Luth. Synod of Ohio gave its sanction in 1836 to the formation of an English branch of same synod. This was accomplished, and the first session was held Nov. 6 of the same year in Somerset, Ohio. It was given the name of "Synod and Ministerium of the English Ev. Luth. Churches in Ohio and Adjacent States." Four ordained ministers, six licentiates, and four lay delegates participated in the organiza tion. The doctrinal position was thus stated, ' ' The Augsburg Confession of Faith shall be the unalterable symbol of the doctrines of this Synod, and all the members of this Synod shall ex animo profess adherence to all its doctrinal articles, complete and entire, without any res ervation. ' ' Scarcely had the Synod perfected an organi zation when the practical work of missions en gaged attention, and in 1840 an effort was made to systematize this work. In this same year ( 1840) this new synod became independent of the German Synod, of which it had hitherto been a branch. The need of union vrith some other body was generally recognized, and in 1841 action was taken toward becoming a part of General Synod. That a " Literary and Theological Institute " on its own tenitory was essential to its growth became so firmly rooted a conviction that in 1842 preliminary steps were taken along this line, which resulted in establishment of Wit tenberg College. Dissatisfaction with doctrinal position cul minated in 1855 in adoption of " Definite Syn odical Platform." (See article.) In 1858 the name of Synod was changed to East Ohio. The doctrinal basis of General Synod was adopted in 1868, and this was reiterated in new constitution of 1876. The territory of Synod became less -with the years, because of the or ganization of other synods, but in number of pastorates, as well as in godly men for these pulpits, and in general efficiency the East Ohio Synod has had a healthy, steady growth. To day it wields a greater influence over its churches, and commands more respect from other synods than ever before. C. E. K. The Olive Branch Synod of the Evan. Luth. Chhuch is a district of the General Synod of the Evan. Luth. Church in America. It was organized at Indianapolis, Ind., Oct. 28, 1848. The Wabash Conference of the Miami Synod met on the 27th of Oct., at Indianapolis, for the purpose above indicated, and the or ganization was effected the day following. Its first officers were : Revs. Samuel McReynolds, president ; A. H. Meyers, secretary, and Mr. G. D. Staats, Treasurer. The following were the charter members : Revs. Hugh Wells, A. H. Meyers, Samuel McReynolds, Franklin Temp- lin, Samuel Say ford, and Obediah Brown, and Mr. G. D. Staats. Its first constitution was prepared and presented for adoption by Revs. A. H. Meyers, Samuel McReynolds, and Mr. G. D. Staats. Geographical Boundary — This was designated to be, "The State of Indiana and adjacent parts. ' ' Derice and Motto — Demce : An olive branch upon an open Bible. Motto : In Necessariis Unitas — In Dubiis Libertas — In Omnibus Cari tas. The first year of its existence six new con gregations were organized. In the fall of 1855 the Synod of Northern Indiana was organ ized and withdrew, a large number of min isters and congregations. In April, 1872, work was commenced at Louisrille, Ky., which resulted in the organizing of "The First Church." The work has grown to such an ex tent in this city that there are now six congrega tions there in connection with the Olive Branch Synod, indicating a wonderful growth. In 1893, an overture came to this body from the Middle Tennessee Synod, desiring to unite with the Olive Branch Synod. At the meeting in 1894, the overture was granted by admitting each minister and congregation individually. J. A. M. Z. Penns-vlvania, Synod of Central, was organized at Aaronsburg, Pa., Febmary 21, 1855, Synods (I.) 485 Synods (I.) by the ministers and congregational delegates composing the Juniata and Middle District Con ferences of the Synod of West Pennsylvania. The boundary line of this body embraces all of Perry, Juniata, Mifflin, Centre, Union, and Snyder counties, and so much of Clinton and Lycoming counties as lie south and west of the West Branch of the Susquehanna. The roll at the time of organization contained the names of i6 ministers, serving 57 congregations, vrith about 4,500 communicants. Three clerical and three lay delegates to the General Synod, at whose meeting in Dayton, 1855, this Synod was admitted to membership in that body. At its second convention this Synod " heartily ap proved of the design of the American recension of the Augsburg Confession." To-day it is sur passed by no organization in this country in its hearty and firm adherence to all the doctrines of the Augsburg Confession. It now numbers 41 ministers, 88 congregations, 9,303 communi cants. Prof. J. R. Dimm, D.D. , President of Sus quehanna University, is its president. E. J. W. Pennsylvania, The Evan. Luth. Synod of East, a constituent of the General Synod, occupies the territory in southeastern Pennsyl vania, between the Delaware and the Susque hanna rivers. It was organized in Trinity Church, Lancaster, May 2, 1842, by nine min isters and two laymen, who had withdrawn with letters of honorable dismission from the Minis terium of Pennsylvania, then in session in the same building. The chief causes leading to the separation were not doctrinal, but a lack of har mony on questions of practice, language, and connection vrith the General Synod. The minority advocated greater liberty in the form of worship, the toleration of revivals, the use of the English language, and union with the General Synod. Interchange of fraternal dele gates was maintained for a number of years between the two bodies. The East Pa. Synod has had a steady growth. At the end of twenty-five years (in 1867), it numbered 70 ministers, 107 churches, and 13,000 communicants. At that time it lost about one- third of its strength by the formation of the Susquehanna Synod ; but it soon recovered from this depletion. It now (1898) numbers 105 ministers, 119 churches, and 22,680 communi cants. The annual benevolence amounts to $30,000, and the total expenditures to $200,000. The value of the church property is estimated at nearly $2,000,000. Its 136 Sunday-schools have 27,000 members, and contribute $24,000 annually. J. A. Sng. PENns-vlvania, Synod of West. At Green castie (Nov. 8, 1824) it was resolved by a special conference of the ministers of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, who lived west of the Susquehanna River, to organize a synod west of the Susquehanna River, in Pa. Eleven ministers were present, all of whom were in favor of the resolution, because they were con vinced of the propriety, necessity, and advan tage of such an action. . „ j j. The formal organization of the Synod of West Pa took place in accordance -with the foregone resolution at Chambersburg, Pa., Sept 5, 1825. Twenty-one ministers were re ported present and eight absent. So rapid was the growth of this synod from its very organi zation that on Sept. 24, 1842, at Bloomfield, Pa., the " Allegheny Synod " was organized out of this territory. Thirty-two ministers were present at this meeting and seven were ab sent. So earnest were the labors of the Synod of West Pennsylvania, and so richly was' their work blessed, that on Sept. 25, 1856, at Cham bersburg, Pa., another synod was organized, named " The Ev. Luth. Synod of Central Pa." Forty-two ministers were enrolled as members of the synod at this time. The territory of the Synod of West Pa. now includes four counties : Adams, York, Cumber land, and Franklin, all of which are thickly populated by Lutherans. The last official statistics, given Oct. 12, 1897, report 98 minis ters, 126 congregations, and 25,686 confirmed members. It is next to the oldest synod in the General Synod, and numerically is the larg est. H. B. W. Pittsburg Synod, The. Eight ministers and six laymen organized it in Pittsburg, Jan. 15, 1845. Harmony, missionary zeal, and rapid progress until mpture in G. S. (1866). Large majority voted to withdraw, without previous notice, from G. S. and enter General Council. Minority -withdrew, because of unconstitutional ity of action and change of doctrinal basis, and reorganized and continued as before in allegiance with G. S. The reorganization at Worthing- ton, December, 1867, represented eleven minis ters, ten laymen, 28 congregations, 1,756 com municants. Missionary zeal was retained and rapid progress, considering difficulties, made. The minutes (1898) give 63 ministers, 52 lay men, 94 churches, 11 stations, 11,273 commu nicants, 90 Sunday-schools, 1,216 officers and teachers, 10,416 scholars, 3,295 members of 100 young people's societies, $1,659, H. M. ; $1,521, F. M. ; $1,329, Ch. Ex. ; $540, B. Ed. ; $637, Colleges ; $768, Pastors' Fund ; $841, Orphans' Home ; $185, Deaconess Board ; $229, Home of Aged ; $2,004.86, External Benevolence ; $13,050, Total Benevolence ; $621,050, estimated value of property. A synodical W. H. and F. S. was organized (1879) -with five members. -^^^ (minutes, 1898) 53 auxiliaries, 1,208 members. A new constitution, adopted 1897, reaffirms allegiance to G. S., abolishes licensure, creates statistical secretary, limits office of president and secretary to one year, obligates applicants from other denominations to examinations as theological students, requires full college and seminary course for ordination, except by two- thirds vote of Ministerium. Greatest mission ary success attained in Pittsburg and Allegheny. Drs. Goettman and Schwartz have been mem bers ever since the reorganization, and have exerted a molding influence. Many names prominent in the Church are found on the early roll of the Pittsburg Synod : Passavant, Krauth, Jr., Valentine, Zeigler, Jacobs, Stuckenberg, Breckenridge, S. F. Melhom, etc. The synod abides in peace and hope, and the prospects are very bright. S. S. Rocky Mountain S-vnod, The, of the Gen- Synods (I.) Synods (I.) eral Synod of the Evangelical Luth. Church in the United States. Owing to the distance of the brethren in this region from the other synods of Kansas and Nebraska, it was deemed advisable to or ganize the above-named synod, embracing the territory of Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. According to a call previously given in the Luth. Observer and Luth. Evangelist, the fol lowing ministers and laymen met in Manitou, Colorado, May 5, 1891. By invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Wm. Paulson, the meeting was held in the Grand View Hotel : Rev. A. R. Howbert, D.D., from Wittenberg Synod ; Rev. D. Som- mers, from Miami Synod ; Rev. D. Harbaugh, from Kansas Synod ; Rev. C. J. Kiefer, from Kansas Synod ; Rev. J. N. Lenker, from Ne braska Synod ; Rev. M. J. Waage, from Ne braska Synod ; Rev. K. J. Starner, from Nebras ka Synod ; Rev. Ch. Thomsen, from Nebraska Synod ; Rev. J. C. Hougum, from Nebraska Synod. Lay delegates : W. M. L. Weills, M.D., Manitou, Colo., and Mr. H. P. Jaensen, of Lead- rille. Col. Rev. C. J. Kiefer, haring pre-riously prepared a constitution, submitted the same for their consideration. After its consideration and adoption the foUo-wing officers were elected : President, Rev. A. R. Howbert, D.D., Colorado Springs, Colo. ; secretary, Rev. C. J. Kiefer, Denver, Colo. ; historical secretary, Rev. J. N. Lenker, Grand Island, Neb. ; treasurer, W. M. L. Weills, M.D., Manitou, Colo. The first annual meeting held in Denver, Colo., Oct. 28, 1891, showed eleven ministers and an equal number of congregations, with a total membership of 497. Regular annual meetings have been held since that time. The present number of minis ters is fourteen, with ten pastorates and 536 members. J. W. B. Susquehanna Synod. — The territory of this Synod is located in Pennsylvania, along and between the North and West branches of the Susquehanna River and extends north as far as the state line. As early as 1768 Luth. pastors were laboring in this field and Luth. churches were being organized in connection with the Ministerium of Pennsylvania. Most of these churches united in the organization of the East Pennsylvania Synod. The stepping-stone to the formation of the Susquehanna Synod was the organization of the Susquehanna Conference, at Milton, Pa., Jan uary 15th, 1845, with five clerical members. In 1867, their nuniber had increased to 18, -with 48 churches. It was now evident, because of location, etc., that the needs of this territory demanded the organization of a Synod. Con vinced of this fact. Conference, at a meeting of the East Pennsylvania Synod, held at Potts viUe, in Sept., 1867, asked for the dismissal of the pastors and churches to organize a Synod. This request was very reluctantly granted. The Conference met, Nov. 5th, 1867, at Montours- ville, Pa., organized themselves into a Synod, and resolved to unite vrith the General Synod. As no change of doctrine entered into the for mation of this Synod the only action worthy of special note was the dispensing vrith the Minis- terium and licensure. The first regular meet ing of this Synod was held in Sunbury, Pa., April 23d, 1868. There were 25 clerical and 19 lay members present. They represented 48 churches with a communicant membership of 4,661. The minutes of 1898, just thirty years later, show 58 clerical members and 77 churches, with a membership of 11,577. Also 78 Sunday- schools with 14,571 members. The value ofthe church properties is estimated at $567,439.00 and the benevolence for that year amounted to $16,225.60. This Synod has many new and beautiful church buildings. It is constantly organizing churches and planting missions. Its growth is due in no small degree to Susquehanna Uni versity, located within her bounds, at Selins grove, Pa. J. H. W. Wartburg Synod is a German district of the General Synod of the Luth. Church. The organ ization of the General Council at Fort Wayne, Ind., in 1866 caused the dissolution of the for mer Illinois Synod. Those members of the latter who remained loyal to the General Synod organized themselves as the Central Illinois Synod. Among these was a small number of Gerthan ministers. As their number increased from year to year they concluded to establish a German conference, the same developing into the Wartburg Synod as organized at Chicago, 1875, and since then constitutes a part of Ge neral Synod. Their church paper was the "Luth. Kirchenfreund," published by Rev. J. D. Severinghaus, and a German department in connection with Carthage College and under the direction of Rev. E. F. Giese, D. D., pro vided for the education of German ministers. The attempt to establish an independent theo logical institution at Chicago was a failure. More successful in the same direction were the efforts of Dr. Severinghaus, since the Wartburg Synod during these years had increased its membership and was now a more compact body than before ; the German theol. seminary at Chicago was founded. This institution, lacking the necessary funds and gradually losing the support of the Germans, ended its work in 1898, and was consolidated with the Western Theo logical Seminary at Atchison, Kan. Whereas the above mentioned Luth. Kirchenfreund was not the property of the Synod but rather of the editor, and therefore without the necessary au thority and influence, the Luth. Zionsbote was established with remarkable success in 1896 as a joint organ of the German Wartburg and Ne braska Synods, representing at the same time the German interests of the entire General Synod. The continual growth and marked progress of the Wartburg Synod is largely due to the Theological Seminary at Breklum, Germany. The present status shows an enrolment of 45 ministers, 50 congregations, 5,000 communicant members ; value of church property $205,430 ; benevolence in 1898, $2,450.00. W. Su. Wittenberg Synod. At a meeting of the English Luth. Synod of Ohio and adjacent states in session in Washingtonville, Ohio, priri lege was granted the pastors Uring in the north western part of the state to withdraw and or- Synods (I.) 487 Synods (II.) ganize a new synod. This organization was effected June 8, 1847. A constitution in harmony vrith that of the General Synod was adopted. The name select ed was that of historic " Wittenberg." The first rqjl of Synod contained the names of nine ordained ministers and six licentiates. Only eight, however, are recorded as being pres ent at organization. The first officers selected were Rev. F. J. Ruth, president ; Rev. J. H. Hoffman, secre tary, and Rev. J. Seidel, treasurer. The president did much faithful pioneer work upon this territory, organizing a number of the present prosperous churches. His first report to Synod the folio-wing year contained four recommendations, all of which are on sub jects even of present interest. The first was relative to the utility of church papers. The second set forth the desirability of greater uni formity in the mode of public worship. The third urged the necessity of rigorous effort to develop the especial territory of Synod. The fourth set forth the claims of beneficiary edu cation. The first statistical report showed the follow ing status : Number of ministers, 16 ; number of congregations, 44 ; communicant membership, 1,855 ; benevolent contributions for all objects, $103.40, as follows ; home missions, $6.40 ; foreign missions, $4.00 ; beneficiary education, $86.00 ; synodical treasury, $7.00. Among the honored men who shaped the early history of the Synod were Rev. Ezra Keller, D.D., and Rev. Samuel Sprecher, D.D. Many other names of prominence in the coun cils of the Church are found upon the complete roll of the Synod. The names of all the presi dents of Wittenberg College to date and a num ber of her most prominent professors have been members of the body. She has always had a responsible part in the problems pre sented to the church at large. Wittenberg Synod is wholly loyal to the doctrines and in terests of the General Synod Luth. Church. Among the objects of benevolence, she has al ways placed that of Christian education first. Wittenberg College is upon her territory. Con tributions for college buildings, and endowment, have been frequent and liberal. The Culler chair of Exegetical Theology was endowed from this territory. The endowment of a chair of Historical Theology has been assumed by the Synod. Thirteen young men were aided by the Benefi ciary Education fund last year. Steady advance ment has been made along all lines of church work. The seal of the Sjnod adopted in 1849 bears the motto ' ' Esto Fidelis. ' ' The parochial report of 1897 showing a half century of growth presents the following facts ordained : Ministers, 46 ; licentiates, 4 ; number of churches, 70 ; additional stations, 4; membership, 8,767; es timated value of church property, $468,750.00 ; local expenses for all objects, $53,457-oo ; Sun day-school enrolment, 9,383 ; membership of Young People's Societies, 2,039. Total bene volence, $7,350.07. Grand total for all purposes, |6o,6o2.i8. The benevolent contributions of synod are distributed as follows : General Synod, $106.61 ; synodical treasury, $361.41 ; home missions, $1,150.34 ; foreign missions, $913.71 ; Church extension, $774.88 ; board of education, $265.- 71 ; beneficiary education, $804.57 I Woman's Missionary Society, $681.52 ; Pastors' Fund, 1319-45 ; Orphans' Home $238.42 ; Deaconess Board, $166.40; Home for the Aged, $92.52 ; External Objects, $1,396.65. S. E. G. II. General Council. Augustana Synod. Like all the church bodies of the New World, the Augustana Synod is a pilgrim church. Other churches may look back nearly three centuries to their pilgrim fathers ; we as a synod have a history of only half a century, and a good many of us are pil grim fathers ourselves. The older churches of our land have of course outgrown that unutter able feeling of pilgrims which will dwell in the hearts of a great many of the now living mem bers of the Augustana Synod until they enter the heavenly home. We do not expect to be fully understood by those churches who call themselves American with that peculiar ac cent which is born of the exclusive use of the English language. We do not expect our in tense love for our own beloved Synod to be fully and rightly understood by those who do not sympathize with the sonows, the struggles, and the joys of a pilgrim. It is impossible for a native to understand a pilgrim's undying and unyielding love of his new home. If he has had to sunder violently all the tender ties that bound him to his old home, so much closer and stronger will his attachment to his new home be, when he after many vicissitudes and struggles has found what the Psalm of David expresses in the following inimitable words : " Yea, the sparrow hath found a house, andthe swallow a nest for herself, where she may lay her young, even thine altars, O Lord of Hosts, my King, and my God." Like the other church organizations in our land, the Augustana Synod has grown out of very small and humble beginnings. Nothing can be more insignificant and miserable than a little band of poor immigrants in a new country, per fect strangers in a strange land. A congrega tion consisting of 10 members, with a pastor from Sweden, on the prairies of Illinois, in the spring of 1850, the Sw. Luth. Church of An dover, 111., that is the beginning. The same year Swedish Luth. congregations were or ganized in Galesburg and Moline, 111., and in New Sweden, Iowa, all, of course, very small and extremely poor. Rev. L. P. Esbjom was the sole pastor and missionary of these con gregations and several mission stations. At that time the Swedish Methodists were the lords of all the Swedish immigrants, backed by the powerful Methodist Church of the United States. Swedish Lutherans had, of course, no right to exist in this country in those days. Besides, there was the wealthy Episcopal Church ready to take under its protecting wings pilgrim children of an episcopal country. The Church of Sweden, like the Church of Eng land, is favored vrith lord bishops, we know. Synods (II.) 488 Synods (II.) To make matters still worse for the Swedish Luth. pilgrim church, there was a settlement of a most strange and fanatical Swedish sect, " Erik-Janssare," at Bishop Hill, in the vicinity of Andover, 111. These people had just arrived in the years 1846 and 1847, burning with the zeal and hatred of a new-born sect. What was now Rev. Esbjom with his embryonic synod of Swedish Luth. churches to do ? The very first thing was to try to find some friends and some money. Rev. Esbjorn went East and found some friends and some money. The world- renowned Swedish Nightingale, Jenny Lind, was one of these friends, whom he met in Boston. She donated $1,500 for the church extension fund. Other friends added to the same treasury, and loaded with $2,200, Rev. Esbjorn leturned to Andover. Now the cathe dral in Andover was built, and likevrise the first frame church in Moline, and New Sweden, la., also got its share of the money. Such was the status of the established Church of Sweden in the United States, in the year 1851. But nearer and closer friends must be found. The Nor wegian Lutherans are older in this country than the Swedes of the nineteenth century. Some of them were found. Some American Luth. churches did exist in Northern Illinois in those days, and they, of course, were counted upon as near and dear friends under those peculiar circumstances. The result was that Rev. Esbjorn and two Norwegian Luth. pastors were participants in the formation of the Ev. Luth. Synod of Northern Illinois, the 14th of May, 1851, — Rev. Esbjorn representing four congrega tions and the two Norwegian pastors five. Rev. T. N. Hasselquist was called from Sweden, and arrived in the summer of 1852 as pastor of the church at Galesburg. Rev. Erl. Carlsson was also called from Sweden, and anived in 1853, taking charge of the Sw. Luth. Church in Chi cago, so also Rev. Jonas Swensson and Rev. O. C. T. Andr^n. The following years new con gregations were organized, and some young Swedes were ordained for the ministry, among them, yet living. Dr. E. Norelius and Revs. P. Cederstam, P. Carlson, and P. Beckman. Mean while the Swedes and Norwegians had begun to invade Minnesota, the future Sweden-Norway of the United States. Three Conferences had been organized, the Chicago, the Mississippi, and the Minnesota Conference. In the year 1857, Rev. L._ P. Esbjorn was duly elected to the Scandinavian Professorship in Illinois State University, a Lutheran institution. He entered upon his duties 1858, and in this way provision was made for the proper educa tion of ministers for the Scandinavian churches belonging to the Synod of Northem Illinois. It is most touching to read the history of the free-will offerings of these churches for the sup port of this professorship and of the students. Brief and sad is the history of that professor ship, for, in April, i860, Prof. Esbjorn, with all his pupils, except two, withdrew from Illinois State University, and came to Chicago. Much ado was then made, and has since been made, over this vrithdrawal. It was, in fact, as natural as anything can be. Just as natural it was that the representatives of the Scandinavian Conferences met, and or ganized a free and independent Ev. Luth. Scandinarian Synod, under the name of the Scandinavian Ev. Luth. Augustana Synod of North America. This memorable event took place June 5, i860, in Clinton, Wis. The Swedes and the Norwegians were, and are, firm believers in, and staunch defenders of all the confessions of the Lutheran Church in the good old sense, and they were, and are, born free and independent. Here you have the whole history in a nutshell. Now it remained to be seen whether these poor Scandinavian pilgrims could take church government into their own hands, and make it a stable government. The venerable Rev. T. N. Hasselquist was elected president of the new synod. Rev. O. J. Hatlestad secretary, and Mr. A. A. Klove treasurer. A constitution was adopted, and everything made ready for the service of the Lord. The infant institution, Augustana Semi nary, was located in Chicago. At the time of its organization, the Augustana Synod reported 49 congregations, 4,967 communicant members, and 27 ministers. The next important step was the removal of Augustana Seminary to Paxton, Illinois, and the election of Rev. T. N. Hassel quist as its president. The year 1870 marks an epoch in our history, because then, at the an nual meeting in Andover, 111. , the Norwegians ¦withdrew to form an independent synod. Nothing could be more peaceable, brotherly, and touching than this separation and farewell. At that time the Swedish part of the Synod re ported 99 congregations, 16,376 communicants, and 46 ministers. The years 1872-75 are ever memorable in the history of our Synod, because of the onslaught of ' ' Waldenstromianism, ' ' the joy of the Congregationalists in America, the sorrow of the Augustana Synod. That was a regular ciril war in the Church of Sweden, and in our Synod. The Synod held the fort, and waxed stronger. In the midst of the tumult, Augustana College and Th. Seminary was re moved from Paxton to Rock Island, 111., in order to be nearer to Minnesota, the strong hold of the Swedes in America. The heavy im migration of Swedes in the years 1868-1875 had scattered this nationality broadcast all over the United States. The boundaries of the land, overlapping into Canada, from now on became the boundaries of the mission field of the Synod. By-and-by, the Synod became too un wieldy to meet annually, with every minister present, and ¦with a lay delegate from every congregation. At the meeting in St. Peter, Minn., 1894, a new constitution was adopt ed, making the annual convention a dele gated body, and giving more power to the eight conferences in their respective domains ,- the ordination of ministers and the control of Augustana College and Th. Seminary remain ing under the exclusive authority of the general body. What are the special characteristics of the Augustana Synod? The old Pietistic con fessionalism and churchliness of the Swedish people, the Evangelicalism of the Church of Sweden. From the beginning until now every candidate for the ministry has been asked in Synods (II.) 489 Synods (II.) the Ministerium what he has to say about his personal spiritual experience of his inmost heart during his past life and at the present time. Unfeigned orthodoxy, personal piety, sincere spiritual and moral life have so far been expected and required in a pastor by our con gregations. Against an ungodly life of church members, our constitution for the congregations takes a firm stand, and the pastor and Church Council are solemnly charged vrith the duty of pastoral care of young and old members of the church. Thorough catechetical instruction in the confirmation class is held to be the most sacred and blessed duty of a pastor in our church. Against secret societies our constitu tions have fought from the beginning. The .statistics of the Synod for the synodical year, ending June, 1897, can be given briefly as follows : 438 ministers, 847 congregations, 110,430 communicants, valuation of church property, $3,986,291 ; i Th. Sem., 3 colleges, 2 academies, 76 teachers and 1,256 students in •these institutions, 6 Orphans' Homes, with 251 orphans, and 3 hospitals. Presidents of the Synod : Dr. T. N. Hasselquist, 1860-70 ; Rev. Jonas Swensson, 1870-74 ; Dr. E. Norelius, 1874-81 ; Dr. Erl. Carlsson, 1881-88 ; Dr. S. P. A. Lindahl, 1888-91 ; Dr. P. J. Sward, 1891-. The Augustana Synod belongs to the General Council of the Ev. Luth. Church of Am erica. O. O. Augustana Synod, The Home and For eign Mission Work of the. The Synod itself is the result of home mission work, and its con tinued grovriii is thus maintained and assured. In 1849 Rev. Prof. L. P. Esbjorn arrived in America from Sweden, in company -with a num ber of emigrants, who settled in Andover, Henry Co., 111. A church was organized and the means of grace administered. In 1852, Rev. T. N. Hasselquist ; in 1853, Rev. Erl. Carlson ; in 1854, Rev. Jonas Swensson ; in 1856, Rev. O. C. T. Andr^n, anived from Sweden. In i860 the first steps were taken towards higher learning, in order to train pastors and teachers for the field. The pastors, in 1898, numbered 446, nearly all doing more or less home mission work, which now includes almost every state and ter ritory in the United States and Canada. The money given by the eight conferences of the Synod each year for this work averages $25,000. The Swedish emigrants arriving m America are usually poor financially, but well able to read and write. They are largely religiously inclined, peaceable and industnous. It is esti mated that 1,500,000 of the population of America are Swedes, or of Swedish descent. The language question is now coming to the front. It -will soon have to be English. " The faith of the fathers in the language of the children." The Foreign Mission Work of the Synod is not canied on as largely as the wants de mand. In 1869 Rev. Dr. Olsson anived in America. He hoped to begin work among the Freedmen of the South, but, ascertaining the wants among the Indians, he made investigations and laid the results before the Synod in 1876. Rev. John TeUeen was sent by the Synod the foUovring year to look over the field. He travelled all over the Indian Territory. In the fall of the same year Drs. Carlson and Norelius, with the missionary-elect, visited Washington to secure an agency. In '78 Dr. Norelius visited the Territory, and in '79 Dr. Wahlstrom visited Colorado and the Indian Temtory. But the promised agency was not given. In 1882 work was begun in Salt Lake City, Prof. S. M. Hill being the first stationed mis sionary. This work, for many reasons, was classed as foreign mission work. The Synod has aided the mission work in Africa, Australia, China, India, Madagascar, Palestine, Syria, and elsewhere. Being one of the eight bodies composing "The General Council," it helps the work among the Telugus in India. To this field "The Augustana Foreign Missionary So ciety " annually contributes $500, and more. Of the seventeen workers sent out three are from the Augustana Synod — Rev. and Mrs. Isaacson and Miss Swenson. Over $7,000 is annually contributed for foreign mis sions. J. T. Canada Synod. As early as 1774, German Lutherans from the Mohawk Valley immigrated to Canada. They built a church at Williams burg, Dundas Co., near the St. Lawrence, which was dedicated in 1779. This was the first Protestant church in Canada. This, as well as the other Luth. churches which were organized in the neighborhood, together with their pastors, were from the beginning connected with the New York Ministerium, several Luth. pastors joining the Anglican Church, claiming that it was the same as the Luth. Ch., only English. In consequence, these churches lost many members and large tracts of land to the Episcopalians. In 1850 Rev. G. Bassler was commissioned by the Pittsburg Synod to visit the Lutherans who were settling in Canada West. The Pittsburg Synod, upon the report of Rev. B., sent Rev. C. P. Diehl, as travelling missionary, to Canada. In 1853 the Canada Conference was organized. It was a part of the Pittsburg Synod. With permis sion of the latter body, the Canada Synod was constituted in the township of Vaughan, York Co., Ont., July 18-22, 1861. In 1888 it began missionary work in Manitoba. This mission was, in 1890, transfened to the German Home Mission Board of the General Council. Its official organ is the Luth. Kirchenblatt. The Synod helped to organize the General Council. With reference to the Galesburg Rule it has declared against pulpit-and-altar-fellowship, recognizing no exceptions. It now (1898) numbers 38 pastors, 84 churches, 18,737 souls, and 11,662 communicants. Its churches main tain 38 parochial schools. J. N. The Chicago Synod of the Evan. Luth. Church was organized as the Indiana Synod, Oct. 23, 1871, at East Germanto-wn, Indiana. The first Luth. Synod formed vrithin the terri tory of Chicago Synod was the Synod of Indiana, organized Aug. 15, 1835, by members of the Tennessee Synod. O-wing to doctrinal matters and personal differences, the Synod of Indiana disbanded Nov. 4, 1859. On the next day, in pursuance to a call issued by one of the Synods (II.) 490 Synods (II.) pastors, the ministers and lay delegates met and organized the Union Synod. After the General Council was organized a movement began in the Union Synod to unite with the Council. Beside the pastors of this synod who were in sympathy vrith the Council's doctrinal position there were several pastors in the state who were members of General Council synods. In order to unite these elements into one body the Union Synod dissolved, and its members united in the formation of the Indiana (now Chicago) Synod. The Chicago Synod was weak when first or ganized. It numbered eight pastors, 23 con gregations, 892 communicant members, and a few Sunday-schools. Its parishes were weak, and suffered much from frequent and prolonged vacancies. After the Chicago Theo. Seminary was opened, the Synod entered upon a new epoch. Its present strength is 26 pastors and pro fessors, 43 congregations, 4,033 communicants, 35 Sunday-schools, with 3, 589 pupils. Its church property is valued at $237, 187. - M. L. W. Northwest, English Evangelical Luth. S-wsroD OF THE. Grew out of General Council mission work begun at strategic centres, in Minnesota (1883), by Rev. G. H. Trabert, D.D., and Rev. A. J. D. Haupt ; N. Dakota (1886-7), by Rev. W. F. Ulery, and Rev. G. H. Gerber ding, D.D. ; Wisconsin (1889), by Rev. W. K. Frick ; Washington and Utah (1889). Material heterogeneous, — Swedish, German, Norwegian, Danish, " American, " etc. Synod organized at Memorial Church, St. Paul, Sept. 23, 1891. Statistics, 1898 : 15 congregations, 3 missions, 18 ministers ; 4 brick, 10 frame churches ; prop erty value, $114,400 ; 1,592 communicants ; 1,747 enrolled in S. S. ; $898 for benevolence, $20,695 for congregational expenses. Since their organization the congregations have raised nearly $70,000. 1894, Synod was extended to the West coast by reception of churches at Seattle, Tacoma, and Salt Lake City. 1894, first ordination, Rev. A. C. Anda. 1896, Luther League and S.S. Conventions added to Synod. 1896, rural work begun at Goodhue, Minn., by Rev. J. A. Leas. 1897, Zion, The Dalles, Oreg., received. 1897, New St. John's, Minneapolis, dedicated. 1898, 5 ministers received (3 by or dination) ; 3 missions begun (Racine and La- Crosse, Wis., and Sherman Co., Oreg.). Synod has aided the Chicago Theological Seminary with directors, professors, and means, and re ceived six ministers from it. Other synods have been stined up to aggressive English work. (See Lutheran, Aug. 5, 1897 ; and " Lutheran ism in the Great Northwest," Luth. Ch. Re view, 1895.) W. K. F. New York Ministerium. i. Its organiza tion. Some of the Dutch Luth. churches on the Hudson had already passed their centennial, and quite a number of the German Luth. churches on the Hudson, in the Mohawk and Schoharie valleys, could look back upon a his tory of fifty years, when, in 1773, at the invita tion of the Rev. F. A. C. Muhlenberg, then pastor of Christ German Luth. Ch. in the city of New York, several pastors and representa tives of congregations met in Christ Church on Frankford St., cor. of William, N. Y., to or ganize a second Luth. Synod. The fact that no records of this and subsequent meetings up to 1786 have as yet been found, led to the as sumption that the Ministerium was founded in that year. Still, the fact that its organization took place in 1773 is established beyond doubt upon the direct and cumulative testimony of the Rev. J. C. Kunze. It was known that the Rev. F. A. C. Muhlenberg had in 1774 called a meeting of all the Luth. ministers in New York, also that Dr. Kunze in the introduction to his " Hymn and Prayer Book," published in 1795, had made this statement: "To the late Dr. Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, who died in the year 1787, belongs the immortal honor of hav ing formed in Pennsylvania a regular ministry, and, what is somewhat remarkable, to one of his sons, who officiated as Luth. minister from the year 1773 to 1776 in the city of New York, that of having formed the evangelical ministry of New York State." ("Evangelical" means Luth., and " ministry " ministerium or synod.) But in a letter of Dr. Kunze to Prof. Dr. Knapp of Halle, dated New York, Dec. 13, 1800, the more specific statement is made : "I remained a member of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, although I had revived the Ministerium already founded by the Rev. Fred. Aug. Muhlenberg in this state in 1773." 2. Its Doctrinal Position. Up to 1794, the first constitution of the Synod of Pa. was in force, which in Chap. VI. , § 2, prorides that "In doctrine and life every min ister conforms to the Word of God and our Symbolical Books," and, in a subsequent sec tion, disciplinary measures against such as depart from this confessional standards. And when, for the sake of conformity, the Minis terium, in 1794, adopted the new constitution of the Pa. Synod in which there was no explicit reference to the Confessions, it continued to re quire a solemn declaration in writing, not only from pastors who came from other churches, but also from all candidates ordained and even from Luth. churches received. Thus in 1796, before his ordination, George Strebeck signs this declaration or " Revers " : "I will only so long remain a minister ... as my ministerial brethren, the Ministerium, shall find my con duct and teaching in harmony with the Word of God and the Symbolical Books of our Church. ' ' Such a pledge in writing was required of all candidates ordained, and of all pastors who made application for reception, in case they were not members of the Pa. Synod. The churches also promised that they would not call any one as pastor or admit him to their pulpits imless he had first been approved by the Minis terium. In the services the Agenda prepared by Henry M. Muhlenberg and his colaborers was in use. This contains the foUovring form for the words of distribution at the Holy Com munion : "Take, eat, this is the true body" etc. And in 1796 it was resolved: "This rule shall be observed by the Evangelical (Luth.) ministers of this State, that persons who have communed at the altar of another confession shall not again be received into our congrega tions unless they have first given a solemn promise of steadfastness and fidelity in the Synods (II.) 491 Synods (II.) future ; consequently, persons in such relation shall not be considered members of our congre gation until they have been again admitted into the respective congregations in the manner herein set forth." This period of conservative confessionalism was followed by one of ration alism and, in some respects, of socinianism. Dr. Kunze died in 1847. He was succeeded in the presidency and as professor of theology for the purpose of preparing young men for the Luth. ministry by Fred. H. Quitman, a pupil of Semler at Halle. He was the only Luth. minister who ever received the degree of D.D. from Harvard. Luther's Small Catechism was superseded by a so-called "Evangelical Catechism" from which the doctrine of the Trinity is omitted, the ground for Christ's death represented ' ' that he might seal the doctrine which he had preached with his blood," and according to which "saving faith " is "an im pressive sense of the glorious perfections oi God." The hymn and prayer-book of Dr. Kunze had to make room for a hymn-book simi lar in character to the Ev. Catechism. This was largely used in the English Luth. churches in this country, and, though revised, has not conduced to the strengthening of Luth. con sciousness. As Q. 's influence declined that of Dr. E. L. Hazelius increased. Dr. H. was the principal of Hartvrick Seminary, and although perhaps not ready to subscribe unreservedly to all the contents of the Symbolical Books, yet he was a man of positive Christian convictions, and in his synodical sermon of 1829, takes to task those who disparage the person and work of Christ, and suppose that human reason is capa ble of judging the doctrines of the Saviour. But the reaction did not bring the Synod nearer Lutheranism. Methodistic measures were in troduced and used by the great majority of pastors, whilst the instruction of the young was neglected. Pastors and churches followed in the wake of that which was then popular, and in vogue among the surrounding denominations. But this produced a sad state of affairs in the churches. In their parochial reports some of the more conscientious and observing pastors complain of the mischief this revivalism wrought in the churches. They say they find it ex tremely difficult to have young persons come to catechetical instruction. They attribute this to the practice so vridely pursued of admitting persons into church communion who are ignor ant of the very first and fundamental truths of the Christian religion. The result was that the churches were languishing. In 1852 Synod took cognizance of this sad fact. President W. D. Strobel states that in former years, when catechization was universal, the young people were brought under the direct influence of the Church, and large numbers became members ; but this has fallen into disuse, and extraordinary efforts in preaching have taken its place, fol lowed for a time by great accessions. "But," he continues, "many have now lost faith in these measures, and a state of apathy is the consequence. ' ' This most lamentable condition inaugurated the period of retum to confessions. At this meeting of Synod a committee was ap pointed for the purpose of preparing a constitu tion for the churches which recognize the Un altered Augsburg Conf. as a conect exhibit of their faith. That constitution urged the in struction in Luther'sCatechism upon pastors and congregations. In 1859, the Min. adopted an amendment to its constitution providing that all persons to be ordained shall recognize the Augsburg Conf. as a conect exhibition of the fundamental doctrines of the Divine Word. In 1864, the General Synod at York, Pa., in serted this action of the Minist. into its consti tution. The conservative element in the Synod was supported and soon led by the rapidly in creasing number of German pastors and churches. These, as early as 1855, prevailed upon Synod to recommend a constitution for German congregations, the first article of which declares : "This cong. receives ... all the Ssmibolical Books of the Ev. Luth. Ch., as contained in the Book of Concord of 1580, because they rightly set forth and explain the same doctrines with the Holy Scriptures. " When the rupture oc- cured at Ft. Wayne, in 1867, the Min. of New York also severed its connection with the Gen eral Synod and under the lead of the Pa. Synod helped to organize the General Council, vrith which it is still connected. 3. Ils Educational Work. Dr. Kunze was most eminent as a teacher. In PhUa. he had founded an acad emy, which, on account of the war, was but short-lived. He accepted the call to New York in 1784, mainly for the reason that vrith it the position of professor of the Semitic languages in King's College (Columbia University) was ten dered him. He considered this a welcome op portunity for educating Luth. young men. The Min. of New York appointed him its professor of theology, with the understanding that he prepare young men for the Luth. ministry. Thus he had several of his wife's nephews, grandsons of the patriarch Muhlenberg, with him, who attended King's College and received private instruction in theology from him. The most noted of his pupils was Philip Mayer. Kunze was succeeded as official theological in structor of synod by Dr. Quitman. Dec. 15, 1815, Hartwick Seminary was opened vrith Dr. E. L. Hazelius as principal. This institution furnished the Church a number of able men, such as H. N. Pohlman and W. D. Strobel. — The Ministerium of New York was one hundred years ago considered a source of sup ply of ministers for English Luth. congrega tions also outside the State of New York. The Dutch and German Luth. churches along the Hudson had grown English rapidly, and the use of the English language prevaUed much earlier in the New York Min. than in the Pa. Synod. Among the English pastors furnished the Church, outside of the limits of the N. Y. Min., were Dr. Ph. Mayer and Dr. J. Bachman. When the separation from the General Synod took place, Hartwick Seminary, being a corporation of its own, remained in possession of the English portion, which had voted against the separation. (With the exception of the German Church in Oswego, and the English Church at Rhinebeck, the vote was strictly according to language.) Under Revs. E. F. Giese and G. Vorberg, St. Matthew's Academy in New York City was, in^ Synods (II.) 493 Synod (II.) part, a preparatory school for candidates for the ministry. In 1871, a building at Newark, Wayne Co., N. Y., most beautifully located upon high ground, was purchased for the purpose of estab lishing an educational institution in the west ern part of the State. It promised auspiciously, but soon proved a failure. It was not properly managed, and in 1875 the buUding was ordered sold, and the institution closed. For several years the Synod had no educational institution, and some of its young men attended colleges at AUentown and Greenville, Pa. , and Ft. Wayne, Ind. In 1883, the "Rochester Proseminar " was founded, which, in 1886, assumed the name, "The Wagner Memorial Luth. College." (See Colleges. ) 4. Separations. Several synods have separated from the Ministerium. The first one was the Hartwick Synod, in 1830. It is claimed that the territory of the Synod was too large, and that it was necessary to organize the pastors and churches west of Albany into a new synod ; that they desired to connect them selves with the General Synod, which the Min isterium so far had refused to do, and that in the Min. rationalism was dominant. With re gard to this last claim, it should be noted that, in 1828, Dr. Hazelius had been elected presi dent, a man of pronounced evangelical conric tions. (See above.) The second separation took place in an orderly manner. The English pastors in New Jersey, and their churches, in 1859, requested permission to organize a synod of their own, on account of the great distance to the meetings of synod, especially if held in the western part of the State of New York. Permission was granted, and the Synod of New Jersey was the result. A third separation oc cuned in March, 1866, when three German pas tors in New York and Brooklyn notified the president that they had severed their connec tion with the Ministerium. They constituted themselves into the German Synod of New York. (See SteimlE Synod.) In October, 1872, however, the entire Synod, consisting then of nine pastors, was received again into the New York Min. The fourth separation, in 1867, was the more keenly felt because about two-fifths of the pastors and churches withdrew, and called themselves the English Synod of New York. The reason for this action has been stated already, to wit : The withdrawal of the N. Y. Min. from the General Synod. Both these English synods, that of N. Y. and of N. J., a few years later, united under the name of " N. Y. and N. J. Synod." The most unpleasant of all these unpleasant experiences, however, was the war which for years was systematically waged against the Minist. by members of the Synod of Missouri. In 1875, a county judge in Ohio had taken the ground that in a certain litigation (Lima Church case) his duty was to be guided in his decision by the action of the Synod (a district synod ofthe General Council), to which the church belonged. And although, upon appeal, the Supreme Court promptly reversed this ruling, still some pastors of the Missouri Synod, and others who had more love for Missouri than for their own synod, made a great outcry against the General Council, claim- mg that by this case it was clearly proven that in the General Council the churches had no rights, but were the slaves of the synods and their property. Though the charge was palpably groundless, these agitations, in which also the Missouri Predestinarian controversy played an important part, resulted in alienating a number of the largest and wealthiest churches from the Ministerium. 5. Statistics. The Min isterium is divided into four conferences : the New York, Albany, and the Rochester (all three German), and the English. It numbers 160 ministers, who serve 155 churches, with a communicant membership of 55,000 persons. Thirteen of the churches are in the State of New Jersey, one in Pennsylvania, eleven in Con necticut, and two in Massachusetts ; the rest are in the State of New York. During 1898 they raised for congregational purposes an even quarter mUlion ; for special objects, $134,000, and for benevolent purposes, $36,000. J. N. .Ohio, Evangelical Lutheran District Synod of. This Synod was organized in Au gust, 1857, as a district of the Joint Synod, the former English branch of said body having -withdrawn and united with the General Synod. The name it assumed at its organization was "The English District of the Ev. Luth. Joint Synod of Ohio and Adjacent States." Upon the adoption of its present constitution, in 1872, the Joint Synod ha-ring refused to rec ognize it as one of its districts, on account of its relation to the General Council, the name was changed to "The Ev. Luth. District S-sfNOD of Ohio, formerly known as the Eng lish Ev. Luth. District Synod, iu connection -with the Evangelical Luth. Joint Synod of Ohio and Adjacent States." Its doctrinal basis is identical with that of the General Council, and it has adopted and strictly conformed to all the official declarations of the latter in regard to Pulpit-and-Altar-fellowship, Chiliasm and secret orders. It was represented by a full delegation at the Luth. Convention in Reading, Pa., in 1866, and promptly adopted the constitution of the General Council, which grew out of that assembly, in 1867 ; and its delegates appeared at Ft. Wayne the same year and participated in the organization of that body. The delegates of the Joint Synod offered a protest to the Gen eral Council against the admission of the Dis trict Synod, to which the delegates of the latter filed an answer, whereupon the protest was withdrawn, in the name of the Joint Synod, on condition that the answer be also -withdrawn. Already in the fifties their Synod embraced many of the English and German-English con gregations in westem Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana. Its strongest congregations, with a few exceptions in the Miami and Hocking val leys in Ohio, were those in Westmoreland county. Pa., but, in accordance with the policy of the General Council, that the boundanes be tween the synods should, as far as possible, be the lines between the states, the congregations and pastors in Indiana were dismissed, to or ganize the Synod of Indiana, now known as the Chicago Synod. Still later, the congregations in Westmoreland county. Pa., were dismissed to the Synod of Pittsburg. And, as the con gregations in Ohio connected vrith the latter Synods (II.) 498 Synods (II.) body were not, as it had reason to hope, trans fened to the District Synod of Ohio, the latter was greatly weakened by their conforming to the most natural boundary lines. But a new and vigorous synod has grown out of it, and an old one has been greatly strengthened at its expense. But for these high-spirited and lib eral contributions to establish and strengthen other bodies, the District Synod of Ohio would to-day be one of the numerically strongest synods in the General Council. At the present time (1898) this synod em braces 38 ministers, 63 congregations, 5 mis sions, 35 pastorates, and 9,189 communicants. Value of church property, $350,000 ; contribu tion for all church purposes in the synodical year 1897-98, $60,579.90. G. W. M. Pennsylvania, Ministerium of, is the out growth of the United Congregations (see arti cle) that, in 1733-1734, sent commissioners to Europe to secure a pastor. The result of their mission was the amval in 1742 of Henry Mel chior Muhlenberg, followed by Brunholtz, Handschuh, Nicholas Kurtz, Schaum, etc. The project to organize an association of the Ger man and Swedish pastors, with the elders of their congregations, made by two Luth. mer chants in PhUadelphia, Henry Schleydom and Peter Kock, was defeated in 1744 by the inter ference of Pastor Nyberg, who resisted every such attempt unless the pro-risions would be such as would enable the Moravians to enter. {See Acrelius, p. 246.) In 1748, however, the end they proposed was attained. August 14 (O. S.), St. Michael's Church, Philadelphia, was consecrated, and Rev. John Nicholas Kurtz or dained. The succeeding day, the first sessions of the Ministerium were held. The pastors were : Muhlenberg, the Swedish Provost Sandin, and his colleague, Naesman, Hartwig of New York, Brunholtz, Handschuh and Kurtz. The congregations represented were : the Swed ish Church in Philadelphia, St. Michael's, Phila delphia, Providence (Trappe), New Hanover, Upper Milford, Saccum (Saucon), Tulpehocken, Nordkiel (BernvUle), Lancaster, Earlingstown (New HoUand), and by letter York. The con dition of the congregations and schools was considered, and a full Liturgy adopted ; but no constitution was prepared, until about thirty years later. The deliberations were exclusively those of the pastors, while the lay delegates were present only to furnish the needed in formation concerning local conditions and the fidelity of pastors. After seven conventions, for six years the Ministerium was practically dead, until re-rived in 1760, by Muhlenberg and Wrangel. Nine pastors participated in the re organization. In 1778, when the pastors had increased to 18, the first constitution was adopted. The name then used was "Minis terium of the Ev. Lutheran Church in North America." The Confessional Basis is thus de fined : " Every minister professes that he holds the Word of God, and our Symbolical Books," and the first item for which a minister can be disciplined is ; " Positive errors opposed to the plain teachings of the Holy Scriptures and our Symbolical Books." Ministers are required also to use the liturgy adopted by the Minis terium. " The president is to be respected and honored by all its members as one having the office of oversight, both during the meetings of synod and at oQier times. ' ' Pastors are divided into licentiates (see article), and those ordained. After the lay delegates are heard, they are dis missed, while the pastors remain to transact aU business (see article Ministerium). In 1792, upon the petition of the Corporation of St. Michael's and Zion's, Philadelphia, lay delegates -were admitted to a seat and vote. This neces sitated an entire change of the constitution. While Drs. Kunze and Helmuth were the com mittee to prepare the new constitution, the in fluence of the delegate of St. Michael's and Zion's, Hon. F. A. Muhlenberg, Speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives, and founder of the New York Ministerium, full of the ex perience of aiding in deliberations on State and National Constitutions, must be taken into the account. All confessional tests vanish. This was probably due more to the provision to admit laymen, than to any antagonism to the Confes sions. Geographical and linguistic limitations are now introduced. It is no longer the Minis terium of North America, but of Pennsylvania ; while even this is defined by the word " Ger man.' ' For two generations, this constitution re mained in force. It provides for "three ranks " of pastors : Ordained ministers, licensed can didates and catechists. Congregational con stitutions of that time and later still retain the obligation to all the Confessions, indicating that the pastors endeavored in that way to keep the teaching pure. While the Ministerium was af fected by the prevalent indifferentism, and, in occasional cases, rationalistic positions were held, the aberration was not as general, or as pronounced, as sometimes represented. The struggle for the introduction of English services in congregations began with the new century, and united the Luth. and Reformed pastors and congregations more closely in their opposition to what they regarded a serious innovation. As the emphasis was laid upon language, the importance of the distinctive confessional posi tion gradually vanished. The controversy was combined with influences introduced from the political agitations of the time. Many imagined that by a firm attitude on the part of the de scendants of Germans, that language would dominate in the State of Pennsylvania, and be come the official tongue even of the courts and the legislature. In 1805, the decision was reached that the Ministerium "must remain a German-speaking Ministerium, and that no regulation can be adopted, which would neces sitate the use of another language besides the German in its synodical meetings and busi ness." Meanwhile, the missionary operations of the Synod were extending to the West and South-West. The older congregations in Vir ginia, West Virginia, Ohio, and East Tennes see, vrith a few exceptions, and even some as far south as North Carolina, besides others in Western Pennsylvania and Maryland, are the result of the labors of such travelling preachers as PaiU Henkel, William Forster, John Stough, J. G. Butler, J. M. Steck, etc. William Hgen did similar work in Central Pennsylvania. Synods (II.) 494 Synods (II.) New conferences were formed on missionary tenitory, which soon developed into independ ent synods. With the formation of these synods, came the desire of a bond of union, that would enable them to co-operate. Ac cordingly, in 1819, the Ministerium prepared a plan for a General Synod, in response to which the organization was effected at Hagerstown, Md., Oct. 24, 1820, by delegates from the Penn sylvania, New York, North Carolina and Mary land, and Virginia Synods. But the antagonism towards any synodical authority was so strong in the rural districts, excited in a degree by agitations in the Reformed Church, that upon the petition of certain congregations in Lehigh county, the Ministerium decided in 1823 to withdraw from the organization it had founded. The result was the separation of the congrega tions west of the Susquehanna, as they remained loyal to the Ministerium's original purpose. During the succeeding thirty years, the pre dominant sentiment was one of fidelity to Luth. traditions, with many inconsistencies, due par tially to the enormous parishes comprising some times from 8 to 10, and occasionally even more congregations, in which public worship could only rarely be heard, and the personal contact of the pastor -with his people was slight. This abuse was perpetuated by fhe custom of having Union churches with the Reformed, against which both the Luth. and Reformed synods protested, sometimes administered under one common constitution, as a Luth. -Reformed congregation. Everything, except the pastor, and the communion service, was in common. Against this confusion, however, the life of the Church forced its way. A missionary society in connection with the Ministerium did efficient work in the West. The foundations of churches in West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana and Illinois were laid through its instrumentality. In 1841, it sent Rev. Charles F. Heyer, as mis sionary to India, thus beginning the work of foreign missions for the Luth. Church of Amer ica. In 1850, it became officially connected with the educational institutions of the General Synod at Gettysburg, by the transfer to Penn sylvania College of the Franklin Professorship (fiUed by Prof. F. A. Muhlenberg, 1850-67, and H. E. Jacobs, 1870-83), and seven years later sent Dr. C. F. Schaeffer to the same place as German Professor in both college and seminary (transferred to Philadelphia, 1864) . Meanwhile in 1853, the Ministerium had reunited -with the General Synod, -with the condition that, under certain circumstances its delegates should have the right to withdraw and report to the Minis terium. The Confessional position of the Minis terium at this time is discussed by Dr. C. F. Schaeffer in Evangelical Review (V. 189 sqq. ). Partially as the result of a heated controversy within the General Synod concerning Confes sional obligations, partially in answer to the demand for greater attention to the German than could be given at Gettysburg, but also be cause the plan cherished by Muhlenberg of having a theological seminary at Philadelphia had never been abandoned, the institution now located at Mt. Airy was established in 1864 (see article Philadelphia Seminary), and was followed by Muhlenberg College in 1867. The influence of these institutions has been felt particularly in the breaking up of the large parishes that has been the greatest hindrance to the inner development of the Synod, and in the establishment of many new congregations. In 1864, when the Franckean Synod was admitted into the General Synod, without having pre viously adopted the Augsburg Confession, the delegates of the Ministerium withdrew, to report to the Synod according to the condition of their entrance in 1853. While the Ministe rium approved the action of the delegates, it resolved, in riew of the more definite doctrinal basis the General Synod had adopted, to con tinue its relation and to send delegates to the convention at Fort Wayne, Ind., in 1866. The delegates were refused admission upon the ground that, as the Ministerium had officially approved the action of the delegates in with drawing to report, it had thereby itself vrith- drawn, and could not participate in the pro ceedings until readmitted. Since then, the Ministerium has continued outside of the Gen eral Synod. Upon its invitation, a convention was held at Reading, Pa., in December, 1866, that organized the General Council. (See arti cle General Council.) While devoting itself to the general work of the Church through the General CouncU, it provides for all missionary operations within its own bounds. Having rescued the Rajahmundry mission in India from transfer to the Church of England, and sent out Father Heyer at an advanced age to re organize it, in 1869, the Ministerium finally induced the General Council to assume respon sibility for its support and management. In 1887, a thorough revision of the constitu tion was completed. The president is entrusted with the oversight of all the pastors and con gregations ; but no provision is made to enable him to withdraw from his regular ministerial duties to devote any time to this work. The Synod is divided into ten conferences, one of which is composed of missionaries in India. The conferences are local committees of the Synod, that can discharge only such functions as the Synod refers to them, and, therefore, have no power to ordain, apportion or appro priate funds, or exercise discipline. Presidents of conferences have no direct supervision of the congregations, but act for the president of the Synod, when he so requests. The Home Mis sion work is administered by a board elected by the Synod, and which has a superintendent of missions as its executive officer. Another board elected by Synod for a term of years ad ministers the work of beneficiary education. An executive committee, consisting of the of ficers and nine laymen, have the supervision of all financial matters. The president of the Ministerium and the presidents of Conferences form another board for the general supervision of the pastors and congregations. The tmstees of Muhlenberg College and directors of the Theological Seminary are elected by the Minis terium, although the institutions themselves are separate corporations. In many of the con gregations, the English language is used ex- Synods (II.) 495 Synods (II.) clusively, a number of the older congregations of the eighteenth century having become entirely anglicized, and English congregations or missions established at nearly all important centers. The German conference is composed almost entirely of pastors and congregations that use the German exclusively. They are composed, vrith few exceptions, of those who have immigrated from Germany and the chil dren of such immigrants of the first generation. A few other congregations in the smaller cities of Pennsylvania are of the same class. In the larger number of the country churches, the preaching of both languages is required. Ac cording to the statistics of 1898, there were : ministers, 337 ; congregations, 505 ; pastoral charges, 261 ; communicants, 121,223. Pas toral charges with over 1,000 confirmed mem bers, 23 : with eight congregations, i ; with seven, 2 ; with six, 5 ; with five, 6 ; with four, 22, i. e. 170 congregations of the 505 iu the Ministerium were served by 36 pastors. The Synod supported 46 beneficiaries at an expense of $4,235.70, and 51 missions at an expense of $13,592.50. For history, see Documentary His tory of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania, 1748- 1821, PhUadelphia, 1898. H. E. J. Pittsburg Synod. This already large and rapidly growing Synod of the Luth. Church has recently rounded out the first half century of its existence. It was organized January 15, 1845, in the First Evangelical Luth. Church of Pittsburg, Pa., after which city it took its name. Eight pastors, 26 congregations, and 2,256 com municant members entered into the organiza tion at its beginning. The pastors were : The Revs. Michael J. Steck of Greensburg, with 7 congregations ; Elihu Rathbun of Mercer, with 3 congregations ; Abram Weills of Ginger Hill, with 2 congregations ; G. F. Ehrenfeldt of Clarion, with 2 congregations ; W. A. Passavant of Pittsburg, with one congregation ; G. Bassler of Zelienople, with 5 congregations ; David Earhart of Leechburg, -with 4 congregations ; Samuel D. Wilt of ShippenriUe, with 2 congre gations. During the latter half of the year prerious the preliminary steps looking to the organization had already been taken. A meet ing had been held in the study of the Rev. Gottlieb Bassler, Butler, Pa., on the 27th of August, a. d. 1844, attended by 5 pastors, 4 of whom were among those who, five months later, composed the charter members of the new Synod, the minutes of which meeting declare that they had come together to " hold a friendly consultation concerning the necessity and ex pediency of forming a new Synod in the western section of Pennsylvania. " The territory embraced in this Synod had been claimed both by the Synods of Ohio and the West Pennsylvania, and there was more or less clashing in carrying on the aggressive work of the Church here. Mainly, therefore, m order to secure harmonious co-operation of the ele ments on the ground was the Pittsburg Synod formed Though at first embraced entirely within the western counties of Pennsylvania, during the course of events it came to pass that the Synod added to its original temtory a con ference in eastern Ohio and another m Nova Scotia, so that at present six conferences are included in it, namely, Northern, Eastern, Mid dle, Southern, Western and Nova Scotia. It is not unjust to the other excellent men who entered the Synod at its beginning, or from time to time came into it, to say, that the lead ing spirit in the Synod was the Rev. W. A. Passavant, D.D., who with the Rev. G. Bassler, both of blessed memory, most largely shaped the policy of the Synod's life, from the begin ning and during the greater part of the half century of its existence. The Synod, by reason of its methods and agencies, largely the product of Passavant's fertile brain, is honorably known as the "Missionary Synod." From the very first, as Dr. Jacobs tells us, "it carried on with great success and spirit numerous missions, and extended its missionary activity as far west as the Mississippi Valley. ... It acted upon the principle that wherever there were those uncared for the Synod had a right to enter, when the proper call came. . . .It was especially active in Canada, and even as far south as Texas. .... The great extension of the missionary operations of the Synod required the most' thorough organization of its resources The system of synodical apportionments, now widely used, was first introduced by the Pitts burg Synod.'" It was within this Synod that institutions of mercy had their best beginning in the Luth. Church in this country. ' ' The establisment of the Orphans' Home, first at Pittsburg, after wards removed to Zelienople and Rochester, Pa., an Infirmary at Pittsburg, and the Insti tution of Protestant Deaconesses at the same place, ' ' were the real beginning of such works and institutions of mercy, not only in the Luth. Church, but in the whole American Protestant Church. Dr. Passavant, aided by Revs. Bass ler, Reck and others, was the honored instru ment of God by whom this work of mercy was successfully introduced into this country, par ticularly as it relates to the employment of Dea conesses. This Synod has in successful operation an as sociation for Ministerial Relief, organized almost a decade since, which is doing efficiently the blessed work of affording timely aid to super annuated and disabled pastors and their depend ent families. It has distributed many hundreds of dollars among such needy beneficiaries, and has already accumulated a good beginning of an endo-wment fund. In educational concerns the Synod has akso been active. It has two institutions of learning within its borders. Thiel College, located at Greenville, Pa. , is owned and controlled by the Synod, through a board of Trustees (see Colleges), and Greensburg Seminary, at Greensburg, Pa., a preparatory school, with an average yearly attendance of 300. A faculty of ten instructors is employed. An average of more than 300 students have been in regular at tendance for a number of years past. The entire period of the Synod's life has been made up of " eventful years of earnest conflict, faithful labor, constant blessing, and encour aging progress." The eight ministers, vrith their 26 congregations, and 2,256 members, who Synods (III.) 496 Synods (III.) in reliance upon God to bless their humble un dertaking, participated in the organization of the Synod, have multiplied until there are now 147 ministers, 220 congregations, 25,586 commu nicant members. During the 53 years 350 min isters have been enrolled ; the Synod has aided 118 young men in their preparation for the Gospel ministry, and contributed to the support of 200 mission congregations from her treasury. The Synod has had her reverses and disap pointments, but her blessings have so far outnumbered these that only gratitude should fill the minds and hearts of those who con template with interest her history and present standing. A. L. Y. III. Synodical Conference. Minnesota German Synod. The first Ger man Lutherans settling in Minnesota came about A. D. 1850, Lutheran pastors and synods in the East sending out men to supply their spiritual wants. Among the pioneer pastors and missionaries were Heyer from Pennsyl vania, Wier from the Buffalo Synod, and Blumer. The first church organized was the German Ev. Luth. Trinity Church, of St. Paul. The German ' ' Synod of Minnesota and other States " was organized at West St. Paul, A. D. i860, the charter members being Heyer, Blumer, Brandt, Wier, Mallinson, and Thom son. ' ' Father ' ' Heyer was the spiritual leader. The doctrinal position was that of the General Synod. Additional laborers for the Synod were supplied by the Mission House at Basel, S-wit zerland, the Berlin Mission Society, and the Wisconsin Synod. When the General Council was organized, the Minnesota Sjmod left the General Synod, uniting -with the new general body ; in 1871, Minnesota left the Council, and in the following year joined the Synodical Conference of North America. having gradually, by doctrinal discussions, led by Pastor Sieker, of St. Paul, arrived at the doctrinal and practical position of this general American Luth. body. In 1884, Martin Luther College, at New Ulm, was founded. This institution is now maintained as a normal and high school, by the Joint Synod of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan, a federa tion of synods, formed in 1892. Present statis tics : 65 ministers, 18 parochial teachers, 109 congregations, 20 missions, 65 parochial schools (largely conducted by the pastors), 51 Sunday- schools, 4,400 families, 19,000 communicants ; annual contributions for general missionary, synodical and charitable causes, $8,977.91. (See annual reports of Minnesota Synod. ) C. G. Missouri S-vnod. The German Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other States, was organized in Chicago, on April 26, and the subsequent days, 1847. The congregations represented were 16, and the ministers, 22, of whom 12, the pastors of the said 16 congre gations, were, like the lay delegates, of the congregations represented, entitled to vote, while the remaining 10 pastors and 2 candi dates of the ministry were admitted as advis ory members, a distinction which the Synod has retained to this day, the Synod proper being looked upon as essentially a union of congre gations, represented at its meetings by a cleri cal and a lay delegate each. The movement, which resulted in this or ganization, originated as early as 1844, among members of the Ohio Synod, Dr. Sihler and others, who saw themselves in conscience bound to leave a body which they had vainly endeavored to put on a sound Lutheran basis. These men, with F. Wyneken, who was in a simUar position in the General Synod, and several members of the Michigan Synod of that day, met at Cleveland in 1845, to agree on a plan for the organization of a new synod, the Saxon ministers at St. Louis and in Perry Co., Missouri, Walther, Biinger, and others, vrith whom conespondence had been carried on, and to whom invitations had been extended to join in the work, having expressed their sympathy with the movement. In 1846, three of the par ticipants of the Cleveland meeting had a con ference with the Saxons in St. Louis. The draft of a Constitution, which had been sub mitted at Cleveland, was laid aside, and an other, prepared by Walther, was, after dis cussion with the local congregation in nine meetings, signed by the members of the con ference. In July of the same year this draft was approved by a conference of 16 members at Ft. Wayne, and on this basis the formal or ganization of the new Synod was, in 1847, com pleted. According to this constitution, which is in force to-day, the acceptance of all the Symbols of the Lutheran Church, without ex ception or reserve, absence of every kind of Syncretism, from mixed congregations and mixed worship and communions, the use of purely Lutheran books in churches and schools, and a permanently called ministry, were made conditions of membership in this body. The chief purposes of the Synod were to be the propagation of the Kingdom of God, the main tenance and furtherance of unity in the pure doctrine, and a united defence against separat istic and sectarian abuses. At the same time, the Constitution gave the Synod no authority over the congregations connected vrith it, the Synod being no judicatory, but merely an ad visory body, in its relation to the churches. The Lutheraner, published by Walther since 1844, was made the official organ, and Walther, who was then pastor at St. Louis, was made the first president of the Synod. In the same year the Practical Seminary, established at Ft. Wayne, by Lohe, in 1846, was made over to the young Synod, and in 1849 the college and seminary of the Saxon congregations was re moved from Perry County to St. Louis, and transfened to the Synod, Walther being elected Professor of Theology. The rapid growth of the Synod and the vast territory through which it extended soon sug gested a dirision of the general body into dis tricts, and plans to that effect were discussed since 1849. In 1852 the dirision was agreed upon, and in 1853 the approval of the congre gations was reported by aU the delegates. It now remained to submit to the congregations the changes in the constitution which the measure demanded, and in 1854 these changes Synods (III.) 497 Synods (III.) tad also been ratified by the congregations, so that in 1855 the four district synods, the West ern, the Middle, the Eastern and the Northern districts, held their first meetings. The Joint Synod subsequently met once in three years in a convention in which all the standing members were in attendance and the congregations were represented by a ministerial and a lay delegate each, until, in 1872, it had become necessary to reduce the number of delegates to two for every two to seven congregations and a representative for each group of seven ad-risory members. In the course of years the number of districts was, by the subdirision of old and the addition of new districts, extended to thirteen. The larger part of the time of each meeting of the District Synods has always been devoted to doctrinal discussions, a record of which is published in the minutes and thus disseminated throughout the congregations of the entire Synod. A considerable portion .of Missourian doc trinal literature is polemical, and throughout the greater part of the past history of the Synod a series of controversies can be traced back to a period of years before the organization of the Synod. In 1840 Grabau, the leader of the Luth. immigrants from Pmssia who had settled in New York and Wisconsin, published a pastoral letter, a copy of which he submitted to the Saxon ministers in Missouri, requesting their opinion, which was, accordingly, in most gentle terms, rendered in 1843, much to the displeas ure of Grabau, who, in the pastoral letter and his reply to the Saxon criticism, maintained a number of points pertaining to the doctrine of the Church and the ministerial office whioh the " Missourians," as Grabau first publicly named them, found at variance with Scripture and the Luth. Symbols. This controversy extended through many years, and after various ruptures within the Bimalo Synod, representatives of the latter and of the Missouri Synod met in a col loquy at Buffalo in 1866, vrith the result that not long afterwards eleven ministers, formerly of the Buffalo Synod, were received as members of the Missouri Synod. Another controversy was occasioned by cer tain publications of Wilhelm Lohe, also on the doctrine of the ministry. Earnest efforts of the Missourians to prevent a rupture between them selves and a man who had endeared himself to them in many ways, even the sending of Wal ther and Wyneken as a delegation of the Synod to Lohe, failed of the desired success, and when, in the early fifties, the Iowa Synod was planted under the guidance and fostering care of Lohe, it was in opposition to the Missouri Synod, and the two Synods were on different sides of various questions also after a colloquy between representatives of both Sjmods held at Milwaukee, Wis., in 1867, where certain points conceming the doctrine of the Church and the ministry, ChUasm, Antichrist, and the symbols of the Luth. Church, were discussed, but no satisfactory result was reached. A third controversy had been predicted by Walther as early as 1S72 and on various occa sions, and sprung up when Prof. F. A. Schmidt, of the Norweigan Synod, publicly attacked what had been published in the reports of the 32 Western District of the Missouri Synod of 1877 and 1879 on the doctrines of predestination and conversion. Here, too, a colloquy held at Mil waukee by the theological faculties and the presidents of synods and district synods of the Synodical Conference, in 1881, proved of no avail, and the controversy led to a mpture in the Synodical Conference, while at the same time it drew the members of the Missouri Synod, which nearly doubled the number of its ministers in the decade of 1878 to 1888, all the more firmly together. In 1887 Dr. Walther was called away from the Church MUitant, and since then nearly all the fathers of the Synod have also departed this life. The Synod, however, still stands united in a continued inward and outward gro^wth. Its higher institutions of learning are the seminaries at St. Louis and Springfield, the colleges at Ft. Wayne and Milwaukee, at St. Paul, Minn., Concordia, Mo., and Neperan, N. Y., and the schools for the training of teachers at Addison, IU., and Seward, Neb. The Synod carries on home missions in German and English, emi grant mission at New York and Baltimore, the mission among the Jews in New York and among the deaf-mutes in various states, foreign missions in India and, together with the remain ing synods of the Synodical Conference, mis sionary work among the colored freedmen ia various states of the Union. The various peri odicals published by the Synod are : Der Lu-^ theraner, Lehre und Wehre, a theological quar terly, a Homiletic Magarine, an Educational- Monthly, a Monthly for Young People in Ger man, and the Concordia Magazine in English.. The Synod publishes its own hymn-books,, school-books. Bibles, prayer-books, almanacs,, etc. , all of which, together with the periodicals; and a voluminous theological literature in books and pamphlets, are issued by the Synod's pub lishing house in St. Louis. Nineteen benevo lent institutions are supported by the congre gations in various parts of the Synod. A. L. G. English Luth. Conference of Missouri. In August, 1872, a free conference was held in Gravelton, Wayne Co., Mo., between members of the Tennessee, Holston, Mis,souri and Norwe gian Synods, which resulted in the organization of a conference composed of three pastors, P. C. Henkel, J. R. Moser, and A. Rader. This conference enjoyed a slow but steady growth, so that in the year 1886 it numbered eight pastors, seven congregations, 240 communi cants, three parochial schools, with 141 scholars. In the year 1888 this conference was merged into the English Ev. Luth. Synod of Missouri and Other States. This Synod was organized October 22, 1888. The first movement for the organization of an English Synod, on the basis of " Missouri," was an appeal of the Ev. Luth. Cayner's congrega tion of Augusta Co., Va., and its pastor, to the Synodical Conference in the year 1884, but only after repeated efforts was this move rendered successful. The organization was effected at St. Louis, in Bethlehem German Ev. Luth. Church, twelve pastors uniting together and adopting the name : " The General English Ev. Luth. Conference of Missouri and other States." Synods (III.) 498 Synods (IT.) The majority of these pastors were located in Virginia, Missouri, and- Arkansas. At the second convention the name was changed and the Synod is now called ' ' The English Ev. Luth. Synod of Missouri and other States." As the name adopted shows, this synod is a daughter of the German Missouri Synod. Its ministers are educated at Concordia Seminary in St. Louis, and it occupies the same ground in doctrine and practice as does the German Missouri Synod. The congregations which originally formed this Synod were almost ex clusively formed of people who had come from the old Tennessee and Holston Synods, but very soon a lively interest in English Mission work sprang up in many German Missouri churches and it quickly spread in the Eastern and Northern states. Hence it is that this Synod is now represented in a number of our large cities. Not quite ten years old, it has 43 pastors, 3,377 communicants, ten parochial schools, with 231 scholars, 28 Sunday-schools, with 2,611 scholars. It has two colleges, Con cordia College at Conover, N. C, and St. John's College at Winfield, Kan. The latter institu tion was founded and donated by Mr. J. P. Baden, who is yet its chief supporter. F. K. The Joint Synod op Wisconsin, Minne sota, Michigan and other states was founded in 1892. In the northern part of the Central States there were three synods, the Synod of Wisconsin, of Minnesota, and of Michigan. In these three synods three theological semi naries existed, and one college, but no normal school for the education of teachers. F'or the two larger synods it was a heavy burden to maintain their institutions properly, and the seminary in Saginaw was a small affair, haring but one professor who devoted all his time to the school. So it seemed desirable that the three synods should unite their work to achieve better results. After some preliminary dis cussions among the leading men a plan of union was laid before the several synods and was adopted unanimously by all of them in the summer of 1892. In the autumn of the same year, from October 11 to October 13, a joint meeting of the three synods was held in St. John's Church, Milwaukee, andthe Joint Synod was organized. The college in New Ulm was transformed into a normal school for the education of Luth. teachers. The seminary in Saginaw was to become a preparatory school for the college in Watertown, and this as well as the theological seminary in Milwaukee were to be continued for the three synods. But after the new state of affairs was set into operation, it appeared that the professors of the Saginaw school were not satisfied. They wanted to prepare their students for the ministry them selves, as they had done before the union, and worked for that plan in their synod. This was opposed by twelve of the oldest and strongest congregations and their ministers. They wished a thorough education for their future ministers, and not only in German, but also, as the wants of the church require, in the English language, and proved that the course of the Saginaw Seminary and its force of teachers was entirely inadequate. There were also differences as to Luth. doctrine and practice. The officers tried in vain to settle the difficulties, and so a separa tion took place, the majority of the ministers, some twenty-four, leaving the Joint Synod, but the minority, twelve ministers and twelve con gregations, remaining. Since that time the Joint Synod has had a peaceful and healthy development. It has now a theological seminary in Milwaukee, vrith four regular professors, one of them teaching in English, a college, the Northwestern Uni versity in Watertown, with nine professors, and a normal school in New Ulm, -with six pro fessors. It also has a home for the aged and for orphans in Belle Plaine, Minn., established 1897. In 1898 the Joint Synod comprised : Three district synods, 281 ministers, 467 congrega tions, 121,000 communicant members. The organ of the synod is the Gemeindeblatt, pub lished fortnightly, . in German, having 8,500 subscribers. The Synod also publishes the Schulzeitung, a monthly, and the Jugendfreude, a paper for the children. The Northwestern Publishing House has been established by the Wisconsin Synod, but the profits of that flourishing establishment go to the support of the institutions of the Joint Synod. A. F. E. IV. United Synod of the South. North Carolina Synod, The, was organized in 1803, at Salisbury, N. C. Lutherans from Pennsylvania had settled in the central counties of the state about 1750. They were for a long time supplied with pastors from Germany by the Helmstedt Missionary Society. The North Carolina Synod in its early history embraced also the ministers and churches in South Caro lina and afterwards those in Tennessee and Southwestern Virginia. Owing to emigrations from North Carolina to Westem States this synod was called upon to do missionary work in Virginia, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois in the first three decades of this century. The North Carolina Synod helped to form the General Synod in 1820. This action became the occasion for an internal rupture and the formation of the Tennessee Synod in 1820. The body was still further weakened by the forma tion of the South Carolina Synod in 1824 and afterwards of the South West Virginia Synod in 1841. The General Synod South was organized on its territory at Concord, N. C, in 1863, and the United Synod was projected at the diet at Salisbury, N. C, in 1884. The North Carolina Synod maintains North Carolina College, founded in 1858, at Mt. Pleasant, N. C, and Mount Amoena Female Seminary at the same place. The minutes of 1898 report 24 pastors, 53 congregations and 6,392 communi cants. A. G. V. South Carolina, The Evangelical Luth. Synod of, was organized 1824. Six pastors and five laymen represented thirteen congregations at the organization. These congregations were small and mostly located in sparsely settled rural districts. But their spirit of loyalty to the faith of the fathers is worthy of admiration. Synods (IV.) 499 Synods (IV.) Organization effected, the Synod began to devise plans for the establishment and main tenance of a classical and theological school in which to educate her own pastors. This was deemed essential to her perpetuity and efficiency as a synod. The school was located at Lex ington, S. C, and for thirty years conducted with success. Schwartz, Hazelius and Eichel berger are honored names connected vrith the theological department of this school. From this department arose the Theological Semi nary of the United Synod in the South. In 1867 it was transferred by the S. C. Synod to the General Synod South, and afterwards passed over to the United Synod, when this new body was formed (i886). This school of the prophets is now located at Mount Pleasant, Charleston Co., S. C. The South Carolina Synod still maintains an abiding interest in the seminary as her own offspring and leads the other district synods in its support. From the classical department of the Lexing ton school grew Newberry CoUege, located at Newberry, S. C, 1856. With its endowment, and plant, worth $65,000, it is the pride of the South Carolina Synod. It stands for Christian education and lives in the hearts of an appre ciative people. The names of Drs. Smeltzer and Holland vrill live in its history. The honored name of Dr. John Bachman, for 60 years pastor of one congregation in South Carolina, is closely identified with the origin of this Synod and her institutions. During the seventy-four years of her history, there has been a slow but solid growth in this Synod. She ranks third amongst the district synods of the United Synod in numerical strength and date of organization. She has 40 pastors, 75 congregations and 10,000 commu nicants. There is a growing appreciation of the historical and doctrinal position of the Luth. Church on the part of the Luth. Synod of South Carolina. M. M. K. Georgia and Adjacent States, The Evan gelical Luth. S-stnod of, was organized July 20, i860. At the convention called for that pur pose, there were four ministers and four lay dele gates. They organized by the adoption of the constitution of the Synod of South Carolina, as far as adapted to their needs, and the Discipline and Liturgy of the same body for use in their churches. Rev. L. Bedenbaugh was chosen pres ident ; Rev. S. W. Bedenbaugh, secretary ; and Mr. Daniel Klickly, treasurer. The first an nual report shows five ordained ministers, eight congregations, and 312 confirmed members, in cluding 54 negroes. At this time the churches in Effingham County and in Savannah were not in connection with the Synod, but subsequently joined it. The Synod took part in the organ ization of what was then known as the General Synod of the Confederate States and remained in this connection until the organization of the United Synod of the South. After the organ ization of that body it united vrith it and adopt ed its doctrinal basis. Since, it has remained a hearty supporter of aU its enterprises. Its field embraces the States of Georgia and Florida. The pastoral charges are widely scat tered, and much of its territory is mission ground. Half of the pastors are compelled to engage in secular pursuits for a support. The last report shows fourteen ordained min isters, 19 congregations, 2,156 confirmed mem bers, 1,563 children in the Sunday-schools. Total expenditures for all purposes, $17,553, and church property to the value of $130,- 650. H. S. W. Holston Synod. The ministers of the Evangelical Luth. Church, who resided in East Tennessee and adjacent counties of Virginia, and who were formerly connected with the Evangelical Luth. Tennessee Synod, vrith lay delegates from their respective congregations, convened in Zion's Church, Sullivan County, Tennessee, Dec. 29th, i860, and organized the Holston Synod. The causes that led to the organization of this Synod were : (i) The geographic location of its territory — ^being separated from the territory of the greater part of the Tennessee Synod by the Allegheny mountains. (2) The great dis tance to be travelled to attend many of the an nual meetings of the Tennessee Synod. (3) The belief that the resources of the Luth. Church in this section of the country could be better developed in a separate organization. This Synod, isolated as it is from the great Luth. centres of the country, is Lutheran in doctrine and practice and has accomplished a good work. Its name ( Holston ) was taken from the name of a river, the waters of which flow through its territory. The average number of Ministers ... .o " " " Congregations . 20 " " " Communicants . 1200 " " " Baptized members 2500 The Synod has been doing what it could, with the Divine blessing, to elevate the standard of qualification in the ministry, and piety among its members ; and to promote the cause of edu cation in its churches, and a spirit of enlarged Christian liberality for the support of ministers of the Gospel and Home and Foreign Mission ary work. J. C. B. Mississippi Synod, The, began as a mission of the South Carolina Synod. Emigrants from North and South Carolina had located there. In 1846 the Synod of South Carolina sent Rev. G. H. Brown as a missionary to these scattered Lutherans. Other pastors foUowed. In 1855, a small synod was organized, which, ovring to the isolated condition of the Luth. churches in Mississippi, has remained small. The minutes of 1898 report 7 pastors, 11 churches, and 625 members. A. G. V. Tennessee Synod, The. The Evangelical Lutheran Tennessee Synod was organized in Solomon's Church, Cove Creek, Green County, Tennessee, July 17, 1820. It was composed orig inally of congregations in East Tennessee, in the Valley of Virginia, and in Western North Carolina. In 1852 a number of congregations in Lexington County, South Carolina, were re ceived into its connection. The congregations in Tennessee at a later date withdrew and formed the Holston Synod. The principal cause which led to its organiza- Synods (IV.) 500 Synods (V.) tion was the laxity in doctrine and practice at that time in the older synods. The Tennessee Synod in its very organization adopted, and has steadily adhered to, a sound confessional basis. It sincerely accepts the Augsburg Confession, and all the other Symbolical Books of the Luth. Church, without any mental reservation, and conforms its teachings and practices to these Confessions. The Synod has now (1899) in its connection 123 congregations : 71 in N. C, 34 in Va., 15 in S. C, and 3 in Ala. The ministerial roll con tains the names of 40 ordained ministers ; 20 students of Theology in its connection are at tending her institution, Lenoir College, Hick ory, N. C. ; Philadelphia, and Chicago. The Synod is actively engaged in mission work, by its several conferences, and in bene ficiary education. The first English edition of the Book of Concord ever published came from the press of S. D. Henkel & Bros., New Market, Va., 1851, in connection with the Tenn. Synod. R. A. Y. Virginia S"^nod. The congregations of the Virginia Synod are located in Virginia and West Virginia. The strength of the Synod is in the famous Shenandoah Valley, settled by Ger man immigrants from Pennsylvania, in the early part of the eighteenth century. The Hebron Church, in Madison County, was founded in 1735. Thechurchesin the valley had as their first settled pastor, Rev. Christian Streit, who came to Win chester in 1785. The first church conventions were a series of conferences, held at intervals from 1793 to 1817. The early pastors were con nected with the Pennsylvania Ministerium. In 1820, the Synod of Maryland and Virginia was organized at Winchester, Va. , composed of six ministers, serving churches located in Maryland, and five serving churches in Virginia. In 1829, the Virginia Synod was organized at Woodstock, Va. , eight ministers and two lay delegates com posing the first convention. At the organiza tion the Synod resolved : ' ' That the basis of the Constitution of this body be the Holy Scriptures, the Divinity of Christ, as taught therein, and the Unaltered Augsburg Confession." The Synod is conservative in its doctrinal position, and is an active, aggressive body. Losing half of its territory by the organization of the South west Va. Synod, and quite a number of congre gations in West Virginia to the Maryland Synod, it now has (1899) 69 congregations, and 6,157 members. Within its bounds, in past years, many men labored who became leaders in the Church, as S. S. Schmucker, J. G. Morris, C. P. Krauth, J. A. Seiss, B. M. Schmucker, and others. L. L. S. Virginia, South West, The Luth. S-^tnod. Is bounded by the State lines of North Caro lina, Tennessee, and West Virginia, and by the James River on the east. It consists of 30 ministers, 79 congregations and stations, 4,416 communicants, 3,571 pupils in Sunday-school, and an orphanage of 27 children ; with Roanoke College, Salem, in its fifty-third year, 190 stu dents ; a Female College, Marion, in its twenty- fifth year, 80 pupils, and various academies. Emigrants from Pennsylvania, 100 years since, brought the church with them. The first congregation was organized in Mont gomery County, Oct. 16, 1796. Early pastoral attention was given by Rev. W. F. A. Daser, Paul Henkel, J. G. Butler, Leonard Willy (?), G. D. Flohr, J. C. A. Schoenberg, — Kyle, and — Bergman, of the Pennsylvania Synod, or traveling missionaries. After 18 10, ministers from the N. C. Synod (organized in 1803) came in, and in 1813, 15 organized congregations united with that Synod. On Sept. 20, 1841, this Synod was organized in St. John's, Wythe Co., by Revs. Jacob Scherer, Samuel Sayford, Elijah Hawkins, J. J. Greever, Gideon Scherer, and Stephen Rhudy. Till 1825, the services were mostly in German. Previous to the Civil War, its doctrinal basis was that of the General Synod, North ; in 1881 it was changed to that of the General Synod, South, now the United Synod of the South. J. B. G. V. Independent S-vtstods. Buffalo Synod, The, takes its name from the city of Buffalo, N. Y. , where its college is located, its paper published, and its oldest con gregation exists. Its former official title was, "The Synod of the Lutheran Church, emi grated from Pmssia," this title being under stood to mean : ' ' The Luth. congregations emi grated," etc. It was formally dropped at the session of 1886, and the present one substituted. The Buffalo Synod is the affiliation of a number of Lutheran congregations from differ ent parts of Germany, which emigrated to this country in 1839, under the leadership of Rev. J. A. A. Grabau, Captain H. v. Rohr, and others, to escape the persecution by the Pmssian Government for refusing to adopt the official Agenda, and thereby becoming members of the Union State Church. On arrival in this country the bulk of the emigrants settled in and around Buffalo, N. Y., others went to Wisconsin. Rev. J. A. A. Grabau, in 1840, addressed a pastoral letter to the con gregations, warning them of men who thrust themselves upon them as pastors without hav ing received a proper call from the Church ac cording to the XlVth Article of the A. C. This letter was never intended to be an official docu ment, nor has it ever been recognized as such by the Synod, which was not organized till 1845. Yet this was the starting-point of the long-con tinued strife and discussion between this and the Missouri Synod, centring around the doctrines of ordination, the church, the ministry, etc. A brief summary of the pastoral letter is : I. The grace of God has brought us into this good land as a part of the trae Church, and we are to beware lest we abuse our religious freedom. Article 14 of the A. C, especially, is misunder stood and misinterpreted by many in America. The requirements for a proper call are : I. That a man not only be able to adminis trate the Sacraments properly, but that he have a thorough knowledge of the Holy Sacraments, by whom and what for they are given, also why they are celebrated as they are ; that he know how to prove those that come to the Lord's table ; that he know how and when to ab solve, etc. Synods (V.) 501 Synods (V.) 2. The gifts of the Holy Spirit, enabling a man to use his knowledge rightly in admonish ing, warning, etc. 3. That a man be examined, or proved, by tried and worthy servants of the Church. 4. That he be publicly ordained, and 5. Installed in the congregation to which he has been called. II. The necessity of a proper caU is apparent : I. From the words of the Apostles, who con stantly refer to their divine call in their letters. 2. From the example of our Lord, who pro claimed his sending by the Father (and based his authority on this fact). See Matt. 3 : 17 ; Hebr. 5 : 5. 3. The Church must have a testimony con ceming the men who are to work among her members. III. We are certain that any man set up by a congregation {willkHrlich aufgeworfen) is un able to pronounce absolution, or to distribute the body and blood of Christ, but contrariwise, nothing but bread and vrine ; for Christ recog nizes only his divine, unalterable order, and not our pleasure and disorder. In 1845 the congregations united themselves into a synod at Milwaukee, Wis., under the spiritual leadership of Rev. Grabau, who was elected "Senior Ministerii," which title has been dropped on the adoption of the new con stitution, m 1886. The Synod now has a presi dent like others. Immediately upon organiza tion it was decided to establish a theological school for the training of pastors and teachers ; in 1854 the present buUding was erected. For many years the founder of the Synod did most of the work of educating young men for the ministry, and the school has, vrith two short interruptions, been engaged in the Lord's work ever since. The growth of the Synod had been slow but sure, and entered upon a period of prosperity, when, in 1866, a rupture took place, diriding it into three factions, one of which im mediately joined the Missouri Synod, the other continued to lead a bare existence, until it finally dissolved, in 1877; thethird.which alone adhered to the doctrinal standpoint, and thus rirtuaUy had alone a right to call itself the Buffalo Synod, was reduced to a few members, but soon began to grow again. At the death of the senior min., in 1879, it had nearly reached its former numlaer of pastors and congregations again. The same year the di-rision occuned, the Synod founded an official organ. Die Wachende Kirche, to defend its position and doctrines, as well as to guide and instruct its members. In 1895 the Synod celebrated its 50th anniver sary in Milwaukee. The doctrinal position of the Synod is known to be an uncompromising one, and in this re spect it is only rivalled by its great antagonist, the Missouri Synod. Its pastors are bound to aU the Symbolical Books of our Church ; Art. XI. of the A. C. is taken and applied literally, there being no congregation which has not "privatam absolutionem ; " it is only since 1891 that the Synod has permitted general, alongside of private, confession. Ordination is held to be an essential part of the " rite vocatus _' ' of Article XIV. of the A. C. ; the Church is held to be -visible and invisible, etc. The prac tice of the Synod is very strict. Every congre gation has a parochial teacher, if possible ; if not, the pastor is required to teach the children. (Sunday-schools have been begun recently in addition to week-day schools.) Membership in secret societies is utterly forbidden, and renders any person ineligible to church-mem- ship. Grave trespasses, in extreme cases, neces sitate a public confession on the part of the sinner, before he is received into full member ship again. The Synod has a rich and beautiful Liturgy, based, as are all its ministerial acts and forms, on the Sdchsisch-Coburg and Pommersche Kirch enordnungen, the leading features of which have been embodied in a very (complete) full " Agende," adapted to our American conditions where necessary. The pastors sing the Liturgy, and the congregations respond singing. Church festivals are universally observed. All churches are furnished vrith high altars, candles, and crucifixes. The Synod publishes its own hymn- book (one of the best in America), its Agenda, and its official paper. It is dirided into an Eastern and Western conference, each meeting twice a year, while the general body meets once in three years. According to latest official re port — that of 1895 — the statistics read thus : Congregations, 34 ; pastors, 23 ; teachers, 7 ; members, 7,000 ; number of children in paro chial schools, 960. Lately a number of missions have been started, of which several have be come self-supporting ; they are not included in the above statistics. Bibliography: The triennial reports since 1845; Life of J. A. A. Grabau, by J. A. Grabau ; the Wachende Kirche, etc. H. R. G. Danish Synods. See Danish, etc. Finnish Suomi Synod. See Finnish, etc. Icelandic Synod. See Icelandic Synod. Immanuel Synod in America. In 1875 not less than three new synods were formed by German pastors and their churches, to wit : The Augsburg Synod, consisting originaUy and largely of Gemian pastors of the General Synod in the East, and the Wartburg Synod, consist ing of similar elements in the West. A num ber of independent German ministers joined them. The Immanuel Synod was the third synod organized. It also laid claim to the name Lutheran. Whilst at all times some men found their way into this Synod whose life and teachings were above reproach, still the bulk of this organization was made up of men who had been found undesirable by the various synods from which they came. For some years the name of this Synod no longer appears in the list of Luth. bodies. Care must be taken not to mistake it for the Im. Synod in Ger many. J. N. Iowa S-kstod. About 1840 the Luth. Church of Germany began to take an active interest in the missionary work among the many Germans who had emigrated to America. It was espe cially W. Loehe, of Neuendettelsau, Bavaria, who took up this work with zealous energy. Through his efforts a society was formed and an institute established, in which he com menced to prepare young men for missionary Synods (V.) 503 Synods (V.) work in America. With his active assistance the Missouri Synod was founded, whose rapid growth in the early years of its existence was in no small degree due to Loehe's labors. How ever, it did not last long before some doctrinal differences arose (the Church and the ministry). Missouri made an adoption of their view of the articles in question, the condition sine qua non of further fellowship and co-operation. As Loehe could not adopt Missouri's views, and the latter would not tolerate any opinion differ ing from its own, he was compelled to begin an independent missionary work. Accordingly the Revs. G. M. Grossmann and J. Deindoerfer, who had been sent by Loehe shortly before vrith Dr. S. Fritschel, then a candidate of theology, and one lay member, organized at St. Sebald, la., the Evangelical Luth. Syno'd of Iowa and other States, on the 24th of August, 1854. The new church-body, small though it was, grew rapidly. It now covers a territory of fifteen states, and numbers over 400 ministers, 45 teachers of parochial schools, 757 congregations and preaching stations, and 68,531 communicant members. It is divided into seven districts, each of which holds annual meetings and con ducts its own affairs. The whole Synod as sembles every third year as a delegate body, the ratio of representation being one ministeriai delegate to every five ministers, and one lay delegate to every five congregations. The power of the Synod in regard to congregational affairs is of an advisory character. It claims no other governmental power than has been conferred upon it by the individual congrega tions. The president of Synod is assisted in the discharge of his official duties by a stand ing committee, which represents the Synod during the time intervening between its con ventions, and which is responsible for its actions to the general body. The Synod pub lishes an official organ, the Kirchenblatt, which is issued every two weeks, and the Kirch liche Zeitschrift, a. theological magazine pub lished every two months. Besides, there are published -with its recommendation, the Blaet ter aus den Waisenhaeusem, which is intended as a paper for the youth. In addition sev eral papers are published either by districts or individual congregations. The Synod has its own publishing house, the ' ' Wartburg Pub. House," at Chicago, 111., and Waverly, la., which publishes the necessary church and school books by order of the Synod. It main tains three orphan asylums and a home for the aged. Prorision has also been made for the aid of aged and disabled ministers, and for the widows of ministers. From its very beginning the Synod has paid much attention to the work of education. Many of its ministers received their theological education in the Missionary Institute at Neuendettelsau, in Germany, but the majority have been trained in its own Wartburg Theo logical Seminary, which was founded in 1854, at Dubuque, la., then located at St. Sebald in 1857, thence removed to Mendota, 111., in 1874, and again removed to Dubuque, in 1889, where it now has fine and commodious quar ters. At the head of the school have been Drs. S. and G. Fritschel (d. 1889). From the Semi nary Wartburg College arose in 1868 and located first at Galena, 111., then at Mendota, then at Waverly, la. In 1894 a fixed home and suitable buildings have been provided for it at Clinton, la. In addition to these two institutions, the Synod has a Teachers' Seminary, or normal school, at Waverly, la., with which an academy is connected. The Texas Synod, which became a district of the Iowa Synod, in 1893, owns and supports its own school, Brenham College, at Brenham, Tex. The Synod urges the necessity of parochial schools, and recommends their es tablishment wherever it is possible. Where a congregation finds it impossible to support a teacher for its parochial school, the minister is expected to take upon himself the work of the teacher, in addition to his clerical duties. The Iowa Synod is extensively engaged in home and foreign missionary work. In its early years it had its own mission among the Indians, in what is now the State of Idaho. But when the Indians went upon the war path, and one of the missionaries was killed, this work came to an end, and was not taken up again for lack of means. But the home missionary work is carried on with great energy. Missionaries are scattered over almost all states in which the Synod is represented, from Ohio to Washington on the Pacific coast, and from N. Dakota to Texas. In regard to foreign mis sionary work, the Synod contributes to and as sists the missions of the General Council, Neuendettelsau, Hermannsburg, Leipzig, etc. In many of its congregations, annual mission ary festivals are held in order to awaken and strengthen the missionary spirit. Since 1894 the Synod is also engaged in missionary work among the Jews of Chicago. The results of this work have so far been very encouraging. Quite a number of Jews have already been bap tized and become" members of Christian churches. The Synod endeavors to foster in its congre gations the spirit of an earnest Christianity, not a dead orthodoxy, but an active Christian life, which shows forth the fruits of faith in good works. It requires evidence of a Christian life and character for admission to its congre gations ; as far as possible it tries to check the worldly spirit of its members ; it endeavors to keep members of anti- Christian secret societies out of its congregations ; in short, it tries to en force a strict church disdpline. For this pur pose it has introduced a system of visitations, every congregation, as a rule, being risited once in two or three years, and, though the visitor has no governmental powers whatever, the sys tem has proved to be a great help in the en forcing of discipline. In regard to the order of the service and ministerial acts, the Synod rec ommends the introduction of the liturgical forms and usages of the old Lutheran Church. It uses for the purpose the Agenda of Loehe, which presents them in a very churchly form. But it is well aware that they are not always adapted to the circumstances of the congrega tions, and it does not claim the governmental power to introduce them where there is an op position to them. It concedes this point to the Synods (V.) 503 Synods (V.) liberty of the indiridual congregation, and can easily bear a diversity in the order and form of the service. The doctrinal position of the Iowa Synod has been stated from the beginning in distinct and unequivocal terms. It stands for a strictly con fessional and, at the same time, oecumenical Lutheranism, and, therefore, accepts unre servedly all the Lutheran Symbols, as they have been laid down in the Book of Concord of 1580. It rejects every latitudinarian view of the symbols, wliich would not accept them in their entirety and in the full sense in which they have been understood and confessed by the Church. It declares as symbolically bind ing, every statement of the symbols that is in tended as a confession of faili. On the other hand, it has avoided the other extreme of sectarian narrowness and exaggeration, and contends that incidentally there occur state ments in the symbols by way of historical, exegetical, etc. , deductions, illustrations and de monstrations, which have never been taken by the Church as a confession of faith, and, there fore, do not partake of the binding character of the confessions, and must not be included in the demand for doctrinal conformity. This confessional prindple has been carried out by the Iowa Synod in the several theological con troversies in which it has been involved, especi ally with the Missouri Synod, e. g. the ques tions concerning the Church and the Ministry, the Antichrist, the Millennium, the conversion of Israel, the first and second resunection. In all these questions, the Synod has been guided by Art. VII. of the Augsburg Confession, that it is enough for the unity of the Church to agree concerning the doctrine of the Gospel and the administration of the Sacraments. It accepts unreservedly the declarations of the Symbols, as far as they go, but when it comes to theological opinions and conclusions drawn from them, in regard to which there has al ways been a difference among the theologians of the Church, it maintains that such difference of opinion does not destroy the unity of faith. Consequently, the Iowa Synod admits the ex istence of so-called "open questions." (See art. ) The Iowa Synod defines its position in this regard as a striring for progress and a more perfect development of the Church, which wUl lead to a perfect agreement on all points, on the basis of the symbols under guidance of the Di-rine Word. Applying this principle, the Iowa Synod wel comes to church-fellowship all who, like it, accept the Symbols of the Church and agree vrith it concerning the doctrine of the Gospel and the administration of the Sacraments, though differing from it in unessential points. On the other hand it is strictly opposed to any union or fellowship on any other basis. Its bond of fellowship is an agreement on the Confessions. As it does not allow in its midst any doctrine or administration of the Sacraments, any church or school-books or regulations, deviating in any way from the Symbols, so it denies fellowship to aU who are not one with it in faith and confession, especially it denies its altars and pulpits to every one not of the same faith.— The applica tion of this principle is manifested, also, in the attitude which the Iowa Synod has assumed to wards the General Council. It hailed with joy the effort to unite the different parts of the Luth. Church in this country in the organiza tion of the General Council. At the same time it declared that it could join the Council only under the condition, that the Confessions be made the Church-uniting and Church-diriding basis, and that this principle required the re pudiation of the widely-entertained practice of mixed communion and exchange of pulpits with such as belonged to another faith. This condition the General CouncU was at the time of its organization not prepared to meet, and the Iowa Synod has, therefore, defened entering into organic connection -with it, untU in these points what it regards Luth. principles should have prevailed. Meanwhile the Iowa Synod has always entertained a friendly inter course with the Council, has sent delegates to its conventions, has taken part in its debates and discussions, in its missionary and other works, has aided in the preparation of church-books, etc. When in 1875 the General Council adopted the so-called Galesburg Rule (see GALESBURG Rule) the lowa Synod declared that by the adop tion of this rule the confessional principle, on which it had insisted as indispensable, had been recognized, and that, therefore, it was no longer prevented by confessional scruples from organi cally uniting with it. However, as since then weighty voices have been heard within the General Council, denying that that rule implied what the Iowa Synod saw in it, and as the Council has never officially declared, that it means the adoption of the rule in the sense spoken of, the Iowa Synod has not yet become a part of the Council, but maintains the same attitude as before, hoping that the time will come, when the Council will see its way clear to declare itself unreservedly in favor of the confessional principle and of unmixed com munion, and pulpit-fellowship. (For Literature see : Iowa and Missouri, by S. & G. Fritschel (1878) ; Geschichte der Iowa Synode, by J. Deindoerfer (1897) ; the Kirchenblatt and Kirch liche Zeitschrifi.) J. F. Joint Synod of Ohio and Other States. During the closing decades of the last cen tury, many Gemian Lutherans removed from Pennsylvania and Virginia to the North west Territory. These removals greatly in creased in 1802, when the new State of Ohio was admitted into the Union. The Luth. pioneers settled chiefly in Fairfield, Perry, Pickaway, Columbiana, Montgomery, Stark and Jefferson counties. In 1805, Luth. travelling ministers were first sent out to Ohio by the Min- sterium of Pennsylvania. George Forster came first, followed by Revs. Stanch, Weyer, Wey gandt, Leist, Huet, Paul Henkel, the Luth. ?ioneer preacher of the West, and others. he first special conference was held in Washington County, Pa., in 1812. This was the first ecclesiastical conference held west of the AUeghenies. The first general conference was held in Somerset, O., in 1818. Pro-rision for English services was made at an early date. Synods (V.) 504 Synodical Conference Candidates of theology received private in struction under the care of able and experienced ministers. The first convention of the Joint Synod, as such, was held at Zelienople, Pa., in 1833. The Luth. Standard-was established in 1842, and first published in New Philadelphia, O., under the editorial management of Rev. E. Greenwald. The Lutherische Kirchenzeitung was estab lished in i860, under the management of Profs. W. F. Lehmann and E. Schmid, assisted by Rev. J. A. Schulze. The Theological Seminary of Joint Synod was first opened at Canton, O. , in 1830 by Prof. Wm. Schmidt, but removed to Columbus, O., and opened in 1833. Capital University was founded in 1850, with Dr. W. M. Reynolds as president. After the death of Prof. Wm. Schmidt in 1839, the Theological Seminary was conducted by Dr. C. F. Schaeffer and Prof. F. Winkler. Rev. W. F. Lehmann became Theo logical Professor in 1847, and served with great success until near his death in 1880, when he was succeeded by Prof. Matthias Loy, D.D., who is still laboring at the institution with great ability aud faithfulness, assisted by several associates. Prof. F. W. Stellhorn, D.D., is president of Capital University. Prof. H. Ernst, D.D., is president of the German Practical Seminary at St. Paul, Minn., assisted by two associates. Prof. Theo. Mees, Ph.D., is president of the Teachers' Seminary at Woodmlle, O., assisted by two associates. The number of students attending these educational institutions is two hundred and forty-two. The benevolent institutions of Joint Synod are the Wemle Orphans' Home, Teacher G. Maier, superintendent, located at Richmond, Ind., with 93 inmates, and the Home for the Aged, Sister Marie Trojahn, superintendent, at Alle gheny, Pa., -with II inmates. Joint Synod is divided into 10 districts : Eastern, Western, Northem, First EngUsh, Concordia, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas and Nebraska, Washington and Texas. Total num ber of pastors, 449 ; congregations, 608 ; commu nicants, 86,097 I home missionaries, 56 ; teachers in parochial schools, 102 ; pastors teaching school, 265; scholars, 9,355 ; S.S. scholars, 29,948. There is a negro mission at Baltimore, Md. The Book Concern at Columbus, O., pub lishes eight periodicals, German and English hymn-books, catechisms, and school-books for parochial schools. Beside the names of those ministers already mentioned, who were prominent in the early days of Joint Synod, the names J. M. Steck, Jonas Mechling, Charles Henkel, J. Wagenhals, Christian Spielmann, C. G. Schweizerbarth and George Cronenwett must not be forgotten. With the exception of twelve years when Joint Synod was connected vrith the Synodical Conference, it has always been an independent body. During the last fifteen or twenty years its grovrth has been rapid. From the begin ning this body has been intent on preserving the pure Luth. doctrine. In 1847 the SymboU cal Books of the Luth. Church were adopted as the confessional basis. Hence the Joint Synod is unalterably opposed to all unionism, to admit ting ministers of a different confession to her pulpits, to the practice of what is called " free communion," to fellowship with unchristian, secret, oath-bound societies, and to Chiliasm. Dr. Loy says : " The Evangelical Luth. Joint Synod of Ohio and other States stands alone, not because she closes her eyes to the impor tance of uniting synods and churches, and not because she has any special theological or eccle siastical tendencies to maintain, or any peculiar phase of Lutheranism to advocate ; but simply because she believes the sacred tmth which the Evangelical Luth. Church confesses, holds it to be the doctrine of the Gospel concerning which agreement is necessary to the tme unity of the Church, and can therefore unite vrith others on no other basis, hearing and heeding what the Spirit saith unto the churches : ' Hold that fast which thou hast, that no man take thy crown ' ' ' {The Distinctive Doctrines and Usages of the General Bodies ofthe Ev. Luth. Church in the U. S, p. 33). P. A. P. Michigan Synod, The, first founded in 1840 by Revs. Schmidt, Harsted, Kramer, and others. After a few years it was dissolved, some of its members uniting with the Missouri Synod and others vrith the Joint Synod of Ohio. An other attempt was made in i860 by Revs. Schmidt, Eberhard, and Klugman. It united with the General CouncU at its organization, but withdrew in 1887, because of dissatisfaction concerning pulpit fellowship. In 1893 it united vrith the Synodical Conference, but, withdraw ing, united in 1897 with the Augsburg Synod. Nor-wegian Synod. See Norwegian. Texas Synod, The, was organized (1851) by Rev. C. Braun (sent to Texas by Dr. Passavant) and eight ministers from St. Chrischona, near Basle, Switzerland. At the request of Dr. Pas savant, the Synod joined the General Synod in 1853. St.Chrischona sent not a few men to Texas, but niany left for other states ; few had a classical training. Among the most prominent were. Rev. J. C. Roehm, Rev. H. Bohnenberger, Rev. E. Huber. In 1868, the Texas Synod was re ceived by the General Council. The first attempt to found a college (1870-74) was a fail ure ; a second one (1891) was more successful. As St. Chrischona was the only place whence ministers could be called, and as these could no longer satisfy the demands of the Americanizing churches the question of gaining ministers from an American seminary became the burn ing question. Already, in 1889, it was decided, if necessary, to unite vrith one of the larger syn ods. In 1895 the Synod unanimously decided to become a part of the Iowa Synod. J. F. Sjmodical Conference. This body, the of ficial name of which is Die Evang elisch-Luthe- rische Synodal Conferenz von Nord Amerika, was organized at Milwaukee, Wis., July 10, 1872, by representative delegates of the Synods of Ohio, Missouri, etc., Wisconsin, etc., Illinois, Minnesota, and the Norwegian Synod. All of these synods had preriously, by colloquies and intercourse, arrived at a mutual recognition of their unity in doctrine and practice, and their ex ternal union in a general body was based upon such recognition of internal unity. The first officers were Prof. C. F. W. Walther, president; Synodical Conference 505 Tausen Prof. W. F. Lehmann, -rice-president ¦ Rev P Beyer, secretary, and Mr. J. Schmidt, treas urer. According to the constitution on which the body was organized the Synodical Confer ence acknowledges the canonical books of the Old and the New Testaments as the Word of God and the confession of the EvangeUcal Luth Church of 1580, known as the Book of Concord, as its own Confession. Synods are admitted to membership not by the accredited delegates, but, on their recommendation, by all the synods connected vrith the Conference, and without the consent of all the synods, no synod connected with the Conference can enter into ecclesias tical union with other bodies. The Conference is merely an adrisory body in all matters not committed to the Conference by all the synods. Delegates of the Conference met in annual conventions from 1872 to 1879, and biennially from 1882 to the present time. In 1881, the Synod of Ohio assembled at Wheeling, W. Va., resolved to sever its connection -with the Synod ical Conference on account of its position in the controversy on the doctrine of predestina tion. A number of pastors and congregations formerly connected with the Ohio Synod, but haring refused to take part in this action, were represented as the Concordia Synod by dele gates at the meeting of the Synodical Confer ence in 1882, and the body they represented was admitted to membership, which it main tained to the time of its dissohition in 1886. In 1884 the Norwegian Synod also deemed it ex pedient to leave the Synodical Conference, hoping that by this step the termination of the doctrinal controversy on which its members were separated would be facUitated. The Illinois Synod, having in 1880 been merged in the Illinois District of the Missouri Synod, had thereby ceased to appear as a separate body in the Synodical Conference. In 1890 the English Evangelical Luth. Conference of Missouri and other States, now the Eng lish Synod of Missouri and other States, applied for admission to the Synodical Confer ence, and the ratification of its admission was reported at the next meeting. The Michigan Synod applied for admission in 1892, and re mained in connection with the Conference till 1896, when a disruption occuned in its own midst and the greater part severed its connec tion with the Conference, while the minority, under the name of the District Synod of Michi gan, was represented at the meeting of 1898, and requested to be considered still in member ship with the Conference, which request was granted. During the conventions of the Synod ical Conference the greater part of the time is devoted to doctrinal discussions. The most important practical work carried on conjointly by the synods of the Synodical Conference is an extensive mission among the negro popula tion of this country, vrith stations in Louisiana, lUinois, North Carolina and Virginia. Two periodical publications, the Lutheran Pioneer and Die Missionstaube, are chiefly devoted to the interests of this mission. According to the statistics of 1897, the Synodical Conference comprised 694,609 souls, 118,215 voting members of congregations, 1,869 ministers, 1,068 teach ers, 1,866 schools, many of which are taught by the pastors of the congregations. (For sepa rate synods, see Synods, III.) A. L. G. Tamils, a people in the southem extremity of India in the Presidency of Madras, closely related to the Telugus, numbering about 15 mil lions, besides about 725,000, on the neighbor ing island of Ceylon. Among them, the first Luth. mission in India was planted by Zie genbalg in 1706. The number of baptized Tamils in the various Protestant missions is estimated at present as 143,000. Lutherans are represented by the Leipzig Mission Society, which reported, at the close of 1898, 182 churches and chapels, 28 missionaries, 324 male and 60 female teachers, 4 European zenana sisters, and 17,815 baptized members. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel re ports 40,000 ; the Church Missionary Society, 48,000 ; the London Missionary Society, 12,000 ; the American Dutch Reformed, 6,500 baptized ;' the American Board (CongregationaUst), 4,000 adult members, representing a population of 13,000. The N. T. complete and part of the O. T. were translated by Ziegenbalg (see Ziegen balg), whose work was continued by Gruendler and rerised and completed by Benj. Schultze. Another and more idiomatic version was made by Fabricius (1782). This was revised (1821) by Rhenius, but has been supplanted, except in the Leipzig missions, by a recent version (1871), in the preparation of which the representatives ofthe vanous societies co-operated. Meusel's Kirchliches Handlexicon (1899) ; Bliss's Cyclo- pesdia of Missions. For literature and peculi arities of language, see article "Tamils" in Encycl. Britannica. Tarnov, Paul, b. 1562, at Grevismiihlen, d. as professor at Rostock (1633); author of Com mentary on John, etc. His nephew, John, b. 1586, was professor at Rostock from 1614 until his death in 1629, wrote chiefly on Old Testa ment, but also on PhUippians, Ephesians, Col- lossiaus and Thessalonians. Tausen, Bishop Hans, b. in Birkinde, on the island of Fyen, Denmark, Nov. ix, 1494. Learing home at the age of 12, he was admitted to the Latin school at Slagelse, and later became a monk in the monastery at Antvorskov. In 1520 he delivered lectures in Rostock, and in 1521 in Copenhagen. In 1523 he risited Wit tenberg, and there heard Luther and Melanch thon. But his Prior hearing this, ordered him to retum. On Good Friday (1524) he delivered a sermon in the Monastery Church, in which he declared his agreement -with Luther. He was consigned to a cell, and later sent as prisoner to the monastery in Viborg. There he gained the favor of the Prior, Peter Jensen, and obtained permission to preach. Multitudes flocked to hear him. By the aid of Burgomaster Peter Trowe, he left the monastery, discarded the monk's attire, put on the clerical robe, and ob tained leave to preach in St. John's Church. When it proved too small, he stood in the Taverner 506 Teachers' Seminaries church door and addressed the people gathered vrithout. His truly evangelical congregation was organized in which the whole service was conducted in the Danish language. In 1529 he was called to Copenhagen and there was bold enough to ordain several young men as evangelical ministers, and he also entered the marriage relation. He was appointed pastor of St. Michael's Church, to which the people flocked in great numbers. It became the Mother Church of the Reformation in Denmark. In July, 1533, he was summoned to appear be fore the Diet in Copenhagen, chiefly at the in stigation of Bishop Joakim Roennow. When it was reported throughout the city that Tausen was in danger, such bitterness was aroused against the Bishop that his life was imperilled. But Tausen led him, unharmed, through the great miUtitude, and brought him safely to his residence. Tausen published a volume of ex cellent evangelical sermons, the first printed in the Danish language. In 1538 he was called to the Cathedral in Roskilde, and four years later was appointed Bishop in Ribe, and, April 30, 1542, was ordained to that office by Luther's celebrated associate, Dr. Bugenhagen. As bishop he labored zealously for 40 years for the spread of the Gospel and was eminently successful. By the Catholics he was hated and called the standard bearer of the heretics ; but among the friends of the Reformation he was known as the Danish Martin Luther. D. Nov. II, 1561. E. B. Taverner, Richard, Chief Secretary to Henry VIII.'s minister, Crumwell, b. Norfolk (1505); educated at Cambridge and Oxford ; lawyer, and high-sheriff of Oxford, licensed as tax- preacher (1552); author of Postils on Gos pels and Epistles (1540); translator of Augs burg Confession (1536) (reprinted with in- introduction and notes by H. E. Jacobs, Philadelphia, 1888) ; translator of the Common Places of Sarcerius (1538) (see SarCERIUS). His most distinguished work was his revision of Matthew's Bible, known asTavemer's (1539). A number of his suggestions remain in the English Bible of to-day, such as ' ' ninety-and- nine," "parable," "things of God," "things of men," etc. D. 1575. Teachers' Seminaries. The history of schools for the professional training of teachers for the youth of the Luth. Church in the United States is closely connected with the grovrth and develop ment of the parochial school system. Although the principle of training the chil dren of the Church under religious influences and the necessity of a thorough indoctrination of the youth in the Luth. faith over against the merely secular training and sometimes anti-re ligious influences of the public school system, were recognized by the earlier Church, an ex tensive and well-organized school-system was inade impossible by the peculiar external con ditions and circumstances of the indi-ridual congregations. Where such schools were cre ated, the duty of teaching the children, as a rale, devolved upon the pastor, and was limited to instruction in primary religious branches, and, in a measure, in the rudiments of the Ger man language. Under more favorable circum stances pupils of some European seminary were employed as teachers, who at the same time filled the position of organist and precentor of the congregation. Increasing strength of the Church and a growing demand for better educational facil ities, within the past three or four decades, led to the establishment of professional schools for the training of teachers, who should be in close touch -with the interests of the Luth. Church, and at the same time be equipped sufficiently to elevate the standard of instruction in all the common branches to the level of our best public schools, besides fostering the German language and administering discipline in a Christian spirit. Pioneer work along this line was done by the Missouri Synod, and its seminary for some time suppUed its own schools and those of other syn ods with parochial teachers. The interest in good schools continued to grow, until a number of the western Luth. synods established and maintained teachers' seminaries, either independ ent of, or in connection vrith other educational institutions. At the present time the Missouri Synod controls two seminaries, one at Addison, 111. , with eight professors, the other at Seward, Neb., vrith two professors; the Ohio Synod, one at Woodville, O., -with four professors ; the Iowa Synod, one at Waverly, la. , in connection with its college ; the United Norwegian Synod, at Madison, Minn.; the Danish Luth. Church, at Grand View, Des Moines. Ia. , in connection vrith the theological seminary. Other synods have arranged for ' ' normal courses ' ' in their college curriculum as separate departments or as adjuncts to other courses. The seminaries, ranking as strictly profes sional schools, are closely modelled after the German type of " Lehrer-Seminar," -with mod ifications suggested by the needs of our Church and required by a certain adaptation of the parish school to the school system which ob tains in the United States. The full course em braces five or six years in two departments, the preparatory, of three years, and the seminary proper, of two or three years respectively. In the former instruction deals principally with the fundamentals of religion and music, and aims at a thorough working knowledge in all the common branches, including English and German. The seminary course continues relig ious instraction on advanced lines, with special reference to methods, organ and violin, ¦with the immediate object of service to the congre gation and school, theory and practice in com position and choir-leading. Church history and general history, natural philosophy and natural history, physiology and school hygiene are em braced in the scientific department. Pedagogy and methods, the history of pedagogy, and empirical psychology in its relation to peda gogy, vrith practical training in class work, con stitute the basis for professional instraction. A valuable adjunct to the best seminaries con sists in a training-school, in which the theoreti cal knowledge is immediately reduced to prac tice under the supervision of one of the profes sors, or of a competent training-teacher. In this manner the advanced student is at once Tedeum 507 Temperance introduced to actual school work, both in re spect to teaching and to discipline, and becomes familiar with the organization and proper man agement of mixed and graded schools. T. M. Tedeum. We praise Thee, O God, " Herr Gott, Dich loben wir, ' ' the grandest hymn of the Western Church. The first direct reference to it is found in the rule of S. Ceesarius of Aries, written before 502, where it is ordered as part of the Sunday Moming serrice. It must, however, have been in use some time before that date. While the first ten verses un doubtedly constitute a separate Greek hymn, it is by no means certain that the whole " hymnus " as we know it originated in the Greek Church. Some suggest Southern Gaul as the place of its origin. Long before Luther it had been trans lated into German, the oldest version known, " Thih Cot lobomes, " being found in a manu script of the ninth century. Luther was very fond of this hymn and strongly recommended its use. His beautiful translation was probably first published in the Klug Hymn-Book of 1529. Anglo-Saxon versions are found as early as the eighth century. The common English version is that of the last Primer of Henry VIIL, and of the first Prayer Book of Edward VI. (1549). The Luth. Church very generally preser\'ed the mediseval use of the Tedeum as Canticum in the Matin service, especiaUy on Sundays and festival days. It was sung antiphonally either in Latin or in German. Johann Walther ascribes the tune to Luther. It is found in the Klug Hjrmn- Book of 1535, and in the Luth. Cantionales of the sixteenth century. But it is evidently an adaptation of the old tune which was used every where in the Westem Church before the Ref ormation. For special occasions original com positions were written to the words of the Tedeum by prominent musicians, such as Haendel's Utrecht Tedeum (1713), Haendel's Dettingen Tedeum (1743), Graun 's Tedeum on the battle of Prague (1756), Berlioz' Tedeum for two choirs, orchestra and organ (1856). There are innumerable compositions for the Te deum in the Anglican and Luth. service, in the oratorio style, but as a rale are far from doing justice to the trae spirit of that immortal hymn. A very full and scholarly article on the Tedeum is found in Julian's Did. of Hymnology. A. S. Tegner, Esaias. Sweden's greatest poet, son of a pastor, b. at Kyrkerad, Nov. 13, 1782 ; educated at Lund, where he became succes sively tutor, lecturer, and prof essor of philology ; in 1824 was made Bishop of Wexio ; d. 1846. Longfellow has translated into English a num ber of Tegner's poems, "The ChUdren of the Lord's Supper " being the best known. See also Longfellow's poem on Tegner's death : "Tegner's Drapa." "Sweden has one great poet, and only one ; that is Tegner, Bishop of Wexio" (Longfellow). Telugus, an East Indian people, chiefly in Presidency of Madras, numbering among their 39,331,102 souls, 32 millions of Hindoos, 2%, millions of Mohammedans, and i>^ millions of Christians. I2j5^ miUions speak the Telugu language, which is spoken also by about 7 mU- lions beyond the proper Telugu country Among them, is at present the most fruitful of all Indian mission fields. Missionary work was begun by the translation of N. T. by Schultze in 1727 and his baptism of 17 converts, but not continued until resumed by the London Mis sionary Society in 1805. Lutherans are repre sented in this field by the Boards of General Synod (canying on work begun by Heyer in 1841), General Council (heir of the tenitory of North German Society) , and the Hermansburg and Schleswig-Holstein Societies. Besides these, the American Baptists, Free Church of Scotland, and Church Missionary Society of the Anglican Church are active. The reports of General Synod mission published at Madras in 1899 enumerate 17,811 members with 1,195 baptisms during the preceding year. Rev. Dr. Uhl reported 110 congregations under his care ; Rev. Dr. Harpster, 128 congregations, with Christians in 163 ¦rillages, and a baptized mem bership of 5,679, and Rev. S. C. Kisinger, 99 congregations. Language. The Telugu, or Telinga, belongs to the Dravidian family of Non- Aryan languages, and from its sweet tones has been called the Italian of India. In nouns changes of case and number are indicated by suffixes. The root syllable is in all cases the first syllable of the word, and takes the accent. Adjectives re main unchanged, and always precede their nouns. The noun has but one declension and the verb but one conjugation, with few ineg- ular forms. F. W. W. Temperance. For the proper understanding of the scriptural position, much aid will be derived from the study of Luther's treatise on " The Liberty of the Christian," which may be found in an excellent English Translation in Wace and Buchheim 's Luther's Primary Works, pp. 104 sqq. , and may be purchased for a few cents in German in the series of the Universal- Bibliothek (No. 1731), Leipzig, Philip Reklam, Jr. In this treatise, Luther shows that no ex ternal things whatever have any weight in producing a state of justification and Christian liberty, nor, on the other hand, an unjustified state and one of slavery. " Every Christian is by faith so exalted above all things, that, in spiritual power, he is completely lord over all things ; so that nothing whatever can do him any hurt ; yea, all things are subject to him and compelled to be subservient to his salvation. . . . But to an unbelieving person, nothing renders service or works for good. He is in servitude to all things and all things tum out for evil to him." Christianity consists not, therefore, in abstaining from or using external things, but in the life of faith and the indwell ing of the Holy Spirit. " But while inwardly a man is amply enough justified by faith, still he remains in this mortal life on earth, in which it is necessary that he should rule his own body, and have intercourse vrith men. Here he must give heed to exercise his body by fastings, watchings, labor, and other moderate discipline, so that it may be subdued to the spirit and obey and conform itself to the inner man and faith. ... In doing this, he offends the contrary ¦wiU in his own flesh, which is striring to serve the world, and to seek its own gratification. This the spiritof faith cannot and vriU not bear. . . . Temperance 508 Territorialism On this principle, every man may easily instruct himself in what measure, and with what dis tinctions, he ought to chasten his own body. He vrill fast, watch, and labor, just as much as he sees to suffice for keeping down the wanton ness and concupiscence of the body. ... A Christian endeavors in all that he does, to serve and be useful to others. He takes care of his own body for the very purpose that, by its soundness, and wellbeing, he may be enabled to labor and to acquire and possess property, for the aid of those who are in want." The Augsburg Confession expresses the same principle in Art. XXVI. 33: "More over, they teach that every Christian must so by bodily discipline, or bodily exercises and labors, exercise and keep himself under, that plenty and sloth do not stimulate him to sin ; not that he may by such exercises merit grace or satisfy for sin." So also the Apology: "There is a voluntary kind of exercise necessary of which Christ says (Luke 21 : 34, and Paul, 1 Cor. 9 : 27, etc.). These exercises are to be undertaken not because they are serrices that justify, but in order to curb the fiesh, lest fulness may over power us, and render us secure and indifferent, the result of' which is that men indulge and obey the dispositions of the flesh " (p. 226). No one has spoken mor^ decidedly than Luther against intemperance. His words seem excessively severe when he says: "Every country must have its own devil. Italy has its, and France its ; our German deril is a good ¦wine-skin. This eternal thirst and plague of Germany vrill remain, I am afraid, until the Last Day. Notwithstanding the admonitions of preachers from God's Word, and the pro hibition of rulers, guzzling remains vrith us, and is like the ocean and the dropsy : the former is not full, though so much water flows into it ; the latter becomes, by drinking, stUl thirstier " (On Ps. loi : 6; Walch's ed., V. 1281 sq.). Nevertheless, intemperance never lies in the use of any creature of God, whether meat or wine or marriage ; but in its abuse, either by excess injuring soul and body, or by offence given the weak (i Cor. 8 : 8-13 ; Rom. 14 : 20, 21). The determination of these limitations cannot be fixed by any universal law, but must be decided in individual cases, and by the individual Christian conscience, as they arise. The great est care must be taken not to declare that to be sin which God has not forbidden, and that not to be sin which God has forbidden. Total abstinence has its justification, only in so far as it is a voluntary surrender by the Christian of a right which he acknowledges to belong to him, while it refrains from making its decisions of the claims of Christian expediency deter mining one's own conduct a standard to be enforced upon others. Temperance legislation, so-called, suggests, however, other questions. Legislation often justly restricts the use of what is per se sinless, because of serious abuses from which society suffers. Water is free, and a good gift of God, but such erils may threaten the community by its waste that legislation re stricting its use may be absolutely necessary. The General Synod and Swedish Augustana Synod have indorsed prohibitory legislation. The Missouri Synod wages a war against the saloon, and disciplines such members as, after warning, continue to engage in such a mode of obtaining a livelihood. H. E. J. Temptation of Christ. The divinity of our Lord rendered him not only sinless, but abso lutely impeccable. Throughout all his trials and temptations, he was separated from all other partakers of human nature, in that he never could have fallen. Sin is always com mitted by a person ; but as the person of Christ was not of his human, but of his divine nature, if he had sinned it would have been the Second Person of the Adorable Trinity that sinned. As sin, however, is the want of conformity with God's ¦will, if Christ had sinned God would have willed what God did not will. If the difficulty, then, arise that the temptation could not have been real, it is answered by the consideration of the fact that, while in others the possibility of a fall is connected with temp tation, and thus temptation and peccability are associated, nevertheless that they do not neces sarily belong together. Temptation is simply trial or testing. Gold that is brought to the touch-stone is tested, or tempted ; and yet, there is no possibility that it will cease to be gold. If the agony of the contest be regarded as indicating the peril of a fall, the answer is that the temptation belonged to our Lord's passion. The contact of a Being of such tran scendent holiness ¦with so loathsome a one as Satan, would of itself be painful ; and this pain would be increased by the humiliating position in which he would be placed by subjection to such suggestions as the tempter made. H. E. J. Ten Commandments. See Catechism. Tennessee Lutherans in. statistics for 1890 : Congregations, 36 ; communicants, 2,975. They occupied two separate districts. Those in the extreme east, along the North Carolina line, between the Allegheny and Cumberland mountains, belonging to the United Synod of the South, numbered twenty-three congrega tions and 1,999 communicants. They are all in the Holston Synod, the Tennessee Synod being without a congregation in the state. The Gen eral Synod had eleven congregations and 749 communicants along a line drawn through the centre of the State from north to south. The Missouri Synod had planted congregations at Memphis and Chattanooga, with 227 communi cants. Tennessee Synod. See Synods (IV.). Territorialism. At the Reformation, the Evangelical princes and the magistrates of the cities first protected those who for the trath's. sake were condemned by the Pope and the bishops, and then were compelled by the ex igency to set their churches in order. Finally, they claimed the right to govern the Church as they govemed the State, only that they ac knowledged themselves to be subject to the Word of God. To justify the practice theories of church government were invented ; the Prince (or magistracy) was said to be the high est bishop by rirtue of office (the Episcopal system), or the principal member of the Church ; and when the treaty of Passau estab- Tersleegen 609 Texas lished their independence of all ecclesiastical authority, the principle was accepted, cujus regio, ejus religio, i. e. the religion of its prince decided of what religion his people must be. If any chose another religion, or could not chahge if he changed, they were allowed to emigrate but had no right to public worship, ' according to their own conscience. This theory (elaborated by Christian Thomasius and Hugo Grotius) has gradually been modified by the progress of popular institutions. In Saxony, for instance, when the royal house went over to - Rome for the sake of the Polish crown, the ¦ rights of the Evangelical Church were secured. And in other countries, the Reformed as well as the Luth. churches were provided for, and even the Roman Catholic. But the general principle has not been abandoned. (See Richter • Geschichte d. Ev. Kirchenverfassung Deutsch lands.) The theory was formed before the Reformation. The Greek Emperors and Charle magne and his successors dominated the Church, and the supremacy of the State ¦was asserted against Rome by Ludvrig of Bavaria, in the fourteenth century. (See Church Polity. ) E. T. H. Tersteegen, Grerhardt von, b. 1697 at Moers, Rhenish Prussia, d. 1769 at Muehlheim. He was by trade a ribbon weaver, but his mind - was trained by the diligent study of theological vmters, especially such ascetic and mystic authors as Labadie, Undereyck, Madame Guyon, Poiret and Arnold. He was also ac quainted vrith Arndt, Suener, Francke, Bengel, but not vrith Luther. As early as 1719 he broke off his formal connection vrith the Reformed Church, and about 1725 he began to speak regularly at Pietistic conventicles. In 1728 he gave up his handicraft, devoting himself to literary work, translating and -wnting devotional books, and carrying on an extensive cone spondence with inquirers that sought his spiritual advice. From 1730-50, the law against conventicles being strictly enforced, he was un able to speak at pubUc meetings, except on his travels to HoUand. After 1750 he resumed his exhortations, but the state of his health com pelled him to give it up in 1758. His hymns appeared chiefly in his Geistliches Blumengaer- tlein 1729-68. Some of them were received into Luth. hymn books, and many were translated into English. Julian mentions 44 different hymns of his vrith English versions, among them "Gott ist gegenwaertig," freely tr. by J. Wesley, " Lo, God is here ! Let us adore ' ; "Gott rufet noch, soUt ich nicht endlich hoeren," " God calling yet, shaU I not hear? " from Jane Borthwick, Church Book; "Sieges- fuerste, Ehrenkoenig," tr. by Miss Winkworth Lyra Gemi. (1858), Conquering Prince and ' Lord of Glory, Church Book. See Tersteegen's - Geistliche Lieder mU einer Lebensgeschichte des Dichters und seiner Dichtung, von W. . NeUe, Guetersloh (1897), published in memory of the 200th anniversary of his birth. A. b. Testimony of the Spirit. By this is meant ¦ the personal experience of salvation wrought by ae Holy Spirit through the Divme Word. It rests on the Mentity of the testimony of the Word and testimony of the beheving soul, in asmuch as the believing soul in the pardon of sin and in adoption experiences that of which the Divine Word speaks. As a fact of the Christian consciousness it rises above all human arguments and contradictions, and gives a sure and immovable persuasion (plerophorid) of the understanding, Col. 2: 2, so that "con verted and regenerated men can and do know with an infallible certainty that they truly be lieve." The doctrine finds scriptural warrant in John 7 : 17 ; i Cor. i : 24 ; 2 : 5 ; Eph. i : 13 ; I Thess. I : 5, 6 ; i John 5 : 6. That the wit nessing spirit is not an evil spirit, but the Di-rine or Holy Spirit, is e-rident from the effects of his operation. " The frait of the spirit," Gal. 5 : 22, 23. Luther laid but little stress on external miracles, and calls them ' ' childish wonders as compared with the miracles which Christ is constantly working in the Church by his own dirine almighty power." He says also : " The Holy Spirit teaches us to know and to appropriate the benefits of Christ." This the Spirit does in two ways : " Internally by faith, and externally by the gospel, baptism, the sacrament of the altar, by which, as means, he comes to us and applies to us the sufferings of Christ." It was Luther's belief also that the Spirit and faith come to us only through the means of grace. "Without the preached word God will not give his Holy Spirit." Though the Spirit is immanent in the Word, yet he stands above it as a free and independent causality, "who in his own time and place works faith in those who hear the gospel." The Dogmaticians treated the testimony of the Spirit more objectively as the testimony of the beUever to the Word of God as inspired, and as the source of theology. "The final reason under which and on account of -which we believe with a divine and unshaken faith, that the Word of God is the Word of God, is the in ternal power and efficacy of the Divine Word, and the -witness and sealing of the Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture and through the Scripture. For the gift of faith, not only that faith by which we believe the articles of faith, but also that by which we believe him who presents and sets forth the articles of Scripture, ^ a work proceeding from the Holy Spirit, or the Supreme Cause ' ' ( Quenstedt) . This changes the matter of Christianity from justification by faith and the consequent assur ance of salvation to a doctrine of justification, and of the authority of the Scripture. Calorius says nothing about a spedal faith, and is satis fied -with assent. Thus a doctrine of the Scrip ture, and orthodoxia, rather than justification and personal faith in the saring contents of Scripture, came to be regarded as the central and most important matter of Christianity. This opened the way for the theology of the unregenerate, which made an end of the testimony of the Spirit. (See also Spirit, HOLY.) J. W. R. Texas, Lutherans in. Statistics for 1890 : Congregations, 88 ; communicants, 14,556. The Synod of Texas at that time belonged to the General Council. Since then it has united -with the German Synod of Iowa. Its 39 congrega tions stretched to the N. W. in a vride belt Texas Synod 510 Tiieology along the Colorado River, and had 6,643 com municants. The congregations of the Synodi cal Conference were, with one exception in other counties, to the northeast of the Texas Synod, as a rale, and numbered 3,498 members. The Ohio Synod had four congregations in counties where the Texas Synod was repre sented, and reported 1,730 members. There were four Norwegian and three Swedish con gregations. Texas Synod. See s-stnods (v.). Theatre. Dramatic art is a combination of all other arts, of poetry, oratory, music, paint ing, architecture, and the plastic art, or its sub stitute, the liring human figure in stage costume ; and as all these arts severally con sidered are not in themselves morally objection able, so dramatic art, which is a combination of them all, is not in itself immoral. Neither does the predominance of any particular art, as of poetry and oratory in the tragedy, or of music in the opera, constitute the immoral feature in a dramatic performance. But when any, or several, or all, of the arts which enter into a work of dramatic art and its performance are exercised -with the employment of immoral means, or employed in a manner calculated to serve immoral ends, the whole work is thereby contaminated and becomes a work of the fiesh, the performance as well as the enjoyment of which is sinful. A play is immoral in which sins against any commandment of God, such as taking the name of God in vain, the neglect of filial or parental duties, -riolation of the law which regulates the relation of the sexes, are either made light of and ridiculed, or held up for admiration and applause, or where sacred things are exhibited for amusement, or where by improper exposure or suggestive attitudes and words, or by other means, evil lusts and un clean thoughts are aroused and fostered, or sin, such as illicit love or love-making, or marital unfaithfulness, is represented in an enticing garb. Matt. 5 : 28 ; Eph. 4: 29; 5:4; 6:11; James i : 14, 15. Viewed in this light the modern theatrical stage, the classical drama from Shakespeare down not excepted, is not a moral institution and should be shunned by all who would walk through this life in godliness and true holiness as before God, and whose daily petition is, "Lead us not into tempta tion." A. L. G. Theology, Luth. Conception of, is deter mined by the Luth. conception of God. God is contemplated not as an abstraction, but as a personality ; not as afar off, but always at hand ; not as a wrathful judge, but as a loving Father reconciled in Christ, with whom his child lives in loving communion. It is not the office of theology, therefore, to unfold its propositions by a series of logical deductions, but by the simple anangements of the facts that are re vealed in Holy Scriptures, particularly as ap plied to Christian experience. Theology it ac cepts as a science, because whatever God has revealed he wants to be known ; although keeping prominently in riew at every step the fact that God is in himself incomprehensible, and that with every revelation of a mystery. new mysteries are constantly suggested. Ac quiescence in mystery, and unwillingness to advance a step farther in its explanation than the Holy Word declares, is pre-eminently char acteristic of Luth. theology. It constantly checks the reason in its propensity to draw in ferences, 'and to assert for them the authority of Scriptural doctrines. Luth. theology is not only Christo-centric ; but it is in fact through out nothing but Christology. It knows no revelation but that given in Christ. The Holy Scriptures themselves it accepts as authoritative only upon the word of Christ. Apologetics starts with the proof of the historicity of Jesus Christ. Of the Attributes of God and the Holy Trinity, it has nothing to say, except as they are viewed in and through Christ. The doctrine of sin it learns in its full significance only as seen in the light of the incarnation, and as estimated from the standpoint of redemption. The facts of predestination, Luther taught, were to be considered only after the entire plan of salva tion presented in the Gospel was leamed. It discriminates between those books of the Bible, that with greater and less fulness treat of the doctrine of Christ. If Christology is thus the centre, the centre of Christology is Christ's office, as Priest, and particularly that of completed redemption through his vicarious satisfaction. In word and sacraments it recognizes the means whereby the fruits of this satisfaction are applied. The distinc tion between Law and Gospel, drawn with a clearness and fulness that may be searched for elsewhere in vain, has the same explanation. The doctrine of Christ is to it the solution of all the other doctrines. The union of the Divine and human, unchanged and unconfused, and yet the one penetrating and energizing the other, pervades the entire system. This be longs to the doctrines of Inspiration, Providen tial Concunence, Faith, the Mystical Union, the Word, the Sacraments, Prayer, as well as Christology. Luth. theology knows well how to discriminate between the form and the sub stance, the essence and the accidents of Chris tianity. The material of revelation is just as jealously guarded when stated in a form differ ent from that in which it first appears, as in the very words in which the Holy Spirit spake. It is also predominantly conservative, pervaded throughout by an historical sense, which re fuses lightly to abandon the fraits of the con tests of the past ; but at the same time pro gressive as it recognizes the presence of the Holy Spirit, as a living power in all ages of the Church. Variations from this principle may indeed be noted, and are sometimes very con spicuous ; but they do not disprove it. The scholastic age of Luth. theology degenerated into a mere intellectual externalism, which was con tent with classifying the results that had been attained by the preceding period, and supple menting it from material drawn partially from pre-Reformation sources. But this was not the productive era of Luth. theology. Its true spirit must be learned from Luther, Melanch thon, Chemnitz, and the Luth. Confessions, from the SmaU Catechism to the Ponhula of Con cord ; from its hymns, its devotional vmters, its Tlieises (95) 511 The§e§ (95) liturgies, and its great preachers. In contrast with the Christological character of Ivuth. theol ogy, is that of the Roman Church, which lays most emphasis on the doctrine of the Church ; and that of the Reformed, which is more apt to reach its conclusions by direct inferences from the doctrine of God. H. E). J. Theses, Ninety-Five, of Luther. In the desire and with the purpose of elucidating the truth, a disputation will be held on tne under-written propositions at Wittemberg, under the presidency of the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Monk of the Order of St. Augustine, Master of Arts and Sacred Theology, and ordinary Reader of the same in that place. He therefore asks those who cannot be present and discuss the subject with us orally, to do so by letter in their absence. In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen. I. Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ in saying; "Repent ye," etc., intended that the whole life of believers should be penitence. 2. This word cannot be understood of sacramental penance, that is, of the confession and satisfaction which are performed under the ministry of priests. 3. It does not, however, refer solely to inward penitence; nay such inward penitence is naught, unless it outwardly pro duces various mortifications of the flesh. 4. The penalty thus continues as long as the hatred of self — that is, true inward penitence — continues; namely, till our entrance into the kingdom of heaven. 5. The Pope has neither the will nor the power to remit any penalties, except those which he has imposed by his own authority, or by that of the canons. 6. The Pope has no power to remit any guilt, except by declaring and warranting it to have been remitted by God ; or at most by remitting cases reserved for himself ; in which cases, if his po\ver were despised, guilt would certainly remain. 7. God never remits any man's guilt, without at the same time subjecting him, humbled in all things, to the authority of his representative the priest. 8, The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and no burden ought to be imposed on the dying, according to them. 9. Hence the Holy Spirit acting in the Pope does well for us, in that, in his decrees, he always makes exception of the article of death and of necessity. 10. Those priests act wrongly and unlearnedly, who, in the case of tiie dying, reserve the canonical penances for purga tory. 1 1 . Those tares about changing of the canonical penalty into the penalty of purgatory seem surely to have been sown while the bishops were asleep. 12. Formerly the canonical penalties were imposed not after, but before absolution, as tests of true contrition. 13. The dying pay all penalties by death, and are already dead to the canon laws, and are by right relieved from them. x4.*The imperfect soundness or charity of a dying person necessarily brings with it great fear, and the less it is, the greater the fear it brings. 15. This fear and horror is sufficient by itself, to say nothing of other things, to constitute the pains of purgatory, since it is very near to the horror of despair. 16. Hell, purgatory, and heaven appear to differ as despair, almost despair, and peace of mind differ. 17. With souls in purgatory it seems that it must needs be that, as horror diminishes, so charity increases. 18. Nor does it seem to be proved, by any reasoning or any scriptures, that they are outside of the state of merit or of the increase of charity. 19. Nor does this appear to be proved, that they are sure and confident of their own blessedness, at least all of them, though we may be very sure of it. 20. Therefore the Pope, when he speaks of the plenary re mission of all penaUies, does not mean simply of all, but only of those imposed by himself. ^ 21. Thus those preachers of indulgences are in error who say that, by the indulgences of the Pope, a man is loosed and savedfrom all punishment. 22. For in fact he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which they would have had to pay in this life according to the canons. , . , , , ^ 23. If any entire remission of all penalties can be granted to any one, it is certain that it is granted to none but the most perfect, that is, to very few. ^ j u 24. Hence the greater part of the people must needs be deceived by this indiscriminate and high-sounding promise of release from penalties. ^ • _i 2^. Such powers as the Pope has over purgatory in general, such has every bishop in his own diocese, and every curate in hia own parish, in particular. 26. The Pope acts most rightly in granting remission to souls not by the power of the keys (which is of no avail in this case) but by the way ot suffrage. 27. They preach man, who sav that the soul flies out of purgatory as soon as the money thrown into the chest rattles 28. It is certain that, when the money rattles in the chest avarice and gain may be increased, but the suffrage of the Church depends on the will of God alone. 29. Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory desire to be redeemed from it, according to the story told of Saiuts Severinus and Paschal ?" 30. No man is sure of the reality of his own contrition, much less of the attainment of plenary remission. 31. Rare as is a true penitent, so rare is one who truly buys indulgences — that is to say, most rare. 32. Those who believe that, through letters of pardon, they are made sure of their own salvation, will be eternally damned along with their teachers. 33. We must especially beware of those who say that these pardons from the Pope are that inestimable gift of God by which man is reconciled to God. 34. For the grace conveyed by these pardons has respect only to the penalties of sacramental satisfaction, which are of human appointment. 35. They preach no Christian doctorine, who teach that con trition is not necessary for those who buy souls out of pur gatory or buy confessional licences. 36. Every Christian who feels true compunction has of right plenary remission of pain and guilt, even without letters of pardon, 37. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has a share in all the benefits of Christ and of the Church, given him by God, even without letters of pardon. 38. The remission, however, imparted by the Pope is by no means to be despised, since it is, as I have said, a declaration of the Divine remission. 3g. It is a most difficult thing, even for the most leamed theologians, to exalt at the same time in the eyes of the people the ample effect of pardons andthe necessity of true contrition. 40. True contrition seeks and loves punishment ; while the ampleness of pardons relaxes it, and causes men to hate it, or at least gives occasion for them to do so. 41. Apostolical pardons ought to be proclaimed with caution, lest the people should falsely suppose that they are placed before other good works of charity. 42. Christians should be taught that it is not the mind of the Pope that the buying of pardons is to be in any way compared to works of mercy. 43. Christians should be taught that he who gives to a poor man, or lends to a needy man, does better than if he bought pardons. 44. Because, by a work of charity, charity increases, and the man becomes better; while, by means of pardons, he does not become better, but only freer from punishment. 45. Christians should be taught that he who sees any one in need, and, passing him by, gives money for pardons, is not purchasing for himself the indulgences of the Pope, but the anger of God. 46 Christians should be taught that, unless they have super fluous wealth, they are bound to keep what is necessary for the use of their own households, and by no means to lavish it on pardons. 47. Christians should be taught that, while they are free to buy pardons, they are not commanded to do so. 48. Christians should be taught that the Pope, in granting pardons, has both more need and more desire that devout prayer should be made for him, than that money should be readily paid. 49. Christians should be taught that the Pope's pardons are useful, if they do not put their trust in them, but most hurtful, if through them they lose the fear of God. 50. Christians should be taught that, if the Pope were ac quainted with the exactions of the preachers of pardons, he would prefer that the Basilica of St. Peter should be burnt to ashes, than than that it should be built up with the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep. 51. Christians should be taughtthat, asitwouldbethe duty,so it would be the wish of the Pope, even to sell, if necessary, the Basilica of St. Peter, and to give of his own money to very many of those from whom the preachers of pardons extract money. 52. Vain is the hope of salvation through letters of pardon, even if a commissary — nay, the Pope himself — were to pledge his own soul for them. 5 3 . They are enemies of Christ aud of. the Pope, who, in order that pardons may be preached, condemn the word of God to utter silence in other churches. 54. Wrong is done to the word of God when, in the same sermon, an equal or longer time is spent on pardons than on it. 55. The mind of the Pope necessarily is that, if pardons, which are a very small matter, are celebrated with single bells, single processions, and single ceremonies, the Gospel, which is a very great matter, should be preached with a hundred bells, a hundred processions, and a hundred ceremonies. Theses (95) 513 Theses (Harms) 56. The treasures of the Church, whence the Pope grants indulgences, are neither sufficiently named nor known among the people of Christ. 57. It is clear that they are at least not temporal treasures, for these are not so readily lavished, but only accumulated, by many of the preachers. 58, Nor are they the merits of Christ and of the saints, for these, independently of the Pope, are always working grace to the inner man, and the cross, death, and hell to the outer man. 59. St. Lawrence said that the treasures of the Church are the poor of the Church, but he spoke according to the use of the word in his time. 60. We are not speaking rashly when we say that the keys of the Church, bestowed through the merits of Christ, are that treasure. 61. For it is clear that the power of the Pope is alone suffi cient for the remission of penalties and of reserved cases. 62. The true treasure of the Church is the Holy Gospel of the glory and grace of God. 63. This treasure, however, is deservedly most hateful, be cause it makes the first to be last. 64. While the treasure of indulgences is deservedly most acceptable, because it makes the last to be first. 65. Hence the tieasures ofthe GoSpel are nets, wherewith of old they fished for the men of riches. 66. The treasures of indulgences are nets, wherewith they now fish for the riches of men. 67. Those indulgences, which the preachers loudly proclaim to be the greatest graces, are seen to be truly such as regard the promotion of gain. 68. Yet they are in reality in no degree to be compared to the grace of God and the piety of the cross. 69. Bishops and curates are bound to receive the commis saries of apostolical pardons with all reverence. 70. But they are still more bound to see to it with all their eyes, and take heed with all their ears, that these men do not preach their own dreams in place of the Pope's commission. 71. He who speaks against the truth of apostolical pardons, let him be anathema and accursed. 72. But he, on the other hand, who exerts himself against the wantonness and licence of speech of the preachers of pardons, let him be blessed, 73. As the Pope justly thunders against those who use any kind of contrivance to the injury of the traffic in pardons. 74. Much more is it his intention to thunder against those who, under the pretext of pardons, use contrivances to the injury of holy charity and of truth. 75. To think that Papal pardons have such power that they could absolve a man even if — by an impossibility — he had violated the Mother of God, is madness. 76. We affirm on the contrary that Papal pardons cannot take away even the least of venial sins, as regards its guilt. 77. The saying that, even if St. Peter were now Pope, he could grant no greater graces, is blasphemy against St. Peter and the Pope. 78. We affirm on the contrary that both he and any other Pope has greater graces to grant, namely, the Gospel, powers, gifts of healing, etc. (i Cor. 12 : 9). 79. To say that the cross set up among the insignia of the Papal arms is of equal power with the cross of Christ, is blasphemy. 80. Those bishops, curates, and theologians who allow such discourses to have currency among the people, will have to render an account. 81. This licence in the preaching of pardons makes it no easy thing, even for learned men, to protect the reverence due to the Pope against the calumnies, or at all events, the keen questionings of the laity. 82. As for instance :— Why does not the Pope empty purga tory for the sake of most holy charity and of the supreme necessity of souls — this being the most just "of all reasons — if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of that most fatal thing money, to be spent on building a basilica — this being a very slight reason ? S3. Again ; why do funeral masses and anniversary masses for the deceased continue, and why does not the Pope return, or permit the withdrawal of the funds bequeathed for this pur pose, since it is a wrong to pray for those who are already re deemed ? 84. Again; what is this new kindness of God and the Pope, in that, for money's sake, they permit an impious man and an enemy of God to redeem a pious soul which loves God, and yet do not redeem that same pious and beloved soul, out of free charity, on account of its own need? 85. Again ; why is it that the penitential canons, long since abrogated and dead in themselves in very fact and not only by usage, are yet still redeemed with money, through the granting of indulgences, as if they were full of life ? 86. Again ; why does not the Pope, whose riches are at this day more ample than those of the wealthiest of the wealthy, build the one Basilica of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with that of poor believers i 87. Again ; what does the Pope remit or impart to those who, through perfect contrition, have a right to plenary remission and participation ? 88. Again ; what greater good would the Church receive if the Pope, instead of once, as he does now, were to bestow these remissions and participations a hundred times a day on any one of the faithful ? 89. Since it is the salvation of souls, rather than money, that the Pope seeks by his pardons, why does he suspend the letters and pardons granted long ago, since they are equally efficacious ? 90. To repress these scruples and arguments of the laity by force alone, and not to solve them by giving reasons, is to ex pose the Church and the Pope to the ridicule of their enemies, and to make Christian men unhappy. 91. If then pardons weie preached according to the spirit and mind of the Pope, all these questions would be resolved with ease ; nay, would not exist. 92. Away then with all those prophets who say to the people of Christ : " Peace, peace," and there is no peace. 93. Blessed be all those prophets, who say to the people of Christ : " The cross, the cross," and there is no cross. 94. Christians should be exhorted to strive to follow Christ their head through pains, deaths, and hells. 95. And thus trust to enter heaven through many tribulations, rather than in the security of peace. PROTESTATION. I, Martin Luther, Doctor, of the Order of Monks at Wittem- berg,_ desire to testify publicly that certain propositions against pontifical indulgences, as they call them, have been put forth by me. Now although, up to the present time, neither this most celebrated and renowned school of ours, nor any civil or ecclesiastical power has condemned me, yet there are as I hear some men of headlong and audacious spirit, who dare to pro nounce me a heretic, as though the matter had been thoroughly looked into and studied. But on my part, as I have often done before, so now too I implore all men, by the faith of Christ, either to point out to me a better way, if such a way has been divinely revealed to any, or at least to submit their opinion to the judgment of God and the Church. For I am neither so rash as to wish that my sole opinion should be pre ferred to that of all other men, nor so senseless as to be willing that the Word of God should be made to give place to fables, devised by human reason. {^Translation of Wace and Buch heim, Primary Works ofthe Reformation.) Theses of Claus Harms. The following Theses of Pastor Claus Harms were published on the Three Hundredth Anniversary of the Reformation in 1817, and were of marked in fluence in turning the current of theological thought away from Rationalism. (See Harms.) MY THESES. The following theses which are directed against all kinds of errors and confusions within the Lutheran Church, the writer is ready further to explain, to prove, defend and answer for. In case the labor should become too great for him all at once, he prays all true Lutherans, and those who agree with him and are able to speak or write, for their fraternal aid. If he him self is convinced of error, he will send his acknowledgment unto the world as frankly and freely as he sends forth these Theses. For the rest, everything to the honor of God, to the welfare of the Church, and in grateful memory of Luther. I. When our Master and Lord Jesus Christ says : " Repent," he wills that men shall be conformed to his doctrine, but he does not conform the doctrine to men, as is now done, in accordance with the altered time-spirit {Zeitgeist). 2 Tim. 4 : 3. 2. The system of faith as well as that of ethics is now shaped so that upon the whole men already fit into it. There fore Protest and Reform must now be repeated. 3. With the idea oi a progressive Reformation, as this idea is now conceived and preached, Lutheranism is reformed into Heathenism, and Christianity is reformed out of the world. 4. Since the system of faith has been conformed to the system of ethics, and this latter to the actions of men, the beginning must be made as always, with this :— Repent ! 5. This sermon, when a reformation time is at hand, is ad dressed to all, without distinguishing good and bad :fortheyalso who have conformed themselves to the false teaching, are re garded as bad. 6- Christian doctrine and Christian life are both to be built up after the same plan. 7. If men were in the right way in their actions, then it might be said : In doctrine, go backwards and in life, go forwards, then you will come to true Chnstianity. 8. Repentance shows itself first of all as a falling away from him who set himself, or was set in the place of God, which was Theses (Harms) 513 Theses (Harms) in Luther*s time, in a certain sense, the Pope, Luther's anti christ. 9. The Pope of our time, our antichrist we may call in respect of faith, the Reason ; in respect of action, the Conscience (ac cording to the attitude of each towards Christianity, since both are opposed to faith and right action. Gog and Magog. [Rev. 20 : 8] ; the latter of which [conscience] has been crowned with the triple crown ; legislation, commendation and blame, reward and punishment. 10. But Conscience can give no law, but can only urge and insist upon the law which God has given ; it can praise nothing except what God has praised ; it cannot punish except by urg ing the punishments of God, according to the Word of God, which is the text of conscience. II. Conscience cannot forgive sins, in other words, no one can forgive himself his sins. Forgiveness belongs to God. 12. That the operation of cutting off the conscience from the Word of God like a runner from a plant, has not been com pleted in the case of some, is a special mercy of God in their case. 13. That, where it is completed, greater evil is not produced, for this we thank in part the laws of the rulers, in part the de crees of custom wliich is ever yet more Gbd-fearing than the prevalent teaching, 14. 'This operation, in consequence of which God has been deposed from his judgment-seat, and each one has been per mitted to set his own conscience upon it, took place while no watch was kept in our Church. 15. Calixt who separated ethics from dogmatics set up the throne of majesty for conscience, and Kant who taught the au tonomy of the conscience set it upon the throne. 16. It deserves historical investigation how in modern books the word " God-fearing " has made way for the rising word '* conscientious," and whether proofs are not to be found that the so-called conscientiousness has always advanced conscience- less-ness. 17. Where the conscience ceases to read and begins to write for itself, the result is as various as the handwritings of men. Name me a sin, which every man regards as sin ! 18. When the conscience ceases to be a servant of the divine judgment against sin, it will not permit God to be even a serv ant in its court. The idea of divine punishment of sin vanishes altogether. 19, Before now the fear of divine punitive judgments was already reraoved. They who discovered the safety conductors for it deserve unlike honor and thanks from Franklin. 20. The fast days still remain as memorials of the old faith. It would have been better had not a new meaning been given them. Days of prayer — the name has already vanished, as in deed a believer in reason cannot consistently pray at all, 21. The forgiveness of sins cost at least money in the six teenth century ; in the nineteenth it is entirely free, for each one administers it to himself. 22. That age stood higher than the present — because nearer to God. 23. To pray for pardon — of whom ? of one's self ? — to weep tears of lepentance, — to weep before one's self ?— To comfort one's self with thoughts of the grace of God— yes, if he would turn aside the natural evil consequences of my deeds I This is the language taught by the teaching now prevalent. 24. " Two states, O man, thou hast before thee," we read in the old hymn book. In more recent times the devil has been slain and hell has been stopped up. 25. An error in ethics breeds an error in dogmatics; he who turns all ethics upside down, turns all dogmatics upside down too. 26, One must tremble and quake when he thinks how God less, i. e. without God and fear of God, men are at present. 27. According to the old faith, God created man ; according to the new faith, man creates God, and when he has finished him he says Aha ! (Isa. 44 : 12-20.) 28. That the operation of cutting off the reason from the Word of God like a runner from a plant has not been completed in the case of some is a special mercy of God in their case. 29. Where it is completed, that much more unbelief is not there put forth; for this we thank the earlier impressions of the truths of faith, which can with difficulty be entirely effaced. 30. This operation, in consequence of which every revealed religion, therefore the Christian also, is rejected, in so far as it does not harmonize with reason, i. e. entirely rejected, occurred while no watch was kept in our Church. 31. Who first undertook to keep watch, I do not know ; but who undertook it last, that I know, and all Holstein knows. 32. The so-called religion of reason, is without reason, or without religion, or without both. 33. Accor(^ng to it, the moon is held to be the sun. 34. A two-fold use of language is to be distinguished : Reason as the sum of all the spiritual powers which distinguish man, and Reason as a special spiritual power. In the latter sense the assertion is made that reason teaches religion as little as it allows itself to be taught leligion. ,..,.«¦ 35. Whether you use the right or the left hand is indifferent ; but to use the foot in place ofthe hand, or the ear m place of 23 the eye, is not indifferent, and just as Httle is it indifferent with what spiritual faculty you take hold of religion. 36. He who can understand the first letter of reUgion, which is " holy " with his reason, let him send for me. 37. I know a religious word which the reason understands half, and half it understands it not : " Feier?'' The reason says : " not to work,'* etc., if the word is changed to " Feier- lichkeit,** it is immediately taken away from reason, too won derful, and too high for it. Just so it is with " Weihen?'* *' Seg- 7ien.^* Language is so full and life so rich in things which are as far removed from reason as from the bodily senses. Their common territory is the mystical, religion is a part of this territory. Terra incogtiita for the reason. 38. The reason isto be examined closely, for it often bears itself and speaks as though it had been there, as cordially, com fortingly, trustingly, or however you may please to call it. 39. As the reason has its understanding, so the heart has its understanding also, only it is turned towards an entirely differ ent world. 40. The question has not yet been sufficiently investigated, at least the result has not been generally accepted, what the cause maybe that the religion ot reason has been found so late; as though the reason had . but just now been bom into the world. 41. Some truths of revealed reli^on man can, afterthey have been given him, rediscover in certain phenomena of nature and the world of man. These together, some two or three, are called " Natural Religion" or the "Religion of Reason," notwithstand ing that here also the reason has neither to give or to take. 42. The relation of the so-called Natural Religion to the re vealed, is as the relation of nothing to something, or as the rela tion of revealed religion to revealed religion. 43. When reason touches religion it casts the pearls away, and plays with the shells, the empty words. 44. It does as did the preacher who married the physitist Ritter. To the words of the service, " What God hath joined together, let no man put asunder," he added, *' except forgrave reasons." See Nachlass eines ju7igen Physikers, Heidelberg, 1810, p. Ixxiii. 45. It draws the holy things of faith into the circle of com mon experience, and says with Mohammed : " How should God have a son ? He has no wife ! " 46. From the lipsof certain preachers the words "Our Saviour and Redeemer " sound like the words under a letter, " Your friend and servant." But the character of their sermons is this .*: They let the recipe be taken instead of the medicine; in the cui^ rent language, through understanding to the heart. 47. When in religious matters the reason wants to be more- than a layman, it becomes a heretic. Avoid it ! (Tit. 3 : 10. X It appears at any rate as though all heresies were let loose againi all at once. Worshippers of conscience, and naturalists, Socin-- ians and Sabellians, Pelagians, Synergists, Cry ptocal vinists,,, Anabaptists, Syncretists, Interimists, and so on. 48. We fear inquisition and courts to try faith, means nothing; else than : We fear the misuse of reason. 49. We are afraid of Pceschlians — we are afraid of lunatics^ But against these we have institutions! 50. Further : We have a sure Bible Word, unto which we take heed (2 Pet. i : 19); and to guard against the use of force to turn and twist this like a weathercock we have our Symbol ical Books. 51. The words also of our revealed religion we regard as holy in their original languages, and consider them not as a garment that can be stripped from religion, but as its body, united with which it has one life. 52. But a translation into a living; language must be revised every hundred years, in order that it may remain in life. 53. The activity of religion has been retarded because this has not been done. The Bible societies should arrange for a re vised Luther's Bible translation. 54. To provide a German translation with explanations of German words is to regard the German as the original language of revelation. That would be papistical and superstitious. 55. To edit the Bible with such glosses as amend the original Word, is to correct the Holy Spirit, to despoil the Church, and to lead to the Devil those who believe in such glosses. 56. In the explanatory notes in the Altona Bible published in 1815 for the use of people and schools, these rules, as the scholar expressed it, the Rationalistic view, — as the people name it, a new faith, — according to Biblical idiom, which goes deeper and delineates more sharply — the Devil. (Eph. 2 :2.) 57. Who will assert that the promoters of this edition of the Bible did not mean well ? But who will deny that they pub licly represent the Bible as the very worst book in the world ? 58. Until now the believers iu reason lacked a bond of union and a symbol ; this is supplied them, so far they can unite, in this edition of the Bible. 59. Hereafter no preacher can preach Lutheran, i. e. Chris tian sermons, without laying himself open to contradiction out of this Bible. These men certainly know much better than you ! 60. And if he points poor humbled sinners to Jesus, who so graciously has called them : " Come unto me all ye that are Theses (Harms) 514 Thirty Years' yVar weary and heavy laden, and I will give you rest," — this edition of the Bible says : What shall these do ? They are no Jews ! and his teaching you have long ago ! — Christ is to be only a second Moses. 6i. Christians are everywhere to be taught to be on their guard againstthis edition of the Bible, and they are to be prom ised in God's name, in faith on our Kong : It will soon be cast aside. 62. That the Home Bible Societiesare silent and do not speak out concerning this Bible, this cannot be approved. 63. Christians are to be taught that they put not a blind con fidence in the preacher, but themselves look and search in the Scriptures like the Bereans (Acts 17 : 11), to see whether these things are so. 64. Christians are to be taught that they have the right not to endure anything un-Christian and un-Lutheran in the pulpits as well as in church and school books. 65. If no one else is concerned for the doctrine, the people themselves are to be urged to do it, who, it is true, have neither measure nor purpose. 66. The people cannot have confidence in overseers of the Church, many of whom are reputed not to have the faith of the Church. 67. It is a marvellous demand that it must be permitted that a new faith be taught from a chair which the old faith established, and out of a mouth which the old faith feeds (Ps. 41 : 9). 68. (io with Hermann Tast beneath the lindens and preach there, if you cannot keep your faith to yourself. (Kraft'sy^^^/ Gedaechtniss, p. ro3.) But the preaching of the new faith has for several years already been attempted in the pulpits, and the people have gone astray. Matth. n : 17 [?]. 69. The watchword of the teachers of error is (John 4 : 24) : " God is a spirit, and they that worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth." With this, they pretend to have caught the entire Christian Church, yes, Christ himself in his speech. 70. Their battle cry is Acts 10 : 35 : "In every nation he that feareth God, and worketh righteousness, is accepted with him. " This they (not the Altona Bible) explain, as though it were in different whether one be Jew or Christian, whether half-Chris tian or nothing at all. 71. Reason runs mad in the Lutheran Church, tears Christ from the altar, throws God's Word down from the pulpit, casts mud into the baptismal water, mixes all kinds of people in spon sorship, erases the inscription from the confessional, hisses the priests out and all the people after them, and has done this so long time already. And yet it is not being bound ? This shall be genuinely Lutheran, and not Carlstadtian ! 72. The Catholic Church could easily celebrate the Reforma tion festival with us, as has been suggested to her : for as far as the prevalent faith in our Church is concerned she is just as Lutheran as our Church. 73. It were to be desired that in various Lutheran lands they might have the following text for a periodic sermon : Luke 15 : 18 : " I will arise and go to my.father." This might prove very edifying to many a congregation which is perhaps suffering from hunger and care in the strange land of an erroneous faith. 74. The answer that advances are made in Illumination will certainly not be proved by the present darkness of true Chris tianity ? Many thousands can say as once the disciples of John did. Acts 19 : 2: " We have not so much as heard whether there be any Holy Ghost." (Note of the Altona Bible ; Holy Ghost, complete instruction in Christianity.) 75. As a poor maiden the Lutheran Church is now to be made rich by being married. Do not perform the ceremony over Luther's bones. They will become alive at it, and then — woe to you ! 76. They who think " brach es "is a word of great value, and are ready to give up the Lutheran Church, as far as they can for it, are more unknowing than the unquestioned people who should at least have been questioned concerning /^/r faith, not to say than Lcescher (Cf. his Historia Motuum, Heilsame Worte,^ 14 ii.)- 77. To say that time has removed the wall of partition be tween Lutherans and Reformed, is not a straightforward mode of speech. It is necessary to ask which fell away from the faith of their Church, the Lutherans or th^ Reformed ?orboth? 78. If at the colloquy at Marburg, 1529, the body and blood of Clhrist was in the bread and wine, it is still so in 1817. 79. If it is not an outrage, it is at least inconsiderateness, to lock up the treasures of the Church and to throw away the key. Against this all Lutherans ought to say : "V^e protest. To say which is still unforbidden in Denmark. So, for his part, does a Geneva candidate, who will not forget the faith of his Church. {S^G. Haw.burger Correspondent, 1817, No. 146.) 80. Against such a union, especially as it concerns only exter nals, the internal differences being retained on both sides, the protest of a single Lutheran or Reformed would naturally suf fice (Matth. 25 : 9). *' Not so ; lest there be not enough for us and you ; but go ye rather to them that sell.'* 81. The builders of the new so-called Evangelical Church will fare as did the Dithmarshers with their cloister at Hemming- stadt ; no maidens would go in and several old peasant women went out again. This cloister was not popular, and this church is not Christian. (See Bolten, Dithm. Gesch, Bd. IIL, § 40.) 82. As Reason hindered the Reformed in building up their Church and bringing it into unity, so the admission of reason into the Lutheran Church would only produce confusion and destruction in it, 83, (Confusion with respect to the confessional writings, — which are nothing else than a definite, generally accepted ex planation of Holy Scripture. 84. Confusion with respect to the authorized and accepted church Agenda, Hymn-books and Catechisms, as already the public preaching in many places stands in holy places in bold, dreadful contradiction. 85. Confusion among the teachers, when one preaches old, the other new faith. The motto so highly praised, t Thess. 5:21: " Prove all things, hold fast that which is good," is falsely understood of free teaching of Biblical faith. 86. Confusion in the relation between teachers and congre- eitions. Heinrich of Zuetphen set up a thesis ; " The Church of hrist IS divided into priests and laymen." The new teacher of error would say : the Church is divided into sextons (Kuester) and non-sextons. Yes, would that the priests were true sex tons — custodes I 87. Confusion with respect to other churches. Each rests on the Bible according to different interpretation, on which they have not united ; you accept this, we that interpretation, and yet we will love and respect each other. The religion of reason wants to know of no interpretation except that which each head makes for itself for to-day and perhaps for to-morrow. 88. Confusion with respect to the states. These have prom ised their protection to the Church on the basis of the confes sions presented by the Church. _ Of such the religion of reason will know nothing. But the religious element in man when not bound to a divine revelation, is a fearful element. 89. Confusion in civil life. This is drawn entirely into the circle of the Church in eveiy important occurrence and event. With the religion of reason m a land, uo husband could be sure of his wife, no man of his life, and, as among the Quakers, no oath would be permissible, but for opposite reasons. 90. The Lutheran Church has in its structure completeness, and perfectness ; only that the highest leadership, and final de cision even in distinctively spiritual matters is vested in a per son not of spiritual rank, in the civil ruler ; this is a mistake hastily and irregularly made, which must be corrected in a regular way. 91. So, also, the fact cannot be harmonized with the Protes tant principles of our Church, that several persons in a con gregation, or even a single person who perhaps does not even belong to the congregation, appoint a preacher for it. For sheep a shepherd is appointed ; out souls ought everywhere to choose their pastors. 92. The EvangeHcal Catholic is a glorious Church ; it holds and conforms itself chiefly to the Sacraments. 93. The Evangelical Reformed is a glorious Church ; it holds and conforms itself chiefly to the Word of God. 94- More glorions than both is the Ev. Lutheran Church ; it holds and conforms itself both to the Sacraments and the Word of God. 95. Into this Lutheran Church both the others are develop ing, even without the intentional aid of men. But the way of the ungodly shall perish, says David (Ps. i : 6). W. A. L. Thiel College. See Colli;ges. Thilo, Valentine, b. 1607 in Koenigsberg, d. 1662. He studied at Koenigsberg and Ley den, was professor of rhetoric m Koenigsberg, 1634, a friend of Heinrich Albert, member of the Koenigsberg Poetical Union ; wrote two text-books on rhetoric (1635 and 1648), and also a number of hymns, which appeared in the Preussische Festlieder (1642). Among them * ' Mit Ernst, O Menschenkinder, ' ' re-written for the Hanover H. B. of 1647, probably by David Denicke, tr. by Miss Winkworth, Ch. B. for England (1863), ''Ye Sons of Men, in earnest," Ohio Hymnal (1880). A. S, Thirty Years' War. a general name for a succession of religious and political wars in the German empire between the years 1618 and 1648. There were two causes for the struggle : Firsts the Catholic reaction against Protes tantism, which had spread rapidly despite the P^ace; of Augsburg {q, v.). Second, the de termination of the Emperor Ferdinand IL Tholuck 515 Thomasius (1619-37) to establish the supremacy of the empire over the states. The war began in 1618 when the Protestant estates of Bohemia revolted against their king, Ferdinand, afterward emperor, and elected Fred erick V. elector of the Palatinate in his place. In a war that lasted for five years they were defeated and the army of the elector, com manded by Mansfeld and Christian of Anhalt, was driven across Germany, through Alsace and Lorraine, into Holland. In 1624 Christian IV. of Denmark allied himself with the Protestants, but, after repeated defeats at the hands of Tilly and WaUenstein, the imperial commanders, he was forced in 1629 to sign the Treaty of Liibeck, and Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, restoring to the Church all lands secularized since 1552. The next year the tide turned. Gustavus Adolphus {q. v.) landed his Swedish army on the north coast of Germany and marched gouth, sweeping everything before him. His first great battle was fought on Sept. 17, 1631, at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, where the army of Tilly was almost annihilated. Other smaller engagements were won by the Swedes, until Ferdinand recalled WaUenstein, who had been in disgrace. He met the Swedes, April 15, 1632, at Liitzen, and was defeated, but the Swedish king was killed. Oxenstiem , who took command, carried on the war uniil the defeat of his Protestant allies in 1634 compelled them to subscribe the Peace of Prague (1635). Oxenstiern soon found another aUy in Riche lieu, whose great ambition was to humble the house of Austria, and from 1636 the war was continued under the direction of the French generals, Turrenne and Cond^, until the PEacb OF Westphalia was concluded in 1648. Authorities : Gardiner, Thirty Years' War ; Ward, The House of Austria in the Thirty Years' War ; Gindely, Geschichte des Dreissig- jdhrigen Kriegs (Eng. trans, by Ten Brook) ; Schiller, Geschichte des Dreissigjdhrgen Kriegs. C. M. J. Tholuck, Friedrich August Deofldus, b, at Breslau on March 30, 1799, apprenticed by his harsh stepmother to his father, a poor gold- worker, succeeded at last in going to a college and to the university at Breslau, later (i8i6) to Berlin, where he was aided by Altenstein, the minister of state, influenced by Neander and von Kottwitz, converted to Christ, turned from his oriental studies to theology, lectured on the Old Testament after De Wette's dismissal in 1821. 1826 professor at Halle, weakly and suffering, for a year preacher to the Prussian embassy at Rome, returned to Halle in 1829, and stayed there until his death in 1877. He was a powerful defender of true Christianity and an uncompromising foe of the Rationalis mus vulgaris. Weak in body, but strong in spirit, at first despised by the students, he, by his extraordinary versatility of mind and his inexhaustible store of knowledge, by the brilUancy of his wit and satire, by his warrn sympathy, won them over from Gesenius and Wegscheider, and led thousands of them to Chnst. He always had some students as com panions in his daily walks and addressed large gatherings of them regularly at his house ; honored as the "Students' Father." To his memory his wife founded a" Students' Home." For years, in his more pietistic way, holding aloof from the strict confessional party, al though worshipping with the congregation served by Ahlfeld and H. Hoffmann, he in 1859 confessed his love for the Luth. confessions, institutions and representatives, and acknowl edged the necessity of the confessions for the welfare of the Church. Many of his and Julius Miiller's hearers eventually became decided Lutherans. He lectured on the New Testa ment, ethics, theology, encyclopsedia, modern church-history, was preacher to the university, and had to preach frequently in many places on festival occasions. His commentaries {Rom ans (ist ed., 1824), St. John, Sermon on the Mount, Hebrews) are very extensive and learned, and after Fritzsche's attacks more carefully prepared in grammatical details. His Spirit ofthe Luth. Theologians of Wittenberg, and his Academical Life in the i-jth Century (1865), his History of Rationalism (1865), and Church Life during the Thirty Years' War, are full of piquant anecdotes. Some of his works were directed against De Wette, Strauss. Many of his sermons were published. By his Literary Bulletin (Anzeiger), (from 1830 until 1849), he wielded a far-reaching influ ence. E. F. M. Thomander, Johan Henric, D. D. (Copen hagen, 1836), b. in Sweden 1798, ordained 1821, professor of theology at Lund (1833), dean of Gothenburg (1850), bishop of Lund (1856), died 1865. He was the greatest spiritual orator in Sweden and an ingenious author, taking the leading part in questions of religious liberty, temperance and education. N. P. Thomasius, Christian, b. Jan. i, 1655, in Leipzig, son of Jacob Thomasius, studied phil ology and philosophy at Leipzig, travelled to Holland, was instrumental in founding the Univ. of Halle, where he taught jurisprudence, until his death, Sept. 25, 1784. Though favoring pietism, T. was one of the greatest pioneers of rationalism, and the advocate of territorialism in church polity (see Church Polity, Territori alism) . His influence was very great in his age, because he possessed universal though superficial knowledge, adopted the standpoint of "the sound common-sense " of his time, combined with French esprit and German openness, which at times degenerated into insulting coarseness, when he satirized the ministry, the Church and its customs. Tolerance, which opened the way for a rationalistic mysticism, was the watchword of T., who, at the same time, flattered the princes by his territorialism. {Real Encycl. 2, 15, 613 ff.) Thomasius, Gottfried, son of a Bavarian pastor, and descendant of the Jurist Christian Thomasius ; b. in Bavarian Franconia 1802, d. 1875 at Erlangen. He was one of the most nota ble Luth. theologians of the nineteenth century, equally distinguished as a dogmatician and as a historian of doctrine. As unassuming as he was profound, deeply rooted in the faith and with uncommon facUity for opening to others Thomasius 516 Thorwaldsen the realm of faith, combining depth of thought with rare simplicity of statement, he com manded the reverence and the love of his students, and held his own even in a faculty which included von Hofmann. His studies at Halle and Berlin had been at tended by a striving after firm religious con victions, by a growth of the inner life, along with a strong impulse toward the truth, and by a lofty enthusiasm for theological science united with a thorough grasp of its problems. From 1829-42 he was pastor at Nuremberg, where he also gave religious instruction in the gymnasium. In 1842 he was appointed pro fessor of systematic theology at Erlangen, a position which he held till his death. His advent proved a turning-point not only for the university but also for the Church of Bavaria, which was then experiencing a powerful re action against the dominant Rationalism. The movement of this newly-awakened life was to ward Confessional Lutheranism, and it was of the utmost consetjuence that the theological faculty in which a Hofling and a Harless already repre sented the revived church consciousness should be strengthened by an acquisition that soon secured the preponderance to a trend which combined fidelity to the Confession and ecclesi astical interests with genuine science and theo logical progress. His position is clearly ex pressed in his own words, "that in what is properly called Luth. we possess what is truly catholic, and what forms the true mean be tween the confessional extremes. ' ' His most famous work, a treatise of the first rank, is Christi Person und Werk (3d ed. 1886), a philosophical presentation of the Luth. system, tinged somewhat by the influence of Schleiermacher, and departing from Luth. orthodoxy on the doctrine of the Kenosis, his discussion of which was epoch-making. His Dogmengeschichte (2d ed. 1890) has uncommon value, especially because of its tracing the de velopment of Luth. doctrine. E. J. W. Thomasius, Jacob, rector of Thomas School and professor of rhetoric, Leipzig, b. Leipzig, 1622, d. 1684 ; author of De Insignibus Quatuor Evangelistarum. Thordersen, Helgi G., b. 1794, d. 1867, bishop of Iceland from 1845-66. A very elo quent preacher. A collection of his sermons appeared after his death (in 1883) and became very popular. F. J. B. Thorlaksson, Gudhrandur, b. 1542, d. 1627, bishop of H61ar diocese, Iceland. He is the most prominent figure of the Reformation period in Iceland. No one has contributed so much as he did to the introduction of all the ideas and principles of the Reformation. The first print ing press had been imported by the Roman Catholic bishop, J6n Arason, about 1530. In 1578 Bishop Gudbrandur Thorldksson bought a new one, greatly improved, and connected the same with the old one. Under his supervision a great many German devotional works were translated. He himself labored incessantly at the translation of the Bible, and published, in 1584, an illustrated edition, the cuts being made by his own hand, a translation wonderfully happy in phraseology and idiomatic in its expressions. He translated and published New Testament Summaries in 1589, the Old Testament and prophetical books in 1591 and 1602. He collected hymns and pub lished a hymn-book in 1589, and a Gradu ate, which became the church book for gen eral use in churches and homes of Iceland down to 1801, published in 19 editions, first in 1594, last in 1779. He also translated Luther's Small Catechism (1594) and gospel sermons (1597). He was bishop for 56 years, and all that time he labored with unremitting love at publishing books of which he either was the author himself or the translator. Although most of his books were of devotional nature, he did not confine himself to such publications only. He published the Icelandic Code (157S- 1580 and 1582). In 1612 he published a collec tion of lyrics by different authors. Even musical works were issued {Graduate). Other works : Biblica Laicorum, illustrated (1599) ; The Prayers of our Forefathers (1607) ; New Testament (1609) ; Luther's Large Cate chism, Catechism for Children, illustrated (1610), and Mirror of Contrition (1611). He even found time to make astronomical calcula tions, a geographical map of Iceland, and as tronomical charts. (See also Iceland. ) F. J. B. Thorlaksson, Jon, b. 1744, d. 1819, pastor at Boegisd, Iceland, a very productive poet and translator. His works have been published in two large vols. He translated Pope's Essay on Man (1798) ; Milton's Paradise Lost, and Messiah, by the German poet Klopstock. Be sides, he wrote odes and lyrics and hjonns, some of which have passed into the hymn- books. F. J. B. Thorn Colloquy. This religious confer ence, known also as Colloquium Cceritati- vum, belongs to the union efforts of the seventeenth century. King Wladislaw IV. of Poland, at the suggestion and persuasion of Bartholomew Nigrinus (formerly a Re formed preacher, but then a Roman Cath olic), convened the meeting at Thom (Aug. 18 to Nov. 21, 1645), with a view of reconciling his Catholic and Protestant subjects. Among the Lutherans present were Abraham Calov, John Hiilsemann, and George Calixtus. The latter's sympathy with the Reformed embittered the Lutherans from the beginning. After laboring three months to explain away their religious differences, they separated with many courteous corapliments, according to some ; and with the schisms on all sides greatly aggravated, accord ing to others. J. J. Y. Thorwaldsen, Bertel. This famous sculptor was b. in Copenhagen, Nov. 19, 1770, of Icelandic parentage. Whilst yet a child, he helped his father in his trade, which was wood-carving. At the age of 17 years he received a silver medal from the Academy of Fine Arts, and two years later a second prize. His progress and achievements were wonder ful, and excited great admiration. He spent many years in Italy, and the number, variety, and beauty of his works called forth un bounded praise, especially those which represent Thuringia 517 Toiiens sacred persons and scenes, more than fifty in number ; and prominent among them are the statues of Christ and the twelve apostles, and the Angel of Baptism (baptismal font) in Frue Kirke, Copenhagen. He left unfinished busts of Luther and Melanchthon. D. in March 1844. e;. B. ' Thuringia, Luth. Church in. The 8 states of Thuringia number a little over 1,300,- 000 inhabitants, of whom nearly 1,300,000 are Lutheran or " Evangelical." The Lutheran is the official church, and the Luth. Confessions • are acknowledged in Altenburg, the two Reuss Rudolstadt, and Sondershausen. Also in Wei mar-Eisenach the Luth. Confessions are officiaUy recognized, though some kind of a union has been entered into with the Reformed. The church of Meiningen is officially the " evangeli cal, |' though by synodical decree the Luth. con- ¦ fession is secured to Luth. congregations. In general the Church is very liberal, as is also the theological faculty of the University of Jena, especially in Koburg-Gotha, where not' even the explanations to Luther's catechism are taught, and the Apostles' Creed is allowed to be used only in the form of a recital, not as a confession, except where no opposition is raised to the latter use. The church government, formerly in the hands of consistories, which, however, have been abolished except in Reuss' older line, as it seems in the interest of union istic tendencies, is now mostly vested in one of the ministerial departments of state. Home missionary contributions are mostly controlled by the Gustav-Adolf-Verein, whilst in the strictly Luth. states the sympathies are with the Luth. Gotteskasten. The contributions for foreign missions go mostly to the Leipzig society, some to Basle. In opposition to these the General Evang. Protestant Mission Society was lately established, which — a sign of the prevailing spirit — is conducted, not on confessional, but purely humanitarian, principles. J. F. Tieftrunk, John Henry, philosopher of the Kantian school, b. Sterne, near Rostock, 1760 : professor at HaUe, 1792 ; d. 1837 ; author of a Critique of Religion and Religious Dogmatics (1790) ; Censor of the Protestant Doctrinal System (1791-5) ; Die Religion der Miindigen (1800). Rationalistic. "The design of the- Lord's Supper," he taught, "is to awaken a spirit of cosmopolitan brotherhood." Tischendorf, Lobegott Friedrich Kon- Stantin, b. Jan. 8, 1815, at Langenfeld, Saxony, d. Dec. I, 1874, at Leipsic. An eminent bibli cal scholar, who rendered inestimable services to the critical study of the Holy Scriptures. He matriculated at the University of Leipzig in 1834, studied theology and philosophy, and, un der Hermann and Winer, became enthusiastic ally devoted to classical and sacred research. He became Privat Dozent at Leipzig in 1840, ex traordinary professor from 1845, and in 1859 professor of theology and of biblical paleog raphy, a chair for the latter having been insti tuted for him. Early in his career he concentrated his studies on a critical revision of the N. T. text, making extensive journeys among the libraries of Eu rope to examine the materials at hand for such a revision. He followed in the wake of Lach mann, not only in disregarding the Textus Re- ceptus but also in other particulars He also made repeated trips to the East, visiting EffVDt with Its Kojjtic monasteries, the Sinaiti! penin sula, Palestine and Syria and ConstantiSople recovenng a number of MSS. Receiving the necessary pecuniary as weU as moral support of the Czar of Russia in 1859, te was enabled for the third time to visit the monastery of St Catharine on Mt. Sinai, where he had in 1844" discovered the forty-three leaves of the Codex Fnderico-Augustanus, and whither he had gone in vain to secure the remaining leaves in 1853. He was now rewarded with the discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus, the oldest Greek MS of the Bible, written towards the middle or end of the 4th century, and composed of 347 leaves of veUum, containing 22 books of the O. T. and Apocrypha in the LXX. version and the whole of the N. T., with the epistle of Barnabas and a part of the Shepherd of Hermas. Depositing this invaluable treasure in St. Petersburg, he issued at the expense of the Czar, in 1862, a fac-simile edition of this Codex in four folio volumes, a copy of which was donated to the library of tiie Gettysburg Theological Seminary. Among his many other publications are several critical edi tions of the N. T. text, pre-eminent among which is the Eighth Critical Edition ; an edi tion of the LXX., Novum Testamentum Vati- canum; Monumenta Sacra Inedita (1846-71). " His editions of the N. T., culminating in the eighth, are very valuable for the text presented, and still more for the vast amount of material which they place at the disposal of the student of the text ; and the comparative agreement of Tregelles and of Westcott and Hort with him shows that his critical judgment was of a high order ' ' ( Gregory) . His journeys are described in Reise in den Orient (tr. in English), and in Aus dem Heili gen Lande ; his recovery of the Cod. Sin. is the subject of Die Sinai Bibel. He also wrote When Were Our Gospels Written f a work which was immediately translated into nearly every European tongue, including the Turkish. ¦ Tischendorf was made a count of the Russian Empire. Dr. Gregory gives a complete list of his ¦worksin Biblioth. Sacra., Jan., 1876. E. J. W. Tittmann, John Aug. Henry, b. Aug. i, 1773, in Langensalza, prof, at Leipzig, d. Dec! 30, 1831. Teaching nearly all branches, he ad vocated a mild supranaturalism tinged with rationalism, and having the confessional form. He was noted for clearness of diction and elo quence of speech. Tokens. The practice of discriminative communion belonged to the Reformed, as well as to the Luth. Church. An interesting testi monial to this was the now almost obsolete custom of requiring that all communicants should receive at the preparatory service a cer tificate to their being entitled to receive the Holy Supper in the shape of a " token, without which none were admitted." This was re quired in some parts of the Presbyterian Church in this country. McClintock and Strong's Toleration 518 Tradition Cyclopasdia defines tokens as " bits of lead or of pewter or cards, given to the members of the Church in full communion, which they hand to the elders as they approach the Lord's Table. The object is to keep out those who are not known, or who are under scandal, or, for other , reasons, are deemed unworthy." The Luth. Church in Holland followed this practice. The Order of the Church at Amsterdam prescribes that the deacons shall stand by the side of the altar and receive the tokens from the communi cants, which they had received from the pastor after they had been at the confessional service and had been absolved (Benthem's Hollaend- ischer-Kirch - und - Schulen Staat (1698), pp. 556, 559)- H. E. J. Toleration, or Religious Liberty, i. The State's Toleration of Lutheranism. The Reformation grew under the protection of the electors of Saxony and the other princes who embraced the revived Gospel. The power of the Empire was prevented from suppressing it by the necessity of the aid of the Luth. princes in the Emperor's struggle against the Turk, and at other times against the King of France. The principles of religious liberty were enun ciated at the first Diet of Spires, of 1529. At the close of the Schmalkald War, Lutheranism received recognition in the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, which guaranteed toleration to all ad herents of the Augsburg Confession. It was only by claiming to be " allied to the Augsburg Confession" that the Reformed were allowed any religious privileges. The provisions of Augs burg were renewed in the Peace of Westphalia, at the close of the Thirty Years' War, in 1648. In this country the early Lutherans among the Dutch in New York were persecuted, until the English conquered the New Netherlands. One of the chief attractions of the Province of Pennsylvania to German emigrants at the beginning of the eighteenth century was the combination of the recognition of the religious foundation of the government and the require ment to hold to the fundamentals of Christian ity, with that of the protection of worshippers both from persecution and derision for the form of Christianity which they professed. 2. Lutheran Toleration. Luther's uni form teaching was that in spiritual affairs the only weapon is the Word of God. Heretics are to be suppressed by the sword of the Spirit, but by no human violence. At Spires, in 1529, the principles of religious liberty were formulated in the immortal statement: "In matters per taining to God's honor and our souls' salvation, every one must stand and give an account of himself before God." (See Private Judg ment.) This does not mean, however, that the Church can be silent concerning manifest corruptions of doctrine, or can permit its teachers to teach whatever they please. While the individual is protected in the exercise of his faith towards God, it is the Church's duty to warn against false teachers, as Christ did against the Pharisees. Every confession of faith is an article of agreement, in which those who subscribe it pledge that in their churches no other teaching shall enter. In so doing the Luth. Church has not been intolerant, but only faithful. Pastors, professors, and other public teachers bearing her name, act under her in dorsement, with her sanction, and as her rep resentatives ; and this indorsement she cannot give, or, if it have been given, must withdraw, when the teaching is no longer that which she declares to be the Word of God. With the de parture of the errorist, however, from the rep resentative position he has been holding, and his silence as a public teacher claiming her approval, she is satisfied. All farther respon sibilities are a matter between him and God. The illustration of Luther in one of his Eight Sermons preached at Wittenberg after his retum from the Wartburg may be recalled. A man, if alone, can wield a sword as he pleases ; but if in a crowd, his liberty must be restrained or others will be injured. H. E. J. Torgau Articles. See Augsburg Confes sion. Torgau Confession. A series of articles on the Lord's Supper, composed at Torgau in 1574, by the superintendents Greser, Eberhard, Heidenrich, and others. Affirmative articles present the Luth. doctrine in rigid formulae : " By the sacramental union the bread is the body of Christ, and the wine is the blood of Christ. ' ' Negative articles neglect the views of Zwingli, Calvin, Beza, and the Heidelberg Catechism, and of all ancient and modem sacramentarians, as ' ' dangerous errors and fanatical frenzies which ought to be refuted and condemned in our churches." The authors appeal in support of their position to the writings of Luther and Melanchthon. These articles were subscribed by the Wittenberg theologians, with the understanding that they be interpreted according to the Corpus Doc trines Philippicum, and that the subscribers be allowed to maintain their attitude against Ubi quity and Consubstantiation. The articles are given in Hutter's Concordia Concors, Cap. V. J. W. R. Torgau Union, a league formed at Gotha in February, 1526, and ratified at Torgau May 4th, 1526, between Philip of Hesse and the Elector of Saxony, for mutual protection against the dangers that threatened themselves and the Gospel. June 12th the league was strengthened at Magdeburg by the addition of the dukes of Liineberg, the duke of Mecklen burg, the prince of Anhalt, and the counts of Mansfeld. Two days later Magdeburg was ad mitted, and September 29th Duke Albert of Prussia was received. The leaguers pledged themselves "to stand by and assist each other with body, goods, land, people, and all for tune." J. w. R. Torkillus, Reorus, first Luth. minister in America ; b. Paessberg, Sweden, 1609 ; edu cated at Lidkoeping ; teacher and chaplain at Goeteberg ; came to America, not in 1636, as often stated, but three years later ; held services at Fort Christiana (Wilmington. Del.) ; d. 1643 ; buried under Old Swedes' Church, Wilmington. Tradition, originaUy the doctrine of Christ and the apostles as handed down in the Chris tian Church from generation to generation by oral and written testimony, was by the early Tradition 519 Trappe fathers employed as an argument against the Gnostics and other errorists to prove their de parture from the Christian Church with whose uniform doctrine they were thus shown to be at variance. That this Christian doctrine, the tra ditional doctrine of the Church, was the true doc trine, rightly claiming divine authority, was by Irenaeus and others proved and demonstrated by exhibiting its origin from and conformity with the Scriptures as its source and norm. In this sense tradition is a fixed and uniform quantity, the testimony of the Church of all times and places, voicing forth the truth au thoritatively laid down in the written Word of God, adherence to which, according to John 8 : 32, is the chief essential of true discipleship. It was, therefore, a perversion of the true con cept of tradition, when tradition was conceived of as the second authoritative principle and source of Christian doctrine beside, above, and even to the exclusion of and in opposition to the Scriptures, which were degraded to "the book of heretics," while the voice of councils and synods, and finally of the Pope, was raised to the dignity of the voice of God, from which the Scriptures too must derive their authority. This perversion was stamped a dogma by the council of Trent, and resulted in tbe dogma of Papal infallibility. It was, in a tentative form, applied to the consensus quinquesescularis, by Cdixt, and advanced by the Tractarians, who' made the Church the authoritative interpreter of the Bible ; and when modern theology de rives Christian dogmas from the self-conscious ness of the Church, this is but another form of the perverse notion of tradition as a source and principle of theological truth. The Luth. Church values Christian tradition especially as it is expressed in the orthodox confessions of faith, and has contributed its " unanimously received definite common forms of doctrine, which our Evangelical churches together in common confess" (F. C, p. 57i). " so that there might be a public testimony not only for those living, but also for our posterity, as to what is and should remain the unanimously received understanding and judgment of our churches in reference to the articles in contro versy" (F. C, p. 572), just as "of old the trae Christian doctrine, in a pure, sound sense, was collected from God's Word into brief articles," etc. (F. C, p. 569). But, at the same time, the Luth. Church declares that "we receive and embrace the prophetic and apostolic Scrip tures of the Old and New Testaments as the pure, clear fountains of Israel, which are the only true standard whereby to judge aU teach ers and doctrines" (p. 569). and that "other writings of ancient or modern teachers, what ever reputation they may have, should not be regarded as of equal authority with the Holy Scriptures, but should altogether be subordi nated to them, and should not be received other and further than witnesses, in what manner and at what places, since the time of the apostles, the purer doctrine of the prophets and apostles was preserved " (p. 517) ¦ And, says ^e Con fession, " in this way the distinction between the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testa ments and aU other writings is preserved, and the Holy Scriptures alone remain the only judge, rule, and standard, according to which, as the only test-stone, all dogmas should and must be disceriied and judged, as to whether they be good or evil, nght or wrong. But the other symbols and writings cited are not judges, as are the Holy Scriptures, but only a witness and declaration of the faith, as to how at any time the Holy Scriptures have been understood and explained in the articles in controversy in the Church of God by those who then lived, and how the opposite dogma was rejected and con demned" (p. 518). A. L. G. Traducianism is the doctrine that the whole man, soul and body, is derived from parents by generation. It is opposed to pre-existentian- ism. taught by Origen, and recently by Schleier macher and Jul. Mueller, and to creationism, generally accepted in the Catholic and Re formed Church. Lutheran theology, from Luther down, has embraced Traducianism, taught by Tertullian, Athanasius, and Gregory of Nyssa, and preferred, without final decision, by Augustine. Traducianism is the logical pre supposition of the doctrine of the hereditary character of Adam's sin. For sin in a pre- existent soul is not Adam's sin ; and a soul created at birth is either pure and corrupted by contact with a sinful body, or created without original righteousness. Traducianism has the support of the Bible in its teaching of original sin, of the unity of man's organism (Gen. 5 : 3), of the unity of the human race (Acts 17 : 26 ; Rom. 5 : 12 seq.), and of the completion of creation (Gen. 2:2). It also has the support of modern science. A. G. V. Tranberg, Peter, Swedish-American pastor, came to America in 1726, pastor at Racoon and Pennsneck, N. J. (1726-40), at Christina (Wil mington, Del.), (1740) until his death in 1748. He preached English as well as Swedish and German, cared for the Lutherans at Lancaster, Pa., for a time, and by a ceremony, very similar to an installation service, introduced H. M. Muhlenberg to his work in this country. Trappe, Pa. (New Providence) Lutheran Church at. Augustus Lutheran Church at Trappe, Montgomery Co., Pa., eight miles north of Norristown, dating back to about 1684, was one of the three congregations which united in calling H. M. Muhlenberg to this country in 1742. The earliest record is 1730, and the earliest pastors were Revs. John Christian Schultze and Rev. John Caspar Stoever, Jr. , as well as sev eral Swedish Lutheran ministers prior to Muhlenberg's arrival, who held his first service there, Dec. 12, 1782. The quaint old stone church, erected by him in 1743, is still stand ing. An inscription over the doorway states it was erected for " the Society of the Augsburg Confession." Muhlenberg resided here until 1761, returned 1776, died here in 1787, and was buried in the graveyard adjoining the church. Itis supposed he gave the name "Augustus" to the church in honor of Herman Augustus Francke. In his time the place was known as Providence, and in 1750, 1760 and 1780 the con ventions of the Ministerium were held in this church. Hartwick and Van Buskerk were as- Trebonius 520 Trustees sociated with Muhlenberg. J. L. Voigt suc ceeded Muhlenberg, beginning 1765. He was succeeded by J. F. Weinland, 1783 ; J. P. Hecht, 1807 ; H. A. Geissenhainer, 1813 : F. W. Geis senhainer, Sr., 1821 ; F. W. Geissenhainer, Jr., 1823 ; J. Wampole, 1827, 1836 ; J. W. Richards, 1834 ; H. S. MiUer, 1838 ; G. A. Wen zel, 1852 ; A. S. Link, 1854 ; Geo. SiU, 1859 ; John Kobler, 1863 ; O. P. Smith, 1874 ; E. T. Kretschmann, 1889 ; J. B. Kurtz, 1896 ; W. O. Fegley, 1898. See the thorough and ela borately illustrated sketch, " The Old Trappe Church," by Ernest T. Kretschmann, Ph. D., Philadelphia, 1893. J. Fr. and Eds. Trebonius, John, Luther's teacher at Eisen ach, distinguished not only as a stimulating in structor, but particularly for his courtesy to his pupils, in strange contrast with the cruelty and roughness of other masters. Tressler, David Loy, first president of Car thage College, 111. ; bom LoysviUe, Pa., 1839 ; graduated, Pa. College, i860 ; captain in Civil War ; admitted to the bar, 1864 ; entered min istry, 1870; pastor Lena, Ills., 1870-2 ; prof, of ancient languages, Carthage, 1872 ; president, 1873, until his death, 1880. Trial Sermons, in the Luth. Church in the United States, congregations choose their own pastors. When a minister has been recom mended, it is customary to invite him to preach a " trial sermon " before the election is held, so the congregation can judge of his ability for and adaptability to the place. Some pastors have refused to preach such sermons, pre ferring that visiting committees be sent to hear them in their own pulpits, and report their im pressions to the congregation desiring their services. It is argued that to preach a trial sermon as a candidate for a vacant pulpit is not only derogatory to the high office of the holy ministry, but is no sure test of his fitness for the place. Many other qualifications must be considered beside the one item of his ac ceptability as a speaker. [An interesting letter on this subject is found in the life of Dr. Charles Porterfield Krauth, by Dr. Spaeth, vol. i., p. 293.] It is reasonable and proper that congregations should wish to see and hear a man before call ing him to be their spiritual father, counsellor and guide. To rely on the opinion of a visiting committee is rarely satisfactory, and in the case of theological students or ministers without charge, is impracticable. The chief objection to the custom can be avoided by hearing visit ing ministers preach as supplies, and not as can didates for the vacant pulpit. Ministers, whether from the neighborhood or from a distance, can supply vacant pulpits with good consciences, without any reference to trial-sermons or to a further call ; and congregations can thus have opportunity to see and hear the man for whom they are asked to vote. In the earlier years Of the Ministerium of Pa. and other synods, it was customary to require candidates for ordination to preach trial-sermons before the Ministerium, before they were finally admitted. When trial-sermons are preached, they should be on the Gospel for the day, or other appro priate text, so as to avoid any appearance of special effort, or any raising of expectations, which a subsequent ministry in the congrega tion would not fulfil. J. Fr. Trinity Church, Old, New York City. The early Lutheran settlers of New York were much oppressed in matters of faith by the Di rector-General Stuyvesant, and the pastor of the Dutch Reformed Church, Megapolensis. Lutheran preaching was prohibited, as was also attendance upon the same. Upon the former there was a fine of 100 Flemish pounds, and upon the latter of 25. Goetwasser, the first pastor, was, in Feb., 1669, succeeded by Jac. Fabritius. In the summer of 1671, Bemard Ai Arentius arrived. These three were sent over . by the Luth. Consistory of Amsterdam. The fourth pastor was the Swede, Andrew Rudman, who entered upon his duties in 1702, and served until, in 1703, he ordained Justus Falckner as his successor. Falckner diedin Dec, 1723. The church was temporarily served by F. 's brother Daniel, until, in July, 1725, Wm. Chr. Bercken meyer arrived from Amsterdam. When B. in 1732 confined his labors to the churches about Albany, Mich. Chr. Knoll became pastor in New York. During his administration there was much agitation on the language question, to wit : the introduction of German services, which, because being favored neither by Knoll, nor his church officers, soon caused a division (Christ Church). In 1750, upon the urgent re quest of the congregation, H. M. Muhlenberg came as supply from Philadelphia, and as regular pastor in 1753, Jno. Alb. Weygand. He remained until 1769, when the last one in the long line of pastors, Bern. Mich. Hausihl, was called, who left New York in 1783. The following year the congregation was united with Christ Church. (See Amsterdam ; Gcetvi^asser ; New York, Greater; Knoll.) J. N. Truber, Primus, b. 1508, in Raschiza, Krain, priest at Lack, and Leimbach (1531), where he began to preach against celibacy, and empha sized justification by faith. He had to flee (1547); could return (1548) only to flee again; came to Nuremberg and met Veit Dietrich, who helped him to the pastorate of Rothenburg-on- the-Tauber. There he began to publish a cate chism, translate the Bible into his native Wen- die, and organize the evangelicals ; became pastor at Kempten (1552), where he labored un til his death (1586). Trustees. The office of trastee is of a fidei commissary nature, and is, therefore, entrusted only to persons in whom the people repose confidence. Offices of this character are that of guardian charged with the duty of taking care of a minor and his property ; executor and administrator, entrusted with carrying out the provisions of the will and administering the property in accordance with the desire of the testator and the direction of the court ; directors elected by the stockholders of a corporation and charged with the management of a certain busi ness-enterprise. Thus eleemosynary, educa tional, and similar institutions elect trustees for the purpose of carrying on the work in accord- Trustees 531 ance with the intention of the founders, and the provisions of the constitution and by-laws. Trustees of churches have similar duties and responsibilities. How elected. In some states the law recognizes the existing spiritual officers, such as pastors, elders and deacons, as trustees ; in some they may be appointed by such spiritual officers ; whilst in others they are elected by such voters as the state defines. ( See Charters.) Their rights and duties. As trustees are administrators of trusts, they are required to carry into effect, in letter and spirit, the conditions, expressed or implied, which are imposed by such trusts. Hence, trustees of churches are charged with the "custody and control of all temporalities and property belong ing to the corporation, and of the revenues therefrom, and shall administer the same in ac cordance with the discipline, rules, and usages of ' the religious denomination or ecclesiastical governing body, if any, with which the corpora tion is connected, and with the provisions of law relating thereto, for the support and main tenance of the corporation, or, provided the members of the corporation, at a meeting thereof, shall so authorize, of some religious, charitable, benevolent, or educational object conducted by it, or in connection with it, or with such denomination; and they shall not use such property or revenues for any other pur pose or divert the same from such uses " (Laws of New York, 1895, Chapt. 732, Art. I, Sec. 5, as amended 1896 and 1897). The laws of other states which have enacted special religious in corporation laws are similar. Whilst in former years the trustees of a church had it in their power to act arbitrarily, thus placing the church at the mercy of the trustees, the tendency now is to require of the trustees that they ad minister the temporalities of the congregation in accordance with the discipline, rules, and usages of the religious denomination to which the church belongs. Formerly, in the State of New York, trustees could refuse to employ a minister elected by a majority of the congrega tion. They could, at one time, even apply the income for the propagation of another faith. The tendency, however, is to remedy such abuses by proper legislation wherever they exist, and by making the trustees the agents, not the directors, of a congregation, to give them no greater authority than specified by the congre gation in its constitution and by-laws, or in special resolutions. If the trastees act in ac cordance with the resolutions of the congrega tion they are not personally liable, as little as an agent is for the debts of his principal ; but if the trustees exceed their authority, they are then personaUy and individually responsible. Meetings of trastees are only legal in case all members of the board are individually notified and such notification is given a reasonable and sufficient time beforehand. The trustees can only bind the corporate body by their official acts. The separate action of a majority of them individually will not create a liability which can be enforced against the corporation. The same is true of an action in the passage of which other church officers— not trustees— par ticipated. Removal of trustees. The only proper mode of removing trustees from office, on the ground that they were not legally elected to office, is by a quo warranto proceeding. In such an action the court will examine into and decide upon the validity of the individual votes cast. Causes for removal of trustees whose election is not questioned, are, to wit : breach of trust ; refusing to apply or pay over the in come as directed ; failing to invest as directed ; permitting co-trustee to commit a breach of trast ; becoming bankrupt ; threatening a breach of trust funds. In states where the law recog nizes certain spiritual officers, viz. pastors, elders, and deacons, as trustees, the congrega tion has also power to remove such trastees by taking from them their spiritual office ; in states, however, where the law requires the election of trustees as such, the congregation is not competent to remove them. In this case the courts must be appealed to. J. N. Tuch, Johann Christian Friedrich, D.D., was born at Quedlinburg, Dec. 17, 1806. He studied at Halle, where, in 1829, he commenced his lectures on Oriental languages and Old Test, exegesis. In 1839 he became licentiate of theology at Ziirich, and was called, in 1841, to Leipzig, where he died April 12, 1867. His main work is a leamed Commentary on Genesis, Halle, 1838; 2d ed. 1871. Other works are mentioned by Zuchold, Bibl. Theolog. II. , p. 1352. B. P. Tucher, Christian Earl Gottlieb, Baron von Simmelsdorf, b. 1798, at Nuernberg, d. 1877, in Muenchen. He studied law in Heidel berg, Erlangen, and Berlin, was assessor at Schweinfurt (1833), counsellor at Nuernberg (1841), counsellor at the Court of Appeal in Muenchen (1856), retired 1868. A prominent writer on church music and hymnology, author of Kirchengesaenge der beruehmtesten aelteren italienischen Meister (Vienna, 1827) ; Schatz des Evangelischen Kirchengesangs, Liederbuch, Melodieenbuch (1840-1848). Also numerous articles on " Musikpraxis-und-Theorie des i6ten Jahrhunderts," in Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung (1870-1871). A. S. Tuebii^en School. Applied to two groups of theologians, known as the earlier and the later Tuebingen school. The earlier consisted of su pranaturalists who protested against the current rationalism, and particularly antagonized the application to theology of the philosophical pnnciples of Kant. Its leader was Gottiob Christian Storr (1746-1805). Other members of the school were J. F. Flatt, K. C. Flatt, Siis kind, and E. G. Bengel. The Biblical theology of Storr and Flatt was translated into English by Dr. S. S. Schmucker (1826), republished in Eng land (1839) and later, and used as a text-book in a number of theological seminaries in America. The later or modern Tuebingen school con sists of Frederick Christian Baur (1792-1860) and his followers. Its distinctive characteristic lies in the application of the principles of the Hegelian philosophy with respect to intellectual development to biblical and church history, and particularly to the criticism of the New Testa ment. It attempted to establish a radical dif ference between the first apostles and St. Paul, Tulpehocken 533 Tyndale and to trace a so-called Petrine (Particularism) and Pauline (Universalism) theology, each of which had its own literary records, that, after centuries of conflict, were at last combined, but without reconciliation, about the middle of the second century, in the New Testament canon. The only books of the Bible acknowledged as genuine were four Epistles of Paul, viz. : Romans, Corinthians, and Galatians. Other members of the school, each exhibiting how ever important differences, were Schwegler (1819-57), Zeller (son-in-law of Baur, b. 1814), HUgenfeld (b. 1823), K. A. KostUn (b. 1819), Volkmar (b. 1809) , Holsten (b. 1825) , and, al though himself the founder of a new school, Ritschl. (See article.) The influence of this school has been long on the decline. Later forms of scepticism have abandoned and antagonized its assumption. While the stimulation it has given to the crit ical study of history, and notably that of the New Testament, has been important, and the modern science of biblical theology has gained much by suggestions arising in the discussions which it occasioned, it has broken down by its inability to furnish any satisfactory reconstruc tion of that which it disrupts by its critical pro cesses. "These critics cause everything to dis solve into clouds, and decline the main ques tions which must arise in the minds of ordinary men with respect to their nebulous images. They make no effort to discover what has actu ally happened ; they try only to show that mat ters could not have taken such a course as must be supposed on the assumption of the genuine ness and unity of St. Paul's Epistles. A criti cism able to flnd nothing but a chaos covered by darkness, has little prospect of finding many beUevers " {Th. Zahn). Schultze, N. T. Ein leitung in Zbck.ler's Handbuch ; Lichtenberger's History of German Theology, and literature cited there ; Dorner's History of Protestant Theology; 'Bairhairn's Place of Christ in Mod ern Theology; Zahn, Si. Paul's Epistles and Modern Criticism {Lutheran Church Review, ix. 212 sqq.). H. E. J. Tulpehocken, Pa., Luth. Church in. Tul pehocken (Turtle Creek) is the name of a stream starting east of Lebanon, in Lebanon County, Pa. , aud emptying into the Schulykill River, at Reading, Pa. German immigrants settled in the beginning of the eighteenth cen tury along the same. In 1723 German immi grants made their memorable journey from Schoharie, N. Y., and settled in the Tulpe hocken region. Other immigrants, including Conrad Weiser, followed later. After 1732 there was a great increase in the number of settlers, who came by way of the port at Philadelphia. The first Luth. congregation in the Tulpehocken region erected its first church building in 1727, about one mile east of Stonchsburg, Berks Co., Pa. Here was the scene of the well-known "Tulpehocken Confusion." The Moravians had possession of the Church building for a time, later the Lutherans again secured posses sion of the same, and the pastors of the Second Congregation ministered to the congregation for many years. The third church builmng is still standing. A new church building is in progress of erection in Stonchsburg. Rev. E. S. Brownmiller, D.D., is the present pastor of Zion's congregation, often called Riethe Kirch. The second Tulpehocken congregation, named Christus Kirch, consisting of members who had withdrawn from the first, erected its first church building in 1743 less than a mile west of Stonchs burg. The second church building was erected in 1786, and is stiU standing. It was injured by a dynamite explosion in the vicinity in 1884, and after a thorough renovation and continued use by the congregation, it was set on fire by light ning, Aug., 1887, and in the course of a few hours, nothing was left but the four stone walls. The walls were found in such good condition that they were not taken down. In its beauti fully renovated condition the building promises to be of use for another century. The pastors have been the following : Tobias Wagner (1743- 1746), J. Nicolaus Kurtz (1746-1770), Christoph Emanuel Schulze (i 770-1809), Daniel Ulrich (1811-1851), Lewis G. Eggers (1852-1867), Frederick P. Mayser (1868-1874), A. Johnson Long (pastor since 1874). Patriarch Muhlen- burg visited Tulpehocken as early as 1743. The record of the second congregation contains the entry of his marriage to the daughter of Conrad Weiser. The third Tulpehocken con gregation, named Frieden's congregation, at Myerstown, Lebanon Co., Pa., erected its first church building in 1811 '12, and its second in 1857. Its pastors have been the following : WiUiam Baetes, William Earnst, G. F. Krotel, T. T. Jaeger, Lewis G. Eggers and F. J. F. Schantz (since 1867). The services in all of these churches are conducted in German and EngUsh. F. J. F. S. Twesten, August Detlev Christian, the ologian, b. in Holstein, 1789 ; studied at Kiel and Berlin ; professor at Kiel (1814-34), at Ber lin, succeeding Schleiermacher, with whom he had been on peculiarly intimate terms from 1834, d. 1876. His chief work is the beginning of a system of theology of much value, in which he attempts to combine elements of the older dogmaticians of the Luth. Church with those of Schleiermacher. Tyndale, William, translator, b. 1484, on the borders of Wales ; studied at Oxford and Cambridge ; private tutor, in Gloucestershire ; undertook translation of New Testament (1523), with encouragement of a wealthy London mer chant, Humphrey Monmouth ; continued it at Hamburg and Wittenberg (1523-5); first two editions of the English New Testament appeared from the press of Peter Schoeffer of Worms (1526) ; a translation of the Pentateuch followed in 1530, and of Jonah, in 1531 ; arrested through the emissaries of the English prelates. May, 1533, be was strangled and bumed, Oct. 6, 1536. Tyndale, while using the original languages, revises Luther's translation by them rather than attempts any independent version. The pecu liarities of Luther's version are generally very faithfully reproduced. Luther's introductions to the several books of the Bible are beautifuUy paraphrased and expanded. The glosses are also translated. For details, see Jacobs, The Luth eran Movement in England, Chap. II. ; "Tyn dale's Dependence on Luther." H. E. J. Tzschirner 533 Unbaptized Children Tzschirner, Henry Gottlieb, b. Nov. 14, 1778, in Mittweida, Saxony, adjunct at Witten berg (1805-1809), prof, at Leipzig, and arch deacon at St. Thomas, d. Feb. 17, 1828. He was a supranaturalistic-rationalist (see Supra naturalism) , and called his position ethiccriti- cal rationalism. He was rationalistic as to the content of Christianity, while holding to its supernatural origin and form. u. Ubiciuity. A term sometimes used to desig nate the omnipresence of the human nature of Christ, and held by Brenz, but wrongly ascribed to the Luth. Church. Through the dimne na ture the human may become present, but it is not " locally expanded in all places of heaven and earth," nor has it "become an infinite essence." "In its proper sense it can be said with truth, Christ is on earth or in his Supper only according to his divine nature, to wit, in the sense that the humanity of Christ by its own nature cannot be except in one place, but has the majesty [of co-presence] only from the divinity ' ' {Formula of Concord) . (See Krauth, Conservative Reformation, p. 131.) This co- presence in the Lord's Supper is guaranteed by Christ's word. " He is there for you where he adds his word and binds himself and says : Here you shall find me " {Luther^. Uhlhorn, Johann Gerhard Wilhelm, b. at Osnabriick, Hanover, Feb. 17, 1826, member of the consistory and court preacher at Hanover, 1855, since 1878 abbot of Loccum. U. is dis tinguished as a preacher, but is also widely known as a writer upon theological subjects. His works are : Gnade und Wahrheit, sermons (1876, 2 vols.); Der Kampf des Christenthums mit dem Heidenthurn (1874, 5 ed., 1890 trans lated into English) ; Geschichte der Christlichen Liebesthdtigkeit (1882-90, 3 vols., partly trans lated into English); Die HomUien und Recog- nitionen des Clemens Romanus (1854); Das basilidianische System {x8$s); Urbanus Rhegius (1861). H. W. H. Ulmann, Chas. Christian, d. at Walk, Li vonia, Oct. 20, 1871, a Luth. bishop in the Russian provinces, known particularly as editor oi Mittheilungen u. Nachrichten fuer die evang. Geistlichkeit Russlands, and for his defence of Luth. trath ag. the Baptists {Wie die Bap- tisten der Luth. Kirche die Bibel entgegenstellen (1865). Ulrich, Duke of Wuertemburg, b. in the year 1487, succeeded his father, Count Henry, who had become insane in 1498. The regency of the duchy was conducted by councillors, but Ulrich was declared to be of age in his 14th year by the Emperor Maximilian I., who had betrothed him to his niece, the Princess Sabina of Bavaria. In the early part of his career, Ulrich displayed energy and courage, and en larged the territory of the duchy in the Bavana- Landshut War of Succession. Later on re verses made him severe and suspicious. With his own hand he murdered Hans von Hutten, whom he suspected of intimacy with his wife. Lavish expenditures and severity brought on an insurrection of his subjects. He lost the emperor's favor, and his brothers-in-law, the Dukes of Bavaria, became his bitterest enemies. He was threatened with the ban of the empire. When citizens of Reutlingen had murdered his castellan of Achalm, he took possession of the city itself, and thus incited the Suabian League, to which Reutlingen belonged, against himself. The league deprived him of his possessions, and sold the duchy to Austria. Landgrave Philip of Hesse, after a long interval, during which Ulrich had espoused Protestantism, restored Wuertemberg to him by force of arms in 1534, and the Peace of Kadan, in the same year, con firmed him in the possession of the duchy, but as a mesne fief of Austria. Up to this time Ferdinand had kept down the Reformation in Wuertemberg by bloody persecution, but Ulrich brought about the Reformation of the entire duchy by assigning the upper section to Blaurer and the lower to Schnepf. He also showed a deep interest in the University of Tuebingen. Brenz's part in all this work must not be forgotten. Ulrich took part in the Smalcald War, and at its close purchased peace from the Emperor Charles V. by means of a considerable sum of money and the intro duction of the Interim. Ferdinand, however, brought a charge of felony against him as a vassal of Austria, from the consequences of which he was relieved by his death, Nov. 6, 1550. He was succeeded by his son, Christo pher. G. F. S. Unbaptized Children. "We teach that baptism, as the ordinary sacrament of initia tion, and the means of regeneration, is neces sary for regeneration and salvation to all with out exception, even to the children of believers ; yet, meanwhile, that, in case of deprivation or of impossibility, the children of Christians may be saved through an extraordinary and peculiar divine dispensation. For the necessity of bap tism is not absolute, but ordinate. On our part, we are bound to receive baptism ; yet an ex traordinary act of God is not to be denied in the case of infants brought to Christ by pious parents and the Church through prayer, and dying before the blessing of baptism could be brought to them, since God will not so bind his grace and saving power to baptism, but that he is both willing and able to exert the same ex traordinarily in case of deprivation. We dis tinguish, therefore, between the necessity on the part of God and on our part ; between the case of deprivation and the ordinary way ; also between infants born within the Church and without. By virtue of this promise (Acts 2 : 38 sq.), the chUdren of Christians have access to the covenant of God ; but they are not actually" (viz. by nature) "in the covenant, since without the case of necessity God treats with us only through the means of grace" {John Gerhard; .comp. Schmid's Doctrinal Theology, p. 570). As to infants bom and dying outside of the Christian Church our best theologians differ. Some, e. g. Calov, Fecht, Buddeus and Quistorp, deny that they are saved, though some of them suppose that they will not be subject to any positive evil ; others, Uniformity 534 Union Churches e. g. Dannhauer, Scherzer, Hiilsemann, Musaus and Spener, entertain hopes of salvation also for them ; others again, e. g. Meisner, Balduin, Bechmann and Gerhard, think it best to leave the question unanswered, since the Holy Scrip tures do not say anything about it. We can be sure that God will prove himself not only the holy and righteous judge of all men, but also the God of love and the Redeemer of the whole human race also with regard to infants that die without baptism, whether inside or outside the Christian Church. The rest we had best leave to God. Comp. Philippi, Glaubenslehre, V. 2, p. 113 sq^. F. W. S. Uniformity. The cjuestion of the desirabil ity of a uniform service, lessons, government, etc., for the Church, must not be confounded with that of necessity. The Augsburg Con fession declares. Art. VII. : " Nor is it neces sary that human traditions, rites and cere monies instituted by man, be everywhere alike. " " No church should condemn another because one has more and another less cere monies not commanded by God than another" {Formula of Concord, Ep. X. ). It is a Lutheran principle that the administration of the Word must always be adapted to circumstances of time and place, and not be fettered by any thoughts of the absolute necessity of uniform ity. The flexibility or plasticity of Lutheran ism is not a weakness, but an element of strength, and is rendered possible only by the emphasis which it places upon unity of faith and confession. Where the importance of unity in the faith is denied or obscured, there the only bond that remains is that of union in externals, to cover the real absence of unity that exists. But this does not justify arbitrary variations from what the practice of the Church has determined to be edifying. The conser vative principle of the Church demands that a sufficient reason be at hand for every departure from what has been the settled order of the Church, and that until this be given no changes be made. Luther's reformation of the service was no reconstruction, but moved upon the principle, that everything not found to be con trary to the Word of God should be retained. Nor is the good order of the Church subserved, where diversity prevails to any great extent among congregations professing the same faith. At the first meeting of a Lutheran synod in America the great importance of uniformity of the service was urged, and unanimously ap proved. H. E. J. Union Churches. The early immigrants, who settled in America, after securing a home for their families, were anxious to have the privileges of church and school. Most of the churches erected in that early period were built by single congregations. When two con gregations united to build a church it was often owing to the poverty of the people. A congre gation able to build a church, would occasion ally allow a weak congregation of another name the use of the building until it would be able to erect a building for itself. In a later period, however, on account of many inter marriages of members of different congrega tions, and also on account of the expense con nected with the erection of large buildings, congregations united in the erection of church buildings. In a still later period of indifference to doctrine and cultus, congregations having their own separate church buildings, would allow congregations of another name to become joint owners of their property. Ecclesiastical bodies of different names have repeatedly taken action, advising against the erection of Union churches. Whilst numerous congregations, worshipping in Union churches, have respected such counsel, and built separate churches, others have shown no regard for the advice given, and have erected new Union churches, when the erection of a new church became a necessity. Some newly organized congrega tions in towns and rural districts without any good reason for the erection of Union churches, have united in the erection of such buildings. A proper consideration of the disadvantages which congregations suffer in Union churches and the frequent painful experiences, which attend the erection of separate buildings, should deter congregations from joining in the erec tion of Union churches. A congregation worshipping in a Union church is not the sole owner of the property, and cannot alone determine the erection of a church building, the adoption of a plan of buUding, and decide upon repairs and im provements that may become necessary. The faithful adherence to the doctrines con fessed by the church of one congregation, and the use of the order of worship of such church, will often offend the congregation that holds to other doctrines and uses another order of service. One congregation alone cannot determine the time of its services, and the increase of the number of its services. One congregation gives offence to another by expressing the desire tohave its own Sunday- School, and to use such literature as is ap proved by its church, and finds it very difficult to secure a suitable time for the sessions of the Sunday-school. A congregation worshipping in a Union church only on alternate Sundays, may regard this a sufficient observance of the Lord's Day, and is in danger of attending no service on days on which it has no appointment for service. Strife in one congregation in a Union church generally affects both congregations, and yet one of them has no part in efforts to settle the same. Congregations in Union churches are slow in securing for themselves one service on each Lord's Day. A congregation, having part in a union church, when desiring to have a separate church building for itself, has often great difficulties in attaining the desired end. A party of such congregation may resolve to remain in the Union church, and by such a course may cause great contentions and much scandal in a com munity. Union churches retard the introduction of regular services for each congregation on each Lord's Day. Union, mystical 535 Union, Prussian When pastors are obliged to serve a number of congregations, the Union church arrange ments often prevent the orderly arrangement of regular services for their congregations. As each Lord's Day of the year is to be properly observed by each congregation by having on each Lord's Day a proper church service and a session of the Sunday-school, each congregation should have its own church building, and if it cannot on each Lord's Day have a pastor to conduct the services, provision should be made for a lay service, to be con ducted according to the order of service ap proved by the church. F. J. F. S. Union, Mystical, The end for which the Lord Jesus came into the world is the realiza tion by man of the righteousness, the blessed ness, and the glory of the life of God. The doc trine of the mystical union is based funda mentally upon this trath. It rests upon the belief that in Christ the very life of God has been given to man, and that those who receive that life are really and truly united with God. God has made the life of the Son the inherit ance of our race. This life reaches its complete union with the Father, and its perfect blessed ness through the communion and grace of the Holy Spirit. Our relations to God are grounded on the eternal relations of the Son to the Father, and the life of the Son and the communion of the Holy Ghost have been made ours that we may realize our sonship. Such a union is directly taught in many passages of God's Word, such as John 14 : 23 ; I Cor. 6 : 15-17; Eph. 5 : 30 ; Gal. 2 : 20 ; 2 Peter 1:4. It is further sug gested and described in the Sacred Scriptures by such expressions as : the espousal of believers with Christ (Hosea 2 : 19) ; the mystical mar riage of Christ and the Church (Eph. 5 : 32) ; the union of the members and of the head (Eph. I : 22-23) ; the union of the spiritual branches with the spiritual vine, Christ (John 15 : 4-7) ; and the abiding of the adorable Trinity with re generate man (John 14:23). This mystical union is something more than the mere har mony and tempering of the affections ; some thing more even than the resemblance of man's spirit to God's spirit, or the conf ormity of man's will to the divine will. Concerning this union, several things may be predicated : (a) It is not natural ; (b) is not the result of human will, or power, or work ; (c) is the work of the Holy Ghost; (d) is wrought by the Holy Ghost through the means of grace, the word and sacraments ; (e) constitutes a genuine spiritual nature, as over against all spurious forms of spirituaUsm ; (f) is the spiritual conjunction of the triune God with a justified and regenerated man. ^- H- ^• Union, Prussian. When the Elector John Sigismund of Brandenburg adopted the Re formed faith, in 1614, whUe the people remained Lutheran , he desired a union of the two churches, and for this he and his successors worked until when Rationalism had sapped the foundations of Christian doctiine, while Pietism and Supranatu ralism cared little for the differences of the Lutheran and Reformed Church, and when the religious awakening during tiie Napoleonic wars developed tendencies far removed from Lutheran conservatism and devotion to the standards of the Church, King Frederick William III. of Prussia felt encouraged to publish, under date of Sept. 27th, 1817, an appeal to his people, well meant, but pernicious to the Luth. Church, rec ommending for the jubilee of the Reformation a union, ' ' in which the Reformed Church should not go over to the Lutheran, neither the latter to the former, but both should form one re newed and revived evangelical Christian church." The king declared that he would not force this union upon his subjects, but he in stiucted the consistories, superintendents and pastors to go ahead in this matter. The break ing of the bread in the Holy Supper and the use of these words at the distribution : " Our Lord Jesus Christ says : Take and eat, this is my body," would be considered as an assent to the union. Candidates belonging to either church would be eligible as pastors of such congrega tions. The conference of the Berlin pastors, Schleiermacher presiding, was the first to adopt the union ; others followed, especially in the Rhenish provinces. Ammon 's, Tittmann 's, Claus Harm's warnings were in vain. Indiffer entism concerning the confessions, the desire to please the king, pressure and rewards from the powers that be, induced many to assent to the union. In the eastern provinces there was some dissatisfaction, but as the congregations had no representatives besides the pastors, and an at tempt to institute church councils and county synods was given up in 1816, for state reasons, what did the protest of some church members amount to, especially as then and afterwards ministers were sometimes forced upon the people with the aid of the military ! Those Lutherans who assented to the union were not aware of the consequences, viz. that they deprived the Luth. Church of all her legal rights, especially the authority of the confessions, even of her prop erty, yea, that they destroyed the Luth. Church as a separate organization and opened the door to an unspeakable confusion in doctiine and in practice. They did not reflect that in a state church such a step, once taken, can hardly be annulled. The several eastern provinces and portions of them had their own Agenda, many pastors, especially Rationalists, used their own fabrica tions ; but the king, while indifferent about some fundamental doctrines, was anxious to have uniformity of worship. The house of Hoh enzoUern had frequently exercised a jus drca sacra, issuing decrees about crucifixes, gowns, altars, candles ; but now the king, by com manding, in 1822, the adoption of a new Agenda, at which he had worked himself, and which was certainly an exponent of the Union, arro gated to himself a nght in sacra. This Agenda did not please the Reformed, because they were opposed to the Liturgy, and the Luth. enumera tion of the Ten Commandments ; nor the Luther ans, who venerated their old orthodox Agenda. Now the people began to understand what the Union really meant for them. Before they did not care, knowing that there were only few Reformed churches (9 in Silesia, 7 in East Prassia); but now they were dissatisfied, and even changes made in the Agenda (1829) did Union, Prussian 536 United Synod, South not mend matters. When the jubilee of the Augsburg Confession was held in 1830, Prof. Scheibel, a minister at Breslau, asked for per mission to use the old Luth. Agenda. Prof. Steffens, Prof. Huschke, several ministers and congregations joined in this petition. The Minister of State, Altenstein, branded them as rebels in 1831. The excitement grew, but, as emigration was forbidden, many Lutherans in Silesia, Saxony, Pomerania, Brandenburg, left the state church and worshipped secretly, they and their pastors being harassed by the police. Scheibel and others were deposed; Grabau, Ehlers, KeUner, and others were imprisoned ; churches were forcibly opened by the military for the new Agenda. In order to allay the ex citement the king issued a decree (Feb. 28th, 1834), which, although reaffirming the declara tion that "the assent tothe Union is voluntary, and the use of the Agenda is not a proof of the adoption of the Union, but according to the King's command," yet directly opposed the de cree of 1817, saying: "The Union is meant to abolish neither the Confessions heretofore valid, nor their authority ; but rather to express the spirit of moderation and mildness which does not refuse church-fellowship on account of some differences in doctrine." The Lutherans who continued to stay in the state church were quieted by this decree. But many thousands, having been permitted to emigrate in 1837, went to Australia and to the United States. Frederick William IV. granted the separated Lutherans more freedom after 1840, and by the so-called "general concession," in 1845, he allowed them to organize and adminis ter their own affairs under the " Breslau Upper Church Collegium." A "General Synod," held at Berlin in 1846, tried in vain to formulate a consensus as a basis for the Union (Nitzsch being the leader of the Unionists, this ' ' Nice- num" was called a " Nitzschenum " ) . After the revolution in 1848, the Constitution of Prussia declared : " Each religious community administers its own affairs independently." The Roman Church, the separated Lutherans, and others had this advantage ; but the State Church remained fettered by the state. An " Upper Church CouncU " was placed over the whole Church in 1850 ; this court, according to royal decree of March 2, 1852, was to consist of Luth. and Reformed members, and in confes sional matters an itio in paries was ordered. In 1857 " parallel forms ' ' from the old Luth. Agenda were allowed in the administration of the sacraments, but with the declaration that "the Union meant not only a mixed church government, but also altar-fellowship of the Lutherans and the Reformed." The hopes of the Luth. associations which sprang up in Silesia, Brandenburg, Posen, Pomerania, and Saxony, for the re-establishment of the Luth. Church and the restitution of her property, were not realized. Frederick Julius Stahl re signed from the High Church Council in 1859. Ernest Sartorius, who had published articles against the Union, was obliged to resign his office as general superintendent of the Province of Prussia, in 1859. Luth. consciousness has grown during the stormy times of the Luth. separation, and even more so after the annexa tion of the Luth. provinces of Hanover, Schleswig, and Holstem. A General Luth. Conference, whose conventions are held at Berlin in the month of August, was founded in 1873. In the same year a constitution for church councils, county, provincial, and general synods was adopted, becoming a law by the approval of the Prussian Parliament, in 1876. The position of strictly Luth. pastors within the Union is precarious. Having sworn alle giance to the Augsburg Confession of 1530, they are in their practice hampered by Union istic, Reformed, Rationalistic, even infidel members of their own congregations, church councils, and synods ; they may come into un bearable conflicts at any time, having little or no protection in all their troubles by the Church authorities, and in case of conflict with them not being permitted to go to the law courts of the land ; they have either to renounce their allegiance to the Augsburg Confession or to leave the state church, and to lay down their office. The latter alternative was chosen by the writer of this article. E. F. M. Union, Sacramental. See Lord's Supper. United Congregations, a term first applied to the three congregations at Philadelphia, New Hanover, and the Trappe, that sent a commission to London and HaUe to procure a pastor. When, in response to this appeal, Muhlenberg came, the name was applied to all the other congregations that united vrith them. The first synod was only an attempt to unite these congregations into a regular organization. It is called, in an official document of the first meeting, " The College of Pastors of the United Congregations." The first constitution styles them " The United Evangelical Luth. Congrega tions of North America ; " the second constitu tion simply "The United Congregations." Simi larly the pastors are known in the records of those days as ' ' The United Pastors, " or " United Ministers." The first conception of the organ ization that we have seems to go upon the assumption that all the pastors were pastors of all the congregations, and that, for the sake of order, they agreed among each other which parish each one was to serve. United Norwegian Church. See Nor wegian Church. United States. See America, North ; and various States. United Ssmod ofthe South. The title of this general Luth. body is. The United Synod of the Ev. Luth. Church in the South. It is constituted of eight district synods, viz. : The synods of North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, South West Virginia, Georgia, and Mississippi, and the Tennessee Synod, and the Holston Synod, embracing in all 208 ministers, 447 churches, and 40,000 communicants. It was organized at Roanoke, Va., June 26, 1886, by the adoption of the basis of union and the constitution, recommended by a diet held at Salisbury, N. C, Nov. 12, 1884. This diet was constituted of representatives from the above-named synods, and also of the General Synod, South. The adoption of this basis cf Universities 527 Universities union thus recommended involved the merging of the General Synod, South, vrith its record of 23 j^ears, into the larger union, including in ad dition the Tennessee and Holston Synods, to be known henceforth as the United Synod of the South. The confessional basis of the United Synod is as follows : I. The Holy Scriptures, the inspired writings of the Old and New Testaments, the only stand ard of doctrine and church discipline. 2. As a true and faithful e^ibition of the doctrines of the Holy Scriptures in regard to matters of faith and practice, the three ancient sjTubols, the Apostolic, the Nicene, and the Athanasian creeds, and the unaltered Augsburg Confession of Faith. Also the other Symbolical Books of the Ev. Luth. Church, viz.: the Apology, the Smalcald Articles, the Smaller and Larger Catechisms of Luther, and the For mula of Concord, as trae and scriptural devel opments of the doctrines taught in the Augs burg Confession, and in the perfect harmony of one and the same faith. The work of the United Synod : I. Co-operation with the General Council and the General Synod in issuing a book of com mon service. It has a standing committee of co-operation, with instructions to seek general agreement in regard to hymnal and ministerial acts. The proposition for a common service having originated in the General Synod, South, the United Synod has shown great interest in regard to the successful consummation of this work. She seems to prosecute this as a large part of her mission as a general body. 2. Home and foreign missions : A mission in Saga, Japan, was established in 1893, and has been maintained successfully. Two ordained missionaries and several native helpers consti tute the present missionary force. The Synod has established and fostered home missions in Richmond, Norfolk, and Pulaski, Va. ; in Atlanta and Augusta, Ga. ; in Winston and AsheviUe, N. C. ; in Knoxville and Morris- town, Tenn., and other minor points iu Alabama and Georgia. The mission work is under the management of a Board of Missions and Church Extension, of which Rev. L. L. Smith, of Virginia, is president, and Rev. L. K. Probst, of Atlanta, Ga., is secretary. The Theological Seminary, now located at Charleston, S. C, is supported by the United Synod, its endowment fund being too small to more than meet the incidental expenses. The seminary building is valued at |i2,ooo. This body meets biennially, and has held six conventions. R. C. H. Universities, Luth. When the Reforma tion began, it found a number of universities, of which Heidelberg (founded 1386), and Erfurt (1392), were the oldest. Under the impulse of the humanistic movement, there were founded the Univ. of Leipzig, Sept. 3, 1409, by an edict of Pope Alexander V.; Rostock (1419), by Mar tin V. (theological faculty, Jan. 27, 1432, by Eugene IV.); Greifswald, May 29, 1456, by Calixt III. ; Tiibingen, Nov. 13, 1476, by Sixtus IV.- Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1506), (united with Breslau, 1811); Upsala, Sweden (1476); Copenhagen, Denmark (1478). The doctrine taught was that of the Church. Its theology dominated all departments. The Pope institu ted, the princes sustained the universities. The lectures gave the tradition, and disputations offered the exercise and defence of tradition. With humanism classical Latin and Greek was introduced. But the real fructif3dng power was the Reformation. Luther gave the impulse to modern university freedom, while maintaining the independence of theology. Melanchthon was the scholar who systematized the work. His introductory lecture at Wittenberg (founded July 6, 1502) about reforming the studies {de corrigendis adolescenties studiis), Aug. 29, 1518, made Wittenberg the centre of a new system, while Luther was the spiritual power. Every faculty received a new impulse and view, but theology most prominently. After the Reforma tion began the period of the territorial univer sities vrith a confessional basis. This lasted until the end of the seventeenth century. Dur ing this time the distinctively Luth. Univer sity arose, Marburg (1527), Konigsberg (1544), Jena (1556), Strassburg (1567), Helmstadt (1576), Altdorf, from the Nuremberg Gymna sium (1573), Giessen (1667), Rinteln (1621), Dorpat (1632), Kiel (1665), Lund, Sweden (1666). Helmstadt, Rinteln, Altdorf later ceased to exist. The theological faculty predominated, and the purpose of these confessional univer sities was to conserve the true doctrine. With the foundation of Halle (1694), the modern period is introduced. In it there were founded the University of Gottingen (1737), Christiania, Norway (1737), Erlangen (1743), Berlin (1809). After the Napoleonic wars Wittenberg was united with Halle (181 1), and when Alsace be came a German dominion Strassburg was reor ganized (1872). The relation between the Church and the university begins to be severed. Halle, though growing out of pietism, gives the im pulse to the modem independent university, where even theology is taught as independent science, regardless often of the church which it is to serve. Some of the leading theologians and the tendencies in those universities have been : Altdorf: Dilherr, Val. Andreae, M. Lang ; soundly Luth. Berlin : Unionistic, but noted for the great Luth. Hengstenberg. At present A. Harnack, the RitschUan, is &e power. Seeberg is the conservative Luth. teacher. Christiania : Noted for its profs. Caspari, Bugge, Peterson. Copenhagen : The dogmatician Brochmann. Dorpat: H. Kurtz, Theod. Hamack, repre sent its greatest teachers. Erlangen: Luth. influenced by the von Hofmann theology ; von Hof man, Hofling, Thomasius, Frank, Kolde, T. Zahn, are some of its most noted men. Frankfort: A. Musculus. Giessen : Originally, the reUable J. Winckel- mann, B. Menzer, Feuerbom, and later the pious Rambach. Now largely rationalistic. Gottingen : Generally the seat of men in clined rationalistically, and negatively, as Moshrim, J. D. Michaelis, Planck, Staudlein, Universities 538 Upsala J. G. Eichhorn, Ammon, A. Ritschl, H. Schultz. Most Luth. at present is K. Knoke. Greifswald: After the Reform, old Runge, B. Battus, V. Krakewitz, J. F. Konig ; at pres ent a centre of confessional Lutheranism with its Profs. Zockler, Cremer, Baethgen, Giese- brecht. Halle : The rise of pietism. A. H. Francke and his successors ; the starting point of ration alism, J. G. Semler, Wegscheider ; blessed with renewed faith under Tholuck ; at present union istic with critical tendencies ; Kahler (most positive), Beyschlag, Loofs. Heidelberg : Had but one Luth. prof, before it became Reformed, Heshusius. Helmstadt: First purely Luth., Heshusius, Pfaffenrad, Hoffmann ; then syncretistic, Cal- ixt.j P. Musculus. Jena : Originally the seat of the most ortho dox Lutheranism ; Strigel, Flacius, Musaus, Wigand, J. Gerhard, L. Mylius, Glassius, Heer brand ; Buddeus, J. G. Walch ; now unluther an. Kiel : Noted at present for the Luth. Kloster- mann and Kawerau. Konigsberg : Luth. originally Osiandrian ; Osiander, Staphylus, Latermann, G. Sabinus ; of late known by the moderate Luth. Grau. Leipzig : Originally the seat of strict Luther anism ; Hiilsemann, Calov, Quenstedt, J. Meiss ner, J. B. Carpzov, J. Olearius ; Val. Loscher (the great opponent of the pietists) ; E. A. Crusius (rationalist) ; the modern Lutherans, Holemann, Kahnis, Keil, Delitzsch, Lechler, Luthardt, A. Hauck. Lund : The conservative Luth. Albus, Bring, Eklund, somewhat RitschUan. Marburg : Hunnius, Mentzer, Winkelmann thoroughly Luth. ; in this century Vilmar is the only noted Luth., Marburg being now un- luth. Rostock : The orthodox Chytraeus, L. Bac meister, the pious Liitkemann and the devout Hr. Miiller ; Fecht, and in this ct'y the erratic M. Baumgarten ; confessionally Luth., and the most conservative, Philippi, Dieckhoff, Nosgen. Strassburg : Pappus and Marbach upheld the Form, of Concord ag. J. Sturm ; the pious but orthodox Dannhauer ; Dorsche, J. Schmidt ; at present negative. Tiibingen : The eamest Luth. Brenz, An dreae, Schnepff, Bidembach ; Thummius ; the biblical Bengel and the older pious Tiibingen school, Storr, Flatt, etc. ; the honest Beck ; the modern negative school, F. C. Baur, Schweg ler, etc. ; later the milder believing Lutherans Schmid, Oehler, Kiibel ; the power at present the unsafe Weissdcker. Upsala: The Luth. Myrberg, Sandin, Ek- mann, Berggren at present. Wittenberg: The first faculty Luther, Me lanchthon, Bugenhagen, Jonas, etc. ; then the Melanchthonian tendency and the Interim theol ogy, Melanchthon, Major, Eber, Peucer, Cru ciger ; new emphasis of the old faith, P. Leyser, Hunnius, L. Hutter, Deutschmann. Lit. : Raumer, Gesch. der Padagogik, Bd. IV. (5 Aufl. 1878) ; G. Kaufmann, Die Gesch. der deutschen IJniversitaten ; F. Paulsen, Gesch. des Unterrichts auf den Ilochschulen, u. Univ.; Lexis, Die deutschen Univ. (prepared for the Chicago Exposit.), I. Theii ; F. Paulsen, Wesen u. gesch. Entwickel. der deutsch. Univ., p. 12 ff., u. Evang. theo. Facultdt by E. Haupt, p. 171 ff. ; Brockhaus, Conversat. lex. ; and Meyer, Conversat. lex., under " Universitat " ; Richter, Kirchenrecht, p. 1067 ; Rocholl, Gesch. -^er evang. Kirche m Deutschland ; M.inerva,Jahr- biicher der Univ. J. H. University of Pennsylvania and the Luth. Church. The delay of the plans of Muhlen berg to provide an institution of learning for Lutherans in or near Philadelphia, for which ground was purchased as early as 1749, was par tially due to the rise of the University of Penn sylvania, which, from an academy in 1749, be came a college in 1755, and a university in 1779. According to the scheme prepared when it became a university, ' ' the senior minister of the Luth. Church in Philadelphia ' ' became ex officio a member of the board of trastees. This arrangement continued untU 1791. Subsequent trustees have been : Drs. P. F. Mayer (1824-58), C. R. Demme (1851-3), C. W. Schaeffer (1858- 95), C. P. Krauth (1865-68). Dr. C. P. Krauth was vice-provost (1872-83). Among the pro fessors have been Drs. J. C. Kunze (1780-84), J. H. Helmuth (1784-91), C. P. Krauth (1868- 83), F. A. Muhlenberg (1876-88), H. V. Hil precht (1886- ), and the prominent laymen, L. M. Haupt (1873-92), andS. P. Sadtler (1874- 91). Rev. C. F. Crus6 was au assistant in structor, and Drs. C. L. Endress (1792-5) and Geo. Lochman (1793-6) in their youth, tutors. The prominent position of Lutherans in connec tion with the university may be judged from the fact that in 1780, but three persons received the degree of D. D. , and these were Drs. Kunze, Helmuth and H. E. Muhlenberg. Among the alumni who have entered the Luth. ministry have been : Dan. Kuhn and Christian Stieit (class of 1768), George Lochman ('89), C. L. Endress ('90), D. F. Schaeffer (1807), J. R. Goodman ('13), C. F. Cras^ ('15), A. H. Loch man ('23), C. F. Schaeffer ('27), C. W. Schaeffer ('32), G. F. MiUer ('44), G. F. Krotel ('46), G. W. Scheide ('49), S. Laird ('55), Wm. Ash mead Schaeffer ('65), H. N. Fegley ('69), C. E. Haupt ('72), C. G. Fischer, L. Lindenstrath ('74), G. C. F. Haas ('76), T. E. Schmauk, A. G. Voigt ('80), G. C. Gardner('8i), A. J. D. Haupt, G. E. Krauth, J. K. Wismer ('82), E. Roth ('83), J. A. W. Haas ('84), G. C. Eisenhardt ('86), H. D. E. Siebott ('87), T. W. Kretsch mann ('88), C. M. Jacobs ('95). Among those who left before completing their course were Peter Muhlenberg (class of 1760), and S. S. Schmucker (1818). With the death of Dr. C. W. Schaeffer in 1895, the Luth. Church ceased to be represented in the Board, in which, for so long a period, it had borne an active and influential part. H. E. J. Upsala, The Diet of. The Swedish king John III. tried after the death of the first Luth. archbishop Laurentius Petri to introduce in Sweden a mixture of popish and evangelical religion, and published in 1576 a new liturgy, " the red book," mainly in conformity vrith the Roman missal. This liturgy was, however, not Upsala University 539 Usury accepted willingly or in all congregations, but aroused the conscience of many pastors, who were either imprisoned or banished. At the close of his life John, seeing that his work was in vain, consented to a Diet for settling the religious controversies, but he died in 1592, be fore the Diet could be called. As administrator of the realm his brother, Duke Charles, con vened the Diet in Upsala in February, 1593, before the arrival from Poland of the heir to the crown, Sigismund, who was a zealous Catho lic. Three hundred and thirty-two clergymen participated in this Diet, but it was more than a mere convocation of them, as many noblemen and townsmen were present. Nicolaus Both niensis, professor of theology, was elected president of the meeting, an eminent man who had studied under Dr. D. Chytraeus at Rostock, and suffered imprisonment for his steadfastness in the Luth. faith during the reign of John III. The first principal act of the Diet was to dis cuss the Unaltered Augsburg Confession, and when the Confession was accepted unanimously, the president Nicolaus exclaimed : " Now Sweden is one man, and we have all one Lord and God." The liturgy of John III. was con demned and abolished. A Luth. archbishop, Abraham Andreae, was elected, and a series of resolutions were adopted, aiming at restoring the Church discipUne, the University of Upsala and the privileges of the clergy. The decree of the Diet of Upsala, a summary of doctrinal and liturgical statements, was at last signed by the Duke Charles and by the members of the Diet on March 20, and the decree was after wards subscribed by nearly all the clergy and officials of the realm. The original of this decree is kept in a little silver chest in the - archives of the kingdom, and an English trans lation of it can be found in Book of Concord, Jacobs (PhUadelphia, 1883, vol. U.). With the three oecumenical creeds, the Unaltered Augs burg Confession and Luther's Catechism the decree of the Diet of Upsala has still been the confession of the Church of Sweden, to which was added in 1663 the whole Book of Con cord. N. F. Upsala University. See Universities. Urlsperger, John Augustus, b. at Augsburg in 1728, son of the distinguished Senior Samuel Urlsperger, was pastor there until 1776, then travelled to estabUsh an international society to resist rationaUsm and promote active piety. The result of his efforts was the establishment • of the German Christian Society in 1780, with headquarters at Basel. Correspondence be tween the members and stated meetings were to be the means of cultivating piety. In 1784, the publication of the Sammlungen fuer Lieb- haber Christlicher Wahrheit was begun. The society soon tumed its efforts toward mission ary and philanthropic work. Out of it have grown numerous organizations, the most noted Being tiie Basel Mission Society. Urlsperger d. at Hamburg, Dec. I, 1806. A. G. V. Urlsperger, Samuel, b. in Wuertemberg, in 1685, studiid at Tiibingen and other universi ties, tiravelled in England, was pastor at several places, finally (in 1722) at Augsburg, and after- 34 wards senior of the Luth. clergj' in that free city, in which position he remained until his death in 1772. Urlsperger was a friend of the Halle pietists. He is distinguished for the aid he rendered the Salzburgers, who emigrated to Georgia. His two publications, Ausfuehrliche Nachrichten von den Salzburgischen Emigran- ^i?« (Halle, 1735-52), and Americanisches Acker- werk Gottes (Halle, 1754-67), are the chief sources of information in regard to the settle ment of Ebenezer in Georgia. A. G. V. Usages. See Ceremonies. Usury, originally the term was used to denote every taking of interest as well as usury proper, i. e. interest at an excessive rate or be yond the rate allowed by law. The New Testa ment says nothing against the taking of inter est in general. From the parable Matt. 25 : 14 and Luke 19 : 12 it is even evident that the taking of interest is approved. On the other hand Christians are enjoined (Luke 6 : 34, 35) to lend to the needy without expecting return. The old Church, using the term interest as identical with usury, condemned the practice of taking interest most strongly. Church fathers, popes and councils issued numerous edicts against the taking of interest. However, as by the political law of many states a fair rate of interest was allowed, the Church's de crees applied properly only to the clergy, though in some states the political law was practically in harmony vrith the Church law, and severe punishment was threatened to all transgressors. The Reformers expressed them selves in about the same way. Luther, Melanch thon, and others use strong words against. usury and condemn the taking of interest of any kind, though they did not always express themselves with equal severity. Gradually a. clearer conception of the difference of the two terms prevailed, and usury and interest were clearly distinguished. The condemnation of the Church is now taken as applying only to usury proper, whilst a fair and moderate rate of interest for money lent is not considered as against the Bible or moral law, provided the rale (Luke 6) is not set aside. J. F. (Iowa.) Usury, ethically considered, is tiie exaction of interest on loans, regardless of profit or loss accruing from the use of the loan. While it is certainly fair that the leaner should share the profit resulting from the use of his property, it is just as certainly unfair that he should de mand a profit where no profit has been made and even where loss has been sustained by the debtor in the use of the loan. This is the position also held by Luther, Chemnitz, and other Luth. theologians. See Luther, Erl. Ed. XX. pp. 39 ff. ; XXIL, p. 200 ff. ; XXIIL, pp. 262 ff. ; Chemnitz, Loci, Loc. de Paupertate, Cap. VI. , deUsura. A. L. G. (Missouri). The discussion is incomplete without refer ence to the contioversy at Regensburg (1587-9), reported in Walch's Streiiigk. d. Luth. Kirche, 426 sqq. Five pastors, who preached that all taking of interest was sinful, and refused the communion to those receiving interest, were deposed by the authorities. In the controver sy, Jacob Andreae was their chief opponent. Utah 530 Testments Walch sums up the discussion : " If the ques tion be as to whether we may take a moderate interest of those who ask the use of money, there can be found neither in nature, nor in Scripture, particularly the N. T., any groimd for regarding it improper and not allowed. If it be proper to receive profit from other things, no valid reason can be alleged why this should not occur with money. . . . Nor is it contrary to what our Saviour says in Luke 6 : 35 ; as he treats there of acts of love towards the needy, where one Is to lend, when he can hope to re ceive neither interest nor capital, nor any other service." The fullest discussion on the same side is in Gerhard, Locus de Magistratu Politico, 232-257 ; Carpzov, Eccles. furisprmdentia. Book II. , Def. CCCXIX. Spener, stUl using the wider definition, sa-ys {Consilia et Jud. II. 79) : " If you say usury is prohibited in the O. T. so often, that it is unnecessary to refer to pas sages, I do not dissent. But I deny that such precept belongs to the Moral Law. Hence it is nowhere mentioned in the N. T." — [Eds.] Utah, Luth. Missions in. To the Swedes must be accorded the honor of first planting Lutheranism in Utah, in opposition to the Mormons. Their organized work dates from 1882, in Salt Lake City, by Prof. S. M. HiU ; 1889, inOgden, by Rev. F. A. Linde ; aud 1891, in Provo and Santaquin, by Rev. A. P. Martin. The present combined membership is : bap tized, 151 ; communicants, 86. Total value of the property, including four churches and three parsonages, is $35,000.00. An anti-Mormon paper is issued, with a circulation of 1,000 in Utah, 1,500 in the Swedish Augustana Synod, and 1,000 in Sweden. The English Mission of the Holy Trinity was begun in Salt Lake City by Rev. P. Doerr in 1891, and organized in 1892 by Rev. J. F. Beates. Under the latter, in 1893, the Woman's Memorial Chapel and parsonage, a Gothic structure of brick and stone, was built at a cost of nearly $9,000.00. The present membership is : baptized, 54 ; communicants, 24. Value of property, |i2, 000.00. The Germans began work in Salt Lake City in 1892, with Rev. O. Kuhr as pastor. Present membership : baptized, 40 ; communicants, 15. Value of property, |8oo.oo. The Icelandic Mission at Spanish Fork was organized by Rev. R. Runolfson, under the EngUsh Board, in 1893. The membership is : baptized, 102 ; communicants, 60 ; with 21 chil dren in the Sunday-school. Value of property, consisting of church and parsonage, is fSoo.oo. The Norwegian Mission was begun in Salt Lake City by Rev. E. Skabo, the present in cumbent, under the Norwegian Synod, with assistance from Norway. Present membership is : baptized, 66 ; communicants, 37 (of whom 25 were Mormons) . Value of church and par sonage, $7,300.00. The Danes began work in Salt Lake City about 1890, which, however, has been aban doned. They own a combined church and par sonage valued at about |4,ooo.oo. J. F. B. V. Veil. See PARAMENTIC Velthusen, John Caspar, D.D., second minister in the Lutheran chapel, at the Court of St. James, in London, later professor at the University of Helmstedt and general supt. of Brunswick, and, during the closing years of his life, chancellor of the university of Kiel, took great interest in the welfare of the Luth. Church in North Carolina, organ ized a society at Helmstedt for the sup port of that branch of the Luth. Churcli. Money was to be raised by means of publishing religious and school books. Part of them were sent to N. Carol., and the rest disposed of in Germany. In a few years 1,242 rix dollars had been realized by this means. In 1788 V. sent Chas. A. G. Stork (father of Dr. Th. Stork, and grandfather of Dr. Chas. Stork), whom he had first ordained, fo N. Carolina. His passage was paid from the proceeds of the books. Among the publications of this so ciety was also the so-called North Carolina Catechism, published in 1788. It contains Luther's Small Catechism, but the rest of the contents of the 254 pages show that it does not so much breathe Luther's spirit as that of the neology, which was then in the ascendency. Its introduction is valuable for its historical facts. The author is Prof. V. J. N. Vergerius, Peter Paul, Roman Catholic prelate, and afterwards Luth. theologian, b. of a noble family, at Capo d'Istria, now in Austria- Hungary, 1498 ; came near studying at Witten berg, but was diverted to a course in jurispru dence at Padua ; brother of the secretary of Pope Clement VIL, and member of his house hold, by whom, as well as by his successor, Paul III., he was entrusted with important dip lomatic commissions to Germany. His inter view with Luther in 1535 forms an interesting chapter in Luther's life. Afterwards became bishop of his native town. Fell under the dis pleasure of the Pope by his concessions to the Lutherans in the Colloquy at Worms ( 1541) . A study of Luther's writings for the purpose of regaining favor by refuting them led to the con viction that particularly in the doctrine of jus tification the Reformers were right, although the breach with Rome was not made until the close of 1548. After a few years as pastor in Switzerland, he removed to Tuebingen, where he was supported by Duke Ulrich. Until the end of life fond of diplomacy ; characterized by indecision and vacillation on all subjects divid ing Protestat^ts, and laboring constantly for an external union ; a prolific author ; d. Oct. 4, 1565. Jacob Andreae preached his funeral ser mon. His biography has been written by Sixt, Nuernberg (1855). Vermont, Lutherans in. Two Swedish congregations, with 174 congregations, were re ported in 1890 in Rutland County, along the New York line. Vespers. See Liturgy. Vestments. Jewish practice gave the pre cedent (Ex. 40 : 13 sq.; Lev. 8 : 7 sqq.), and the growth of sacerdotalism the occasion for the in- Testments 531 Vicar troduction of a peculiar habit for l-he clergy. As the doctrine of the sacrifice of the Mass was developed, the vestments became more elab orate. Elements were introduced also from Greek and Roman sources. The custom cul minated in the vestments which the Roman Church has used for centuries in the so-called sacrificial offering, and which, with a few variations, characterize also the Greek Church. These are the amice, alb, cincture, maniple, stole and chasuble. The amice is a white linen or lace napkin or veU, hanging over neck and shoulders ; the alb, a white linen garment, ex tending to the feet ; the cincture, a girdle, con fining the alb ; the maniple, a strip of linen worn on the left wrist ; the stole, the peculiar badge of the clergy, a narrow strip of silk or other fabric, over the shoulders and reaching to the knees ; and the chasuble, the outer sleeve less garment of costly material, often elab orately embroidered and otherwise orna mented, with an opening through which the head is inserted, onginally reaching nearly to the feet, but in modem times so shortened that often it scarcely extends beyond the hips. To each of these garments a spiritual significance was attached, which, in time, grew into a number of meanings. Durandus, in his Ra tionale, devotes an entire book to their expla nation. Special prayers were appointed to be said, as each garment was put on. Luther and his associates regarded clerical vestments as adiaphora. It was neither a sin to use them, nor a sin, without offence to the weak, to abolish them. "Pictures, bells, eucharistic vestments, and the like I hold to be free" (Erl. ed. 30:372). "We concede that they may be used freely, provided pomp and luxury be absent ; for you please not God the more by blessing in vestments, nor the less by doing so vrithout them. For vestments com mend us not to God " (Form. Missae). See also Deutsche Messe (1526), Riga Order (1530), Brandenburg-Nuernberg (1533), Wuertemberg (1536), Schwaebisch-Hall (1548), and particu larly Luther's opinion concerning the Mark Brandenburg Order, De Wette's Briefe, 5 : 235 sq. (English in Jacobs' Luther, p. 235) . With the repudiation of the sacrificial element in the Mass, a great simplification of the vestments followed, while the principle of a peculiar dress distinguishing the officials of the congregation (pastors) from its non-official members was re tained. The ' ' Chorrock, ' ' or black clerical gown, became the rule in Lutheran churches in Germany. This came from monastic and academic use, and is absolutely without any sacerdotal conceptions. In some countries the alb was retained or introduced for use particu larly at the administration of the sacraments, weddings and festive occasions generally. The "bands" of white lawn (whence the term "band-box ") used as a neck-piece, are also with out any ecclesiastical significance, but are "a relic of the large lace collar, which about the middle of the Thirty Years' War, supplanted the ruffled collar previously in common use. After the middle of the XVII. century, this col lar lost its points, and, as a broad cloth, covered the upper part of the breast." An Ulustration of this may be seen in the portrait of Calovius, forming the frontispiece of his Biblia lUustrata. They were soon supplanted among the laity by the neckerchief, but retained, in some places, by judges and jurists, and particularly by the clergy with their customary conserva tism, first as a venerated garment, and sub sequently as a badge of office, the Roman Catholics using black with a white border, and the Protestants white, occasionally edged with lace. The constant tendency was to abbre viate them. The clerical cap or biretta was also a scholastic garment, once worn generally by members of the learned professions. Great diversity is found in different countries. The Swedish robe differs greatly from the German. Bishops and archbishops have distinctive vest ments. In the controversies connected with the Leipzig Interim, the principle of the Lutheran Church concerning adiaphora com pelled it to resist the reintroduction of vest ments where the demand was made on the part of Romanists or sympathizers with Romanism, since such introduction would have affected the testimony of the Church against false doctrine. When, on the contiary, the Re formed have insisted upon the abolition of such usage, upon the plea that its retention was a sin, the same principle has required that the Church assert her freedom. Muhlenberg brought with him to America a clerical robe, which he had made in London. The practice had fallen widely into disuse in this countiy, probably more on account of the primitive conditions of the earlier pastors, and the unsettled life which they led, than because of any objection to its use. It is almost uni versal in the German churches, and is widely prevalent in the English congregations of the General Council, Ohio and Missouri synods. It is used also in some of the churches of tbe General Synod, as well as in some of the most prominent and influential Presbyterian city churches. Lit. : Durandus, Rationale ; Bona, Rerum Liturgicarum, Lib. II. ; Binterim, Denk- wurdigkeiten, IV. i ; Calvor, Rit., Evang. ; Boehmer, Eccles., Vol. III. ; Jacobson in 1st ed., Herzog ; Blunt, Annotated Book of Com mon Prayer ; Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexi- kon. See also ParamEnTic. H. E. J. Vestry. This title, which is applied to the church council in some of the older Luth. con gregations, is of English origin. Primarily it ¦ signifies tbe room in which the church vest ments were kept, but subsequently was applied to the officers of the church, whose meetings were held in these rooms, and hence were called vestrymen. When charters were granted to Luth. congregations they were written in English, and in this way the English term was intioduced. For the duties, etc., of the vestry, see Church Councii,. J. Fr. Vicar. One who takes the place of another, either as assistant or substitute. In the Luth. Church the term is used to designate the tem porary assistant of a regular pastor. The system of appointing young candidates, immediately after their theological course is finished and Tidalin 533 Vorster their examination passed, as vicars to older ex perienced ministers, is particularly well de veloped in the Luth. Church of Wuertemberg. There the pastor who may desire such an assist ant can select a suitable young man, but his choice must be approved by the Consistory, and the formal appointment is made by it, so that the relation is not purely personal, but has at the same time an official character. The vicar lives with the pastor, receives his modest salary from him, and is subject to his orders. Thus, in the interval between his student life and his entrance upon the responsible office of a full pastor the theological fledgling is benefited by the daily intercourse with an experienced pastor. He has ample opportunity to become acquainted with all the practical details of his ministry without bearing the burden of its responsibility. And the older pastor may enjoy the refreshing and stimulating impulses of the young candi date fresh from the university, without ever be coming jealous of his popularity, inasmuch as their connection and co-operation is only of a temporary, transitory character. The example of Wuertemberg in developing this system of the "vicariat" has been followed by other Luth. churches in Germany, and especially in Prussia steps have been taken in this direction during the last fifty years. A. S. Vidalin, Geir Jo'nsson, b. 1762, d. 1823. Al most since the intioduction of Christianity Ice land had constituted two dioceses. But in 1801 these two were united into one, and Geir Vida lin made bishop of tbe whole Church of Ice land. He had received a good education, and wrote purer Icelandic than almost any of his contemporaries. When the Icelandic Bible Society was organized (July 10, 1815), through the noble efforts of Ebenezer Henderson, Bishop VidaUn was made its first president. He was a man of mild disposition, of humanitarian prin ciples, but lacking in energy and resoluteness of character. F. J. B. Vidalin, Jon Thorkelsson, b. 1666, d. 1720, bishop in the diocese of Skdlholt, Iceland, 1798. His postil {Vidallns- Postilla), published for the first time in 1718, passing through twelve editions, will remain a classic as long as the Ice landic language is spoken. His other works are : The Book of Seven Words, Sermons on the Seven Words of Our Saviour from the Cross,Six Sermons during Lent (7th ed.), and Instruc tion in Christianity. Vidalin is by far the most eloquent preacher Iceland has produced, and his sermons would, vrithout doubt, receive a place of honor in the homiletic literature of the world, if they were known outside of Iceland. He is a trae son of the Luth. Reformation both in faith and doctrine. In rhetorical fervor, in boldness of metaphor, in brilliancy and dash of bis periods, in florid, exuberant diction, in trenchant treatment of current abuses, and vividness of imagination, he deserves indeed to stand at the side of Jeremy Taylor in the galaxy of famous preachers. His sermons are read by many plain people to-day for private edifica tion. F. J. B. Vigera, John Fred., was an excellent teacher in the parochial school of St. Michael's and Zion's congregation in Philadelphia during Father Muhlenberg's time. He is highly spoken of by M., and in the absence of the pastor he frequently conducted church services. In 1749 V. was married by M. at Providence to Anna Stephenson, a Quaker lady, who had first received baptism and confirmation. J. N. Vilmar, Aug. Pr. Chr., b. Nov. 21, 1800, at Tolz, Hessia, the most prominent Hessian churchman of the nineteenth century ; a man of great and many-sided activity in school, state, and church. His eminent fitness for teaching (he was rector at Rotenburg, prof, at Hersfeld, director of gymnasium at Marburg) won for him the name : Reformer of the Hes sian Gymnasia. Tbe height of his life is marked by his administration of the superintendency of Kassel (1851-55), and his tenure of a theo logical professorship at Marburg (1855-68) . The revival of tbe Hessian Church from its ration alistic stupor and its return to confessional Luth. consciousness is principally due to his labors. D. July 30, 1868. J. F. Virginia, Lutherans in. statistics for 1890 give 157 congregations and 12,220 communi cants. Of these 145 congregations, with 11,190 communicants, belonged to the United Synod of the South. The General Synod was repre sented by 450, the Synodical Conference by 399, and the Ohio Synod by 175 members. The Lutherans are found chiefly in the Shenandoah Valley, west of the Blue Ridge, but also in Loudon and Madison counties, on the eastern slope, and in Richmond and Norfolk. Virginia, West, Lutherans in. statistics for 1890 : Congregations, 47 ; communicants, 4,176. The Luth. population is in the northern part of the state. The United Synod of the South was most numerous, vrith 21 congrega tions and 1,515 communicants. The General Synod has occupied some points along the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and had five con gregations with 1,108 communicants. The Ohio Synod had 16 congregations and 779 com municants in northeastern part of the state. The General Council (Pittsburg Synod) had a congregation of 650 communicants at Wheeling. Virginia Synod. See Synods (IV.). Visible Church. See Church. Visitation. See Pastorai, Visitation ; Oversight. Vocation. See Ministry. Voigt, John Ludwig, b. at Mansfeld, Sax ony, Nov. 9, 1731 ; came to this country, with John Andreas Krug, in 1763. He served the congregation at Germantown for a short while, but when Muhlenberg removed to Philadelphia, in 1765, he became his successor at the Trappe, New Hanover, Pottstown, and at Pikeland, in Chester Co., Pa. After Muhlenberg's return to the Trappe, Voigt removed to Chester Co. , and remained there in faithful service until his death, Dec. 28, 1800. J. Fr. Vorster, John (also known as Forster, Forster, Forsthemius) , b. in Augsburg, July 10, 1496, studied at Ingolstadt, was a scholar of Reuchlin, came to Wittenberg (1530), was a friend of Luther, assisted in the translation of Bible, prof, of Hebrew at Tiibingen (1539), at Voters 533 Wacliernaffel Nuremberg (1542), whence he furthered, the Reformation in Regensburg. Then upon re quest introduced the Reformation in Henne berg, later Supt. in Merseburg, prof, of Hebrew in Wittenberg (1549) • noted for his Hebrew Dic tionary (1557), which was long standard. D. Dec. 8, 1558. Voters, Congregational. To be allowed to vote is the right of every member in good stand ing of a congregation. The conditions under which the right of voting in a church may be exercised are laid down in the constitution and by-laws of the particular congregation. And if the measures to be voted on pertain to the spiritual affairs of the church, such as the elec tion of elders or deacons, the regulation of mat ters of worship and the like, the state will not interfere. A person entitled to vote in this capacityshould.be baptized and confirmed, be 3. regular communicant, and stated attendant upon the services of the church, and a con- tnbutor. Where, however, trastees are re quired who are separate and distinct from the other officers of the congregation, some states have seen proper to require other qualifications than those laid down in the constitution of the congregation, and the latter has no right to alter or abridge these qualifications by any rales or by-laws. In the State of New York it was ruled by the tribunal of last resort, that if a per son possesses the requisite qualifications pre scribed by statute, he has forfeited his right to vote for trustees, on financial or similar ques tions neither (a) by reason of his having re nounced the doctrines recognized by the denom ination to which the congregation belongs, nor {b) on account of his conduct. The congrega tion could not even deprive such a person of his or her vote by expulsion after a regular trial (21 N. Y. 267, and 53 N. Y. no). Such laws and rulings had their origin in a false liberal ism. They wrought great mischief for a time, but are no longer possible in the state referred to. In 1895 new laws were enacted, which rec ognizes as voters (Chap. 723, Art. V., Sec. 857) : {a) "AU persons," also females, "of full age, who are then members in good and regular standing of such church by admission into full communion or membership therewith, in accord ance with the rules and regulations thereof, and of the governing ecclesiastical body, if any, of the denomination or order to which the church belongs; or" {b) "who have been stated at tendants' in divine worship in such church, and have regularly contributed to the financial sup port thereof during the year next preceding such meeting." "Stated attendance" does not mean attending a few times only during the year, as compared with the stated times for worship, and at irregular and uncertain inter vals ; and " contribution " means substantial and 'vital aid and support, in the usual and customary way, to be used in meeting and de fraying the expenses incurred by the church (31 N Y 550). (As to woman's right to vote, see Woman's Pi,ace in Luth. Church.) J.N. Vows are promises freely given to God. The all-inclusive vow is that of baptism, when the Christian gives his whole person and life to God. The promise at confirthation is not prop erly a vow, but the full assumption of baptismal responsibility upon admission to the Lord's Supper. The binding vow of the Old Testa ment is not found in the New, which knows only of the free surrender of the Christian (Rom. 6:13; 7:4; 12). This was held by Luther issuing out of the doctrine of justifica tion by faith. He opposed all monastic vows, with their power of remitting sins and justify ing. This truth is clearly laid down in Art. XXVII. of the Augsburg Confession. Chem nitz also defends it, while Calvin again legalizes vows as expressions of gratitude or repentance (e. g. after intemperance) , and as helps to make us more careful and improve our weaknesses. The modern temperance vow is, therefore, es sentially Calvinistic. Modern Luth. moralists partly admit the vow on account of weakness, but also as the expression of a particular state of the soul on a special occasion. But they would have it always connected vrith the bap tismal vow, and coming from the whole life of the Christian begun there, and would guard it against legality. They always predicate the fun damental principle of evangelical freedom. From this point of view the vow of the deaconess is to be regarded. J. H. w. Wachsel, — , D.D., pastor of St. George's Luth. Church, London, to which he was called in 1763. The introduction of English services in 1771 caused amost serious controversy, which was carried into the papers and other publica tions. Dr. Wachsel was sustained by the courts. Author of ' ' Fundamental Constitution, Col- legial Rights and Privileges of a licensed Luth. Church under a supreme magistrate of a differ ent religious persuasion," London, 1768. Wackerhagen, Augustus, D.D., b. in Han over, Germany, May 22, 1774, educated at Goet tingen, came to America in 1801, and served as private tutor in Philadelphia. His wife was a sister of Rev. Dr. P. F. Mayer and a step daughter of the Rev. Dr. F. H. Quitman. He was pastor of the Luth. churches in Schoharie and CobleskiU, N. Y., from 1805 to 1815. He spent the remainder of his life in Columbia Co., N. Y., in the work of pastor and teacher. He was an accomplished scholar and an especially fine linguist. He d. in 1865. E. B. Wackernagel, Karl Eduard Philipp, D.D., b. 1800, at Berlin, d. 1877, at Dresden. He stud ied at Berlin, was master at the Gewerbe Schule (technical school) in Berlin (1829), in a private school at Stetten, Remsthal, Wuertemberg (1839), professor in the Real gymnasium in Wiesbaden (1845), director of the Realschule in Elberfeld ( 1849) , retired to Dresden ( 1861) . One of the most prominent hymnologists of the Luth. Church, author of Bibliographie zur Geschichte des Deutschen Kirchenlieds im XVIten fahrhundert, Frankfurt a. Main (1855) ; Das Deutsche Kirchenlied von der aeltesten Zeit bis zum Anfang des XVIIten Jahrhun derts (5 vols., 1864-1877), the indispensable storehouse of reliable information for the stu- Wafers 534 Wallin dent of early German hymnody. He was a member of the original commission for the prep aration of the "Eisenach Entwurf" for a common German hymn-book, but soon resigned, as he was dissatisfied with the principles ad opted by his colleagues. He published his Kleines Gesangbuch Geistlicher Lieder fuer Kirche, Schule und Haus, Stuttgart (i860), 224 hymns with tunes and annotations ; also Troesteinsamkeit in Liedern, Wiesbaden (1849), 4th ed. with tunes, Frankfurt-a-Main (1867). He took a lively interest in the work of the committee preparing the Kirchen-Buch of the General Council, and assisted with his valuable advice. His brother Wilhelm, b. 1806, d. 1869, was a prominent poet and Germanist, prof, in Basel (1833), the father of Prof. W. Wackernagel, D. D., of Muhlenberg Col lege. A. S. Wafers ( Waferbread, Hostien, Oblates). Our Lord Jesus Christ used the bread of the Pass over, unleavened cakes or loaves, in the institu tion of the Holy Supper. His disciples seem to have used common (unleavened) bread also. Therefore it would appear to be indifferent whether leavened or unleavened bread be used. From early times the Western Church used the latter, while the Eastern Church used only the former. The Luth. Church kept the custom of the fathers. The Calvinists at first did the same, but afterwards the substitution of leavened bread for the wafers was one of the measures of those who sought to Calvinize Luth. churches. — Wafers are thin unleavened cakes, usually of wheaten flour. It is more convenient to use them, because they do not crumble, can be counted, and can be kept. They are easily given to the communicant. (See Sacraments, Administrations oe. ) To the objection that the bread must be broken, we reply that the Holy Supper is not a symbolical rite. Our Lord broke the bread in order to distribute it, not to symbolize his death. "Do this," refers tothe whole action — consecration, distribution and re ception. E. T. H. Wagner, Tobias, b. 1598, at Hildesheim ; studied at Tuebingen, to which he was recalled (1653) after a long pastorate at Esslingen, to become first professor of theology, and then pro-chancellor and chancellor, serving in the latter office until his death in 1680. Wrote much on geographical and historical, as well as philosophical and theological subjects. His de scendant, Charles J. Stille, was provost of the University of Pennsylvania (1868-1880). Wagner, Tobias, the great grandson of the above, was pastor at Horkheim on the Neckar. Came to America in 1742. First fleld of labor at Waldsboro, Maine. Was pastor of Christ Church, Tulpehocken, Oct. 25, 1743, to April 30, 1746. Officiated at Moselem as early as 1745. Located near Reading (1746). Preached at Alsace and Schwarzwald. Was pastor at New ' Holland (1748-1755). Pastor at Lancaster, Oct., 1751, to Nov., 1752. He gathered the Lu therans at Reading, held services in private houses,organized Trinity congregation (1748), and was pastor for a short time. He was the first pastor of Mertz Church, Rockland Tp., Berks Co., and served the same (1747 to 1759). He never became a member of the Ministerium of Pennsyl., organized in 1748. He was greatly befriended by Patriarch Muhlenberg, but turned against him. In 1759 he, accompanied by his wife and one daughter, returned to Ger many, where he d. in 1775. His other children remained in America, and among their descend ants are the distinguished Wagner and Still6 famUies of PhUadelphia. F. J. F. S. Walch, Christian Wilhelm Franz, second son of J. G. Walch ; b. Dec. 25, 1726 ; studied at Jena ; lectured there on exegetical, philo sophical, and historical subjects (1745-7); trav elled through a great part of Europe, becoming acquainted with the most prominent men of that time ; professor of philosophy at Jena (1750), 3t Gottingen (1753), and of theology (1754) ; d. March 10, 1784. He was one of the most fertile writers, prominent especially in Church History, on account of his painstaking and accurate use of the sources. His main and still valuable work is Entwurf einer vollsidndi- gen Historie der Ketzereien, Spaltungen und Religionsstreitigkeiten bis auf die Zeit der Reformaticm (11 parts, of which the last one, published after Walch's death, comes down to the ninth century) . His theology was tinged with Supranaturalism. F. W. S. Walch, Johann Ernst Immanuel, oldest son of J. G. W. ; b. August 30, 1725 ; prof, of philosophy, rhetoric, and poetry at Jena (1750) ; well versed in philology, especially oriental, antiquities, and natural sciences, making use of his archaeological learning in illustrating the New Testament {Dissertationes in Acta; Observationes in Matthesum) ; d. Dec. i, 1778- F. W. S. Walch, Johann Georg, son of the general superintendent George Wilhelm Walch at Mei ningen ; b. June 17, 1693 ; began his studies at Leipzig (1710) ; prof essor of rhetoric and poetry at Jena (1719), of theology (1724); d. 1755. He was a many-sided man and an indefatigable worker. Of his many writings, especially of a historical character, we mention his Philosoph- isches Lexikon in two large vols. (1740, 4th ed. 1755); Bibliotheca theologica selecta (4 vols.); Bibliotheca patristica (new ed., by Danz, 1834); Luther's Complete Works (24 large vols., with valuable introductions, the Latin works in Ger man tianslation); Christliches Konkordienbuch (in German and Latin); Historische und The ologische Einleitung in die Religionsstreitig keiten, welche sonderlich ausser der ev.-luth. Kirche entstanden (5 vols.); Hist. Theol. Einl. in die Religionsstreitigkriten der ev.-luth. Kirche (5 vols.). His theology was ortho dox Lutheran, though somewhat influenced by the natural religion and Pietism of his times. F. W. S. Wallin, Johan Olof, Ph. D., D, D., b. in Sweden 1779, ordained 1806, pastor pri marius in Stockholm 1818, Archbishop of Up sala 1837, d. 1839. A great pulpit orator, he is still more renowned as Sweden's greatest hym nologist in this century, and as such he is called ' ' The David's Harp of the Northland. ' ' He was the editor of the present Swedish hymn-book. Walther 635 Walther and a majority of the hymns are either written or corrected by him. Several eminent German hymnographers (Knapp, etc.) have said con cerning this work : "The content of the hymn- ' book is laid down in the most beautiful and classical form, and evangelical Germany has nothing equal to it. " N. F. Walther, Johann, b. 1496, in Cola, Thurin gia, d. 1570, in Torgau. Luther's friend and co-laborer in the musical arrangements for the service of the Church of the Reformation. He was a prominent member (bassist and com poser) of the Torgau Cantorei, in 1524, when Luther invited him to Wittenberg to assist him in selecting and setting the music for his Ger man Mass, Luther writing the "Accentus," the part of the officiating pastor, Walther the "Concentus," the responses of the choir and the congregation. In the account which Walther wrote of this meeting, forty years later, he says : " Luther kept me with him in Wittenberg three whole weeks, in order to write the tunes to several Gospels and Epistles, until the first German Mass could be sung in the church. At the same time he ordered the setting of simple hymn- tunes for the use of youth and to be sung dur ing Vespers, which, at this time, had been done away with in many places ; he also requested Latin hymns, antiphons, and responsories to be composed for the poor students who were obliged to sing, for their daily bread, before the houses of the rich." As the result of their combined labors, Walther, the same year, pub lished his Geistliche GesangbUchleyn— the first Luth. choral-buch, containing music in four and five parts to thirty-two German hymns (twenty-four by Luther) , and five Latin texts. Enlarged editions, edited by Walther, followed in 1537, 1544, and 1551. In 1544 George Rhaw (1490-1548), publisher of Walther's book of the same year, compiled and issued a companion volume, containing five compositions of his own and Ii8 by other composers of that period. The books of Walther and Rhaw, with a total of 248 richly harmonized compositions, are the chief source of the early Luth. Church music. After the death of Frederick the Wise, Elec tor John, in order to save money, disbanded the Cantorei ( 1530) , but its continuation was secured by private subscriptions of the citizens, and, in 1534, Walther was appointed Cantor to the school in Torgau. Elector Moritz made him CapeUmeister in Dresden (1548)- In 1554 he resigned and retumed to Torgau, Le Maistre becoming his successor. His musical set tings for the hymn-books of his time were not intended for congregational use, but solely for choir-singing. He also prepared the Passion music, after Matthew and John. (See Passion Music.) He is properly caUed the "Urcantor" of the Luth. Church, lay ing the foundation for the whole future de velopment of her sacred music. He was also a hymn-writer of distinction. Wackernagel as cribes ten hymns to him. Among them ' ' Herz lich thut mich erfreuen," with 34 stanzas in the original, of which the Kirchen-Buch gives 16, as Nos. 587, 588, 589- It was partly trans lated by Miss Winkworth, Dr. Kennedy, and Dr. M. Loy ("The Bridegroom Soon WiU CaU Us, ' '—Ohio Hymnal) . A full translation of the whole hymn, by Miss H. R. Krauth, appeared in the Penn Monthly, April, 1880, " Leap Forth My Heart, Rejoicing." Walther's fine memo rial hymn on Luther, " Des Deutschen Landes Prophet und Apostel," is found in Dr. A. Spaeth's Martin Luther im Liede Seiner Zeit genossen (Reading, 1883). J. F. O. & A. S. Walther, Zarl Ferdinand Wilhelm, b. Oct. 25, 181 1, at Langenchursdorf, in Saxony, where his father was a Luth. preacher. After careful preparatory training at home and at the gym nasium at Schneeberg, and having overcome an inclination toward the life of a musician, the young man was, in 1829, matriculated as a student of theology at Leipzig. In the history of his spiritual life Walther resembled very much his great teacher, Luther. At school and at the university his soul was encompassed by the darkness of Rationalism, as Luther's had been by the night of Popery, and when he en tered the university he had not heard a word of gospel truth uttered by a believing teacher. In the university he found his Staupitz in a candi date of theology of riper years, who gathered about him a number of younger students for spiritual exercises of a rather pietistical type, and young Walther finally found himself at the verge of spiritual despair in hopeless spiritual agonies. Then it was that he also found a spiritual Frau Cotta, the wife of a revenue officer at Leipzig, at whose house he was a fre quent guest, and the comforting words of this matron first led him to find peace and comfort in the grace of God and Christ the Redeemer. During a severe illness, which compelled him to interrupt his studies, Walther laid the foundation of a thorough familiarity with the writings of Luther, which he found in his father's library. Having completed his studies at Leipzig under teachers who were most of them also confirmed Rationalists, and after several years which, as was common among young theologians, he spent as a private tutor, Wal ther was, in 1837, ordained to the ministry at Braunsdorf, in Saxony, a village of which the entire population was also steeped in Rational ism. Amid the severe conflicts which his Luth. preaching and practice brought upon him, he was induced to attach himself to the move ment which, under the leadership of Martin Stephan, resulted in the emigration of a num ber of Luth. preachers and ministerial candi dates and a company of about seven hundred souls, who, early in 1839, arrived at St. Louis, Mo. Walther, however, had never become in fatuated with Stephan and bis plans and aspira tions, as his older brother. Otto Hermann Walther, and most of Stephan's adherents were, and when, after the unmasking of the " bishop," the whole enterprise was threatened vrith ecclesiastical and social ruin, it was Wal ther who first gained a firm foothold in the Scriptures and the Luth. standards. When most of the people and their preachers had rallied and congregations were organized at Perry Co., Mo., Walther was in the midst of them, and took an active part in the establish- W^alther 536 W^ar ment of the college. When, in 1841, Otto Her mann Walther died as the pastor of the first Luth. congregation at St. L,ouis, tbe younger brother was called to succeed him in the pastor ate. His labors there were abundantly blessed. In 1844 he, with the material assistance of the congregation, began the publication of the Lutheraner, which contributed much toward bringing together men of Luth. convictions in various parts of the country, who, after pre paratory conferences in 1845 and 1846, joined hands and hearts in the organization of the Missouri Synod, for which Walther had drafted the constitution and of which, in 1747, he was made the first president. In 1849 Walther was also elected professor of theology, and as such he began his labors in 1850. An estrangement having meanwhile sprung up between the " Missourians," as they were first called by an other antagonist, and Wilhelm Lohe, owing to the latter's incipient deviation from the Luth. doctrine of the church and the ministry, Wal ther was, with Wyneken, in 1850, sent on a mission of peace to Germany, where he also completed his book Die Stimme unserer Kirche in der Frage von Kirche und Amt, which was pubUshed in 1852. In 1853 Walther founded a Bible Society, with which, in the course of years, a number of auxiliary societies connected themselves, and of which he was the president as long as it existed. In 1855, Lehre und Wehre, a theological monthly, made its first appearance under Walther's editorship. In the preface of the second volume the editor proposed a plan of bringing members of the various Luth. bodies in America into personal contact by free conferences for doctnnal dis cussions, and in the same year, 1856, the first free conference was held at Columbus, O. Similar conferences met in 1857 and 1858, at all of which Walther was present. His absence from the conference of 1859 was caused by a severe disease of the throat, for which he sought and found relief by a trip to Europe in i860. In 1863 he published his book. Die rechte Ges- talt einer vom Staate unabhdngigen evangel- isch-lutherischen Orlsgemeinde, a sequel to his book on the church and the ministry. In 1864 he was re-elected to the presidency of the Joint Synod, in which he had been succeeded by Wyneken in 1850, and in which he continued to serve till 1878. In 1866 Walther was one of the representatives of his synod at the colloquy with members of the Buffalo Synod, and in 1867 he took a leading part in the colloquy with representatives of the Iowa Synod, where the points discussed were Chiliasm, Open Questions, Antichrist, and the Luth. Symbols. In March, 1868, Walther, with others, was in conference with members of the Ohio Synod at Columbus, in October of the same year, with membei's of the Wisconsin Synod, and in 1869 with members of the lUinois Synod, and these three colloquies resulted in the mutual recogni tion of the bodies represented as in full agfree- ment as to doctrine and practice. In 1871, in which year also his first Postil on the Gospels was published, Walther took part in a conven tion at Chicago, preliminary to the formation ot the Synodical Conference, which was accom plished in 1872 at a meeting at Milwaukee, for which he preached the opening sermon ; he was also the first president of the Synodical Conference. In the same year he also presided over the jubUee meeting of the Missouri Synod, for which he preached the opening sermon, and in August of 1872 he was present at a free con ference of English Lutherans at Gravelton, Mo., for which he furnished the doctrinal theses, and this meeting was the germ of what is now the English Synod of Missouri and Other States. In this year, also, Walther's work on Pastoral Theology was published in book form, the material having appeared in the form of articles in Lehre und Wehre from 1865 to 1871. In 1876 another volume of sennons, Brosamen, appeared. In 1878 Walther ac cepted the title of doctor of divinity, conferred upon him by Capital University of Columbus, O. In the same year, at his urgent and re peated request, his Synod finally consented to free him from the burden of the presidency, and this measure was providential, as the follow ing years were to become the most exacting of Walther's public life ; for in 1879 the great con troversy, predicted by Walther during the Jubilee Synod of 1872, the controversy on the doctrines of predestination and conversion, sprung up, which led to a rupture in the Syn odical Conference, though not in the Missouri Synod, as many had expected. A general con ference of the pastors of the Synod held at Chicago in 1880 showed the mass of the min istry united on the same doctrinal position. A coUoquy of the theological faculties and the presidents of the synods connected with the Synodical Conference held at Milwaukee in 1 88 1, at which Walther was also present, failed of the desired success, and the controversy was continued chiefly in the periodicals of the synods concerned and in an extensive literature of pamphlets, toward all of which Walther con tributed the greater part. In 1886 Walther, though already broken in health, once more attended a meeting of the Synodical Confer ence at Detroit, and in the fall of the same year he closed his public labors by doctrinal dis cussions at a meeting of the Western District convened at St. Louis. After a lingering ill ness of many months, during which the fiftieth anniversary of his ordination was celebrated by his friends, Walther departed this life on May 7, 1887, while the Joint Synod was in session at Ft. Wayne. See, also, Missouri Synod ; St. Louis ; Concordia Coi.i,ege and Seminary ; Synodicai, Conference. A. L. G. Walther Liga is the name chosen at its second convention, at Ft. Wayne, Ind., by an organization consisting of Young People's So cieties within the Synodical Conference of North America, inaugurated in 1892 at Buffalo, wbere, in May, 1893, the first convention of delegates was assembled, and a constitution adopted, under which the league has grown to a membership of fifty societies in six districts in 1898. The organ of the league is Der Vereinsbote, published in German and Eng lish by a committee. A. L. G. War, Lutheran Position on. in a littie book, entitled Von der Weltlichen Obrigkeit, War 537 W^ashington €ity wie weit man ihr Gehorsam schuldig sei, Luther, in 1523, set forth that in the Kingdom of God there is no need of the sword, because the Spirit of God rales the hearts of men that they do not injure each other, love one another, and willingly suffer wrong. But in the king doms of this world the right of the sword has been established from the beginning (Gen. 9 : 6 ; Ex. 21 : 24, 25 ; Matt. 26 : 52 ; Rom. 13 : 1,2; I Pet. 2 : 13, 14) . Luther then argues that even the Christian, in obedience to the civil authorities, may use the sword. In another work, Ob Kriegsleute auch in seligem Stande sein konnten, in 1527, he says: "What else is war than the punishment of wrong and evil ? Why do men war if not to have peace and obedience?" He then sets forth: (i) That an inferior (Unterperson) should not war against his superior {Oberperson) , i. e. he de clares against revolutions and tumult. (2) Equals may wage war, but only when unjustly challenged and attacked. (3) Arbitrary wars are a sin and destructive to the instigator (2 Kings 14). (4) Superiors can war against in feriors when these are in a state of revolution. (5) Wars of necessity are a duty of civil authorities. To this clear statement nothing has been added in evangelical ethics. The symbols of our church, where they refer to war, hold this same view. Augsburg Confession, Art. 16 : " Concerning civil affairs, they teach that such civil ordinances as are lawful, are good works of God ; that Christians may lawfully bear civil office, sit in judgment, determining matters by the imperial laws, and other laws in pres ent force, appoint just punishments, engage in just war, act as soldiers. ..." In Art. 21 : "Touching the worship of saints, they teach that the memory of saints may be set before us, that we may follow their faith and good works, according to our caUing ; as the Emperor may follow David's example, in making war to drive away the Turks from his country." In the Apology, chap. 3, section 70 : "David's labors in waging war, and in the administration of the state, are holy works, are trae sacrifices, are contests of God, defending the people who have the Word of God against the devil, in order that the knowledge of God may not be entirely extinguished on earth." Chap. 8, section 59: "The Gospel forbids private re dress, and Christ inculcates this so frequently with the design that the apostles should not think that they ought to seize the governments from those who hold otherwise, just as the Jews dreamed concerning the kingdom of the Mes siah, but that they might know that they ought to teach conceming the spiritual kingdom that it does not change the civil state. Therefore, private redress is prohibited, not by advice, but by a command (Matt 5 = 39 ; Ro™- 12:19)- Public redress, which is made through the office of the magistrate, is not advised against, but is commanded, and is a work of God, accord ing to Paul (Rom. 13 : i sqq.). Now the dif ferent kinds of public redress are legal de cisions, capital punishment, wars, military sciTvicCi * ' The object of war should ever be the uphold ing of right and the establishment of peace. Injury and damage shall be inflicted upon the enemy only in so far as it is necessary to the at tainment of this end. It is the duty of subjects to offer their services to the government, when needed. It has been held, however, that in cumbents of the holy office should not become soldiers, because the service of God in the Church is not compatible with the purely worldly calling of the soldier. H. W. H. Wartburg Castle, a Uttle to the south of the city of Eisenach, on a steep hill, surrounded by the Thuringian forests, towers the stately castle of Wartburg. It was buUt in the eleventh century, and became the splendid court of the Thuringian landgraves. Here took place the legendary Saengerkrieg, celebrated in German poetry, here lived and toiled the noble vrife of Louis IV., the holy Elisabeth, But more than by anything else, the Wartburg has become known and renowned as the place where Luther found refuge after the Diet of Worms. In one of its little rooms Luther lived from May 4, 1521, to March 3, 1522 — the room is even now shown to every visitor — and from this, his "Patmos," he presented the world with the greatest gift of the Reformation, the transla tion of the Bible. For three centuries after wards the Wartburg was almost forgotten and beginning to fall into rains, until about 1850, Karl Alexander, of Weimar, restored it to its original fonn. J. F. Wartburg Sjmod. See Synods (I.). Washington, State of, Lutherans in. Statistics of 1890 give 35 congregations, with 1,912 communicants. The United Norwegian Synod had 19 congregations, with 819 communi cants ; the General Council 7, with 446 com municants ; and the Joint Synod of Ohio 4, with 386 communicants. Washington City. The Luth. Church in the capital of the Nation holds a place of honor. The first Luth. church was organized in 1833, though the ground had been given, back in colonial days. There are at this date (1898) thirteen organizations in the capital, eight of them belonging to the General Synod, the others being distributed among the Missouri and the Joint Synod of Ohio, and independency. The oldest English church is St. Paul's, and following, in chronological order, are : the Me morial, Church of the Reformation, St. Mark's, Church of the Redeemer, Zion's, Keller Me morial. The West Washington (Georgetown) church is more than 100 years old, with a valuable property. Three of the present pas tors in the capital have been in their several fields a quarter of a century, the oldest soon reaching his golden jubilee. There is in Wash ington a bronze statue of the Reformer, a dupli cate of the Worms statue. (See LuTher Monu ments.) In Statuary Hall, in the Capitol, there is also a marble figure, representing the son of Henry M. Muhlenberg in the act of throwing aside his clerical gown and revealing his soldier costume, as he announced : " There is a time to fight as well as a time to pray." ^be type of Luth. doctrine set forth in the Washington pulpits of the Luth. Church has Wedderbnrn 538 Weiser been conservative, and the method of worship liturgical. There is no absolute uniformity. In some the gown is worn. In some the Com mon Service is used, and in others these are not found. W. E. P. Wedderburn, the name of three brothers, James, John and Robert, who published before 1546 a translation into Scotch - English of Luther's hymns, with a paraphrase of Luther's Catechism. They were natives of Dundee, and graduates of St. Andrews. John spent some time at Wittenberg in 1539. The precise date of the first edition of the Gude and Godlie Ballates is not known. Of this rare work, there is a re print in the Astor Library, New York. In later editions, it is known as Ane Compendious buik of godlie Psalmes and spirituall Sangis. It is interesting to note that long before Calvinistic versions of the Psalms were sung by the Scotch, they used such renderings of Luther's words as the following : " And He, that we should not forget, Gave us His Body for to eat, In form of bread, and gave, as sign. His blood to drink in form of wine. Who will receive this sacrament Should have true faith and sin repent ; Who uses it unworthily, Receiveth death eternally." and : " Our baptism is not done all one day, But all our life it lasts identical ; Remission of our sins endures for aye, For though we fall, through great fragility, The covenant, once contracted faithfully By our great God, shall ever remain, As oft as we repent and sin refrain." See Herford, Literary Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century, Cam bridge, 1886 : '^nlian. Dictionary of Hymnology, 1892 ; The Lutheran, May 15, 1890. H. E. J. Wedding. See Marriage. Wedding King, a. plain gold ring, in dis tinction from the engagement ring, which may be gemmed, worn as a seal of the mutual vows of bride and groom. The plainness of the ring is intended to indicate the sincerity of the love and the sober reality of the life that is be gun with its assumption. The custom is traced to ancient Roman usage (Tertullian), adopted into the Church probably before Ambrose, and fully explained first by Isidore of Seville in the seventh century, who says that it is worn on the fourth finger because of a vein leading to the heart. The pre-Reformation Orders, in accom modation to the frequent poverty of the parties, did not demand it as indispensable, nor did the Luth. Orders, although all Orders of the earlier period provided for it. Only tbe Pomeranian Order of 1568 prescribes a formula to be said by the pastor. Calvor, Rituale, 1 : 17 sqq. ; Klie foth, Lii. Abhand, 1 : 106-109 > Daniel, Codex Lit., I : 263 ; 2 :3i9, 331. H. E. J. Week, Holy. See Church Year. Weimar Convention. After the adoption of the Augsburg Confession, two parties appeared in the Luth. Church. Luther kept them from plunging into extremes. After his death party differences developed rapidly. Melanchthon's want of definiteness in doctrine and firmness in character caused the strict Lutherans to view him with suspicion ; and the concessions made in the Leipzig Interim were pronounced an open treachery to the Church. At the Weimar con vention (Jan. 2, 1556), the strict Lutherans resolved to hold fast Luther's doctrine of the free-will and the Lord's Supper, and not to be reconciled to the Philippists, unless they gave up their Synergism and Zwinglianism. J. J. Y. Weimar Disputation. To preserve the pure Luth. doctrine, the Duke of Weimar ordered (1559) the Jena theologians to prepare a confuta tion. During the preparation a controversy arose between the theologians Flacius and Strigel. The latter landed in prison. Afterwards released, he was granted, at Weimar (Aug. 2-8, 1560) , a public disputation with Flacius, his opponent. Strigel defended Synergism most dexterously, yet he was admonished henceforth to keep silent. During this disputation Flacius, the great champion of pure Luth. doctrine, in the heat of controversy and to his great injury, grievously erred in declaring original sin some thing substantial instead of accidental— ^^•cca- tum originate esse substantiam. J. J. Y. Weiser, John Conrad, Sr., b. 1660, d. 1746, was the scion of an honorable family, which, for generations, resided in the town of Gross- Aspach, Duchy of Wuertemberg, Germany, where son succeeded father to the prominent office of " Schuldheis, " or chief burgess. The exodus to England, in 1709, found him a leader of his people, andat the head of the party which reached New York on June 13, 1710. In the summer of 1711 he commanded the German contingent of the troops assembled at Albany for the attack on Montreal. During all the sufferings experienced by the German settlers on the Hudson he was their mainstay, even making a journey to London, in 1719, of great length and hardship, to better their condition. His first wife was Anna Magdalena Vebele, b. 1666, d. May i, 1709, before the depar ture for England, leaving nine of her sixteen children surviving her. He married a second time, in 1711, again leaving descendants, and died peacefully, at Tulpehocken, Pa., in the home of his son, Conrad, whilst there on a visit. (Cf. H. E. Jacobs, The German Immi gration, Philadelphia, 1899.) H. M. M. R. Weiser, John Conrad, Jr. , commonly known as "Colonel Conrad Weiser," b. Nov. 2, 1696, at Afstaedt, a small village in Herrenberg, a county contiguous to Backnang. He accom panied his father to New York. In November, 1713, his father was visited by Quagnant, or Guinant, a chief of the Maquas, or Six Nations, who, taking a great fancy to Conrad, requested that he might accompany him back. He did so, remaining with the tribe some eight months, during which time he suffered much, but leamed their language and customs thoroughly, and was adopted by them. This experience was in valuable to himself and his country later. In 1720 he was married to a German maiden, named Eva Anna. Her family name is un known. There is no truth in the tradition that she was an Indian girl. In 1721, he began to take a conspicuous part in provincial affairs. Because of domestic unhap- Weiser 539 Wenzel ptness, caused by his father's second marriage, he removed, in 1729, to Pennsylvania, and set tled at Tulpehocken. Here his Indian friend, the chief Shekallamy, found him in 1731, and took him to Philadelphia, where he was pre sented to Governor Gordon, who at once appre ciated his excellent qualities. From 1732 until his death he was the recognized head of the In dian Bureau of the English Government in the province. Respected alike by red man and white, because of his unquestioned ability and uprightness, he maintained peace until war was unavoidable, and was even then instrumental in bringing its horrors to a close at the earliest possible date. In 1741 he was made justice of the peace, and served as such in Lancaster and Berks Counties for many years. He was the first judge of Berks County and president judge of its courts from 1752 until his death. Upon the outbreak of the French and Indian war, he was commissioned lieut. -colonel, Oct. 31 > 1755, ^nd given command of the First Bat talion, Penna. Regiment. He was entrasted with the very important duty of protecting the frontier, along the Blue Mountains from the Susquehanna to the Delaware River, which duty he performed with signal ability. He was a sincere and earnest Christian, and a Lutheran. Living, as he did, during a time when his own church was as yet but sparsely represented, he was inclined to aid all, irrespec tive of denomination, who were engaged in the good work, and, from that fact, has been claimed by others ; but his adherence to the Luth. Church cannot be questioned, and, upon the advent of Muhlenberg, who brought order out of chaos, was firm and steadfast. He was a most successful business man, and represented the Penns during the incorporation and up- bmlding of Reading. . He died suddenly, on July 13, 1760. His wife, born Jan. 25, 1700, survived him until Dec. 27, 1778. Seven children were living at his decease : Philip, Frederick, Peter, Samuel, Benjamin, Anna Maria (who married Henry Melchior Muhlenberg), and Margaret. H. M. M. R. Weiser, Reuben, D. D., descendant of above, b Womelsdorf, Pa., 1807, studied at Gettys burg, entered ministry, 1832 ; served numerous General Synod parishes chiefly in Pa., but also na W Va., Md., and IU. ; removed to Colorado (1872), where he died in 1885. Author of Life of Luther by a Lutheran (1853); Regma (1856). Weismann, Christian Eberhard, b. at Hir schau (Sept. 2, 1677), court chaplain at Stiitt- gart (1705), prof, at Tiibingen (1721), d. May 26 1747 He composed some hymns and wrote I-nstitutiones Theologices Exegetico-Dogmati- ces{in^). . , , . Weiss, Michael (Weisse, Weyss),b. about 1480, in Neisse, SUesia, d. 1542, m Landskron, Bohemia. He was a monk m Breslau when Luther's writings reached him and gained him for the cause of the Refomiation. He became German preacher to the Bohemian Brethren at Landskron, Bohemia, and at Fulneck, Moravia. In 1522 and 1524 l^e visited Luther, together with J. Roh (Horn), to explain to him the views of the Bohemian Brethren. Luther spoke of him as " A good poet, with somewhat errone ous views on the Sacrament. " He edited the first German hymn-book of the Bohemian Brethren (in 1531) with 155 hymns, either translations from Bohemian or originals written by himself. Many of them passed into the Luth. hymn-books of the sixteenth and seven teenth century, Luther himself taking twelve of them into his hymn-book of 1545. A consider able number of his hymns have been translated into English, among them ' ' Christus , ist er standen," tr. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra. Germ. (1858); "Christ the Lord is risen again," Church Book (additional hjmms) ; " Gelobt sei Gott im hoechsten Thron," tr. by Mrs. A. Spaeth, "Glory to God upon His throne," in the Southern Luth. Sunday-School Book, 1883. _ A. S. Weissel, G-eorge, b. 1590, at Domnau, near Koenigsberg, d. 1635 ; studied at Koenigsberg, Wittenberg, Leipzig, Jena, Strassburg, Basle, and Marburg ; was rector of the school at Friedland, near Domnau, 1614 ; pastor of the newly-erected Altrossgart church, in Koenigs berg, 1623 ; one of the best hymn-writers of the East Prassia group of singers in the seventeenth century. His hymns appeared in the Koenigs berg hymn-books from 1639 to 1650, and in the Preussische FestUeder ( 1 642 ) . Among them the fine Advent hymn, ' ' Macht hoeh die Thuer, die Thor macht weit," tr. by Miss Winkworth, Lyria Germanica, 1855, " Lift up your heads, ye Mighty Gates," in the Church Book, with alterations; "Wo ist dein Stachel nun, O Tod? " re-written, probably by J. Gesenius, for the Hanover Hymn-Book (1657), tr. " O Death, where is thy cruel sting?" in the Ohio Hymnal. A. S. Weissiger, Daniel, an immigrant from the Palatinate, who came to America in 1731, and, two years later, was sent to Germany and Eng land as the head of a commission to procure a pastor and collect funds for the congregations at Philadelphia, New Hanover, and the Trappe. See his Report and Appeal {Hallesche Nach richten) , new edition, 9 : 50 sq. Welden, Christian F., D. D., one of the founders of the General Council ; b. 1812 ; student of Dr. F. W. Geissenheimer, Sr., in New York ; entered ministry (1833) ; founder of the Lutheran Church in Rochester, N. Y. ; pastor in Chester Co., Pa., Bethlehem, and Philadelphia ; president of Ministerium of Pa. ; translated Wildenhahn's John Amdt ; member of com mittee that prepared Church Book and Common. Serrice. D. 1897. Weller, Jerome, an inmate of Luther's house, and tutor of his son ; afterwards rector of schools at Schneeberg, and, from 1539, super intendent at Freiberg ; b. 1499, d. 1572 ; fre quently appears in Luther's Letters and Table^ Talk, as one having many intellectual difficuL ties, and of desponding mind, whom Luthet comforted. Wenzel, George Anthony, D. D., one of the founders of the General Council, and an indus trious translator ; b. in Dittlorof, Bavaria, 1816 ; graduated Jefferson College (1840), and Gettys- Werdenhagcn 540 West Indies burg Seminary ; chief pastorates, Zion's, Phila delphia, and Pittsburgh ; d. Zelienople, Pa. (1896). Translated several of Wildenhahn's Pictures from the Life, and many articles in Evangelical Review and The Lutheran. Werdenhagen, John Angelus, layman, mystical precursor of pietism, b. at Helmstedt (1581), where he was prof, of ethics (1616-18) ; became a diplomatist, and died an imperial counsellor, at Ratzeberg, in 1652. Werner, Georg, b. 1589, near Elding, Pras sia, d. 1643, in Koenigsberg ; master in the Loebenicht school at Koenigsberg (1614) ; rector of the school at Preussisch Holland (i6i6) ; diaconus of the Loebenicht church in Koenigs berg (1621) ; edited the Koenigsberg Hymn- Book of 1643. Author of the hjmin, " Der Du, Herr Jesu, Ruh und Rast " (from the Latin, "Qui Jacuisti Mortus"), tr. by Miss Wink worth, Lyra Germ. (1858), "Lord Jesus who our souls to save," in the Church Book and Ohio Hymnal. A. S. Wernsdorf, E. F., archaeologist, b. Witten berg (1718) ; prof, of theology, Wittenberg (1756); of antiquities, Leipzig (1782) ; author of several liturgical monographs. Wernsdorf, Gottlieb, theologian; b. Schone- walde, near Herzberg (1668). Professor of theol ogy and general superintendent, Wittenberg. An earnest confessional Luth. in an age of doc trinal deterioration. Author of De Audoritate Librorum Symbolicorum, Academical Disputa tions, and several historical monographs. Westen, Thomas von, "the apostle of Lap land," was born at Drondhjem, Norway (1682). He studied philology and medicine at Copen hagen. Peter the Great offered him the chair of philology and rhetoric at Moscow, but he preferred to enter the ministry. He became pastor of Wedoen, in Drondhjem diocese (1710). W. soon became prominent by his learning and energy. The Royal Mission Board ap pointed him commissioner for Lapland (1716). He started from Drondhjem with two chaplains, sailed to Waranger, and traversed on foot East and West l^inland in the Arctics, looking up every Lapp camp, installed his chaplains. Stub and Block, as missionaries, took counsel with the resident pastors, Pans and Nidter, and ordered the building of schools and chapels. Returning to Drondhjem,he established a Lapp institute, which furnished many efficient native helpers. He repeated his journeys in 1718 and 1722, braved all hardships, and achieved much by his devotion to the work and his love for the despised and much abused Lapps. He had ex hausted his strength and his means for the cause, when he died at Drondhjem, AprU 9, 1727. W. W. West Indies, Danish, Luth. Church in. Denmark came into possession of three West India islands in the following order: St. Thomas, in 1672 ; St. John, in 1684 ; and St. Croix, in 1735. The first Luth. minister on the new ter ritory was the Rev. Kjeld J. Slagelse, in 1666, who died in 1672. He was succeeded by the Rev. Joergen J. Moring, who died suddenly in 1673. He was followed by the Rev. D. C. Ris- brich, who returned to Denmark in 1677. Divine service was held in a police magistrate's office until 1750, when a church was built. This was destroyed by a hurricane, and another built in 1793. This again was burned to the ground, and another erected in 1826. In 1708 the Rev. Gunder Syndermann became pastor in St. Croix, and, after doing a good work, died in 1736, im mediately on his retum from the burial of the Rev. N. F. Bang, of St. Thomas. The next to take up the work on St. Croix was the Rev. H. J. O. Stoud, who labored with great zeal among the natives. He died in 1749, and a monument stUl marks his grave. The congregation on this island built a church in 1753, "The Church of the Lord of Zebaoth," which was occupied un til 1834, when it was given up to secular use. During this period the work of the Church was greatly hindered by its entire subjection to the authorities in Denmark, where the civil government dominated all ecclesiastical affairs. They sent missionaries to the islands under hard conditions and at starvation salaries, so that many viewed the position as one of exile. In many cases, the men sent were inexperi enced and unfitted for the work. A knowl edge of English and Creole was necessary, but was no sooner attained than the missionaries re turned to the mother country, and there were frequent and long vacancies, which left an open door for proselyters. But there were also faith ful and competent laborers and good results. The Rev. J. C. Kingo was very zealous in the effort to elevate the Creoles. In 1770 he pre pared an A-B-C book for use in their education, and a translation into their dialect of Luther's catechism. The latter was sent to Denmark, but never printed ; but a translation of the cate chism and a primary school work by the Rev. J. J. Pretorius, pastorin St. Thomas (1821-1831), were printed. A pious civil officer, J. M. Magens, translated the New Testament into Creole, and had it printed in Copenhagen, but his translation of the Old Testament was not pubhshed. In 1799 the Rev. A. J. Brandt pub lished in Creole iii hymns and the Litany. Before the printing of Magens' New Testament the catechists used manuscript copies. The cost of a printed copy was ^3.50. In 1771 the ministers were divided into two classes, the one to serve the Danish-speaking, and the other the Creole-speaking people. The pastors Mingo, Arejdal, and Lund were espe cially faithful and successful. In 1799 the salaries were reduced to such a miserable pit tance that some were compelled to withdraw, and the same minister had to preach in Danish, English, and Creole every Sunday. The most successfid minister in later times was the Rev. J. F. Toldeslund (1843-1850). He left a flourishing congregation, and Sunday and parochial school. He substituted English for Creole in the native congregations. In 1844 confirmation in EngUsh was permitted, and in 1872 an English hymn-book was introduced, as also an English translation of Luther's cate chism. From 1870 to 1890 the Rev. E. V. Lose accomplished a great and good work in the islands. At present the number of Danes is comparatively small, though the Danish is stiU the Official language. The whole number of West Pa. Synod 541 Wicaco Lutherans is 5,000, and there are three Danish churches and Sunday-schools, and three pastors, and a colporteur to care for the natives. The entire population is 33,800. E. B. West Pa. Synod. See Synods (L). Westphal, Joachim, d. 1569 ; was pastor in Sangershausen and Gerbstadt ; friend of C. Spangenberg ; author of sermons and ascetic tracts. Westphal, Joachim, b. 1510 or 1511, in Ham burg ; studied first under Luther and Melanch thon, then in many universities ; called to Rostock (1541), and later to Hamburg; be came pastor at St. Catherine. Through the Leipzig Interim he was moved to join the Flacians, and strongly attacked the Witten bergers, especially Melanchthon, largely agitat ing the adiaphoristic controversy. With ..Spinus, whose theory of Christ's descent to hell he shared, he was opposed to Osiander's teaching on justification, and also wrote against Major. But his greatest zeal was shown in de fending the doctrine of the Lord's Supper against the Philippists and Zwinglians. Attacked vrith disdain by Calvin, on account of his publications on the Lord's Supper, but especially because he opposed the refugees under Lasco, and disputed with Micronius, their minister, W. answered ably and thoroughly, but vehemently seconded by Brenz, Schnepf, Gallus, Judex, etc. After 1560 he withdrew from controversy, being supt. at Hamburg (1562-1571). W. d. Jan. 16, 1574. He was thoroughly sincere and earnest, contend ing only for the sake of truth. Westphalia, Peace of. The Peace of West phalia, concluded in 1648, marks the close of The Thirty Years' War {q. v.). Negotia tions took place at Regensburg in 1636, and again in 1642, but it was not until 1644 that the commissioners began their sittings at Miinster and Osnabriick. Four great powers were di rectly concerned in the negotiations, and seven were represented in the congress. At Miinster were the representatives of the German Empire and its chief ally, Spain, together with the professedly neutral envoys of Rome and Venice, and the commissioners of France, which had taken the side of the Protestants in the war, while at Osnabriick were the representatives of Sweden and the Protestant princes. The deliberations of the congress lasted four years. Several times all parties seemed on the verge of an agreement, but each time some new question would arise, or Mazarin would direct the French commissioners to change their demands, and the discussion would begin again. The chief questions in dispute were the limits of amnesty, the Ecclesiastical Reservation, and the terrrito- rial claims of France and Sweden. The Swedes and Protestants demanded that full personal and territorial amnesty should be granted to all subjects of the Emperor, even in his own her editary estates, and for receding from this de mand they have been severely, often unjustly censured. The dispute over the Ecclesiastical Reservation had reference to the year from which it was to be enforced, and settlement of territorial claims was delayed chiefly by the frequency with which France and Sweden changed their demands. Finally, in 1648, an agreement was reached which was a victory- neither for the Protestant nor Catholic party, but was a compromise thoroughly satisfactory to no one but Mazarin. The provisions of the treaty may be classi fied as territorial, religious, and constitutional. With the first and the last we are not directly concerned here. It is sufficient to note that France and Sweden received concessions which made them, for the time, the two most consid erable powers in Europe, and the independence of the individual German princes, which already existed, was given a legal basis. In religious matters the Peace op Augsburg {q. v.) was reaffirmed with the following additions : — I. Calvinists were admitted to toleration with out subscription to the Augsburg Confession. 2. The Ecclesiastical Reservation was modified so as to apply, in a measure, to both parties. An ecclesiastical possession held by one or tbe other party in 1624, remaining in the posses sion of that party forever, except in the Pala tinate, Wuertemburg, and Baden, where 1618 was taken to be the normal year. 3. The re ligion of the prince was to be the religion of his subjects, except that if, after the ratification of the Peace, a prince changed his religion, his subjects were to be free to retain their former faith, and churches and schools were to remain in the hands of the original re ligious party of that state. 4. Subjects, differ ing from their prince in religion, who had en joyed the right of worship in 1624, were not to be deprived of that right ; others could be com pelled to emigrate. Thus the political status of the Reformation was at last defined. Complete religious freedom had not been attained, but the way had been prepared for the rise ofa great Protestant power that was eventually to supersede the Catholic empire and open the way for a broader de velopment of Protestant principles. Authorities : Gindely, History ofthe Thirty Years' War (Trans, of Ten Brook), Vol. II. , Chap. X. ; Gardiner's History of the Thirty Years' War ; Menzel's History of Germany (English Translation, Bohn's Library) ; Art. "Treaties" in Johnson's Encyclopedia, and Art. "Germany" in Encyclopedia Britan nica. C. M. J. West Virginia. See Virginia, West. Weygand, John Albert, b. Aug. 26, 1722, in the principality of Hanau, attended the Univer sity of Halle, and in his sincerity to serve the Lord allowed himself to be persuaded and de ceived by a speculator from America who touch- ingly appealed to him in behalf of the neglected Lutherans in the colonies to embark. In a state of destitution he arrived in PhUa. in 1748, and the same year became pastor of the churches on the Raritan in New Jersey, and in 1753, of Trinity in New York, and Hackensack, N. J. In these churches W. preached Dutch, German and English. Into the latter language he also translated the Augsburg Confession. On ac count of failing health he resigned his parish in 1767. W. died in March, 1770. J. N. Wicaco, a district in the south-eastern part Wichern 543 Will of Philadelphia, where a block-house was erected by the Swedes for protection against the Indians, in 1669, which was afterwards converted into a house of worship. Rev. Jacob Fabricius became pastor in 1677. It was replaced by Gloria Dei Church built shortly after the arrival of Rudman, and consecrated on the First Sun day after Trinity 1700. In this church, the first Luth. ordination in America occurred Nov. 24, 1703. In the absence of Luth. pastors able to of&ciate in English, assistants from the Protes tant Episcopal Church were called, vrith the re sult that, with the other Swedish churches of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it was lost to the Luth. Church, although its pastors were pledged ' ' to the Augsburg Confession and the other Symbolical Books of the Ev. Luth. Church. ' ' All the historical associations of the Church are Lutheran. Wichern, Johann Heinrich, Christian phil anthropist, and tbe founder of the Inner Mis sion in Germany. (See art.) B. at Hamburg, AprU 21, 1808. Soon after the completion of his theological studies at Gottingen and Berlin, he began his life-work in connection with a Sun day-school established in his native city by Pastor Rautenberg and J. G. Oncken. This brought him into contact with many of the most depraved children whose demoralizing surround ings and spiritual, moral and physical wretched ness he learned to know by house-to-house visits. Their destitution led Wichern on Nov. i, 1833, to open a small and unpretending institution at Hom, a" suburb of Hamburg, into which he pur posed gathering the most neglected boys, and by giving them proper surroundings and the necessary religious, mental and manual training, save them, if possible, from temporal and eternal ruin. This institution, known as the Rauhe Haus, had a rapid and wonderfully successful growth, and became the model for child-saving institutions in other lands besides Germany. A characteristic feature of the Rauhe Haus is the grouping of the boys in "families," each in charge of a house-father or ' ' Christian Brother. ' ' For the training of such " Brothers," Wichern began the Briideranstalt (see Deacon and Deaconess) , the first and largest of the kind in Germany, and a most important factor in the development of tbe Inner Mission. The latter received its greatest impulse through Wichern 's powerful address at the Kirchentag held in Wit tenberg, Sept., 1848. Having succeeded in awakening a deep and wide-spread interest, ex tending even into court-circles and to royalty itself, Wichern now devoted all his energies with consuming zeal to the cause which he had made his life-work. He became the leading spirit in the Central Directory for Inner Mis sions, organized in 1849, delivered addresses in behalf of the cause in all parts of Germany, took a lively interest in prison reform, organ ized the Prussian military diaconate, founded the fohannes-stift in Berlin (similar to the Rauhe Haus), was the promoter of city missions, etc. Under the burden of work, domestic af flictions, and other cares, his health began to fail in 1871, and his busy life came to a close at Hamburg, April 7, 1881. — See Oldenburg, Johann Heinrich Wichern, Sein Leben u. Wir ken, 2 vols., Hamburg (1882-87) I Krummacher, Johann Heinrich Wichern, Ein Lebensbild aus der Gegenwart, Gotha, 1882 ; Stevenson, Praying and Working. J. F. O. Wieseler, Chas. Geo., b. at AltenzeUe, Han., Feb. 28, 1813 ; studied at Gottingen ; prof, at Kiel (1851), and at Greifswalde (1863) ; d. March 11, 1883. He is noted especially for his works in exegetical theology, commentaries on Galatians, Hebrews, etc. ; but his greatest pub lication is his ' ' Chronologische Synopse der vier Evang," in which he solves harmonistic difficulties of tbe New Test, on the orthodox principle of agreement. His researches are still valuable. In theol. position he was Lutheran. Wieselgren, Pehr,, Ph. D., D. D. (1845), b. in Sweden, 1800 ; ordained 1833 ; Dean of Gothenberg 1856, d. 1877. An able orator and industrious writer, he was the leading spirit in many liberal church reforms ; but his greatest and most enduring merit is his enthusiastic and indefatigable work for temperance and true piety. N. F. Wigand, John, b. 1523, in Mansfeld ; pastor in his birthplace (1546), pastor and supt. at Magdeburg (1553), prof, at Jena (1560) ; ban ished the following year, he retumed to Mag deburg, became supt. at Wismar (1562), and was again called to Jena (1569). With John William, of Saxony, he went to the Diet of Spires (1570), but was expelled from Saxony (1573)1 when Elector August reigned. Ap pointed prof, at Koenigsberg through Chemnitz, he was Bishop of Pomesania (1575) ; d. at Liebemiihl, Oct. 21, 1587. Wigand was one of the orthodox controversial theologians, a friend of Flacius, whom, however, he attempted to dissuade from his error, and then assailed. He also vnrote against Major. Violent in his polemics, he was sincere in conviction, earnest in faith, and learned, being one of the co-editors of the ' ' Magdeburg Centuries. ' ' Will, The legal declaration of a man's in tention as to the disposition of his property, the guardianship of bis children, or the administra tion of his estate after death. A testator is one who has made a last will or testament. A legacy is the disposition of personal property by vrill ; a devise, a similar disposition of real estate. These terms, however, are technical, and can be used interchangeably without def eating a clear inten tion expressed by a testator. Wills are either written or oral, the latter being called nuncupa tive wills. Who May Make a WiU.— Any person of full age, and of testamentary capacity, can make a will. The general rule as to testamentary capacity is : A person who, at the time of mak ing his will, has an understanding of the nature of the business in which he is engaged, a recol lection of tbe property he means to dispose of, the persons who have a claim upon his bounty, and the manner in which it is to be distributed, has sufficient mental capacity to execute a will. — Amer. and Eng. Enc. of Law, vol. 25, p. 970. Requisites of Written Will. — It must be signed by the testator, or, in the event of his inability to do so, by some person at his express W^ill 543 W^ine in the Liord's Supper direction, and in his presence. The making of a mark by the testator, where he is unable to sign his name, is sufficient. Nickerson v. Buck, 12 Cush. (Mass.) 332 ; Butler v. Benson, I Barb. (N. Y.) 526. GeneraUy the signing must be at the end of the will. Therefore, the addition of a clause appointing executors after the signature of the testator, wUl prevent the probate of the vrill. Wineland's Appeal, 118 Pa. 37. In most of the states the vrill must be either signed or acknowledged in the pres ence of vritnesses, who should subscribe their names. Subscribing witnesses, however, are not required in Pennsylvania (and some other states), except where a gift or devise is made for a religious or charitable use, in which event there must be two subscribing and disinter ested witnesses to the will, and it must be executed one calendar month before the testa tor's death. A party in interest is generally not a competent witness to the execution of a vrill. Sullivan v. Sullivan, 106 Mass. 474. Sealing is unnecessary, except in Nevada. A safe rale for the proper execution of wills would be : The testator should sign his name, or make his mark (or, in the event of his inability to do either, some one else to write the testator's name, at his request, and in his presence) at the end of the will, in the presence of at least two disinterested witnesses, before whom he should acknowledge the instrument as his last will and testament, who should then subscribe their names as witnesses, in attestation of the due execution thereof. The general rule for the interpretation of wills is, that the intention of the testator, as gathered from the whole instrument (the four corners of the vrill), if not inconsistent with some established rale of law, must control. Legacies are either general, specific, or de monstrative. The first, being those paid out of the general assets of the estate ; the second, gifts or bequests of specific articles, or parts of testator's personalty ; and the third, gifts gen eral in character, but payable out of, or charged upon a specific portion of testator's estate. A general legacy is payable one year from testa tor's death, unless the will provides other wise. Specific legacies being due upon testa tor's death, all income or increase accruing thereafter belongs to the legatee. Sullivan v. Winthrop, l Sumn. (U. S.) i and 12 ; Webster V. Hale, 8 Vesey 410. A legacy for super stitious uses, which under the English law is void, has little place in this country, where, from the very nature of our institutions, all the various dogmas of our numerous religions are treated with respect. Methodist Ch. v. Rem ington, I Watts (Pa.) 224. Hence a bequest to the pastor of a church for masses for the repose of the soul of testator is valid. Seibert's Ap peal, 18 W. N. C. (Pa.) 276. Gifts to reUgious and charitable uses, are favored by our law. Williams on Executors, page 1055. A public or charitable trast may be perpetual in its duration and leave the mode of application and the selection of particular objects to the discretion of the trustees. In these respects they are favored beyond bequests for private trusts. Jackson v. PhUlips, 14 AUen (Mass. ) 550. A Nuncupative Will is an oral will declared by the testator before a sufficient number of witnesses and afterwards reduced to writing. The foUovring are the prerequisites to a legal nuncupative will : i. It must be made in extre mis, when the immediate approach of death prevents the writing of a will. Recovery defeats a nuncupative will. 2. The oral declaration must be made in the presence of witnesses (either two or three, as the law of the state may provide J and in some states the witnesses must be specially summoned by the testator for the purpose. They should be disinterested. 3. The oral declaration must be reduced to writing within a certain time, regulated by statute in the different states, varying from three to ten days. 4. It must be probated within the time required by statute of the state in which testator was resident. As these wills are not favored by the law the requirements above named are nec essary. A nuncupative vrill cannot revoke a written will. A codicil is some addition to or qualification of a will. The same general rales for the proper execution of a will apply also to a codicil. It is part of the will and is so con strued. Williams on Executors, 6th Amer. ed. , 9. A codicil duly executed and attached to or referring to a paper defectively executed as a will has the effect of giving operation to the whole as one instrument. McCurdy v. Neall, 7 Atl. Rep. (N.J.) 566; Stover v. Kendal, i Coldw. (Tenn.) 557. E. A. M. Will, Free. See Freedom oe the Will. William II., Duke of Sachse-Weimar, b. 1598, in Altenburg ; d. 1662, in Weimar. In the Thirty Years' War he fought vrith Fred erick V. of Palatinate, was severely wounded at the battle of the White Mountain, near Prague (1620), and afterwards captured by Tilly (1623). He joined Gustavus Adolphus only after the battle of Breitenfeld (1631). He was a prince of eminent musical and poetical abUity. The hymn "Herr Jesu Christ, Dich zu uns wend," is generally ascribed to him, but his authorship is not above doubt. It was trans lated by Miss Winkworth, Ch. B. for England (1863), " Lord Jesus Christ, be present now," in the Church Book. A. S. Winckler, John, b. July 13, 1642, near Grimma ; studied at Leipzig ; supt. at Braubach (1672); court-preacher at Darmstadt (1676) ; supt. at Wertheim (1679); pastor at St. Mich ael's, Hamburg (1684); senior of the Ministerium (1699), until his death, 1705. He was a close friend of Spener, an extraordinary preacher, a. thorough exegetical scholar, a true pietist, warm in faith, stiong in conviction, gentle in spirit in the conflicts vrith orthodoxism. In his house Francke conceived the idea of the orphans' home, and Winckler also planned a bible soci ety (1688). Wine in the Lord's Supper, wine is the fermented juice of the grape. It was the cus tom in the Passover to mix water with the wine, and this was the universal custom of the ancient church, retained in the Greek and Roman churches. Red vrine was preferred, but was not always used instead of white. White wine has been preferred in the Luth. Church, per- Winer 544 Wittenberg haps to avoid the appearance of a symbolical ceremony. Until the tenth century the cup was administered to all. The fear of dropping some of it, led to the use of a tube in the admin istration. In the Greek Church a spoon is em ployed. In the twelfth century tbe cup began to be vrithheld from the laity. This was made a law by the Council of Constance (i439)- The Reformation demanded the restoration of the cup, as essential to the integrity of the sacra ment. E. T. H. Winer, Georg Benedikt, a theologian classed by Kurtz among the ' ' historical critical ration alists ; " b. April 13, 1789, at Leipzig, where he spent most of his life as professor of theology ; d^ May 12, 1858. Few books have contributed more to modern exegesis than his Grammar of the Idiom ofthe New Testament { 1822), seventh edition, 1867, by Luenemann, translated by J. H. Thayer, Andover, 1883. Other works of Winer are Biblisches Realwoerterbuch (1820), third edition, 1847 ; Handbuch der theologischen Literatur (1821), third edition (1838-40), and Comparative Darstellung des Lehrbegriffs der verschiedenen Kirchenparieien (1824), fourth edition, by P. Ewald (1882), English translation, Edinburgh (1873). A. G. V. Winkler, Johann Joseph, b. 1670, at Lucka, Sachsen-Altenburg ; d. 1722, at Magdeburg ; studied theology at Leipzig, under A. H. Francke ; was pastor in Magdeburg (1692) ; military chaplain (1695) in Holland and Italy ; diaconus at the Magdeburg Cathedral (1698) ; chief pastor (1714); consistorial counsellor (1716) ; one of the best hymn-writers of earlier pietism ; author of ' ' Meine Seele senket sich, ' ' tr. by Miss Winkworth, "In Thy heart and hands, my God, ' ' Ohio Hymnal ; ' ' Ringe recht wenn Gottes Gnade," tr. by Miss Winkworth, Lyra Germ. (1855), "Strive when thou art called of God." A.S. Winkler, Johannes Friedrich, b. 1809, in Saxony ; studied theology at Halle, where he graduated with distinction (1833). Hearing of the scarcity of Luth. pastors in America, he de cided to serve tbe Lord in the American dias pora. He came to this country with recom mendations to Dr. Geissenhainer of New York (1834). After visiting Ohio he returned to New York, where he was ordained (1837) and labored in Newark, N. J. ; (1842) he received a call as theological professor to Columbus, O., where he remained three years. Called to Detroit, Mich., in 1845, he joined the Buffalo Synod, vrith his congregation ; (1856) he re ceived a call to the theological seminary of the Buffalo Synod as its professor, where he labored successfully for 20 years. D. (1878) after an illness of two years. H. R. G. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Luth. Church in. Lutherans came to this city in the ninth decade of the nineteenth century. A pastor from St. Paul, Minn., preached for them once, but did not return. When the railroad was completed their numbers increased. In 1888 they applied to the president of the Canada Synod, who visited them, and Dec. 16, 1888, organized the German Luth. Trinity Church. Seventy per sons communed on that date. The congrega tion is aided by the German Home Mission Board of the General Council, and in 1898 num bered about 500 members. It has erected a neat frame church and a parsonage. In this church, July 24, 1897, the Ev. Luth. Synod of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories was organized. Swedish and Icelandic pastors gathered their countrymen into congregations. The Icelandic is the largest Luth. congregation in the city. It has a fine church and about 1,000 communi cants. The energetic band of Swedes was or ganized as Zion Church, in 1890, and erected a frame edifice in 1891. Membership, 61. Winnipeg is the gateway to the great North west. Immigrants stop here for a longer or shorter time, until they have secured land on which to settle. Hence the membership of the congregations to some extent fluctuates with the seasons. F. W. W. Winterfeld, Karl von, b. 1784, in Berlin, d. 1852, studied law in Halle (1803-06), was assessor in Berlin (1811), undertook a journey to Italy, where he paid special attention to ancient Italian church music. Counsellor in Breslau (1816), where he founded an association for church music, in common vrith Karl von Rau mer and others (1819). He became Obertri- bunalrath in Berlin (1831), and retired in 1847. One of the first authorities on Luth. church music, an enthusiastic and consistent advocate of a return to the style and spirit of our church music as represented in the choral and in the polyphonous settings at the close of the six teenth and in the beginning of the seventeenth century, particularly in John Eccard, who is his ideal. His views are vigorously controverted in S. Kuemmerle's Encyclopesdie der Evangel ischen Kirchenmusik, which is anti-Winterfeld throughout. Among his works we mention : J. P. V. Palestrina { 1833) ; /. Gabriele und sein Zeitalter {i8t,/\., 2 vols.); M. Luther's Deutsche Geistliche Lieder mit Singweisen und Tonsaetz- en (1840) ; Der Evangelische Kirchengesang und sein Verhaeltniss zur Kunst des Tonsatzes (1843-1847, three parts). A. S. Wisconsin, Lutherans in. Statistics for 1890 : Congregations, 894 ; communicants, 160,919. The Synodical Conference reported 388 congregations and 83,942 communicants ; the United Norwegian Synod, 187 congregations and 28,717 communicants; the Norwegian Church in America, 95 congregations and 15,037 communicants ; the German Synod of Iowa, 36 congregations and 7,073 communicants : the Joint Synod of Ohio, 25 congregations and 7,356 communicants ; the Swedish Augustana Synod, 38 congregations and 3,179 communi cants ; Hauge's Synod, 28 congregations and 2, 105 communicants ; the Danish Church in America, 16 congregations and 2,076 communi cants. There is not a county in the state with out a Luth. congregation. In Milwaukee, the number of communicants reported was 18,892, while all other Protestant denominations com bined reported 11,608. Wisconsin Synod. SecvSYNoos (IIL) Wittenberg, a town in Pmssian Saxony, situated on the right bank of the Elbe, fifty-five Wittcntoers Concord 545 Woellner Edict miles S. W. from Berlin. Founded in the twelfth century by Wendish fishermen. From some time in the fifteenth century to 1547 it was the capital of the electorate of Saxony. It possessed a small castle with a church attached, a parish church, and an Augustinian convent. Belonged to the episcopate of Brandenburg. Its university was founded in 1502, and tiansferred to Halle in 1517. Was the cradle of the Ref ormation and the scene of the labors of Luther and Melanchthon, whose remains lie buried in the castle church. Is nowthe seat of a theological seminary, and has retained the district superin tendency. Population, 16,000. J. W. R. Wittenberg Concord, a document prepared at Wittenberg as a result of a conference be tween the Luth. theologians and others who had previously been identified with the Re formed (May 22-29, 1536). The conference was brought about through the indefatigable efforts of Bucer, to secure recognition from Luther. Luther's antagonism was overcome in a private interview, and, on account of his illness, the meetings were held in his house. They agreed upon the formula that "with the bread and wine, the body and blood of Christ are truly and substantially present, offered and received, ' ' and that ' ' by the sacramental union the bread is the body of Christ, i. e. when the bread is held out the body of Christ is at the same time present and truly tendered. " They agreed also that the unworthy received in the Lord's Sup per the body of Christ to their judgment, but disagreed as to who are meant by the " un- wortiiy. ' ' Bucer insisted that the ' ' unworthy " are "those who are in the Church, and have faith, yet do not discern the Lord's body— do not properly estimate this gift of Christ." They agreed also that "through baptism, there come to infants the forgiveness of original sin, and the gift of the Holy Ghost, who is effica cious in them according to their measure. . . . Although we do not understand of what nature that action of God in infants is, nevertheless it is certain that in them new and holy move ments are wrought. . . . For although we must not imagine that infants understand, neverthe less these movements and incUnations to be lieve Christ, and love God, are, in a measure, like the movements of faith and love. This is what we say when we say that infants have faith. For we speak thus that it may be un derstood that infants cannot become holy and be saved without a divine action in them. ' ' The Concord was signed by Luther, Melanchthon, Bugenhagen, Myconius, etc., on behalf of the Lutherans, and by Bucer, Capito, Aulbert, on the other side. At the same time, Bucer ad dressed the theologians of the Reformed churches that " we must unreservedly condemn as error the doctrine that in the Lord's Supper, when it is celebrated according to the Word of the Lord, nothing is given and received but bread and wine ; also we must affirm and teach that the true body and blood of the Lord are traly given and received in the Holy Supper." ' ' Dr. Luther and his colleagues do not teach that Christ is naturally united with the elements of bread and wine, or offered after any mode of the present life. It is a heavenly object and is 35 offered after a heavenly mode." " Since such is your position," said Luther, "we are one, and we recognize and receive you as our dear brethren in the Lord, so far as concerns this article." It was followed by a social entertain ment in Luther's house, and by public services the succeeding Sunday, in which Bucer preached in the afternoon, and Luther in the evening, Capito and Bucer communing with the congregation. The Concord will be found in English in Jacobs' Book of Concord, II. 253 sqq. , where the authorities for its history are also given. The original documents are pub lished in Corpus Reformatorum, III. 375 sqq. H. E. J. Wittenberg Seminary. See Semina ries. Wittenberg (Ohio) Synod. See Synods (L), Witzel (Wicelius) Georg, b. 1501 at Vach, Hesse, d. 1573, in Mainz, entered the Univer sity of Wittenberg, 1520, but with all the light he there received he could not free himself from the influence of Erasmus, and was consecrated priest by the Bishop of Merseburg, " against his own conscience, ' ' as Justus Jonas charged him in 1534. Nevertheless his preaching was in the spirit of the Reformation, and as early as 1524 he had entered into the state of matrimony. At Luther's recommendaiion the Elector Johann appointed him pastor at Niemeck. But he had always faults to find with both sides, the ' ' Old ' ' and the " New " Church. He wrote coarse de nunciations of Luther and his co-laborers, and against the Evangelical doctrine of justification. Count Hoyer of Mansfield appointed him pastor of St. Andrew's Church in Eisleben, where he was generally despised, sometimes not more than ten persons attending his preaching.. Duke George called him to Saxony, but after the Duke's death (1539), he had to leave, and was invited by Elector Joachim II. to Berlin, to pre pare the new Agenda, in common with Mel anchthon. In 1540 he went to Wuerzburg as counsellor of Johann, Abbot of Fulda. Later on he was active in the preparation of the Augs burg Interim. In 1554 he retired to Mainz, devoting himself to literary labors. A. S. Wizenmann, Thomas, b. Nov. 2, 1759, in Ludwigsburg, Wuertemberg, vicar at Esslingen, instractor at Barmen ; d. Feb. 22, 1787. He is noted for his philosophical studies in the spirit of Jacobi, and asserted the reasonableness of revelation if historical proofs are given. At tacked by Kant he answered. He also pub lished a work on Matthew, making the gospel demonstiate its own genuineness. Woellner Edict. John Christoph Woellner, b. May 13, 1732, d. Sept. 10, 1800, a man of a somewhat dubious character, became min ister of spiritual affairs in the cabinet of Fred erick William II. of Prussia. Immediately after his appointment in 1788 his famous edict was issued. Its object was to check the progress of rationalism, deism, naturalism, etc., which endangered the purity of the Christian religion. All teachers of religion were therefore enjoined to conform their teachings to the accepted con fessions, and though everybody's conscience should be free to believe what he thought right, Wolfenbuettel Fragments 546 Woman's Place nobody should disseminate or teach his private opinions contrary to the doctrines of the Con fessions. Suspension was threatened to all who would not comply. A storm of ill-will arose against the shameless edict, which put a pre mium on hypocrisy. All efforts to enforce it proved futile. Shortly after the accession of Frederick William IIL, Woellner was dis missed, and the edict, though not expressly re voked, was silently put out of use. J. F. Wolfenbuettel Fragments were six treatises published by Lessing (1774), from the MSS. of Herm. Reimarus of Hamburg, deposited in the library of Wolfenbiittel. These fragments brought deism into German soil. Religion was declared to be an instinct, revelation to be with out purpose. In the attempted proof of this the moral character of the O. T. saints, and even Christ, were shamefully misrepresented and as sailed. Wolfgang of Anhalt, b. 1492, ascended the throne of Anhalt (1508), and espoused the cause of the Reformation from its beginning, being present at the Diet of Worms (1521) as Luther's friend, signing the protest at Speyer (1529), and the Augs. Conf. (1530). There he firmly op posed following the procession of Corpus Christi, willing even to give up his life. He was also present at the discussion between the Mansfeld dukes and accompanied Luther's funeral. Through his connection vrith the Smalcald League he lost his estates, which he left singing ' ' A mighty Fortress. ' ' They were, however, returned to him. He d., a staunch, upright, consistent believer, March 23, 1556. Woltersdorf, Ernest Gottlieb, b. 1725 in Friedrichsfelde, near Berlin (1761), in Bunzlau, Silesia, studied theology at Halle, was tutor and assistant preacher at Zerrenthin, Uckermark (1744), private chaplain of Count von Promnitz, in Drehna, Lusatia (1746), pastor in Bunzlau (1748), where he helped to found an Orphans' Home, of which he became the first director in 1758 ; one of the most prolific hymn-writers of the Pietistic school. Many of his hymns re mind us of the Coethen and Moravian songs. Among his best are his children's hymns. Knapp's Liederschatz gives 50 hymns of his. A. S. Woman's Home and Foreign Missionary Societies, in General Synod the congregational are united with synodical societies, and these again with a general organization, founded 1879, under the supervision of the General Synod. Reports for 1899 give 729 auxiliary (congrega tional) societies, 19,231 members, and biennial contributions $40,397. The General Council in 1886 and 1888 and Ministerium of Pennsylvania, 1889, 1890, commended similar societies and de fined their province. The earUest confederation of congregational organizations in the Mother Synod is that of the second (AUentown) confer ence founded in 1885, reporting in 1899, 26 socie ties, 1,344 members, and $1,991 contributions. The General Council's Board of Foreign Missions convened the women of Philadelphia of German and English conferences for similar work in 1890. In eight years' time, nearly $30,000 passed through the hands of the woman's society, thus organized, into the various missionary treasuries. SimUar societies of Norristown, Lancaster, Read ing, and Wilkesbarre conferences have been established, with a General Society for the Ministerium, which, with the approval of the Board of Foreign Missions, has educated and sends to India in autumn of 1899, a doctress, and publishes The Mission Worker (Reading). In the United Synod of the South, there are three or four synodical societies. A prominent object of these organizations is the gathering of information and diffusion of literature conceming missions. A report to the last convention of the General Synod ascribes tbe increase of biennial contributions to mission and church extension from $69,000 in 1879 to nearly $300,000 in 1899, chiefly to the interest awakened through these societies. In Germany, women's societies have been par ticularly efficient in Inner Missions. The asso ciation founded in Hamburg in 1831 by Amalie Sieveking (see Sieveking) is especiallj' note worthy. See Meusel's Handlexicon, Art. " Frauenvereine. " Such movements properly regulated are in entire harmony with the princi ple of the female diaconate, although they have constantly to answer the objection that the congregation is the only legitimate organization for the Church's benevolent work. Woman's Place in the Luth. Church. The determination of tbe correct position is depend ent upon the reconciliation of two principles, viz. that of the universal priesthood of believ ers, and that of the unity of the family. To the priesthood of believers women, as well as men, belong. No one has more emphatically insisted upon giving this fact prominence than Luther. Her subordination within the family must not be interpreted as in any way affecting her confession of Christ before the world. Her silence in the Church is enjoined, upon the assumption that there are men present to teach and pray, and that she must not assert author ity over them. "But how could Paul," asks Luther, "resist the Holy Ghost, who in Joel 2 : 28 promised : ' Your daughters shall proph esy ' ? and in Acts 21 : 8, 9, Philip had four daughters, all prophetesses. Miriam, the sister of Moses, was a prophetess (Ex. 15 : 20); Hul- dah, tbe prophetess, gave advice to the godly king, Josiah (i Kings 22 : 15); and Deborah, to the ruler, Barak (Jud. 4:6); and the hymn of the Virgin Mary (Luke i : 46) is praised throughout the world. Paul himself teaches that women should pray and prophesy with un covered heads. Order and propriety, therefore, require that women should be silent, when men speak ; but when there is no man to preach, it is a matter of necessity for women to preach." "Ordinarily," says Egidius Hunnius, "men, not women, ought to exercise the duties of the holy ministry. Nevertheless God sometimes has vrilled the duties of the sacred office be per formed extraordinarily by women. We have examples in Zipporah, the wife of Moses (Ex. 4); in Miriam, the sister of Moses and Aaron (Ex. 15); in Deborah, the prophetess (Judges 4:5); in Huldah (2 Kings 22); in Anna (Luke 2); in PrisciUa, the wife of AquUa, who in stracted Apollos in the way of the Lord, etc., Woman's Place 547 W^ord of God etc. Let note be taken of this against the Cal vinists, who pervert this passage (i Cor. 14 : 35) against the authority of women to baptize ex traordinarily. " "Why would the prophetic spirit, or revelation, have been given them," asks Calovius, " if it would not have been right for them to have published their prophecies or revelations?" The Augsburg Confession (Art. XXVIII.) calls attention to the fact that some of the N. T. prescriptions concerning the con duct of women in the public service must not be regarded as of universal obligation, but as' adapted only to the peculiar conditions of the Corinthian church. At the same time, the Church has always recognized the peculiar calling assigned women, according to Holy Scripture, as that of the administration of the household, and guarded against all diversion of women into the more general and active service of the Church, that would in any way interfere with famUy duties, or confuse its organization. The highest call ing of a Christian woman, it has uniformly taught, is that of a wife and mother. On.e of the strongest arguments against monastic vows, our fathers found in the exaltation of a life devoted to religious observances to that of the more humble, but most clearly appointed sphere of the commonplace duties of the family. The discussion of this subject was not exhausted, however, in the period of the Reformation. In the re-establishment of the female diaconate, after the example of the Apostolic Church, the Luth. Church of this century has acted in vio lation of Luth. precedents, but not of Luth. principles. Where there is no call to family responsibilities, consecrated womanhood is doing a noble work in the various spheres of this office. (See Deaconess.) The in stitution of "widows" in the early Church was entrusted not only with the collection and dispensing of alms, but also with the duty of teaching the younger women. The organiza tion of congregational societies of women, under pastoral supervision, or congregational rales, has been productive of much good in many of our churches. Women's auxiliary societies, whatever be the name by which they are called, have proved their right to existence, when properly regulated. . In an important cause the diffusion of interest and the collection of funds is generally more successful in the hands of women than of laymen, whose business en gagements preoccupy them. The best teach ers of the young being women, the Sunday- school is a sphere where they are particularly efficient. The right of women to vote in con gregational meetings is a question concerning which there is not a uniform answer in our con gregations in this country. The most conserva tive tendencies are against it. But, on the other hand, it is urged that the portion of the congregation most interested in its prosperity, and, as a rule, the most spiritually minded, and, therefore, most competent to judge in matters pertaining to the spiritual interests of a congregation, are its female members. Espe cially in many of the missions, where the num ber of men is so few that it is difficult to secure a Church Council, and the sacrifices of maintaining it fall almost exclusively upon devout women, it seems a hardship to exclude them from some voice. Where a family is other wise without representation, the case is a particularly urgent one. In some benevolent institutions, acting imder synodical authority, provision is made for the election of directors by the vote of the lady visitors. The clear teaching of the New Testament forbids women to pray in public, except there be no men present able to discharge the duty. See tract. The Public Ministry of Women, published by " Woman's Home and Foreign Missionary So ciety of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania" (1898). H. E. J. Word of God. in common vrith the Re formed, repudiating Rome's claim that tiadition shares with Holy Scripture normative authority in matters of faith, and holding firmly to the Formal Principle of Protestantism (see art.), Lutheranism lays peculiar emphasis upon the Word as a means of grace. With Rome, the Word has no farther office than to lead to the sacraments, which it regards the only true means of grace. The Zwinglian and Calvinistic doctrines of Predestination have led Reformed theologians to substitute for the external Word, as a means of grace, the inner Word, through which alone the Spirit works, while the exter nal Word may or may not be preparatory. It is only by an exception that in the systems of writers of these schools there is a special treat ment of the Word or of Means of Grace, the article concerning tbe Holy Scriptures as the source of doctnne exhausting the subject. Thus, as with Rome, the sole office of the Word is to point to the way of life, without commu nicating that whereof it treats. Zwingli, in his Ratio Fidei, denies the propriety of the ex pression " means of grace," upon the ground that the Holy Spirit needs no vehicle or chan nel. In conformity with the same principle, he taught that, without means, the saving grace of God had been imparted to a number of the renowned Greek and Roman heroes.even includ ing Hercules {Exp. Christ. Fid., Niemyer, p. 61). With manifest inclination towards Luther's view, on the part of a few eminent writers, nevertheless the suggestion of the immediate- ness of grace pervades all Reformed theology. The conception of "means of grace " becomes, then (as the enumeration of prayer among such means indicates), only that of instrumentalities, whereby the regenerate approach God. "The Roman is the Church of the sacrament ; the Reformed is the Church of the Spirit ; but the Lutheran is the Church of the Word. Never theless the Lutheran ceases not to be the Church of the Spirit and of the sacrament. For it has the Spirit in the Word, and the sacrament through the Word ' ' {Philippi) . The premises suggested in Reformed theology were carried to the extreme by mystics and fanatics, against whom the Luth. Confessions give con stant warning (^«^. Conf., Art. V. ; Apology, 215 : 13 ; Schm. Art., 332 : 3 ; Form. Con., 499 '¦ 13 ; 552 : 4) , and whose fallacies Luther powerfully exposed in numerous weU-known treatises and sermons. The efficacy of the Word is not mechanical W^ord of Cod 548 Word of Ood or physical. It inheres not in the letter or lan guage of the inspired writers, but in the re vealed truth which they record and convey to men's minds. The relation of the Holy Spirit to this truth is not one of mere co-operation. He has revealed it. He bas guided the writers and spoken through them. The Word is not man's, but the Word of God. He speaks and works, in and through, and not merely along side of or after it. This doctrine of the constant and uniform efficacy of the Holy Spirit, in and through the external Word, is manifestly ex clusive of the Reformed theory of an inesistible grace, as well as of a limited atonement. The controversy as to the efficacy and place of the sacraments is, after all, only one concerning the efficacy of the Word. While this efficacy, therefore, fails to reach its divinely-intended end in most cases because of man's continued resistance, Luther was con strained by passages like Is. 55 : 11, to hold that it is never taught or preached without fruit. " God's people can never be without God's Word ; nor God's Word without God's people." Wherever the Word is preached, there are therefore some, even though but a few, who are true children of God. As the expression of the Divine thought, the Word is not confined to the language in which it was first expressed, and, hence, is no less tiuly the Word, when translated or paraphrased or elaborately expounded or minutely applied. The Holy Scriptures in their originals ever re main the fixed form for use as infallible standards of doctrine {Form. Cone, Intro.) ; but in its oral, the Word was prior to its written form, and from the written records, it again flows forth in confession, praise, preaching, aud life, all pervaded by the quickening Spirit. Great stress is laid upon the organic relation of its various parts. The Word is not a code of isolated laws, or a collection of independent and detached traths. All are related and inter dependent. While nothing that God has re vealed can be knovringly rejected or regarded unimportant, the various truths comprised in the Word stand to each other, as foundation and superstructure, centre and circumference, head and members. This involves the distinction not only between Law and Gospel, but also be tween the various factors of both Law and Gospel. Properly speaking, it is only the Gospel that is a means of grace, since the Law reveals only sin, and works contrition, and brings no grace. But as the Law is preparatory to the Gospel, the latter is the immediate, and the former only a remote and mediate means of grace. While all the Gospel is contained in the assurance given a penitent of the gratuitous re mission of sins for Christ's sake, every word of the manifold revelation of both Law and Gospel is needed to unfold the richness of what the ultimate simple sentence means. (See GoSPEL.) In adding the sacraments to the Word as means of grace, the intention is not to co-ordinate them, but only to express the two forms in which the one Word of God comes to man. (See Sacraments.) From these principles, the distinctive features of the practical life and activity of the Luth. Church can be better understood. In dealing with individual souls, it withdraws them from speculations concerning the secret counsel of God to his revealed Word. It shuns all seem ingly logical deductions from revealed prem ises, knowing that vrithin the sphere of the supernatural, there is no certainty except where God himself expressly speaks. With equal fidel ity, it warns against processes of introspection, whereby man seeks vrithin himself some ground of hope for his salvation. It is not faith in our faith, but faith in God's Word revealing Christ, that inherits the promises of the Gospel. It turns men from the search for peace through obedience to the prescriptions of the Church, to- that Word which is over tbe Church and creates- and determines it. (" The Word is the mother of the Chmrch." Luther.) In its conception of church government, the Church, as an organ ization, is entirely subordinated to the Word. The Church does not determine tbe doctrine ; but the doctrine determines the Church. Tbe Church can make nothing binding on the con science, which God's Word had not made bind ing before. The Church can relieve man of no burden, of which God's Word has not previously relieved him. The true unity of the Church con sists solely in agreement as to the Word of God {Aug. Conf, Art. VIL). The Church has no calling to make any regulations except such as- are needed for the administration of the Word. It can never become an extensive external pol ity, since all its "power is put into execution only by teaching or preaching the Word, and administering the sacraments. Let it not enter into the oflSce of another" {Aug. Conf, XXVIII.). Pastors rule only by teaching. The pastoral office is chiefiy a teaching office. Church discipline is exercised only by the ap plication of the Word. Ministers are confined to the single office of preaching the Word, pub licly in the church, and privately, to individ uals. They may, as cultivated men and citi zens, be entertaining lecturers on moral and social questions, but in their official positions, as pastors, not science, not politics, not litera ture, not art, not history, but the Word of God, in all its infinite applications to human ex perience, is their theme. As preachers, their themes are not to be drawn from without, and mechanically joined to their texts, but their sermons are to be found in the argument of the sacred writer where the text stands. The Word of God is preached only when the meaning in tended by God is taught. Prayer is no mere rhapsody of the individual or the recounting of holy desires ; but it always springs from and rests upon some Word of God. It holds up to- God some promise he has made, and humbly asks, vrith full confidence in his trath, that this particular promise be fulfilled . God must speak , before man can either ask or wish. Hence all worship consists in the activity of man's spirit called forth and energized by God's Word. (See Sacrifice. ) AU the arrangements of the Luth. Church for public worship aim at ex pressing and appropriating, in due order and in their organic connection, the various parts of the one Word of God. (See Liturgy.) The Matin and Vesper Services, as Luther shows in his- Word of Ood 549 Worms Formula Misses, " are nothing but words of Di- Yine Scripture." Luth. Hymnody is described by Melanchthon in the Apology : "The chil dren sing psalms that they may become famil iar with Holy Scripture. The people also sing, in order that they may either learn or pray. ' ' In the sphere of Ethics, Luther inaugurated a new era by repudiating the current Roman conception that obedience to God was condi tioned upon obedience to whatever the Church, as an external organization, determined ; by awakening individual responsibility through his emphasis of faith as a personal relation between God and man, instead of mere assent to ecclesiastical definitions of doctrine ; and by leading every one directly to the first source of authonty, the Word of God, conceming which lie shall hereafter give an account, not as a church member, but as an individual. Holiness of life was taught as consisting not in the min ute observance of ecclesiastical regulations, or in self-chosen ascetic observances, but only in the faithful discharge of the duties of one's calling, as prescribed in the Ten Command ments (^«^. Conf, Art. VI. , XX.; Apology, 222; Large Catechism, 403). From this con ception there results as complete a revision of the definition of " a good work," as of "Justi fication," or "Faith." Obedience to God be comes a joyful necessity of the Christian life, because the Word is no longer something ex ternal and foreign, but is living and working in the heart ( Luther, Introdudion to Romans ; Apology, "Of Love and Fulfilling of Law"; Form. Cone, "Third Use of Law"). The le galistic character of the Reformed springs from their failure to apprehend as clearly that the Word is not only a. source of knowledge of God's will, but also an actual means of grace ; -while their doctrine of Predestination, with its modifications of the doctrine of the external Word, diverts their eyes constantiy from the comforting assurances of Holy Scripture, to the ¦evidence of the work of the Holy Spirit in their lives, as their sole assurance of God's grace and favor, springing from his secret will. The Luth. ethical principle is that of the love of God, as a Reconciled Father dwelling with man through the Word ; that of the Reformed, obe dience to God as a Supreme Ruler, reigning above man, and whose authority at all times is -to be unquestionably acknowledged, without regard to merit or reward. Sunday, among Lutherans, is observed, not because of any sanc- -tifying virtue in mere rest, but because of the Word, for whose hearing and preaching and reading the day is given. Conscience is no ultimate standard of right and wrong, but must "be tested aud corrected by the Word, as even the best watches must be .set according to a chronometer or sun-dial. To be "conscien tious " is not the highest virtue. (See Theses OE Harms, 14-18.) In its repeated discussions concerning adiaphora, the Luth. Church has constantly warned against pronouncing that sinful, however liable to abuse, which God's Word has not pronounced such. By proclaim ing those things to be sins, which God's Word has not so pronounced, we change the boun daries that God has set, and, under the false plea that the end justifies the means, may soon persuade ourselves that those things are not sins which God has declared to be sins. The sole instrument for moral reform is the Word. Humanity can be renewed only through the portals of repentance and faith. Modern so ciological experimentation may accomplish something for the external life ; but this is treating only the symptoms, and not the dis ease itself. For all the moral ills of the race, the only remedy is the Word. It is also the only sure weapon against the world's vio lence. "The Word they stUl shall let re main, and not a thank have for it. " "I would not have the Gospel maintained by violence and bloodshed. By the Word, the world has been overcome ; by the Word, the Church has been preserved ; by the Word, it has been restored ; and as Antichrist has gained his power vrithout violence ; so he will fall with out violence." "By the Word alone, those things are to be attacked, that our men have been attempting to abolish h-y violence." " We should overcome heretics with books, not with fire." "The soul can do without ever3rthing except the Word of God, without which none of its wants are provided for. But having the Word, it is rich, and wants for nothing" {Luther). Fullest modem treatment in Philippi. See also Luthardt's Glaubenslehre, Ethik and " Out line of Ethics " in ZoeckXer's Handbook, Koest- lin's Luther's Theology, Oehler's Symbolik. Best authorities, Luther's Works (particularly the Eight Sermons on return from the Wart burg, Christian Liberty, etc.), and the Luth. Confessions. For criticism of Luth. doctrine, see Hodge's System, 3 : 470 sqq. For defence of Spener's doctrine, as in harmony with Luther's, see Walch Streitigkeiten der Luth. Kirch, vol. v. H. E. J. Words of Institution. See Lord's Supper, and Liturgy. Worms, one of the oldest to-wns of Ger many, belonging at present to Hesse-Darmstadt, and numbenng about 26,000 inhabitants, has become famous in the history of the Reforma tion, and contains the grandest monument commemorating this event. I. Colloquies at Worms. — i. The first was held in 1541. When, in 1539, Emperor Charles V. needed help against the Turks, he opened negotiations with the Protestants at Frankfort. They demanded an unconditional, lasting peace, and half the number of judges of the supreme court of the empire. This was refused, but as the danger on the part of the Turks became more pressing, the Emperor proposed that at the next diet a commission of learned theologians and intelligent, peaceable laymen should be appointed to bring about a final Christian union in faith and practice. At the same time, he granted a suspension of all proceedings against the Protestant estates for eighteen months. This proposition was accepted. The Pope now tried to enable the Emperor to dispense with the help of the Protestants, and brought about a peace vrith the Turks, and endeavored to do the same with France. As he did not succeed in this Worms 550 Worms latter attempt, the emperor still stood in need of the good-will of the Protestants, and at a meeting of the estates at Hagenau, the first colloquy at Worms was decided upon. In No vember (1541), the delegates met. On the part of the Protestants they were Melanchthon, Bucer, Capito, Brenz, and Calvin (for Strassburg, where he lived as an exile at that time) ; of the Catholic delegates, the noted John Eck was the most prominent. The Emperor had insisted that the Papal legate Morone also take part ; and he now raised so many formal difficulties — demanding, for example, that not every dele gate have a vote, as he knew that some of the Catholics inclined towards the Protestants, but that all the members of one party should have one collective vote — that the discussion of the religious differences could not begin before January (1541) ; and when the first article, con cerning original sin, had not yet been sufficiently debated, he prevailed upon the Emperor to ad journ the colloquium. The Emperor, however, intended to have the negotiations taken up again at the diet of Regensburg, which had just assembled. At this colloquium at Worms, Me lanchthon was confronted by the charge of John Eck that the Augsburg Confession had been changed. Melanchthon's answer was that no changes had been made in the substance and meaning, but that simply some milder and clearer expressions had been introduced. 2. In the year 1557, the last attempt was made to reunite the Catholics and the Lutherans of the German empire. Especially Ferdinand I., the brother, and, in Germany, the successor of Charles V., realizing how much such a union would increase the power and influence of the empire, did his utmost to bring it about, and therefore instituted a colloquy, or, as it was called, consultation, at Worms. Of the Lu therans, Melanchthon, Brenz, Morlin, Schnepf, and others took part ; of the Catholics, the first German Jesuit, Peter Canisius, was the most noted. The mild bishop of Naumburg, Julius von Pflug, presided. Curiously enough, the resolution was passed to carry on the discus sions in writing. The Lutherans declined to recognize the consensus patrum as the decisive norm. The changes made in the Augsburg Confession by Melanchthon, and the dissensions among the Lutherans themselves, were success fully used by the Catholics to cause a quarrel among them ; and when, in consequence, the Weimar, or strictly Luth., section had left, the Catholics, apparently glad of such an excuse, refused to continue the discussions, since they did not know who were the genuine Lutherans. II. Diets at Worms, i. The diet at Worms, held in the year 1521, was the first convened by the young Emperor Charles V. , who, in 1519, had succeeded his grandfather, Maximilian I., on tbe imperial throne of Germany. The friends of the Refomiation in that countiy, in cluding Luther himself, cherished the hope that the youthful monarch would put himself at the head of the new movement ; but he was already too cool and ambitious a politician for that, feeling an interest in Gemian affairs only in so far as they could subserve tbe glory of his grand empire on which the sun never set. Thus, the Pope, by promising to further the emperor's plans, especially in opposition to his life-long rival. King Francis I. of France, easUy per suaded him to aid in suppressing the Reforma tion, whose necessity and nature he did not understand. As soon as the Papal bull com manding the burning of Luther's books had arrived, Charles had it executed in the Nether lands. In Germany he did not dare to do this, especially out of regard for Elector Frederick of Saxony, to whom he owed his election as em peror, and who, though not yet fully convinced of the correctness of Luther's position, demand ed that he be tieated justly and not con demned without a hearing. The emperor was willing to have Luther appear for this purpose before the diet at Worms. The Papal nuncio, however, protested, because, as he claimed, Luther had already been judged and condemned by the only proper authority, the Pope. But the estates of the German Empire, who, them selves, in a formal complaint, presented loi complaints against the Roman court, did not regard Luther's attacks on Roman abuses a crime, and therefore joined in demanding that he be called to appear before them, though they, at the same time, declared that if he per sisted in his doctrinal opposition to Rome, tiiey would assist in bringing him to condign pun ishment. Thus, an imperial summons was issued to Luther, accompanied by a safe-conduct, citing him to Worms, and Luther, notwith standing the fears and dissuasions of his friends, and the intrigues of his enemies, did not hesi tate a moment to obey the summons. Appear ing twice before the diet, April 17 and 18, he proved his courage to be .of the true nature, steadfastly refusing to recant unless convinced of being in enor. By his humble courage he made a good impression upon many of his august audience, but not upon the emperor. Charles was ready to condemn him, forthwith and unconditionally ; but the estates did not agree to this until Luther, after several confer ences with a special commission, had shown that he could m no way be moved to retract. Then the Edict of Worms vpas adopted. The emperor, however, did not permit the safe-con duct granted to Luther to be violated. 2. At the diet of Worms, held 1545, Emperor Charles V. demanded that the Protestants submit to the decrees ofthe council which was to meet, and after many excuses and delays on the part of the Pope, finally did meet at Trent, December 13 of that year. But they refused to do so, kno-wing beforehand that they would not be treated justly ; and the emperor, protesting that in matters of faith he did not think of using force, yet secretly began to prepare for war. III. Edict of Worms (1521). After the majority of the estates bad consented to unite with the emperor in proceeding against Luther, the Papal legate, Aleander, received the welcome commission to draw up a mandate to that effect It was completed in Latin and German, and ap proved by the imperial councU May 8, but not submitted to the diet before the 25th, after a number of princes, the electors of Saxony, and the Palatinate among them, had left. The others adopted it unanimously, and on the fes- Worship 551 Wuertemberg tival of the Holy Trinity, after a solemn High Mass, the emperor signed both copies in tbe church. On the next day he had the edict pub lished, with blast of trumpets, and on Wednes day the sequestrated books of Luther were pub licly bumed by the emperor's command. The edict pronounced the ban of the empire on Luther as a stubborn heretic, as also upon his friends, made it the duty of every one after the lapse of twenty-one days to seize him and deliver him to the proper authorities, and condemned his writings to De burned. F. W. S. Worship, Luth. Idea of. According to the Luth. view, worship is not merely an approach to God in prayer, praise, and thanksgiving (sacri ficial elements) , but it is chiefly an acceptance of God's gift to men, through the Word and sacraments (sacramental elements). This view thus differs from the Romish position, which makes all worship, even the Lord's Supper, a sacrifice to be rendered to God. It also differs from the Reformed view in that it emphasizes the use of the sacramental elements and regards them as means of grace. Thus, worship is spiritual (John 4:23), but through outward expression the inner life is strengthened and maintained ; hence outward forms and ceremonies are to be used. In the choice of forms of worship the Luth. view accepts the results of history, reserving only the nght to purify or to develop in accord ance vrith the material principle of the Refor mation. In public worship the congregation is the real subject. Hence, the Liturgy provides for the fullest participation of the congregation in the hymns, creed, and responsive parts of the order. In its relation to art, the fullest use is made of material forms to express religious trath, but always from the standpoint of religion, and never in the interest of aesthetics. (See Liturgy ; PARAMENTIC; Architecture.) G. U. W. Wrangel, von, Charles Magnus, D. D., Swedish-American provost (1759-68); an alum nus of Upsala and Goettingen ^descendant of the Swedish general of the same name, who fought under Gustavus Adolphus. He co-oper ated with the greatest cordiality with Muhlen berg ; resuscitated the Ministerium of Pennsyl vania, in 1760, after it had been practically dead for five years ; aided in the preparation of the constitution of St. Michael's, Philadelphia, which formed the model for most of the congre gational constitutions in the German and anglicized portions of the Church for many years ; conducted a private theological seminary in his house, Peter Muhlenberg, Daniel Kuhn, and Christian Stieit being among his pupUs. His recall to Sweden was unexpected, and was attributed at the time to his activity in the in terests of the German Lutherans. Its result was to alienate the people from the authorities of the home Church. Upon his retmm he pub lished a History of the German Luth. Churches in America. Wucherer, John Fredrick, b. in NordUngen, Wuertemberg, March 8, 1803 ; studied at Er langen ; became pastor at NordUngen, Bald- ingen, and Aha, where he died, Dec. 26, 1881. He was a sincere Lutheran. Among his pubU cations Vom Evang.-Luth. Hauptgottesdienst (Nordlingen, 1846) deserves mention. WuelfFer, Daniel, b. at Nuremberg July 3, 1617 ; prof, and pastor there untU his death. May II, 1685. Heis author of the hymn, "O Ewigkeit, O Ewigkeit," trs. in Lyra Germanica, " Eternity, eternity ; how long art thou ! " Wuertemberg, Luth. Church in. a few years before Lutiier's birth, the University of Tuebingen was founded by Duke Eberhard (1477). Men like Gabriel Biel, and, for a short time, ReuchUn and Melanchthon, were among its teachers, enabling the University to do its share in the battle of humanism against the " Viri Obscuri " of the Romanism of that day. Throughout the Wuertemberg territory there were strong sympathies with the Refomiation movement from the very beginning. But the personal character of Duke Ulrich, and his acts of rashness and violence which led to his flight and banishment in 1519, greatiy retarded the establishment of Lutheranism in Wuertemberg, inasmuch as the land was sold to the Hapsburg dynasty, passing into the possession of Ferdi nand, the emperor's brother, who did every thing in his power to suppress the Refor mation. But the free Imperial Cities, scat tered all over the territory of Wuertemberg (Reutlingen, which is among the original signers of the Augsburg Confession, Esslingen, called "The littie Worms " in those days, Ulm, HaU, Biberach, and others), bravely maintained their independence against Hapsburg and Romanism, and afforded ample opportunities to the subjects of the Duchy of Wuertemberg, to hear the pure gospel preached. With the help of Philip of Hesse, Ulrich, who in his adver sities had become a vriser and a better man, re gained possession of his land through the battle of Lauffen (1534), and the subsequent treaty of Kadan, which provided, however, that, if the male line of the house of Wuertemberg should become extinct, the Duchy was to fall to Austria. Thus the victory of the Reformation was secured, though, for some time, it seemed undecided whether tiie Saxon or the Svriss type of Reformation should prevail. The Luth. Eberhardt Schnepf was charged vrith the Ref ormation of the northem half of the Duchy, whUe in the southem half this work was com mitted to Ambrose Blarer, who had strong lean ings towards the Reformed theologians of Switzerland. Finally, however, Lutheranism prevailed, at least in doctrine. The Kirchen- Ordnung of 1536, written by Schnepf and ap proved by Brenz, shows a decided Luth. spirit. But the plain, unlutheran form of service which Matth. Alber had first introduced in Reutiingen was soon afterwards adopted in Stuttgart and throughout the Duchy, and to the present day this Zvringlian type of service has held its ground, except that altars and crucifixes have been retained and the alb is still worn in the administration of the sacra ments ; and that in the northeastern part of the present kingdom of Wuertemberg (Hohen- lohe, Franconia), which was acquired in the beginning of this century, some of the old rites Wuertemberg 552 Wuertemberg have been preser-ved. The real work of organ izing the Luth. Church in Wuertemberg was done by Duke Christopher, who succeeded his father Ulrich in 1550, and by that eminent theologian John Brenz, whom Luther held in the highest esteem. Brenz was the prin cipal author of the Confessio Wirtenber- gica, written for the Council of Trent, in 1552. It contains an excellent statement of positive Lutheranism, presented in mild, popu lar, and moderate language ; its antithesis being chiefly directed against Romanism. Together with the Augsburg Confession, and, later on, with the Formula of Concord, this Wuertem berg Confession had to be accepted by all the ministers of the Luth. Church in the land. At the present time the candidates on their ordina tion (which was only introduced in 1855) take the pledge " not to deviate in their preaching and teaching from the Evangelical doctrine as it is contained principally in the Augsburg Confession." Diike Christopher deserves special credit for his wise and liberal provisions for the education of the clergy and laity of the Church. In addition to the Evangelical Semi nary (see STiEI), founded by his father, Duke Ulrich, he established pro-seminaries {Kloster- schulen), without which the theological train ing in the "Stift " could never have attained aud maintained its high standard, and which may be said to represent the very best system of beneficiary education for the ministry, found in any Luth. country. He also introduced an excellent system of parochial schools which was afterwards imitated by other .Luth. states in Germany (first in Saxony) . Wuertemberg suf fered more than almost any other territory from the ravages of the Thirty Years' War, especially after the disastrous battle of Noerd lingen (1634). But even during the seventeenth century the development of the Luth. Church progressed favorably especially through the in fiuence of Valentine Andrese. The great digest of ecclesiastical law for the Luth. Church in Wuertemberg, called Cynosura Ecclesiastica (1687), is based chiefly on his labors. In 1722 confirmation was introduced, and the influence of Spener began to make itself felt in Wuer temberg, but nowhere has Pietism preserved such a conservative churchly character as here. Those eminent biblical scholars and faithful pastors like Bengel, Hedinger, Oetinger, Stein hofer, Flattich, the Burks, the Riegers, Brast berger, Roos, Hiller, and laymen like the Mosers, v. Pfeil, v. Seckendorf, stood manfully against the rising tide of rationalism, and the corrupt and scandalous example of the court, which was Roman Catholic from 1733 to 1797. Even in 1780, when Rationalism was reigning all over Germany, the Luth. church govern ment of Wuertemberg passed a "Rescript" against " Pelagian and Socinian principles," allowing "no deviation from the Luth. con fession," aud the theological faculty of that time, the so-called " Older Tuebingen School " {Ston, Suesskind, Flatt, E. G. Bengel, Steudel) is properly characterized as " Supranatural istic." Up to that time it had been famous as a chief bulwark of strictest Luth. orthodoxy, even to such a degree that it once refused to sanction the nomination of Joh. Albr. Bengel as professor in Tuebingen, on the ground of his being ' ' too advanced in his New Testament criticism," and being " a vision ary." The later or modern Tuebingen School (see Tuebingen School), with its destruc tive hypercritical tendencies (Baur, Strauss, Zeller, Schwegler, and others), has exercised comparatively little influence on the church life of Wuertemberg, certainly less than modern Ritschlianism. A small group of confessional Lutherans have lately formed a Luth. confer ence, among them Prelat Carl v. Burk, the author of an excellent biography of Luther, I. E. Voelter, who sent some candidates for the Luth. ministry to America, and the late Direct or Fetzer in Stuttgart. Up to the end of the last century Lutheranism was exclusively the state religion of Wuertemberg, and Roman Catholics and Reformed (Waldensian and French immigrants) were under severe restric tions. In 1793, the Duchy of Wuertemberg had only 5,000 Roman Catholics and 2,000 Reformed in a population of 637,165. The constitution adopted under King William I., in 1819, gives equal political rights to the adherents of the " Three Christian Confessions " (Luth., Re formed and Roman Catholic) . No steps were ever taken to follow the example of Prussia in establishing a formal " Union " between the Lutherans and Reformed, but since 1823, al tar-fellowship between the Lutherans and the few Reformed is formally sanctioned. With the strong tendency of the Suabian character to sub jectivism and mysticism it is not to be wondered that the Luth. Church of Wuertemberg was repeatedly threatened by sectarianism and sep aratism, but the wisdom of the church gov ernment successfuUy avoided these dangers and preserved in sympathy and actual membership with the established state church those nu merous Pietistic elements which now and then were under strong temptation to leave the Church. They stayed and in many places ? roved themselves a very salt of the Church. his happy result was due chiefly to that wise and moderate, and at the same time firm and decided, " General Rescript " of 1743, the work of Privy Counsellor G. B. BUfinger, which al lowed private meetings for prayer, scripture readings, and exhortation under certain restric tions. Thus Pietistic conventicles became a standing and characteristic feature of the Church of Wuertemberg, regulated, protected, and,_to a certain extent, indorsed by the au thorities. Permission was even given to some Pietists to establish a congregation independent of the general government of the Church of Wuertemberg, in Kornthal, 1819. Here and there groups were formed which came very near separation, like the adherents of Michael Hahn, who strongly emphasized sanetification, and those of Pregizer with their one-sided magnif3dng of justification. Others actually seceded and emigrated, some to Southern Russia (mostly men of Mennonite tendencies, condemning war), others to America (George Rapp, Economy, Pa. ) , still others to Palestine, such as the fanatical " Temple " Sect, founded by Christopher Hofmann, which, however un- Wuttke 553 Year of Oraee sound in the faith, has done good work for the colonization of different parts of Palestine. The Luth. Church in Wuertemberg at present num bers about 1,500,000 souls, with 1,000 pastors, under six general superintendents {Prelaten, corresponding to Archbishops) , and 49 superin tendents {Dekane, corresponding to diocesan bishops). The king is summus episcopus, exer cising his /m.? episcopate through the Consistory, appointing the pastors, the congregation having no vote or voice in the call. The Consistory, together with the prelates, who are also ex officio members of the Upper House, forms the " Synodus," which meets annually. In recent times the constitution of the Church of Wuer temberg has been more fully developed on Presbyterian lines, by the introduction of Church Councils (Pfarrgemeinderesthe), District Syn ods {Dicecesan-Synoden) , and a General Synod (Landes-Synode) , vrith one delegate from each District Synod, meeting every four years, the first time in 1869. As the present king, William II. , is without male issue, Wuertemberg -will, at no distant future, be ruled by a member of the Roman Catholic branch of the reigning family. The old stipulations (Religions- Reversalien) provided that in such a case the government of the Luth. Church should be exercised by the Privy Council, to which, under the laws of the Duchy of Wuertemberg, only Lutherans were admitted. At present this restriction no longer exists, and members of other churches might be in the Privy Council, possibly even consti tuting a maj ority . Special provisions had there fore to be made recently for this emergency. See Recht und Brauch der Evangelisch-Luther- ischen Kirche Wiirttembergs von Preslat Fr. Albert Hauber (Stuttgart, 1854) ; Palmer, " Wuerttemberg," in'S.erzog's Real-Encyclopoe- die ; Illustrirte Geschichte von Wiirttemberg (Stuttgart, 1886). A. S. Wuttke, Karl Friedrich Adolph, b. Nov. 10, 1819, in Breslau, where he studied theology, but, dissatisfied with the prevalent teaching, turned to philosophy. Returning from Strauss to rationalism, and passing through Schleier macher's pantheism, he again found faith in re newed study of the scriptures, under Hahn's direction. He became Dozent, 1849, was called to Berlin, 1854, to Halle, 1861, where he re mained until his death, April 12, 1870. He is noted for his uncompleted but comprehensive Geschichte des Heidentums, and his Hand buch dsr christi. Sittenlehre, which is a most comprehensive work, from the churchly Luth. standpoint. W., though within the Prassian Union, defended Lutheranism, and claimed that the Union had not abrogated separate con fessionalism. Wyneken, F. C. D., b. May 13, 1810, at Verden, in Hanover, where he prepared for the university ; studied theology at Goettingen and Halle, travelled in France and Italy as the private tutor of a young nobleman, was for a time the rector of a Latin school at Bremervoerde ; emi grated to America, 1838, to serve as a missionary among the scattered Germans. Sent West by the Missionary Committee of the Pennsylvania Synod, he came to Fort Wayne, and was there called to the pastorate of a smaU congregation. in 1838. By extensive missionary tours, he car ried on the work to which he had devoted him self until, on account of failing health, and with a view of soliciting men and means for the work in America, he returned to Germany in 1841. His endeavors were eminently successful, and when, in 1843, he came back to America, he left behind him hosts of friends he had gained for the American cause, W. Loehe and many others, who for years furnished missionaries, material for congregations, and entire congregations. W. was called to a pastorate at Baltimore, Md. (1845). Ha-ring severed his connection with the General Synod, he entered into membership with the Synod of Missouri, in 1848, having been one of the chief promoters of the movement which had led to the organization of that synod. In 1850, be was called to St. Louis, and became president of the Synod of Missouri. In 1851 he was, with Walther, sent to Germany for the pur pose of bringing about the adjustment of doc trinal differences between Loehe and the Synod. In 1859, he took his residence in Adams Co., Ind., and from 1862 to 1864, he lived at a coun try seat near Fort Wayne. While president of the Synod, he was also the official visitor of all the Synod's congregations and pastors, and in this capacity, for which he was eminently gifted, he became a blessing to many. During all these years the congregation at St. Louis still considered him their pastor, and he was only dismissed when, in 1864, he accepted a call to Trinity Church, Cleveland. There he continued to labor, a venerable patriarch, until Oct., 1875, when he retired to San Francisco, where he d. May 4, 1876. A. L. G. Wyoming, Lutherans in. According to state census of 1890, there were 8 congregations and 721 communicants in the state, of wliich 5, vrith 580 communicants, belonged to the Swe dish Augustana Synod (Gen. CouncU), and the rest to the General Synod. Teager, John Christian William, b. at Bres lau, Prussia, Aug. 27, 1783. Came to America in his childhood. Became a member of Zion's Church, Philadelphia. For several years he was teacher in parochial school. Studied theology under Rev. Dr. Helmuth. Was li censed as catechist by the Ministerium of Penn sylvania (1816), as candidate (i8i8), ordained in 1822. Settled in Bedford County and was the Apostle of Lutheranism in Bedford County. Was pastor at Bedford, Schellsburg, and other churches until 1840, confined his labors to Friends' Cove and its immediate vicinity. He d. April 17, 1844, aged 60 years, 8 months, and 20 days, and was buried beside the church at Friends' Cove. F. J. F. S. Year of Grace, a provision is made in a number of the Church Orders, by which the widow and children of a pastor receive the in come of the parish for a year after his death. The pastoral duties of the vacant parish are either distributed among neighboring pastors, who serve gratuitously, or are performed by a York. Pa. 554 Zacliariac chaplain supported by the widow. Other Orders limit the period to six months. Con fusion and even occasionally Utigation arose con cerning the distribution of income between the vridow and chUdren, and also vrith respect to the produce of the parish lands, while congre gations suffered from the long vacancy. See Boehmer's Jus Ecclesiasticum, and the pro visions of the Pomeranian Order of 1563, as a type. H. E. J. York, Pa. Before the founding of the town, the pioneer, John Caspar Stoever, Jr., had be gun, in 1733, services and baptisms on the spot, known from the stieam, Codoras, or " Kath- ores " as called in some of our church docu ments. Stoever was followed in 1743 by David Candler, who died in December, 1744. Then came a period of division caused by the inter ference of Nyberg. (See article.) Muhlenberg, by two visits, brought order out of confusion. J. H. Schaum was pastor (1748-55), but the congregation was again divided, and a faction was served by J. S. Schwerdfeger. The succes sors of Schaum were G. L. Hochheimer (1755-8); Lucas Rauss (1758-63) ; Nicholas Hornell (Swede) (1763-5); J- G. Bager (1767-9); J- N. Kurtz (1770-89); Jacob Goering (1789-1809) ; J. G. Schmucker (1811-1835); A. H. Lochman (1836-1880), since which time G. W. Enders is pastor of the mother congregation (Christ). Meanwhile seven new congregations belonging to the General Synod and one to the Missouri Synod have grown out of this congregation. The total confinned membership is, at the close of XIX. century, between 4,000 and 5,000. H. E. J. York Declaration. A statement of the doc trinal position of the General Synod, adopted at York, Pa., in 1864, after vrithdrawal of dele gates of the Ministerium of Pennsylvania. It is, with five verbal changes, a declaration pre pared by Dr. Charles Porterfield Krauth, and adopted by the Pittsburgh Synod at Zelienople, in 1856. The Declaration at York, with the original words of the Zelienople Declaration, where there are changes, in brackets, is as follows : ' ' Resolved, that while this Synod, resting on the Word of God as the sole authority in mat ters of faith, on its infallible wanant rejects the Romish doctrine of the real presence, or tiansubstantiation, and vrith it the doctrine of consubstantiation ; rejects the Romish [Zelien ople has not "Romish"] Mass and all cere monies distinctive of the Mass ; denies any power in the sacraments as an opus operatum, or that the blessings of baptism and the Lord's Supper can be received without faith ; rejects auricular confession and priestly absolution ; holds that there is no priesthood on earth but [except] that of all believers, and that God only can forgive sins ; and maintains the divine [sacred] obligation of the Sabbath [Lord's Day] ; and while we would with our whole heart reject any part of any confession which taught doctrines in conflict with this, our testi mony, nevertheless, before God and his Church, we declare that in our judgment the Augsburg Confession, properly interpreted, is in perfect consistence vrith this our testimony, and with [the] Holy Scriptures [Holy Scripture] as re gards the enors specified." The York Declaration was prefaced by three preambles, the second of which is a condensa tion of two preambles of the Zelienople Declara tion. The text of York Declaration here given is from the General Synod's Book oJ Worship of 1899, that of Zelienople from Spaeth's Lije qf Krauth, I. 378. H. E. J. Young People's Societies. Various forms of organization among Luth. young people have been in vogue in the Church, for over a quarter of a century. The Young Men's Association, composed solely of the young men in the con gregation, is probably the oldest of any known organization ; an association of this kind in New York City having been in existence for 27 years. One in Buffalo antedates it by about two years. An organization known as the General Verein Junger-Msenner Vereine Nord Amerikas was or ganized about the year 1880, and was composed of several Young Men's Associations of German Luth. churches in New York and neighboring states, the larger number in the western part of New York State, notably Rochester and Buffalo. In 1888, the Luther League (which see ) began by the organization of the Central Association of Young Men's Luth. Associations of the City of New York. This comprised six associations of Luth. congregations identified with the Gen eral CouncU, General Synod, and a congrega tion whose pastors belonged to the Synodical Conference, though it was indepedent. The Christian Endeavor Society found its way into the Luth. Church during the early years of that movement, principally among the English congregations. There are quite a number of these throughout the country, almost entirely, how ever, in churches connected vrith the General Synod. A national organization of the Christian Endeavor Societies of Luth. churches was organ ized at Cleveland in July, 1894, and is known as the National Luth. C. E. Union, holding meet ings every year at the time of the International Y. P. S. C. E. meetings, and conducting the Luther Rally in connection therewith. For some years there were also organizations vrithin the Gen. Synod combined in the Luther alliance. Tbe Walther League (which see) is the national organization of the Young Men's So cieties of churches within the Synodical Confer ence, and was organized a few vears aeo at Buffalo. Young women are generally admitted to the Luther Leagues and Christian Endeavor So- cities, but in many German congregations they are separately organized as " Jungfrauenverein," "Tabeaverein," "Kings' Daughters," "Dor cas Societies." E. F. E. Zachariae, Gotthilf Traugott, b. in Tauch- ardt, Thuringia (1729) ; prof, at Biizow, Gottingen and Kiel, where he died (1777). He is noted for his Biblische Theologie, which is supranaturalistic in position and rationalistic in interpretation, shovring the influence of & J. Baumgarten. Zahn 555 Zerbst Convention Zahn, Johannes, D. D., b. 1817, in Eschen- bach, near Nuernberg ; d. 1895, in Neuendet telsau ; studied theology in Erlangen and Berlin ; was teacher and inspector at the Normal School (Lehrerseminar) at Altdorf, near Nuernberg (1847). After his resignation he retired to Neuendettelsau (1888). A prominent hym nologist and church musician, principal editor of the Bavaria Choral Buch (1854). His great est work. Die Melodeien der Deutsch-Evan- gelischen Kirchenlieder (1888-1893), six vol umes, containing 9,000 tunes, with the most carefiil researches conceming their origin and history. Among his other numerous publica tions we mention Die Geistlichen Lieder der Breeder in Boehmen, Maehren und Polen, 1875 ; Psalter und Harfe fuer das Deutsche Haus (560 tunes) , 1886 ; and the musical setting of tie new edition of the German Sunday-School Book of the General CouncU, 1896. A. S. Zahn, Theodor, b. at Mors, Rhenish Pmssia, Oct. 10, 1838, studied at Basel, Erlangen and BerUn ; teacher at Neustielitz Gymnasium (1863) ; repetent at Gottingen (1865) ; Privat- docent (1868); prof, extraord. (1871); prof, at Kiel (1877), at Erlangen (1878). He is in many respects the greatest modern scholar of the N. T. and patristics, immensely learned, thoroughly critical, but tmly conservative, the great op ponent of A. Hamack and his school. Among his many works are to be noted Marcell v. Ancyra (1867) ; Hirte des Hermas (1868) ; Ignatius v. Antioch (1873); Ignat. u. Polycarp Episteln (1876); Gesch. des Sonntags (1878); Tatian' s Diatessaron (1881), an epochal book, reconstructing the Diatessaron ; the series For- schungen zum Kanon, ed. by Z., thorough and conservative ; Cyprian v. Antioch, u. die deut. Faustsage (1882); Gesch. des N. T. Kanons (vol. I, 1888; vol. 2, 1890), unsmrpassed ; Ein leitung in das N. T. vol. i ( 1897), vol. 2 (1898) ; the N. T. introduction summing up latest results in positive manner — a very storehouse of in formation. J. H. Zeigler, Henry, D. D., b. Center Co., Pa., 1816 ; educated at Gettysburg, entering minis try in 1843 ; after a very active career as pastor, missionary superintendent and agent, became, in 1858, professor of theology in Missionary In stitute, Selinsgrove, Pa., where he labored vrith distinguished success until 1881 ; author of Nat ural Theology {1860); Apologetics (1861) ; Cate chetics {18-] 2,) ; The Pastor {l8^6)\ The Preacher (1876) ; Dogmatic Theology (1878). D. 1898. Zeitmann, Gottftied Thomas, b. 1696, in Cracow, Poland, of Jevrish parentage, was con verted at Frankfort (1707), became Luth. pas tor at Oberode, Frankfort, and Sachsenhausen. D. Feb. 7, 1747. He had a thorough knowledge of the original languages of the Bible, and was a popular, earnest preacher. Zelienople, Pa., founded by Dr. Detmar Basse, who came (1802) from Frankfort, Ger many, to Butler Co. ; named after his daughter, Zelie, wife of P. S. Passavant, Esq. HiU-begirt, .nestied on left bank of the Connoquenessing, in a fertile valley, also rich in iron, coal, oil, and gas; about 1,000 marks its elevation in feet above the sea, and its present population. Churches : St. Paul's Ger., org. 1822 ; Gothic stone, ded. 1826, by Rev. G. C. Schweitzerbarth. English Luth., org. 1843 ; brick ; ded. 1845, by Rev. G. Bassler, A. M. ; rebuilt, 1884, by Rev. V. B. Christy. Schools : Pittsburgh Synod's Academy (1845-7); Connoquenes.sing Academy, 1856. — Orphans' Home and Farm School opened here, 1852 ; Mother House buUt, brick, 1854. Here rest Revs. Schweitzerbarth, Bassler, D. L. Debendarfer, W. A. Passavant, D. D., G. A. Wenzel, D.D. H. W. R. Zell, Matthaeus, b. 1477, at Kaisersberg, Alsace, d. (1548) at Strassburg, studied at Mainz, Erfurt, and Freiburg, was pastor at the Strassburg Cathedral (1518). Lutiier's Theses had made a deep impression on him, and, in 152 1, he began to preach the Gospel in homilies on the Epistie to the Romans. The magistrate defended him and two other clergymen who left the Roman Church and married. He was of an irenical disposition, unwilling to condemn those who differed from him on matters of faith. He wrote a Catechism (1534), which was, how ever, more for teachers and pastors, and an exposition of the Lord's Prayer. A. S. Zenana Work. The apartments for the women of the upper classes of India are called Zenanas. In these the women are doomed to live in seclusion, and cannot be reached by public instraction and preaching of the Word. Yet educated Hindus wish their vrives to be brought from the depths of ignorance, and for this purpose are wilUng that they should also be taught the Bible. Hence European and Ameri can societies send out women with a thorough education. These are welcomed into the Zenanas, and teach reading, singing, all sorts of useful handiwork, and, at the same time, the knowledge of the true God. This is called Zenana work. It was begun in 1856 by Miss Sale, continued by Mrs. Mullens, and has lately assumed immense proportions. In 1880 the General Synod of the Luth. Church sent its first Zenana Sister to Guntur. There are now six in that field. Two of these are female physi cians, in charge of the hospital for women, where they have treated 5,000 patients in a year. A Hindu woman would rather die than submit to medical treatment by a male physician. In 1891, the General Council's Board of Foreign Missions sent out two, and in 1895 a third, Zenana Sister. One of these is engaged in Zenana work exclusively ; the others also teach in the girls' school, and in the caste girls' school, at Rajahmundry. [A female physician is under appointment to leave in the autumn of 1899.] The societies of Germany have thus far shown little inclination to enter upon this work. F. W. W. Zerbst Convention. The Zerbst Convention was brought about through the untiring efforts of the learned and peace-loving Chancellor of Tiibingen, Jacob Andrea. This man of God looked upon the restoration of peace among the theologians of the Luth. Church as his life- work. After visiting numerous cities, theolo gians, and courts, he finally succeeded in secur ing a convention at Zerbst (May, 1570). Al though the convention proved a faUure, it Zezscli-witz 556 Ziegenbalg marks, nevertheless, the beginning of the move ment that culminated in the Form, of Concord. The failure of the meeting may be partly at tributed to Andrea himself, and partly to the opposing parties in the Church. Andrea, in stead of setting forth clearly and distinctly, from the beginning, the proposed concord, endeav ored to gain the same by neutralizing the exist ing opposition. He failed, but his failure proved valuable to him afterwards. Then the disinclination of the Flacians and Philippists for a union, and their want of confidence in Andrea himself, also proved an insurmountable obstacle. J. J. Y. Zezschwitz, Gerhard von, a prominent rep resentative of conservative Lutheranism in Germany, b. at Bautzen, Saxony, in 1825, and d. at Erlangen, Bavaria, in 1886. He studied at Leipzig during the time that the influential and orthodox Harless was active there. After serv ing for flve years as a village pastor in the vicinity of Leipzig, he became extraordinary professor of theology there in 1857. In 1861 he withdrew from public activity for several years, travelled and engaged in study and literary work, residing for a time at Neuendettelsau, the home of Loehe. In 1865 he was called to Giessen as professor, but remained there only one year, becoming professor at Erlangen in 1866, with which university his name and fame are chiefly associated, and where he spent the remainder of his life. Von Zezschwitz was a prolific writer, and his writings treat of a great variety of subjects. Among his minor works are some of permanent value. His thorough monograph on the De scensus ad Inferos, defending the old Lutheran doctiine, and a lecture on Profane Greek and the Spirit of Biblical Language, deserve especial mention. He also published two books on the Roman Empire of the German Nation and an excellent Apology of Christianity (2d ed. 1866). But his chief theological work was in the de partment of practical theology. His fame rests especially upon the learned System of Christian Ecclesiastical Catechetics (2d ed. 1872-74), and the Christian Doctrine in connection ( 1880), a practical application of his catechetical method. The System of Practical Theology (1876-78), and the Manual of Pedagogics ( 1882), are mere outlines, which served as a basis of his univer sity lectures. Von Zezschwitz was also a con tributor to the Encyclopedias of Herzog and Zoeckler. But probably he exerted his greatest influence as a living teacher, not only by his attractive and frequently eloquent lectures, but by his devout character and the per sonal contact which he cultivated with students. A. G. V. Ziegenbalg, Bartholomaeus, the pioneer of modern mission work in India, was born at Pulsnitz iu Saxony, June 14th, 1683. His father, Bartholomaeus, and his mother, Catherine, both died when he was a child and left him to the care of an elder sister. His schooling was gained at Carmnitz and in the Gymnasium at Gorlitz. It was during his life in the latter place that he passed through what seems to have been the crisis of his religious life and deter mined to devote himself to the study of theology. After fixing upon his future calling he applied to A. H. Francke, then professor at Halle, for advice as to the course he should pursue, and upon his recommendation left Gorlitz, and placed himself under Joachim Lange, rector of Frederick's Gymnasium at Berlin ; but the death of his sister and his own ill-health interfered with his course in that place and compelled him to pursue his studies in private for some time. This was in the year 1702. A temporary relief from his disease made it possible for him to enter the University of Halle, but he was soon obliged to give up his studies there and return home again. By the year 1705 he was suffi ciently recovered to think of going back to Halle, but was diverted to Berlin where he spent some months with a pastor of that city. It was just at this time that Liitken, chaplain of Frederick IV. of Denmark, was looking for men whom he might send as missionaries to the Danish colonies in India and Africa. Failing to find suitable men in Denmark, he sought them in Germany, and on the recommendation of his friends in Berlin, Ziegenbalg, -with an older fellow-student, Henry Pliitschau, was chosen for the work. The two young men has tened to Copenhagen, and after recei-ring ordi nation at the hands of Bishop Borneman sailed for India in November, 1705, reaching their des tination, Tranquebar, on the Cormandel coast of Hindustan, in July, 1706. The missionaries were regarded vrith suspicion by. the natives and with indifference by the Europeans of the colony, most of whom were Portuguese, but set themselves at once to the work of mastering Tamil, the language of the natives. Less than a year after their arrival a church building was begun and the first service in it was held in August, 1707. Another year passed before Ziegenbalg felt that he was suffi ciently acquainted vrith the language to begin the translation of the Scriptures, but by 171 1 he had completed the New Testament and a large part of the Old, and began to compile a Tamil grammar and lexicon. In 1714, with the aid of a press donated in Europe, he published the Nev7 Testament, the Danish Liturgy, hymns, a dictionary, and various other works, all in the language of the natives. Meanwhile the work of the mission had been greatly hindered by difficulties that arose be tween Ziegenbalg and the Danish Church, which, because of his Halle training, regarded him as a Pietist, and by the opposition of the Danish East India Company, which threw many obstacles in his way. In addition to his other troubles, Ziegenbalg's health began to faU again, and in 1715 he decided to return to Europe, where he spent a year in urging upon the churches of Germany and England the impor tance of mission work among the heathen. His efforts in this direction met with the greatest success, and he aroused enthusiasm wherever he went. In 1716 he retumed to India and continued the work there with his accustomed zeal, but his health was not equal to the stiain that was put upon it, and soon gave way entirely. He died on the 23d of February, 1719, and was buried in the large new church at Tranquebar, Ziegenhagen 557 Zinzendorf that he had built and dedicated after his return from Europe. It was the zeal and activity of this one man that paved the way for the great work of Protestant missions to the heathen. For full particulars of Ziegenbalg's life and work see Hallesche Berichten aus Ost-Indien (ed. A. G. Francke), Vol. I. passim, and Vol. II. pp. 225 sqq. Also G. A. Plitt, Lutherische Mission, pp. 51-153, and article Missions. C. M. J. Ziegenhagen, Frederick Michael, b. 1694, in Pomerania ; after a brief pastorate in Han over, became chaplain in the Royal Chapel (St. James), London, in 1722, which he served for 54 years ; d. 1777 ; a diligent reader of the writings of Spener ; earnest friend and co- operator of the Luth. missions in India ; secured the aid of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge in finding a home for the Salzburgers in America ; circulated an ap peal in Germany, in 1734, in behalf of the spiritual interests of the Pennsylvania Germans. It was through his efforts that Muhlenberg was sent to this country, and he remained a life long friend and spiritual father of the American congregations. H. E. J. Ziegenhain Synods, were the three meetings in the Hessian Church, the first two (1558 and 1562) under Hyperius, the third (1570), at Ziegenhain, in which Melanchthonianism and Philippism overcame consistent Lutheranism (Heppe, Geschichte der hessischen Generalsyn- oden). Zillerthal. A little valley of the Tyrol be tween Salzburg and Innsbruck. It is memor able in church history because of the infamous manner in which the Roman Catholic clergy succeeded in driving from their homes about 500 Lutherans because of their faith, in the earlier part of the present century. Various persecutions failing to bring the Protestants into conformity with Rome, the provincial es tates of Tyrol, at the instigation of the fanatical clergy, decreed that they should leave the country. In 1837, by the humane intercession of Frederick William IIL, of Prussia, they were allowed to sell their estates and remove to his dominions. D- M. G. Zimmermann, Ernst, b. Sept. 18, 1786, preacher at Auerbach, deacon at Grossgerau, court-preacher and tutor of Prince Ludwig of Anhalt-Kothen, noted as an excellent preacher, the founder of the Allgemeine Kirchenzritung (1822), and the author of the exceedingly use ful collection of Luther's thoughts in Geist aus Luther' s Schriften (Darmstadt, 1828-31). Zinzendorf, Nicholas Ludwig, Count von, was descended from an ancient house of the Austrian nobility, b. at Dresden, A. D. 1700, d. at Hermhut, a. d. 1760. He was a religious genius, richly endowed with gifts of head and heart, and reared under the influences of Pie tism, Spener having been one of his sponsors. Even from boyhood out of fervent love to the Saviour, and deUght in the closest feUowship vrith him, he was inspired vTith the idea of gathering into one fold all trae lovers of the Lord Jesus, an idea which flamed into enthu siasm, and to the realization of which all his thoughts, longings, and plans were directed. To quench his pietistic ardor his relatives had him study law, and to gratify their ambi tious projects he was kept for seven years re luctantly in the service of the Saxon govern ment. But the consciousness that he was divinely called to found a society swayed his heart. With a view to the completion of his education he made various journeys, -risiting everywhere the most distinguished representa tives of all confessions and sects, gathering thus energy for his ruling idea. When a little band of Moravian exiles, who had survived the frightful persecutions con nected with the Thirty Years' War, took refuge on his estate in Lusatia (a. d. 1722), and he gave them the Hutberg at Berthelsdorf as a settlement, the opportunity arrived for real izing his cherished project. "The mustard seed of the dream of his youth was here dropped into fertile soil, where, under his fervent care, it soon grew into a stately tree, whose branches spread over all European lands, and thence through all parts of the habitable globe." The place received the name Herrenhut, and at once became the gathering point of all sorts of revivalists, separatists, fanatics, Schwenkfelders, etc. Z. fully identified himself with the commun ity in 1727, and thus became the founder of the Moravian Church, or Unitas Fratrum, the basis being a constitution with old Moravian forms and names, but inspired by Z.'s spirit. It was not his purpose to separate from the Luth. Church and to organize a distinct denom ination ; hence he continued to protest his loy alty to the Unaltered Augsburg Confession and Luther's Catechism, but following the funda mental pietistic idea of the need of ecclesiolae in ecclesia, he sought vrith all his heart and strength, talent and means, to gather into one communion all who love the Lord. The differ ent congregations and confessions were to con tinue, but within them and over them something higher and better should obtain, an outward fraternization and fellowship of all trae be lievers, an embodiment of the invisible Church in a visible organization. Z. originally com prehended all Christendom in his plan, and he even took steps to bring the Roman Catholic and Greek churches into his community, the distinctive character of which lay not in doc trine, but in a fellowship of love ; not the con fession, but the constitution of the brotherhood being the bond of union. Z. received license as a minister in 1734, and was consecrated a bishop by Jablonsky, bishop of the Moravian Brethren and court -preacher at Berlin. Quitting Saxony in 1736, he travelled extensively in Germany, Holland, England, and America, everywhere with great zeal preach ing salvation by the blood of Christ. He en gaged also in missionary work among the North American Indians. With Bethlehem and Ger mantown as centres he occupied himself far and wide with his darling scheme of bringing the various denominations into a union, causing disturbance and distraction in aU churches and associations where the people were not inclined Zoeckler 558 Zwickau to become Moravians. He says himself : ' ' Hardly had I reached Pennsylvania when I was constrained to cry out, ' Come hither to me, all ye that belong to thfe Lord.' " He served for a time as pastor of the Luth. Church in Philadelphia, and assumed the title and functions of inspector-general of all Luth. churches in America. Very serious disorders and dissensions were thus brought about in the struggling congregations, destitute as they were of Luth. pastors, and the tmorganized, unpro tected Luth. Church in America would have been stiangled in its infancy in the meshes of fanat icism had not Muhlenberg and his co-laborers arrived in time to restore order and sobriety in the distracted congregations ; to recall the people to the sound faith of their church, and to give stability and strength to the yet feeble organization, by uniting them in a common bond. Z. retumed in 1749 to Hermhut, where he continued to preside over his church until his death (a. d. 1760). His literary productivity is shown in more than a hundred volumes, characterized by originality, brilliancy, and the cant of his peculiar ideas. He was the author of 2,000 hymns, "mostly improvised for public services," many of them being rendered by Wesley and others into English. Some of them are still favorites in our American hymnals. E. J. W. Zoeckler, Otto, b. in Griinberg, Hessia, May 27, 1833. ; studied in Giessen, Erlangen, Berlin ; Privatdocent at Giessen (1857); prof, extta- ord. (1863) ; prof, at Greifswald (1866); con sistorial counsellor (1885) ; is a Luth. theo logian of encyclopaedic learning, as thorough as universal in knowledge, and traly con servative. Since 1882 he has ed. the Evang. Kirchenzeitung (Hengstenberg) ; since 1886, Beweis des Glaubens, an apologetic joumal of highest value, in which he wrote many articles on relation of natural science to faith. Through him the able Handbuch der theol. Wissen schaften was issued, and also the Luth. com mentary {Kurzgefasster Kommentar zu den Schriften des A. u. N. T). He advocates a theory of the 2d ed. of Acts ag. negative critics, which is of high probability. His pub lications on historical topics and articles in many cyclop, are very numerous and thorough. J.H. Zwickau. A city of about 45,000 inhabit ants, in the Mulda, in the kingdom of Saxony. It has several beautiful old churches, gymna sium, library of 20,000 volumes, and many val uable manuscripts of the Reformation period. In 152 1 a religious fanaticism, led by Thomas Miinzer, pastor of one of the churches, broke out in Z. Some of its victims were imprisoned and others expelled This movement repre sented the revolutionary and destructive ele ment in the Reformation. Late in December, 1521, three of the fanatics who had been ex pelled from Z., viz. Marcus Thomas Stiibner, who had been a student at Wittenberg ; Nick- olas Storch, a weaver, and another weaver, came to Wittenberg. Following the teaching of Miinzer, they rejected the written Word of God, the regular ministry, infant baptism, and all learned studies. They boasted of dreams and special revelations, and predicted the overthrow of the existing civil government. Hence they were called Heavenly Prophets, Spiritualists, Fanatics. At Wittenberg the soil had been prepared for them by Carlstadt and others, who had sought to institute a new order of ecclesi astical life. Soon everything was thrown into confusion. Melanchthon was terrified, and Amsdorf, Schurf, Baier, and others shared his fright. Luther -wrote from the Wartburg that the "spirits " must be tested, and required to prove their prophetic mission by miracles. In March, 1522, he retumed to Wittenberg, and by his powerful preaching brought order out of con fusion. He admitted the leaders to an inter view. When they boasted of their power to work miracles, he commanded their god not to work miracles against his God. The leaders then left Wittenberg and began a systematic abuse of Luther and of tbe Reformation. Luther replied to the Heavenly Prophets vrith his accustomed vigor. J. W. R. APPENDIX. LUTHERAN CHRONOLOGY: IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL DATES OF LUTHERAN HISTORY. Note :— Beginning with the sixteenth century. C— Catholic ; R— Reformed ; A— Dates of American History. By H. W. H. .45.5.I4J,9.1463,1465, 1466,1468,1470.1471,1472,1473.1474. I47_5, 1477. 1480,1481, It 1482, .483. tt 1484, 1485. i486, 1487. 1488,1489.1490, I 491, Thb Fifteenth Ckntury. 1402, Feb. 22, ReuchUn b. at Pforzheim. " Johann Tetzel b. at Leipsic. 1493, March 2, Pope Hadrian VI. b. at Utrecht. ^' " 22, Emperor Maximilian I. b. at Neustadt. " January 17, Elector Frederick the Wise b. atTorgau. 1494, Oct. 28, Erasmus b. at Rotterdam. Johann Staupitz b. at Meissen. 1495, Berthold of Chiemsee b. at Salzburg. z49^, John Eberlin, b. at Gunzburg. Sigismund I., king of Poland, b. 1407, June 30, Elector John, the Constant, b. at Meissen. July 25, Cajetan b. at Gaeta. " May 21, Albrecht Diirer, painter, b. at Nuremberg. " Lucas Cranach, painter, b. at Cronach." " Henry the Pious, Duke of Saxony, b. Lorenzo Campegius b. at Bologna. " Dec. II, Pope Leo X. b. at Florence. 1498, Thomas Mumer b. at Strassburg. '* University of Tiibingen founded. " Wolfgang Capito b. at Hagenau. 1409, Pope Clement VII. b. at Florence. John Faber b. at Leutkirch. " Lazarus Spengler b. at Nuremberg. John Cochlaeus b. at Wendelstein. Nicholas Hausmann b. at Freiberg. Feb. 13, Aleander b. at Motta. May I, Franz v. Sickingen b. at Ebernburg n. Kreuznach. 1500, King Christian II. b. in Denmark. " John CEcolampadius b. at Weinsberg. 1501, Elector Frederick II. b. in Palatine. " Nov. 10, Martin Luther b. at Eisleben. 1502, " II, Martin Luther baptized. " Dec. 3, Nikolaus Amsdorf b. at Torgau. " Andrew Rudolf Carlstadt (Bodenstein) b. at Carlstadt. 1503, Jan. I, Ulrich Zwingli b. at Wildhaus. " " 17, Geo. Spalatin (Burkhardt) b. at Spalt Dec. 13, Paul Speratus, hymnist, b. at Rothlen. " Luther's parents removed to Mansfeld. " Gregor Bruck (Heinse) b. at Briick. " June 24, John Bugenhagen b. at Wollin. 1504, Aug. 26, Frederick the Wise succeeds to the electorate. " Nov. 13, John Eck (Maier) b, at Eck, Suabia. " Nic. Perrenot Granvelle, b. al Omans. i505i Gabriel Didymus b. at Joachimsthal. " Francis Lambert b. at Avignon. " Duke Ulrich of Wuertemberg b. 1506, John Graumann (Poliander) hymnist, b. at Neustadt 1507, Henry Miiller, martyr, b. at Zutphen. " April 22, Ulrich v. Hutten b. at Stachelberg. 1508, May, Urbanus Rhegius b. at Langenargen. 1509, Dec. 26, Friedrich Myconius b. at Lichtenfels. ' Carl V. Miltitz b. in Saxony. 1510. Nic. Storch b. at Stolberg. ^^ Thomas Munzer b. at Stolberg. Martin Bucer b. at Schlettstadt. I5"» April 20, John Agricola b. at Eisenach, August I, Wolfgang of Anhalt b. at Koethen. 26, Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia) crowned. June 5, Justus Jonas b. at Nordhausen. Aug. 19, Maximilian I. became emperor. John Pfeffinger b. at Wasserburg. Nov. 5, Hans Sachs, hymnist, b. at Nuremberg. Caspar Hedio b. at Ettlingen. Nov. I, Erhard Schnepf b. at Heilbronn. Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden, b. at Lindholm. John Walther, musician, b. Feb. 16, Philip Melanchthon (Schwarzerd) b. at Bretten, Sept. 8, Wolfgang Musculus b. at Dienze. Luther entered school at Magdeburg. John Staupitz prior of cloister at Erfurt. Ernst, the Confessor, Duke of Brunswick-Liineburg, b. at Uebzen. Hans Holbein, Jr., painter, b. at Augsburg. May 23, Savonarola burnrd at Florence, Dec. ig, Andrew Osiander b. at Gunzenhausen. Luther entered school at Eiseuach. Jan. 29, Catharine v. Bora b. at Loeben. June 24, John Brenz b. at Weilderstadt. Jerome Weller b. at Freiberg. Thk Sixteenth Century. Feb. 24, Emperor Charles V. b. at Ghent. C. April 12, Joachim Camerarius b. at Bamberg. Feb. 27, Anton Corvinus b. at Warburg. Luther entered University at Erfurt. April 25, George Major b. at Nuremberg. Luther received Bachelor's degree. John Staupitz dean of new University at Wittenberg. Jan. 13, Joachim II. of Brandenburg b. March 10, Ferdinand I., emperor, b. at Alcala de Henares. C. June 30, John Frederick of Saxony b. at Torgau. Aug. 18, Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia) d. of poison. C. Luther found the Bible in university library at Erfurt. Jan. I, Caspar Cruciger b. at Leipsic. June 24, John Mathesius, preacher, b. at Rochlitz. Nov. 23, Philip of Hesse b. at Marburg. Luther received master's degree. Alexis, Luther's friend, killed by lightning. July 17, Luther entered Augustinian Cloister at Erfurt Veit Dietrich b. at Nuremberg. May 2, Luther ordained as pnest. Aug. 13, George III. of Anhalt b. at Dessau. LuSier called to Wittenberg as professor of philosophy. July 10, John Calvin b. at Noyon. R. Luther made Bachelor of Divinity. Luther visited Rome, Albert Hardenberg (Rizaus) b. at Hardenberg. Joachim Westphal b. at Hamburg. Nov. 8j Paul Eber, hymnist, b. at Kissingen. 559 560 Appendix 1 5 161 1517;1518, 1519) Aug, 27, Frederick Staphylus b. at Osnabriick. C. 1525, Oct. 18, Luther made doctor of divinity. " John Staupitz resigned his professorship at Wittenberg. *' John Staupitz became vicar-general of Augustinian " Order. " George Karg (Parsimonius) b. at Herolding. " April II, Leo. X. became pope. C. " April 6, Joachim Morlin b. at Wittenberg. " Dec. 26, Victorin Strigel b. at Kaufbeuren. " Andrew Musculus b. at Schneeberg. " Luther Augustinian- vicar for Meissen and Thuringia. 1526, Tetzel in Saxony. C. " Oct. 31, Luther's 95 Theses against indulgences. " Jan, 20, Tetzel's theses at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. C. " Feb. 7, John Funck b. at Wohrd, " April 26, Luther at the colloquy in Heidelberg. " Aug. 25, Melanchthon in Wittenberg as professor of " Greek. Oct. 7, Luther arrived at Augsburg. 1527, " 12, Luther before Cajetan at Augsburg. " " 20, Luther left Augsburg. " Philip becomes Landgrave of Hesse. " Jan. 3, Miltitz conferred with Luther at Altenburg. " 12, Emperor Maximihan I. d. at Wels, Austria. C. " June 27, Leipzig Disputation opened. " " 27-July 3, Eck disputed with Carlstadt at Leipzig. 1528, *' 28, Charles V. became emperor. C, " July 4, John Tetzel d. at Leipzig. C. " " 4, Luther began to dispute with Eck at Leipzig. " " 16, end of Leipzig disputation. " Reformation in Augsburg, Heilbronn, Wilrzburg. " March 3, Matthias Flacius b. at Altona. June 15, Bull of Excommunication issued against Luther. 1529, Oct. 12, Miltitz conferred with Luther at Lichtenberg. " " 22, Charles V. crowned emperor at Aix-la-Chapelle. " C. Dec. 10, Luther burned the papal Bull at Wittenberg. " John Staupitz resigned vicar-generalship of Augustinian order. " Luther's " Babylonian Captivity of the Church " pub- " lished. " Reformation in Breslau, Copenhagen, Stuttgart. " Jan. 3, Bull of Excommunication against Luther re> " newed. C. " Jan. 2S, Diet at Worms opened. C. " Feb. 13, first session of the Diet at Worms. C. 1530, March 21, Elector Maurice of Saxony b. at Freiburg. '* " 26, Luther received citation to Diet at Worms. " April 2, Luther set out for Worms. " " 16, Luther arrived at Worms. '¦ " 17, Luther before Charles V. at the Diet at Worms. " " 26, Luther left Worms. " May 4, Luther taken to the Wartburg. " " 8, Compact between Charles V. and the pope. C. " 26, Edict of Worms signed by Charles V. C, " Dec. I, Pope Leo X., d. C. " Translation of the Bible begun by Luther. " Reformation in Alsfeld, Vienna, Zwickau. " Jan. 9, Hadrian VI. became pope, C. I53i» March 3, Luther left the Wartburg. " " 23, first Diet at Nuremberg convened. " May 7, first Diet at Nuremberg dismissed. " July 15, Luther's sharp reply to Henry VIII. of England. 1532, Nov. 9, Martin Chemnitz b. at Treuenbrietzen, " Dec. 13, first Diet at Nuremberg reconvened. " John Glapio d. at Toledo. C. " Translation of New Testament completed by Luther. " Wittenberg fanaticism. " Augustinian cloister destroyed at Antwerp. I533» Reformation in Bremen, Riga, Rostock, Weissenburg. i534» March 6, first Diet at Nuremberg closed. " April 4, Catharine v. Bora escaped from convent at " Nimptschen. " May 7, Franz v. Sickingen d. at Zweibriicken. " June 30, Reuchlin d. at Liebenzell. " July 1, Henry Voes and John Esch bumed at Brussels. " Aug. 29, Ulnch V. Hutten d. on Island of Ufnau, Zurich. Sept. 14, Pope Hadrian VI. d. C. 1536, Nov. 19, Clement VII. became pope. C, John Wigand b, at Mansfeld. " Luther's " Deutsches Taufbiichlein," published. " Reformation in Eisenach, Eisleben, Hamburg, Konigs- 1537, berg, Stockholm, Thorn. " Jan. 14, second Diet at Nuremberg convened. *' April 18, second Diet at Nuremberg closed. *' July 6, Regensburg (Ratisbon) Convention. C. " Sept. 17, Caspar Tauber, martyr, beheaded at Vienna. 1538, Dec. 10, Henry Miiller, martyr, bumed at Heide. " " 28, John Staupitz d. at Salzburg. '539, Erasmus openly against Luther on Free Will." '* first collection of hymns and psalms. " Reformation in Celle, Gotha, Magdeburg, Stralsund. ** Jan. 6, Caspar Peucer b. at Bautzen. Peasants' War. April 16, Weinsberg captured in Peasants' War. May 5, Frederick the Wise d. at Loebau. John the Constant, elector of Saxony. May 15, battle of Frankenhausen, Peasants' War. " 30, Thomas Miinzer executed at Miihlhausen. June 13, Luther married at Wittenberg. Sept. I, Luther's apology to Henry VIIL of England. Dec. Luther on " Free Will " against Erasmus. Reformation in Greifswald, Marburg, Osnabriick. June 9, Torgau Alliance, articles signed. " 25, first Diet of Spires convened. July 31, August, elector of Saxony, b. at Freiberg. Aug. 27, first Diet at Spires closed. Oi^anization of Church in Hesse begun Reformation in Brunswick. *' Deutsche Messe u. Ordnung des Gottesdienstes " pub lished. Feb. 8, George Carpentarius, martyr, bumed at Munich. Nov. 3, Tilemann Hesshusius b. at Wesel. University of Marburg founded by Philip of Hesse. Diet of Shamebeck and organization of Church in Liine burg. Affair of Pack (conceming Catholic plot). Diet of Westeras, Sweden. Feb. 28, Martyrdom of Patrick Hamilton in Scotland. March 25, Jacob Andrea b. at Waiblingen. April 6, Albrecht Diirer, painter, d. at Nuremberg. Organization of church in Saxony begun. Organization of church in Hesse completed. Diet of Anspach, organization of church in Franconia- Brandenburg. March 15, opening of second Diet at Spires. April 20, Protest of Spires, origin of name " Protestant." " 24, second Diet of Spires closed. May 4, Magdalena, Luther's daughter b. Sept. 28, Adolf Clarenbach, Peter Flysteden, martyrs, burned at Cologne. Oct. 1, Marburg colloquy opened. " 3, Marburg colloquy closed. '* 16, convention at Schwabach. " 16, Schwabach Articles (Torgau Articles). Organization of church in Saxony completed. Larger and Smaller Catechisms. John Miltitz d. in Germany. Feb. 26, David Chytraeus b. at Ingelfingen. April 8, Charles V. issued call for Diet at Augsburg. 18, Francis Lambert d. at Marburg. " 22, Luther at Coburg. May 29, Luther's father d. June 20, Diet at Augsburg opened. " 25, Augsburg Confession. Aug. 3, Catholic confutation of Augsburg Confession read. Sept. 22, " Apology " presented to Charles V. *' 22, Diet at Augsburg closed. John Anton Eberlin d. Dec. 15, Nic. Selnecker b. at Hersbmck. March 29, Smalcaldic league formed. June 30, Luther's mother died. Oct. II, Ulrich Zwingli killed at Cappel. R. Nov, 24, John CEcolampadius d. at Basel. R. June 23, Nuremberg religious peace. August 16, Leonard Kaiser, martyr, burned at Passau. 16, Elector John, the Constant, d.at Schweinitz. Ludwig Helmbold, hymnist. b. at Miihlhausen, Martin Schalling, hymnist, b. at Strassburg. John Frederick, the Magnanimous, electorof Saxony. Valentin Weigel, mystic, b" at Groszenhayn. Aug. 9, Cajetan d. at Rome. C. Sept. 25, Pope Clement VII. d. at Rome. C. Nov. 7, Lazarus Spengler d. at Nuremberg. Dec. 16, Lucas Osiander b. at Nuremberg. Translation of the Bible completed. Miinster faction. First edition of Bible in German published at Witten berg. May 25, Wittenberg concord signed. July 12, Erasmus d, at Basel. C. Bishops seized and deposed in Denmark. Tavemer's English trans, of Aug. Conf. Feb. 8, Otto V. Pack beheaded at Brussels. " 15, " Smalcald Articles." Thomas Mumer d. at Oberehnheim. C. Bugenhagen organized the church in Denmark. Antinomian controversy begun. University of Denmark organized by Bugenhagen. Nov. 6. Nic. Hausmann d. at Freiberg. Nov. I, first evangelical mass in Brandenburg. Lorenzo Campegius d. at Rome. C. Frankfort suspension. John Calvin signed Unaltered Augsburg Conf ession at iStrassburg. Appendix 561 1540, «S4». 1543, "544. I54S.1546, 1548. 154,9.1550. 1551. '553; 1554.'555. 1556. Jan. 3, martyrdom of Eng. Lutheran, Robert Barnes. June 6, religious conference at Hagenau opened. 28, religious conference at Hagenau closed. Nov. 25, religious conference at Worms opened. Melanchthon altered the Augsburg Confession. Antmomian controversy ended. Stephen Kempen d. Luther's " Deutsche Kirchenpostille " published. Casper Bienemann, hymnist, b. at Nuremberg. Jan._ 18, religious conference at Worms closed. April 5, religious conference at Regensburg opened. May 21, John Faber d. at Vienne. C. " 27, Urbanus Rhegius d. at Celle. July 20, religious conference at Regensburg closed. Nov., Wolfgang Capito d. at Strassburg. Dec. 25, Andrew Carlstadt d. at Basel. Henry, the Pious, of Saxony, d. Maunce became elector of Saxony John Graumann (Poliander) hymnist, d.at Konigsberg. Jan. 20, Nic. Amsdorf ordained bishop o£ Naumburg- Zeitz. Sept. 20, Magdalene, Luther's daughter, d. aged 14. Regensburg declaration. Hans Kugelmann, musician, d. G. Thorlaksson, Icelandic Reformer, b. Feb. 10, John Eck d. at Ingolstadt. C. Hans Holbein, Jr., painter, d. at London. Berthold of Chiemsee d. at Saalfelden. C. Jan. 10, Diet at Spires called. Feb. 20, Diet of Spires opened. June 10, Diet at Spires closed. Luther's " Hauspostille " published. University of Konigsberg founded. Dec. 13, Council of Trent opened. Feb. 18, Luther d. at Eisleben. " 22, Luther buried at Wittenberg. " 27, colloquy at Regensburg (Ratisbon) opened. April 7, Frederick Myconius d. at Gotha. June 20, ban against Philip of Hessen and Elector John Frederick. Oct., treachery of Maurice of Saxony. Ernst, the Confessor, Duke of Brtmswick-Liineburg, d. opening of the Smalcald War. March n, Council of Trent transferred to Bologna. April 24, battle of Miihlberg (Smalcald war). " 24, John Frederick of Saxony prisoner. June 2, last session of council of Trent until 1551. Sept. z, secpnd Diet at Augsburg opened. Samuel Huber b. at Burgdorf. R. _ Cranmer's trans, of Luther's Catechism. April X, Sigismund I. of Poland d. May 15, Augsburg Interim published. Dec. 22, Leipzig Interim adopted. University of Jena founded. Adiaphoristic controversy begun. Veit Dietrich d. at Nuremburg. Osiandrian controversy begun. June, fourth Diet at Augsburg. Nov. 6, Ulrich of Wiirtemberg d. Dec. 21, Aegidius Hunnius b. at Winnenden. Nicolas Perrenot Granvella d. at Augsburg. C. Caspar Peucer married Melanchthon's daughter. Nicolas Crell b. at Leipsic. Feb. 28, Martin Bucer d. at Cambridge. R. May I, Council of Trent reopened. Aug. 12, Paul Speratus, hymnist, d. at Marienwerder. Nov. Magdeburg capitulated to Maurice of Saxony. " Confessio Saxonica " by Melanchthon. " Confessio Wirtembergica " by Brenz. Majoristic controversy begun. Maurice of Saxony tumed against the emperor. March, Charles V. fled from Innsbruck. March 18, Polycarp Leyser b. at Winnenden. August 2, Treaty of Passau. Oct. 17, Andrew Osiander d. at Konigsberg. „ ^ . ^ Dec. 2o, Luther's widow (Catharine v. Bora) d. at Torgau. John Cochlaeus d. at Breslau. C. Caspar Hedio d. at Strassburg. R. Crypto-Calvinistic controversy begun. July II, Maurice of Saxony d. at Sievershausen. Oct. 16, Lucas Cranach, painter d. at Weimar. " 17, George III. of Anhalt d. at Merseburg. John Eccard, composer, b. March 3, John Fredenck of Saxony d. Feb. 5, fifth Diet at Augsburg opened. Sept. 25, religious peace of Augsburg published. Oct 2s;Cha?les V. resigned NetherTand's crown. Dec. 27 John Amdt b. at Ballenstedt. Adiaphoristic controversy ended. Svnersistic controversy begun. . r, . .. t.i.-i- jIn 15 Charles V. resigned crown of Spam to Philip li. C. 36 1556, Aug. 10, Philip Nicolai, hymnist, b. at Mengeringhausen. " 27, Charles V. resigned imperial crown to Ferdi nand. C. " Sept. 17, Charles V. entered the monastery at San Vuste. C. " Frederick II. of Palatine d. >557» Feb, 17, John Tiemann d. at Nienburg. '* Gregor Briick d. " Martin Bohme, hymnist, b. 1558. Feb. 2, University of Jena opened. ' April 20, John Bugenhagen, d. at Wittenberg. " Sept. 21, Charles V. d. at San Vuste. C. " Nov, I, Erhard Schnepf d. at Jena. " Gabriel Didymus d. " Ferdinand I. became emperor. C. 1559, March 25, Victbrin Strigel imprisoned for heresy. " Christian II. of Denmark, d. " John Tilly b. at TUly in Brabant. C. 1560, April 19, Philip Melanchthon d. at Wittenberg. " " 27, Erasmus Schmidt, exegete, b. at Delitzsch. " Aug, 2-8, colloquy between Strigel and Flacius at Weimar. " Gustavus Vasa of Sweden d. 1561, Dec. 10, Flacius dismissed for Manichaeism, " Nicholas Hermann, composer, d. 1562, April 21, Valerius Herberger, preacher, b. at Fraustadt " Majoristic controversy ended. 15631 Jan., Leonhard Hutter, dogmatician, b. at Nellingen. " Aug. 30, Wolfgang Musculus d. at Berne, R. " Dec. 4, last session of Council of Trent. C. " Karg controversy begun. 1564) Jan. 6, acts of Council of Trent confirmed by Pope, " March 5, Frederick Staphylus d. at Ingolstadt. " April 10, colloquy at Maulbronn. " May 25, John Calvin d. at Geneva. R. " July 25, Ferdinand L d. C. " Hans Leo Hassler, composer, b. at Nuremberg. 15651 Feb. 27, Balthaser Mentzer b. at Allendorf. " May 14, Nicolas Amsdorf d. at Eisenach. " Oct, 8, John Mathesius, preacher, d, at JoachimsthaL " Chemnitz published Vol. I. of " Exam. Cone. Trid," " Albert Hardenberg expelled from Bremen. 1566, March 23, Wolfgang of Anhalt d. at Zerbst. " Sept. 22, John Agricola d. at Berlin, " Oct. 28, John Funcke executed at Kneiphoi " Hans Walther, composer, d. at Dresden. 1567, March 31, Philip of Hesse d, at Cassel. " Osiandrian controversy ended. " Synergistic controversy ended. . 1568, Colloquy at Altenburg. 13691 June 26, Victorin Strigel d. at Heidelberg. " Dec. 16, Paul Eber d. at Wittenberg. 1570, Sept tl, John Brenz d. at Stuttgart. General Synod of Sendomir, Poland. " Consensus Sendomiriensis. '* Karg controversy ended, 1571, Jan, 3, Joachim II, of Brandenburg d, at Kopenik. " May 23, Joachim Morlin d. at Konigsberg. 1572, March 20, Jerome Weller d, at Freiburg. '573> " I*ax Dissidentium " in Poland. " Chemnitz published last vol. of " Exam, Cone. Trid." " John Pfeffinger d. " *' Suabian Concord," written by Andrea and Chemnitz. 1574, Jan. 16, Joachim Westphal d. at Hamburg. " Nov. 28, George Major d, at Wittenberg. ** Franz Stancar d, at Stobnitz, " Crypto-Calvinistic controversy ended. " Albert Hardenberg d. at Emden. " Caspar Peucer imprisoned at Rochlitz for heresy. 1575, March 11, Matthias Flacius d. at Frankfort. " Maulbronn form.," by Osiander and Bidembach. " University of Helmstadt founded by Julius of Brunswick. " Jacob Bohme, theosophist, b. at Alt Seidenberg. 1576, Jan. 20, Hans Sachs, hymnist, d. at Nuremberg. " Caspar Peucer imprisoned at Leipzig. " George Karg (Parsimonius) d. at Anspach. " " Torgau Book." 1577, March i, meeting of Lutheran Theologians at Bergen, near Magdeburg. " May 28, " Bergic Book," or " Solida Declaratio." 1578, July g, Ferdinand II. , emperor, d. at Graz. " William IV. of Hessen refused to sign the " Formula Concordia," 1580, June 25, " Book of Concord " published, " John Stobaus, composer, d. at Graudenz. " Hoe von Hoenegg b. at Vienna. 1581, Sept. 21, Andrew Musculus d. at Frankfort. 1582, Oct. 17, John Gerhard, dogmatician, b. at Quedlinburg. 1583, Sept. 14, Albrecht WerzeT WaUenstein b. at Hermanic, Bohemia. " John Pistorius d. at Nidda. 1585, July II, Nicolas Hunnius, dogmatician, b. at Marburg. " Oct. 8, Henry Schiitz, composer, b. at Kotzritz. " *' IJ, John Heermann, hymnist, b, at Raudten. 563 Appendix T585, Jasper Brochmand b. at Kjoge (Den.). 1586, Feb. 5, Caspar Peucer released from prison. " Feb. II, August, elector of Saxony, d. at Dresden. " March 21-28, colloquy of Mompelgard. " April 8, Martin Chemnitz d at Brunswick. " '7) John Val. Andrea b. at Herrenberg. " 23, Martin Rinkart, hymnist, b. at EUenburg. " Dec, 14, George Calixt, b. at Medelbye, 1587, Oct. 21, John Wigand d, at Liebemiihl. 1588, June 10, Valentin Weigel, mystic, b. at Zschoppau. " Sept. 25, Tilemann Hesshusius d. at Helmstadt. " Lutherans banished from Salzburg. 1590, Jan. 7, Jacob Andrea d. at Tiibingen. 1591, C^par Bienemann, hymnist, d. at Altenburg. 1593, May 24, Nicolas Selnecker d. at Leipzig. " Articles of Visitation in Saxony. 1593, Solomon Glassius, theologian, b. at Sondershausen. ^ Michael Walther, theologian, b. at Nuremberg. 1594, Dec. 0, Gustavus Adolphus b. at Stockholm. 1595, Synod of Thom, Poland. " Huber controversy. 1598, AprU 9, John Criiger, composer, b, at Groszbreesen. " Ludwig Helmbold, hymnist, d. at Miihlhausen. " William II. of Saxe-Weimar, hymnist, b. The Sbvbntbbnth Century. 1600, May 25, David Chytrseus d. at Rostock. 1601, Oct. 9, Nicolas Crell executed at Dresden. 1602, Sept. 25, Caspar Peucer d. at Dessau. " John HiUsemann b. in East Friesland. " Jacob Weller b. at Neukirchen. 1603, April 4, iEgidius Hunnius d. at Wittenberg. " Conrad Dannhauer, dogmatician, b. at Breisgau. 1604, Sept. 7, Lucas Osiander d. at Stuttgart. " Maurice of Hesse-Cassel accepted Calvinism. 1606, Lutheran church tolerated in Bohemia and Hungary. 1607, March 8, John Rist, hymnist, b. at Ottensen. " " 12, Paul Gerhard b. at Graefenhainichen. " Christian Keymann, hymnist, b. at Pankraz. " University of Giessen founded by Louis V, of Hesse Darmstadt. " Peter Heyling, missionary to Abyssinia, b. at Liibeck. 1608, May 4, " Evangelical Union " at Anhausen. *' Oct. 26, PhUip Nicolai, hymnist, d. at Hamburg. " Martin Schalling, hymnist, d. at Nuremberg. 1609, July II, Catholic league (Thirty Years' War). ^' " Majestatsbrief '^ (Thirty Years' War). *' Oct. 5, Paul Flemming, hymnist, b. at Hartenstein, " Arndt's " Wahres Christenthum," complete edition. 1610, Feb. 22, Polycarp Leyser d. at Dresden. 1611, Andrew Hammerschmidt, composer, b. at Brix. 1612, Abraham Calov b. at Mornungen. " Hans Leo Hassler d, at Dresden, 1613, Feb. 7, John Musaus, theologian, b. at Langenwiesen. 1614, Lutherans again exiled from Salzburg. " Martin Geier, exegete, b. at Leipzig. " Peterson, H., Icelandic hymnist, b. 1616, Oct. 23, Leonhard Hutter, dogmatician, d. at Wittenberg. " Tubingen- Giessen controversy on " communicatio idio matum " begun, 1617, Jan. 6, Sebastian Schmidt, theologian, b. at Lamperheim. " John Andrew Quenstadt, dogmatician, b. at Quedlinburg. " John Christfried Sagittarius, historian, b. at Breslau. 1618, May 23, imperial councillorscastoutof window at Prague (Thirty Years' War). " John Frank, hymnist, b. at Guben. " beginning of Thirty Years' War in Bohemia. 1619, Aug. 26, Ferdinand IT. elected emperor. " John Frederick Konig, theologian, b. at Dresden. 1620, Nov. 8, battle of Weinsberg (Thirty Years' War). " Danish missions in East India. 1621, May II, Johann Arndt d. at Celle. " George Neumark, hymnist, b. at Langensalza. 1622, March 8, Ulrich Calixt b, at Helmstadt. '* Martin Bohme, hymnist, d. 1624, Nov. 17, Jacob Bohme, theosophist, d. at Gorlitz. " Tiibingen-Giessen controversy on "communicatio idio matum " ended. " Samuel Huber d. at Goslar. " Angelus Silesius (Sche£9er), hymnist, b. at Breslau. 1625, Rudolf Ahle, composer, b. Miihlhausen. " John Deutschmann, theologian, b. at Juterbogk. 1626, April 25, battle of Dessau frhirty Years' Wai). " August 27, battle of Lutter (Thirty Years' War), " Dec. 20, Veit Ludwig v. Seckendorf, historian, b, near Bamburg. 1627, Jan. 6, Balthaser Mentzei d. at Marburg. " May 18, Valerius Herberger, preacher, a. at Fraustadt. " G. Thorlaksson, Icelandic Reformer, d. 1629, Jan. 2, Christian Scriver, b. at Rendsburg, *' March 6, Edict of Restitution (Thirty Years* War). " May 22, Peace of Liibeck (Thirty Years' War). 1630, July 4, Gustavus Adolphus landed at Usedom (Thirty Years' War). 163 1, May 10, Magdeburg bumed by Tilly (Thirty Years' War). ** Sept. 17, battle of Breitenfeld (Thirty Years' War), " reU^ous colloquy at Leipzig. " Heinrich Miiller b. at Liibeck. 1632, Feb. 2i, i^gidius Strauch b. at Wittenberg. ^' April 15, battle on the Lech (Thirty Years* War). " ^* 20, John TUly d. at Ingolstadt. C. " Nov. 16, battle of Liitzen (Thirty Years* War). " " 16, Gustavus Adolphus killed at Liitzen. 1633, Christian Kortholt, historian, b. at Burg, Island of Femera. 1634, Feb. 25, WaUenstein slain at Eger (Thirty Years' War). " Lutheran mission to Abyssinia. 1635, Jan. 13, Fhihp Jacob Spener b. at Rappoltsweiler. Lutheran mission to Persia, 1636, Sept. 24, battle of Wittstock (Thirty Years' War). " Lutheran mission to Brazil. i^37t Aug. 20, John Gerhard, dogmatician, d. at Jena. " Sept. 22, Erasmus Schmidt, exegete, d. at Wittenberg. " Swedes land on the Delaware. A. " Emilie Juliane, countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, hymnist, b. 1639, Reorus TorkUlus, first Lutheran minister in America, arrived. A. 3640, April 2, Paul Flemming d. at Hamburg. " Oct. 30, August PfeifiEer, theologian, b. at Lauenburg. •* beginning of syncretistic controversy. " LudamUie Elizabeth of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, hym nist, b. 1642, John Winckler, hymnist, b. at Goelzem. 1643, Feb, 15, John Campanius landed at Christina, Del, A. " April 12, Nicolas Hunnius d. at Liibeck. " Sept. 7, Reorus Torkillus, first Lutheran minister in America, d. at Christina, Del. A. " Thomas Ittig, historian, b. at Leipzig. 1645, Religious colloquy at Thom, Poland. " Hoe V. Hoenegg d, at Dresden, 1646, Sept. 4, Swedish Lutheran Church dedicated at Tinicum, A. " John Stobaus d. at Konigsberg. 1647, Feb. 27, John Heermann d. at Lissa. " Rev. Lars Lock arrived at Tinicum from Sweden. A, 1648, Oct. 8, Lutherans at New Amsterdam (New York) peti tion for a pastor. A. " Oct. 24, Peace of Westphalia (Thirty Years' War). " David Hollaz, theologian, b. at WuUtow. 1649, Dec. 8, Martin Rinkart d. at EUenburgl 1652, Jasper Brochmand d. as bishop of Seeland, Den. 1653, Angelus Silesius (Scheffler) convert to OithoUcism. 1654, June 27, John Valentin Andrea d. at Stuttgart. i^SSi Jan r. Christian Thomasius, jurist, d. at Leipzig. ** cousensus repetitus " by Wittenberg theologians. 1656, March 19, George Calixt d. at Helmstadt. " July 27, Solomon Glassius, theologian, d. at Gotha. " Lutheran congregation at Albany, N. Y. A. '657, June 6, John Ernst Goetwasser, arrived at New Amster dam. A. 1658, May 20, Rev. Goetwasser sent back to Holland. A. ^' Joachim Justus Breithaupt, Pietist, b. at Nordheim. 1661, John Hiilsemann d. at Leipzig. '¦ Paul Anton b. at Hirschbeig. 1662, Feb. 22, John Criiger, composer, d. at Berlin. " Stu^jvesant forbade Lutheran preaching in New York. A. " Christian Keymann, hymnist, b. at Zittau. *' WiUiam II., duke of Saxe-Weimar, hymnist, d. " Michael Walther, theologian, d. at Celle. 1663, March 23, August Herman Francke b. at Liibeck, 1664, Jacob Weller d. at Dresden. " John Frederick Konig, theologian, d. at Rostock, 1665, Sept. 5, Gottfried Amold b. at Annaberg. 1666, John Caspar Schade b. at Kiihndorf. " Conrad Dannhauer, dogmatician, d. at Strassburg. 1667, Feb. 4, Paul Gerhardt deposed. " Aug. 15, Carl Hildebrand Cannstein b. at Lindenburg. " " 31. John Rist, hymnist, d. at Wedel. " John Franz Buddeus, theologian, b. at Anklam. 1669, Jacob Fabritius, Lutheran pastor, arrived in New York. A. 1670, Joachim Lange, theologian, b. at Gardelegen. " Anastasius Freylinghausen, composer, b. at Gandersheim. 1671, Aug. II, Bemardus Arensius installed in New York. A, ' Erdmann Neumeister, hymnist, b. at Uechtritz. 1672, Nov. 6, Henry Schiitz, composer, d. at Dresden. '¦ Dec. 21, Benjamin Schmolk, hymnist, b. at Brauchitsch dorf. " Danish missions in West Indies and Gold Coast. " LudamUie Elizabeth of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, hynm- ist, d. 1673, Rudolf Ahle, composer, d, at Miihlhausen. '' Valentin Ernst Loscher, theologian, b. at Sondershausen. Appendix 56a 1673, Ernst Solomon Cyprian, theologian, b. at Ostheim. 1674, Petersen, H., Icelandic hymnist, d, 1675, Purist controversy begun. 1675-1692, Scriver*s " Seelenschatz" in five parts. 1676, June 7, Paul Gerhardt d. at Liibben. 1677, Angelus Silesius (Scheffler) d. at Breslau. " John Frank, hymnist, d. at Guben, " Fabritius pastor at Wicaco (Philadelphia). A. 1679, Sept. 26, John Gottiob Carpzov, theologian, b. at Dresden. " Christian Wolf, theologian, b. at Breslau. 1680, Martin Geier, exegete, d. at Freiburg. 1681, John Musaus, theologian, d. at Jena. " George Neumark, hymnist, d. at' Weimar. 1682, Dec. 13, Aegidius Strauch d. at Dantzic. " Thomas v. Westen, " Apostle of Finns," b. at Trondhjem, 1683, June 14, Bartholomew Ziegenbalg, missionary, b, at Pulsnitz, " Sept. 17, John Campanius d. in Sweden. A. 1684, 1,000 Lutherans banished from Salzburg. 1685, Feb. 23, George Frederick Handel, composer, b. at Halle. " March 21, John Sebastian Bach, composer, b, at Eisenach, " Germantown, Penna, laid out. A. 1686, Jan. 31, Hans Egede, "Apostle of Greenland," b. at Harstadt. " Feb. 25, Abraham Calov d. at Wittenberg. " Syncretistic controversy ended. " Christopher Matthew Pfaff, theologian, b. at Stuttgart. " WUliam Christopher Berckenmeyer, b. at Bodenteich. A. 1687, June 24, John Albrecht Bengel, theologian, b. at Win nenden. 1688, John Andrew Quenstedt, dogmatician, d. at Wittenberg. 1689, Germantown, Penn., incorporated. " John Christfried Sagittarius, historian, d. at Altenburg. 1690, Pietistic controversy begun. *' Carl Henry v. Bogatzky, hymnist, b. at Jankow. i6gi, Bemardus Arensius d. at New York. A. 1692, Dec. 18, Veit Ludwig v. Seckendorf, historian, d. at Halle. 1693, Jacob Fabritius d. at Philadelphia.' A. " April 5, Christian Scriver d. at Quedlinburg. " John Georg Walch, theologian, b. at Meiningen. " John Jacob Raembach, hymnist, b. at Halle. 1694, Oct. 9, John Lorenz v. Mosheim, theologian, b, at Liibeck, " Dec. 22, Herman Samuel Reimarus, philologist, b. at Hamburg. " University of HaUe founded. " Christopher Kortholt, historian, d. at Kiel. " Daniel Falckner arrived in America. A. 1695, beginning of " Franckesche Stiftungen." 1696, Jan. 9, Sebastian Schmidt, theologian, d. at Strassburg. " Luther's " Smaller Catechism," published in language of Delaware Indians. A. 1697, Rudmann and Bjork arrived in Philadelphia. A. 1698, Jan. II, August Pfeiffer, theologian, d. at Liibeck. May 28, comer-stone of " Holy Trinity," Wilmington, Del., laid. A. " July 25, John Caspar Schade d. at Berlin. 1699, " 4, " Holy Trinity," Wilmington, Del., consecrated. A. " Philip Frederick HiUer, hymnist, b. at Miihlhausen. The Eighteenth Century. 1700, Purist controversy ended. " July 2, " Gloria Dei " dedicated in Philadelphia. A. 1701, Jan. 13, Ulrich CaUxt d. at Helmstadt. 1702, May 6, Frederick Christopher Oetinger, theologian, b. at Goppingen. " John Deutschmann, theologian, d. at Wittenberg. Nov. 24, Justus Falckner ordained in " Gloria Dei," PhUadelphia. A. Lutheran mission at Tranquebar, East India. Feb. 5, Philip Jacob Spener d, at Berlin. Sigismund Jacob Baumgarten, theologian, b, at Woll- merstadt. Emilie Juliane, Countess of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, hymnist, d. Aug. 4, John August Eraesti, rationalist, b, at Tennstadt praying children m Silesia. Germans settle in German Valley, N. J. A, Sept, 17, Rev, Andrew Rudmann d. at Philadelphia. A. Kocherthal landed in New York. A. Thomas Ittig, historian, d. at Leipsic. Canstein's " Bibelanstalt " founded at Halle. 3,000 Palatines followed Kocherthal to America. A. Sept. 6, Henry Melchior Muhlenberg b. at Eimbeck. A. Palatines settled in the Schoharie Valley, N. Y. A. David Hollaz, theologian, d. at Jacobshagen. May 30, Gottfried Arnold d. at Perleberg. Feb. 27, John David Michaelis, rationalist, b. at Halle. Lutheran mission among the Finns (Laplanders). Feb. 23, Bartholomew Ziegenbalg, missionary, d. at Tranquebar. . Aug. 19, Carl Hildebrand v. Canstein d. at HaUe. 1703*1705* 1706,1707,1708,1710, i7"»17121I7M»17,7,I7i9» 1 72 1, May 3, Egede sailed for Greenland. 1722, John Winckler, hymnist, d. at Magdeburg, 1723, Palatines settled at Tulpehocken, Pa. A. " Justus Falckner d. at Claverack, N. Y. A. 1724, Dec. 9, John Gottlieb Tbllner, rationalist, b. at Char lottenburg. 1725, May 24, William Christopher Berckenmeyer ordained at Amsterdam. A. " Dec. 18, John Solomon Semler, rationalist, b. at Saalfeld. " Ernst Gottlieb Woltersdorf, hymnist, b. at Friedrichsfelde. 1726, Oct. 26, Christian Frederick Schwartz, missionary, b. at Sonnenburg. 1727, June 8, August Herman Francke d. at Halle. " Thomas v. Westen, " Apostle of Finns," d. 1728, Sept. 23, Christian Thomasius, jurist, d. at Halle. 1729, Arrival of the Stoeversin America. A. " John Franz Buddeus, theologian, d. at Jena. 1730, Paul Anton d, at Halle. 1731, Oct 31, "Emigration Patent" expeUing 14,000 Salz burgers. 1732, Joachim Justus Breithaupt, pietist, d. at Magdeburg. 1733* John Matthias Schrockh, historian, b. at Vienna. 1734, March 18, Salzburgers arrived at Charleston, S, C. A. '735> John Jacob Rambach, hymnist, d. at Giessen. 1736, Dec. 18, John George Rosenmiiller, rationalist, b. at Ummerstadt. i737f Feb. 12, Benjamin Schmolk, hymnist, d. at Schweidnitz. Ebenezer Orphanage in Georgia. A. 1739, John August Eberhard, rationalist, b. at Halberstadt. Anastasius Freylinghausen, composer, d. at Halle. 1740, Aug. 21, Rev. Erik Bj5rk d. at Fahlun, Sweden. A. " Aug. 31, John Fredenck Oberlin b. at Strassburg. 1740-1752, Walch's edition of Luther's works, 24 vols. 1741, Valentin Ernst Loscher, theologian, d. at Dresden. 1742, June 13, Muhlenberg sailed for America. A. " Sept. 24, Muhlenberg arrived at Charleston, S. C. A. '* Nov. 25, Muhlenberg arrived at Philadelphia. A. 1744, Aug. 5, John Christopher Kunze b. at Arter. A. " Joachim Lange, theologian, d, at Halle. 1745, April 22, Muhlenberg married, A. " Ernst Solomon Cyprian, theologian, d. at Gotha. 1746, Gottlieb Christian Storr b. at Stuttgart. 1748, Aug. 14, St Michael's church dedicated at Philadelphia. A. " Aug. 15, Pennsylvania Ministerium organized. A. 17^0, July 28, Johann Sebastian Bach, composer, d. at Leipzig. " Israel Acrelius arrived at WUmington, Del. A. 1751, Gottlieb Jacob Planck, historian, b. at Niirtingen. Aug, 25, WiUiam Christopher Berckenmeyer, d. at Athens,, N. Y. A. 1752, Oct. 16, John Gottfried Eichorn, rationalist, b. at Dbren- zimmem. " Nov. 2, John Albrecht Bengel, theologian, d. at Stuttgart.. 1753) Franz Volckmar Reinhard, b. at Sulzbach. 1754, Christian Wolf, theologian, d. at Halle. i755t Sept. 9, John Lorenz v. Mosheim, theologian, d, at Go tingen. 1756, Erdmann Neumeister, hymnist, d. at Hamburg. i757i Sigmund Jacob Baumgarten, theologian, d. at HaUe. 1758, Nov. 5, Hans Egede, "Apostle of Greenland," d. at Falster. 1759) April 13, Georg Frederick Handel, composer, d. at London, 1760, Christopher Matthew Pfaff d. at Giessen. 1761, Ernst Gottlieb Woltersdorf, hymnist, d. at Bunzlau. 1765, March I, Herman Samuel Reimarus, rationalist, b. at Hamburg Nov._ 15, John Martin Boltzius d. at Ebenezer, Ga. A, 1767, April 7, John Gottlieb Carpzov, theologian, d.at Liibeck. 1768, Nov. 21, Frederick Schleiermacher b, at Breslau. 1769, Philip Frederick Hiller, hymnist, d, at Steinheim, 1770, Aug. 3, Frederick William III., king of Prussia, b. R. " Sept 22, John Christopher Kunze arrived at New York. A. 1771, Hans Nielsen Hauge b. at Smaalenene, * John G. Schmucker b, at Michaelstadt. 1772, Sept. 12, John Frederick v, Meyer b. at Frankfort. 1773* Johannes Evangelista Gossner (Evangelical) b. at Hausen. 1774, Jan. 20, John Gottlieb Tbllner, rationalist, d. at Frankfort. " Carl Heinrich v. Bogatzky, hymnist, d. at Halle. i774-i778> publication of rationalistic "Wolfenbiittler Frag- mente." 1775, John George Walch, theologian, d. at Jena. 1776, Carl Gottlieb Bretschneider, rationalist, b. at Gersdorf. 1778, May 25, Claus Harms b. at Fahrstedt " Henry Gottlieb Tzschirner, rationalist, b. at Mittweida. 1780, Jan. 12, Wm. Mart. Leberecht De Wette, b. at Ulla. 1 78 1, Sept II, John August Emesti, rationalist, d. at Leipsic. 1782, Feb. 10, Frederick Christopher Oetinger, theologian, d, at Murrhardt. 1783, Sept. 16, Gottfried John Scheibel b. at Breslau. 1784, Carl Frederick Goschel, jurist, b. at Langensalza. 1786, Oct. 20, first session of New York Ministerium at Albany. 564 Appendix 1787, Oct. 7, Henry Melchior Muhlenberg d. at Providence, near Philadelphia. A. " Carl Immanuel Nitzsch b. at Boma, 1789, Jan. fj, August Neander b. at Gottingen. " G. Benedict Winer, rationalist, b. at Leipzig. 17QI, March 14, John Solomon Semler, rationalist, d. at Halle. ** Aug. 22, John David Michaelis, rationalist, d. at Got tingen. *' " Restored Lutheran Church " in Amsterdam. 1792, Andiew Gottlieb Rudelbach b. at Copenhagen. i793» July 18, Frederick Heyer, missionary, b. at Helmstedt A, '79S, Oct 15, Frederick WUliam IV. of Prussia b. 1796, Aug. 21, Herman Olshausen b. at Oldesloe. " May 10, Christian Sartorius b. at Darmstadt. 1797, May 7, Chas. PhUip Krauth, b. Montgomery Co., Pa. A. 1798, Feb. 13, Christian Frederick Schwartz, missionary, d, at Tanjore. 1709, Feb. 28, S. S. Schmucker b. at Hagerstown, Md. March 30, August Tholuck b. at Breslau. The Nineteenth Centi/ry. 1800, Jan. 21, Theodore Fliedner b, at Epsteiu. " Aug. 25, Charles Hase b. at Steinbach. 1802, Oct 20, Ernst William Hengstenberg b. at Trondenberg. " Gottfried Thomasius b. at Egenhausen. 1803, Feb. 25, H. E. F. Guericke b. at Wettin. " July 8, Garl Gutzlaff, missionary, b. at Pyritz. " Nov. 16, Ludwig Adolph Petri b. at Liithorst. " " " Henry Ewald b. at Gottingen. '^ North Carolina Synod organized. A. 1805, July 16, Christopher Blumhardt b. at Stuttgart. " Gottlieb Christian Storr d at Stuttgart, 1806, Gottfried Christian Adolf Harless b. at Nuremberg. 1807, July 24, John Christopher Kunze d. at New York. A. " Ferdinand Hitzig, rationalist, b. at Hauingen. 1808, Feb. 21. William Lohe b at Fiirth. '* April 21, John Henry Wichern b. at Hamburg. " John Matthias Schrockh, historian, d. at Wittenberg. i8og, Sept. 6, Bruno Bauer b. at Eisenberg, " John August Eberhard, rationalist, d. at HaUe. " University of Helmstadt closed by Jerome Napoleon, 1810, Jan. 18, T. F. D. Kliefoth b. at Kbrchow. " Dec 21, Conrad Hofmann b. at Nuremberg. 1811, Oct 25, C F. W. Waltherb. at Langenchur sdorf. A. 1812, Franz Volckmar Reinhard d. at Dresden. 1813, Franz Delitzsch b. at Leipzig. 1814, August Kahnis b. at Greiz. 1815, Jan. 18, Constantin Tischendorf b. at Lengenfeld. " " March 15, John George RosenmiUler, rationalist, d. at 1857, Leipzig. " " Evangelical Missionary Society founded at Basel. '858, r8i6, Theodosius Harnack b. at St. Petersburg. " " Hartwick Seminary opened. A. " 1817, Oct 31, Frederick William III. called for " Union." " Theses of Claus Harms. " 1819, May 19, William Julius Mann b. at Stuttgart. A. " 1820, Oct. 22, General Synod formed at Hagerstown, Md. A. " Maryland Synod organized. A. " Tennessee Synod organized, A. 1821, Oct. 9, William Alfred Passavant b. at ZeUenople, Pa. A. *' Danish missionary society formed. " South Carolina Synod organized. A. 1822, Union liturgy introduced in Prussia. 1823, March 17, Charles Porterfield Krauth b. at Martinsburg, Va. A. " Christopher Ernst Luthardt b. at Maroldsweissach. " Evangelical Missionary Society at Berlin. 1824, Hans Nielsen Hauge d, at Bredtoedt. 1825, West Pennsylvania Synod organized. A. 1826, June I, John Frederick OberUn d. at Steinthal, " Seminary of General Synod opened at Gettysburg, Pa. A, 1827, June 25, John Gottfried Eichhorn, rationalist, d. at Got tingen. " Aug. 26, Beale M. Schmucker b. at Gettysburg, Pa. A. 1828, Henry Gottlieb Tzschirner, rationalist, d. at Leipzig. 1829, Rhenish missionary society formed. 1830, June 25, " Union" introduced in Prussia. ' Theological department of Capital University at Colum bus, O. A. " Southem Seminary opened at Newberry, N. C, A. " Hartwick Synod, N, Y., organized. A. " Virginia Synod organized, 1831, Carl Giitzlaff, missionary, in China. 1832, Pennsylvania College founded at Gettysburg, Pa. A. 1833, "Rauhe Haus " begun at Hamburg. " Otto Zockler b. at Griinberg. " Gottlieb Jacob Planck, historian, d. at Gottingen. 1834, Feb. 12, Frederick Schleiermacher d. at Berlin. 1835, Swedish missionary society formed. 1836, Evangelical Lutheran missionary society formed at Leip zig. *' North German missionary society (not purely Lutheran) . 1836, Deaconess institution at Kaiserswerth. " East Ohio Synod organized. A. 1837, Franckean Synod, N. Y., organized. A. 1838, Lutherans migrate from Germany because of " Union," 1839, Sept. 5, Herman Olshausen d. at Erlangen. 1840, June 7, Frederick William III. of Prussia d. " WUliam Lohe educates German preachers at Neuen dettelsau. 1841, July 29, " Friends of Light," rationalistic society. " Oct, 3, " Father " Heyer consecrated as foreign mission ary. A. " Oct. 14, " Father" Heyer saUed for India. A. 1842, July 31, " Father ¦' Heyer arrived at Guntur, India. A. " Alleghany Synod organized. A. " East Pennsylvania Synod organized. A, 1843. March 21, Gottfried John Scheibel d. at Nuremberg. " Pittsburg Synod (General Synod) organized. A, 1844, Miami Synod, Ohio, organized. A. 1845, Wittenberg CoUege, Springfield, O., organized. A, " Pittsburg Synod (General Council) organized. A, 1846, Southwestern Virginia Synod organized. " Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., founded. A. 1847* April 26, Missouri Synod founded at Chicago, III. A. " Frederick William IV. issued " Patent of Tolerance." " Wittenburg Synod, Ohio, organized. A. 1848, Cari Gottlieb Bretschneider d. at Gotha. " Olive Branch Synod, Indiana, organized. A. 1849, Jan. 28, John Frederick v. Meyer d. at Frankfort. " William Lohe founded a home mission society. *' Congress for home missions at Wittenburg. " Hermannsburg missionary society. " June 16, W. M. L. De Wette d. at Basel. " Concordia College founded at Fort Wayne, Ind. A. " First deaconess brought to America by Passavant. A. 1850, July 14, August Neander d. at Berlin. '* Capital University, Columbus, O., founded. A. " Wisconsin Synod organized. A. 1851, Aug. 9, Carl Giitzlaff, missionary, d. at Hong Kong. North Illinois Synod organized. A. " Texas Synod organized. A. " William Lohe founded a society for the female diaconate, i8s3, Roanoke College, Salem, Va., founded. A. " Central Pennsylvania Synod organized. A. 1854, Aug. 4, Iowa Synod organized. A. " Wartburg Seminary, Dubuque, la., foimded, A. 1855, North Indiana Synod organized. A. " Feb. I, Claus Harms d. at Kiel. *' Iowa Synod (General Synod) organized. A. Mississippi Synod organized. A. South Illinois Synod organized. A. Ohio English District Synod organized. A. 1858, G. Benedict Winer d. at Leipzig. "^ John Evangelista Gossner (Evangelical) d. at Berlin. Theological depart ment of missionary institution at Selins grove, Pa. A. " Newberry College, Newberry, S. C, founded. A. " North Carolina College, Mt. Pleasant, N.C, founded. A. 1859, Feb. 4, Tischendorf received the " Codex Sinaiticus." ' Finnish missionary society founded. " June 13, Christian Sartorius .. at Konigsberg. i860, Augustana College, Rock Island, IU., founded. A. " Minnesota Synod organized. A. " Michigan Synod organized. A. i860, Georgia Synod organized. " Muhlenberg mission in Africa begnn. A. 1861, Jan. 2, Frederick William IV. of Prussia d. " Canada Synod organized. A. " Holston Synod organized A. " Lutheran College, Decorah, la. A. " Carl Frederick Goschel d. at Naumburg. " Aug. 10, F. J. Stahl d. at Briickenau. 1862, Andrew Gottiob Rudelbach d. at Slagelse. 1863, Sept I, C. R. Demme d.at Philadelphia. A. 1864, Oct. 4, Theodore Fliedner d. at Kaiserswerth. " Philadelphia Seminary founded. A. " Swedish Augustana Seminary, Rock Island, 111., founded. A. 1865, North Western University, Watertown, Wis., founded. A. 1866, Aug. 10, Pennsylvania Ministerium called for a Lutheran colloquy, A. « P^c. 12-14, Lutheran assembly at Reading, Pa. A. Swedish Augustana Synod organized. A, 1867, Nov 20-26, first meeting of the General CouncU. A. ^^ Muhlenberg College founded. A. '^ Central Illinois Synod organized. A. Susquehanna Synod organized. A. i868, Carl Immanue! Nitzsch d. at Berlin. " Wartburg College, Waveriy, la., founded. A. Kansas Synod founded. A. 1869, May 28, Ernst William Hengstenberg d. at Beriin. Augsburg Seminary and College, Minneapolis, Minn., founded. A. t- » » General Council took charge of Telugu mission. A. Appendix 565 1870, Carthage CoUege, Carthage, IU., founded. A. " Thiel CoUege, GreenvUle, Pa., founded. A. 1871, Indiana Synod organized, A. " Chicago Synod organized. A. 1872, Jan. 2, WiUiam Lbhe d. at Neuendettelsau. *' Synodical Conference organized. A. " New York and New Jersey Synod organized. A. 1873, Jan. 8, Ludwig Adolph Petri d. at Hanover. " July 26, S. S. Schmucker d. at Gettysburg. A. " Nov. 7, " Father " Heyer d. at PhUadelphia, Pa. A. " Concordia practical seminary founded at Springfield, 111. A, " Nebraska Synod organized. A. " " Emigrant House 'in New York begun. A. 1874, Dec. 7, Constantin Tischendorf d. at Leipzig. " Feb. 4, John Bachman d. Charleston, S. C. A. 1875, Gottfried Thomasius d. at Erlangen. " May 4, Henrjj Ewald d. at Gtittingen. " Ferdinand Hitzig, rationalist, d. at Heidelberg. 1876, Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, Minn., founded. A. " Wartburg Synod founded. A. >877» June 10, August Tholuck d. at Halle. " Dec. 20, Conrad Hofmann d. at Erlangen. " Schleswig-Holstein missionary society formed. 1878, Feb. 4, H. E. F. Guericke d. at Halle, " Seminary of Wisconsin Synod founded at MUwaukee, Wis. A. " Middle Tennessee Synod organized. A. 1879, G. C. F. Harless d. at Munich. *' Hauge's Seminary founded at Red Wing, Minn. A. " Nov, 23, C, F. Schaeffer d. PhUadelphia. A. 1880, Feb. 25, Christopher Blumhardt d. at MbttUngen. " Nov. 28, WUliam F. Lehman d. Columbus, O. 1881, April 7, John Henry Wichern d. at Hamburg. " German Seminary of General Synod founded at Chicago in. A. " Bethany College, Lindsborg, Kan., founded. A. i88j, April 13, Bruno Bauer d. at Rixdorf. " Concordia College, Conover, N. C, founded. A. 1883, Jan. 2, Charles Porterfield Krauth d. at Philadelphia. A. " June 19, James Allen Brown d. Lancaster, Pa. A. " Dec. 17, Charles A. Stork d. PhUadelphia. A. 1884, Seminary of Minnesota Synod founded at New Ulm, Minn. A. 1885, 1887, i8go,1891! 1896, 1897,i8q8, Seminary of the Michigan Synod founded at Saginaw, Mich. A. Wagner Memorial College, Rochester, N, Y,, founded. A. Oct. 27, William Sihler d. Fort Wayne, Ind. A, June 23, General Synod South organized at Roanoke, Va. A. Norwegian Seminary, Northfield, Minn,, founded. A. Neuendettelsau missionary society founded. Bavarian missionary society for East Africa founded. Midland College, Atchinson, Kan., founded. A. May 7, C. F. W. Walther d. at St. Louis, Mo. A. Mary J. Drexel, deaconess mother house at Philadel phia, Pa. A. Luther League movement begun. A. August Kahnis d. at Leipzig. English Synod of Missouri organized. A. April 19, first " Central Association" of Luther League formed. A. Oct. 15, Beale M. Schmucker d. at Pottstown, Pa. A. Theodosius Harnack d. at Dorpat. July 12, G. Fritschel d. Mendota, III. A. Jan. 3, Charles Hase d. at Jena. Chicago English Seminary founded. A. California Synod organized. A. Rocky Mountain Synod organized. A. German Nebraska Synod organized. A, English North Westem Synod organized. A. Feb. 4, T. N. Hasselquist d. Rock Island, III. A. June 20, William Julius Mann d. at Boston. A. Mission begun in Japan. A. May 30, first " State League " of Luther League organ ized. A. June 3, William Alfred Passavant d. at Pittsburg, Pa. A. Oct. 30-31, Luther League of America organized at Pittsburg, Pa. A. Oct. II, John G. Morris, d. Baltimore, Md. A. July 2, Rudolf Kbgel d. March 15, C. W. Schaeffer d. Philadelphia. Nov. 9, Emil Frommel d. Manitoba German Synod organized. April 10, Frederick W. Conrad d. Philadelphia. A. Dec. 27-29, First General Conference, officially arranged by General Council, General Synod and United Synod of the South, Philadelphia. A. LUTHERAN CALENDAR. (H. W. H.) January, 1. Ulrich ZwingU b. at WUdhaus, 1484. R, I. Caspar Cruciger b. at Leipzig, 1504. I. Chnstian Thomasius, jurist, b. at Leipzig, 1655, 2, Christian Scriver b. at Rendsburg, 1629. 2. Frederick William IV., King of Pmssia, d. i86r. R. 2. Charles Porterfield Krauth d. at Philadelphia, Pa., 1883. A. 3. Miltitz conferred with Luther at Altenburg, 1519. 3. Bull of excommunication renewed against Luther, 1521. 3. Joachim II. of Brandenburg d. at Kopenik, 1571. 3. Charles Hase d, at Jena, 1890, 6. Caspar Peucer b, at Bautzen, 1525. 6. Acts of Council of Trent confirmed by the Pope, 1564. C. 6. Sebastian Schmidt, theologian, b, at Lamperheim, 1617. 6, Balthaser Mentzer d. at Marburg, 1627. 7. Jacob Andrea d. at Tiibingen, 1590. 8, Ludwig Adolf Petri d. at Hanover, 1873. 9. Hadrian VI. elected pope, 1522. C. 9. Sebastian Schmidt, theologian, d. at Strassburg, i6g6, JO. Diet at Shires called in 1544. 12. Maximilian I. d. at Wels, Austria, 1519. C. 12. William Martin Leberecht DeWette b. at Ulla, 1780. 13. Joachim II, of Brandenburg b, 1505. 13. Philip Jacob Spener b. at Rappoltsweiler, 1635. 13. Ulrich Calixt d. at Helmstadt, 1701. 14. Second diet at Nuremberg opened, 1524. 15. Charles V. resigned Spanish crown to Philip IL, 1556. C. 16. George Spalatin d, at Altenburg, 1545, 16. Joachim Westphal d. at Hamburg, 1574. 17. Frederick, the Wise, b. at Torgau, 1463. 17. George Spalatin b. at Spalt, 1484, 17. August Neander b. at Gottingen, 1789, 18. Religious conference at Hagenau closed, 1541. j8. Theodore Frederick Detlef Kliefoth b. at Korchow, 1810. 18. Constantin Tischendorf b. at Lengenfeld, 1815. 20. Tetzel's theses read at Frankfort, 1518. C, 20. Amsdorf consecrated as bishop of Naumburg by Luther, 1542. 20. Hans Sachs, hymnist, d. at Nuremberg, 1576. 20. John Gottlieb ToUner, rationalist, d. at Frankfort, 1774. 21. Theodore Fliedner b. at Epstein, 1800. 28. Diet at Worms opened, 1521. 28. John Frederick v. Meyer d. at Frankfort, 1849, 29. Catharine v. Bora b- at Loeben, 1499, 31. Hans Egede, Apostle of Greenland, b. at Harstadt, 1686. February. I. Jerome Aleander d. at Rome, 1542. C. I. Claus Harms d. at Kiel, 1855. 2. University of Jena opened. 1558. 4, Paul Gerhardt deposed, 1667. 4. Tischendorf received the " Codex Sinaiticus," 1859, 4. Henry Ernst Ferdinand Guericke d. at HaUe, 1878. 5. Fifth diet at Augsburg opened, 1555. 5. Caspar Peucer released from prison, 1586. 566 Appendix 5. Philip Jacob Spener d. at Berlin, 1705. 7. John Funck b. at Wohrd, 15 18, 7. John Musaus, theologian, b. at Langenwiesen, 1613. 8. George Carpentarius, martyr, bumed at Munich, 1527. 8. Otto V. Pack beheaded at Brussels, 1537. C 10. John Eck d. at Ingolstadt, 1543. 10. Frederick Christopher Oetinger, theologian, d. at Murr hardt, 1782. II. August, elector of Saxony, d. at Dresden, 1586. 12. Benjamin Schmolk, hymnist, d. at Schweidnitz, 1737. 12. Frederick Schleiermacher d. at Berlin, 1834. 13. Jerome Aleander b. at Motta, 1480. C. 13. First session of the diet at Worms, 1521. 13, Christian Frederick Schwartz, missionary, d. at Tanjore, 1798. 15. Smalcald Articles, 1537. 15. John Campanius arrived at Fort Christina, Del,, 1643. 16. PhUip Melanchthon b. at Bretten, 1497. 17. John Tiemann d. at Nienburg, is57- 18, Otto V. Pack showed PhUip of Hessen copy of plot against Protestants, 1528. iS. Luther d. at Eisleben, 1546. 20. Diet at Spires, 1544. 21. iEgidius Strauch b. at Wittenberg, 1632. ai. WiUiam Lohe b. at Fiirth, 1808. 22. John Reuchlin b. at Pforzheim, 1455. 22. Luther buried at Wittenberg, 1546. 22. Polycarp Leyser d. at Dresden, 1610. 22. John Criiger, composer, d. at Berlin, 1662. 23. George Frederick Handel, composer, b. at HaUe, 1685. 23. Bartholomew Ziegenbalg, missionary, d. at Tranquebar,i7i9. 24. Charles V. b. at Ghent, 1500. 25. WaUenstein slain at Eger, 1634. C. 25, Abraham Calovius d. at Wittenberg, 1686. 25. Henry Ernst Ferdinand Guericke b. at Wettin, 1803. 25. Christopher Blumhardt d. at Mottlingeu, 1880. 26. David Chytraeus b. at Ingelfingen, 1530. 27. Anton Corvinus b. at Warburg, 1501. 27. Colloquy at Regensburg, 1546. 27. John Heermann, hymnist, d. at Lissa, 1647. 27. Balthaser Mentzer b. at Allendorf, 1565. 27. John David Michaelis, rationaUst b. at Halle, 1717. 38. Martin Bucer d. at Cambridge, 1552. March. I. Meeting of Lutheran theologians in convent at Bergen, 1577. I. Herman Samuel Reimams, rationalist, d. at Hamburg, 1765. 2. Pope Hadrian VI. b. at Utrecht, 14S9. C. 3. Matthias Flacius b. at Altona, 1520. 3. Luther left the Wartburg, 1522. 4. Philip of Hesse committed bigamy, 1540. 5. Frederick Staphylus d. at Ingolstadt, 1564. 6. Diet at Nuremberg, 1523. 6. Edict of restoration, 1629 (Thirty Years* War). 8. John Rist, hymnist, b, at Ottensen, 1607. 8. Ulrich Calixt b. at Helmstadt, 1622. 10. Ferdinand I., emperor, b. at Alcala de Henares, 1503. C, II. Council of Trent transferred to Bologna, 1547. C. II. Matthias Flacius d. at Frankfort i575- II. Salzburgers arrived in America, 1734. A. 12. Paul Gerhard b. at Graefenhainichen, 1607. 13. Lazarus Spengler, hymnist, b. at Nuremberg, 1479. 14. John Solomon Semler, rationalist d. at Halle, 1791. 15. Second Diet at Spires opened, 1529. 17. Charles Porterfield Krauth b. at Martinsburg, Va., 1823. A. 18. Polycarp Leyser b. at Winnenden, 1552. 18. Salzburgers arrived at Charleston, S. C., 1734. A. 19. George Calixt d. at Helmstadt, 1656. 21. Maurice, elector of Saxony, b. at Freiburg, 1521. 21. Colloquy at Mompelgard begun, 1586. 21. John Sebastian Bach, composer, b. at Eisenach, 1685. 21. Gottfried John Scheibel d. at Nuremberg, 1843, 22, Maximilian I., emperor, b. at Neustadt, near Vienna, 1459. C. 22. August Herman Francke b. at Lubeck, 1663. 23. Diet at Nuremberg, 1522. 23. Wolfgang of Anhalt d. at Zerbsf, 1566. 25. Jacob Andrea b. at Waiblingen, 1528. 25. Victorin Strigel imprisoned for synergistic views, 1559. 26. Luther received citation to diet at Worms, 1521. 26. Colloquy at Mompelgard ended, 1586. 28. Smalcaldic league formed, 153 1. 30. August Tholuck b, at Breslau, 1799. 31. Phuip of Hesse d. at Cassel, 1567. April. I, Sigismund I. of Poland d,, 1548. 2. Luther set out for Worms, 1521. 2, Paul Flemming, hymnist, d. at Hamburg, 1640. 4, Catharine von Bora escaped from convent at Nimptschen, 1533- 21, 22.22.23- 24. 24. 24.25.25.26.26, 27. iEgidius Hunnius d. at Wittenberg, 1603. Religious conference at Regensburg opened, 1541. Anton Corvinus b. at Hanover, 1553. Christian Scriver d. at Quedlinburg, 1693. Joachim Morlin b. at Wittenberg, 1514. Albrecht Diirer, painter, d. at Nuremberg, 1528. Frederick Myconius d. at Gotha, 1546. John Gottlieb Carpzov, theologian, d. at Lubeck, 1767, John Hinrich Wichern d. at Hamburg, 1881. Charles V. called the Diet at Augsburg, 1530. Martin Chemnitz d. at Brunswick, 1586. John Criiger, composer, b. at Grosbreesen, 1598, CoUoquy at Maulbronn, 1564. Leo. X., pope, 1513. Joachim Camerarius b. at Bamberg, 1500. Luther set outfor Heidelberg, 1518. George Frederick Handel, composer, d. at London, 1759. Bmno Bauer d. at Rixdorf, 1882. Battle on the Lech (Thirty Years' War), 1632. Luther arrived at Worms, 1521, Weinsberg captured (Peasants' War), 1525. Luther before Charles V. at Worms, 1521. Joachim Camerarius d. at Leipzig, 1574. Second Diet at Nuremberg closed, 1524. Francis Lambert d. at Marburg, 1530. Philip Melanchthon d. at Wittenbeig, 1560; First " Central Association " of Luther League formed in New York, 1888. A. Ulrich V. Hutten b. at Steckelberg, 1488. John Agricola b. at Eisenach, 1492. Protest of Spires; origin of the name "Protestant," 1529. John Bugenhagen d. at Wittenberg, 1558. Luther arrived at Heidelberg, 1518. Valerius Herberger b. at Fraustadt 1562. John Hinrich Wichem b. at Hamburg, 1808. Luther at Coburg, 1530. Henry Melchior Muhlenberg married, 1745. A, Martin Rinkart, hj^mnist, b. at EUenburg, 1586, Second Diet at Spires closed, 1529. Battle of Miihlberg (Smalcald War), 1547. John Frederick of Saxony, prisoner (Smalcald War), 1547. George Major b. at Nuremberg, 1502. BatUe at Dessau (Thirty Years' War), 1626. Colloquy at Heidelberg, 1518. Luther left Worms, 1521. Erasmus Schmidt, exegete, b. at Delitzsch, 1560. May. Franz v. Sickingen b. at Ebernburg near Kreuznach, 1481. Council of Trent reopened, 1551, C, Luther ordained priest, 1507. Hans Egede saUed for Greenland, 1721. Luther taken to the Wartburg. 1521. Magdalene, Luther's daughter, b. 1529. Evangelical Union at Anhausen (Thirty Years' War), 1608. Henry Ewald d. at Gottingen, 1875. Frederick, the Wise, d. at Castle Lochau, 1525. Frederick Christopher CEtinger, theologian, b. at Goppin gen, 1702. First Diet at Nuremberg dismissed, 1522. Franz v. Sickingen d. near Zweibriicken, 1523. Compact between Charles V. and the Pope, 1521. C. Magdeburg burned by Tilly (Thirty Years' War), 163 1. Christian Sartorius b. at Darmstadt, 1797. John Arndt d.at Celle, 1621. Nicholas Amsdorf d. at Eisenach, 1565. Battle of Frankenhausen (Peasants' War), 1525. Augsburg Interim published, 1548. Valerius Herberger d. at Fraustadt, 1627. John Ernst Goetwasser, Lutheran minister in New York, to be sent back to Holland, 165 . A. Albrecht Durer, painter, b. at Nuremberg, 1471 John Faber d. at Vienna, 1541. Peace of Lubeck (Thirty Years' War), 1629. Savonarola burned at Florence, 1498. Joachim Morlin d., 1571. Imperial councillors thrown out of window at Praeue (Thirty Years' War), i6r8. Nicolas Selnecker d. at Leipzig, 1592. WUliam Christopher Berckenmeyer ordained at Amsterdam, 1725- A. Wittenburg Concord signed, 1536, Jrhn Calvin d, at Geneva, 1564, David Chytraeus d. at Rostock, 1600, Claus Harms b. at Fahrstedt, 1778. Edict of Worms signed by Charles V., 1521. C Urbanus Rhegius d. at Celle, 1541. Bergic book or " Solida declaratio," 1577 Comer stone of " Holy Trinity," Wilmin Ernst William Hengstenberg d. at Berlin, 1869, uuiLua u&i..iaiaLlU, 1577. Holy Trinity," Wilmington, Del., laid. Appendix 567 89. Luther'sfatherd, 1530. 29. WUliam Julius Mann b. at Stuttgart, 1819. A. 30. Thomas Miinzer executed at Miihlhausen (Peasants* War), 1525. 3a Gottfried Arnold d. at Perleberg, 1714. 30. First " State League " of Luther League formed at Utica. N. Y., 1893. June. 1. John Frederick Oberlin d. at Steinthal, 1826. 2. 1547, last session of councU of Trent until 1551, 3. WUliam Alfred Passavant d. at Pittsburg, Pa., 1894. A. 5. Justus Jonas b. at Nordhausen, 1493. 5. First Diet of Spires opened, 1526. 6. Religious conference at Hagenau opened, 1540. 6. John Ernst Goetwasser, Lutheran minister in New York, arrived, 1657. A. 7. Paul Gerhardt d. at Liibben, 1676. 7. Frederick William IIL of Prussia d. 1840. R. 8. August Herman Francke d. at Halle, 1727. 9. Torgau alliance, articles signed, 1526. 10. Diet at Spires closed in 1544. 10. Valentin Weigel, mystic, d. at Zschoppau, 1588. 10, August Tholuck d. at Halle, 1877. 13. Luther married at Wittenburg, 1525. 13. Muhlenberg sailed for America, 1742. A. 13. Christian Sartorius d. at Konigsberg, 1859. 14. Bartholomew Ziegenbalg, missionary, b. at Pulsnitz, 1683. 15. BuU of excommunication against Luther, 1520. 16. William Martin Leberecht De Wette, d. at Basel, 1849. ao. Diet at Augsburg opened, 1530. 20. Ban against Philip of Hessen, 1546. 20. WUUam Julius Mann d. at Boston, 1892. A. 23. Religious peace of Nuremberg, 1532. 23. General Synod South (United Synod) at Roanoke, Va., 1886. A. 24. John Bugenhagen b. at WolUn, 1485. 24. John Brenz b. at Weilderstadt, 1499. 24. John Mathesius, preacher, b. at Rochlitz, 1504. 24, John Albrecht Bengel, theologian, b. at Winnenden, 1687. 35. Augsburg Confession, 1530. 25. Book of Concord published, 1580, 25. Union of Lutheran and Reformed churches introduced into Prussia, 1830. 26. Victorin Strigel d. at Heidelberg, 1569. 27. Leipzig disputation opened, 1519. ^ 27. £ck disputed with Carlstadt at Leipzig, 1519. 27. John Valentin Andrea d. at Stuttgart, 1654. 28. Charles v., emperor, 1519. C. 30. John the Constant, of Saxony, b, at Meissen, 1468. \ 30. John Frederick of Saxony b. at Torgau, 1503. 30. Reuchlin d. at Liebenzell, 1523. 30. Luther's mother d., 1531. July. I. Henry Voes and John Esch, martyrs, bumed at Brussels, T523- 2. " Glora. Dei" dedicated at Philadelphia, Pa., 1700. A. 3. End of disputation between Eck and Carlstadt at Leipzig, 4. John Tetzel d. at Leipzig, 1519. C. 4. Luther began to dispute with Eck at Leipzig, 1519, 4. Gustavus Adolphus landed at Usedom (Thirty Years' War), T630. 4. " Holy Trinity," WUmington, Del., consecrated, 1699. A. 6. Regensburg (Ratisbon) convention (Catholic), 1524. C. 8. Carl Giitzlaff, missionary, b, at Pyritz, 1803. 9. Ferdinand II. , emperor, b. at Graz, 1578. C. 10. John Calvin b. at Noyon, 1509. R. II. Maurice, elector of Saxony, d. at Sievershausen, 1553. II. Nicolas Hunnius, theologian, b. at Marburg, 1585. II. Catholic league (Thirty Years' War), 1609. C. II. " Majestatsbrief " (Thirty Years' War), 1609. 12. Erasmus d.at Basel, 1536. C. August Neander d. at Berlin, 1850. Luther's sharp reply to Henry VIII. of England, 1522. End of Leipzig disputation, 1519. Christopher Blumhardt b. at Stuttgart, 1805. Luther entered Augustinian cloister at Erfurt, 1505. " Father" Frederick Heyer b. at Helmstadt, 1793. A. John Christopher Kunze d. at New York, 1807. A. Cajetan b. at Gaeta, 1470. C. John Caspar Schade d. at Berlin, 1698. Solomon Glassius, theologian, d. at Gotha, 1656. Religious conference at Hagenau closed, 1540, John Sebastian Bach, composer, d. at Leipzig, 1750. Religious conference at Regensburg closed, 1541. " Friends of Light," rationalistic society, 1841. August elector of Saxony, d. at Freiberg, 1526. " Father" Frederick Heyer arrived at Guntur, India, 1842. A. August. I. Wolfgang of Anhalt b. at Kothen, 1492, 2. Treaty of Passau, 1552. 2. Colloquy between Flacius and Strigel at Weimar, 1560. ,3. Catholic conf utation to Augsburg Confession read, 1530. C 3. Frederick WUliam IIL, Kmg of Prussia, b. 1770. R. 4. John August Emesti, rationalist, b. at Tennstadt, 1707, 5. John Christopher Kunze b. at Artern, 1744. A. 9. Cajetan d. at Rome, 1534. C. g. Carl Giitzlaff, missionary, d. at Hong Kong, 1851. 10. Philip Nicolai, hymnist, b. at Mengeringhausen, 1556. 10, Pennsylvania Ministerium called for Lutheran colloquy, 1866. A. n. Jacob Fabritius's farewell at New York, 1671. A. II. Bemardus Arensius installed at New York, 1671. A. 12. Paul Speratus d. at Marienwerder, 1551. 13. George III., of Anhalt, b. at Dessau, 1507. 14. " St. Michaels " dedicated at Philadelphia, Pa., 1748. A. 15. Baron C. H. v. Canstein b. at Lindenburg, 1667. 15. Pennsylvania Ministerium organized at Philadelphia, 1748. A. 16. John the Constant d. at Schweinitz, 1532, 16. Leonard Kayser, martyr, bumed at Passau, 1532, 17. John Valentin Andrea b. at Herrenberg, 1586. 18. Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia) d. of poison, 1503. C. 19. Maximilian I. became emperor, 1493. C. 19. Baron C. H. v, Canstein d. at Halle, 1719. 20. John Gerhard, dogmatician, d. at Jena, 1637. 21. Rev. Eric Bjork d. at Fahlun, Sweden, 1740. A. 21, Herman Olshausen b. at Oldesloe, 1796. 22. John David Michaelis, rationalist, d.at Gottingen, 1791. 25. William Christopher Berckenmeyer d. at Athens, N. Y., 1751- A. 25. Charles Hase b, at Steinbach, 1800. 26, Frederick the Wise became elector of Saxony, 1486. 26. Alexander VL (Borgia) became pope, 1492. C. 26. Ferdinand II. chosen emperor at Frankfort, 1619. C. 26. Beale M. Schmucker b. at Gettysburg, 1827. A. 27. Frederick Staphylus b. at Osnabriick, 1512. 27. First Diet at Spires closed, 1526. 27. Charles V. resigned the imperial crown, 1556. C. 27. Battle of Lutter (Thirty Years' War), 1626. 29. Ulrich v. Hutten d. on Island of Ufnau, Zurich, 1523. \ 30, Wolfgang Musculus d. at Berne, 1563. R. 31. John Rist, hymnist, d, at Wedel, 1667. 31, John Frederick Oberlin b. at Stiassburg, 1740. September. I. Luther's apology to Henry VIII. of England, 1525. I. Second Diet at Augsburg opened, 1547. 4. Swedish Lutheran church dedicated at Tinicum, 1646, A. 5. Gottfried Amold b. at Annaberg, 1665. 5. Herman Olshausen d. at Erlangen, 1839. 6. Henry Melchior Miihlenberg b. at Eimbeck, 171 1. A. 6. Bruno Bauer b. at Eisenberg, 1809. 7. Lucas Osiander d. at Stuttgart, 1604. 7. Reorus Torkillus d. at Wilmington, Del., 1643. A. 8. Wolfgang Musculus b. at Dienze, 1497. R. 9. John Lorenz v. Mosheim, theologian, d. at Gottingen, 1755. II. John Brenz d. at Stuttgart 1570. II. John August Ernesti, rationalist, d. at Leipzig, 1781. 12. John Frederick v. Meyer b. at Frankfort, 1772. 14. Pope Hadrian VI, d. at Rome, 1523. C. 14. Albrecht Wenzel WaUenstein b. at Hermanic, Bohemia, 1583. c, 16. Gottfried John Scheibel b. at Breslau,_i783. 17. Caspar Tauber, martyr, beheaded at Vienna, 1524. 17. Charles V, entered monastery at San Yuste, 1556. C. 17. Battle of Breitenfeld (Thirty Years' War), 1631. 17. John Campanius d. in Sweden, 1683. A. 17. Andrew Rudmann d. at Philadelphia, 1708. A. 20, Luther's daughter Magdalene d. aged 14, 1542. 21. Charles V., emperor, d. at San Yuste, 1558. C. 22. "Apology" offered to Charles V., 1530. 22. Diet at Augsburg closed, 1530. 22. John Agricola d. at Berlin, 1566. 22. Erasmus Schmidt, exegete, d, at Wittenberg, 1637. 22. John Christopher Kunze arrived at New York, 1770. A. 23. ChrKtian Thomasius, jurist d. at Halle, 1728. 24. Battle of Wittstock (Thirty Years' War), 1636. 24. Muhlenberg arrived at Charleston, S. C , 1742. A. 25. Pope Clement VIL d. at Rome, 1534. C. 25. Religious peace of Augsburg pubUshed, 1555. 25. TUemann Heshusius d, at ilelmstadt, 1588. 25. Caspar Peucer d. at Dessay, 1602. 26. John Gottlieb Carpzov, theologian, b. at Dresden, 1679. 28. Clarenbach and Flysteden, martyrs, burned at Cologne, 1529. October. I. Marburg colloquy opened, 1529. 568 Appendix 3. Marburg colloquy closed, 1529. 3. "Father*' Heyer consecrated as foreign missionary, 1841. A. 4. Lucas Cranach, painter, b. at Cronach, 1472. 4. Theodore Fliedner d. at Kaiserswerth, 1864, 4, Philadelphia Seminary opened, 1864, 5, Paul Flemming, hymnist, b, at Hartenstein, 1609, 7, Luther arrived at Augsburg to meet papal delegate, 1518. 7. Henry Melchior Muhlenberg d. at Providence, near PhUa delphia, 1787. A, 8, John Mathesius, preacher, d, at Joachimsthal, 1565. 8. Henry Schiitz, composer, b. at Kbstritz, 1585. 8. Lutherans at New York petitioned for a pastor, 1649. A. g. Justus Jonas d. at Eisfeld, 1555. 9, Nicolas Crell executed at Dresden, 1601. 9. John Lorenz v. Mosheim, theologian, b. at Lubeck, 1694. 9. WiUiam Alfred Passavant b. at Zelienople, Pa., 1821. A. 10. John Friedrich Starck b. at Hildesheim, 1680. II. Ulrich Zwingli d. at Cappel, 1531. R. II John Heermann, hymnist, b. at Raudten, 1585. 12. Luther before Cajetan at Augsburg, 1518. 12. Miltitz conferred with Luther at Lichtenberg, 1520. 14. " Father" Heyer sailed for India, 1841. A. 15. Frederick WiUiam IV. of Prussia b. 1795. R. 15. Beale M. Schmucker d. at Pottstown, Pa., 1888. A. 16. Convention at Schwabach, 1529. 16. Lucas Cranach, painter, d. at Weimar, 1553. J7. Andrew Osiander d. at Konigsberg, 1552. 17. Casper Hedio d. at Strassburg, 1552. R. 17. George III. of Anhalt d. at Merseburg, 1553. 17. John Gerhard, dogmatician, b. at Quedlinburg, 1582. 18. Luther became doctor of divinity, 1512. 20. First session of New York Ministerium, 1786, A, 20, Ernst William Hengstenberg b. at Frbndenberg, 1802. 21. John Wigand d. 1587. 22. Charies V. crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1520, 22. General Synod formed at Hagerstown, Md., 1820, 23. Leonhard Hutter, dogmatician, d. at Wittenberg, 1616. 24. Peace of Westphalia (Thirty Years' War), 1648. 25. Philip Melanchthon, professorofGreekatWittenberg,i5i8. 25. Charles V. resigned Netherland's crown at Brussels, 1555. C. 25. C. F. W. Walther b. at Langenchursdorf, 1811. 26. Philip Nicolai, hymnist, d. at Hamburg, 1608. 26. Christian Frederick Schwartz, missionary, b. at Sonnenberg, 1726, 28. Erasmus b. at Rotterdam, 1465. C. 28. John Funck executed at Kneiphof, 1566. 30. August Pfeiffer, theologian, b. at Lauenburg, 1640, 30-31. Luther League of America organized at Pittsburg, Pa., 1895. A. 31. Luther's 95 Theses against indulgences, 1517. 31, " Emigration Patent" expeUing 14,000 Salzburgers, 1731. 31, Frederick William III. of Prussia calledfor "Union," 1817. 31. Claus Harms' Theses against Rationalism, 1817, November. I. Erhard Schnepf b. at Heilbronn, 1495, I, First evangelical mass in Brandenburg, 1539. I. Erhard Schnepf d. at Jena, 1558. 2. John Albrecht Bengel, theologian, d.at Stuttgart, 1752. 3. Tilemann Heshusius b. at Wesel, 1527. 4. Magdeburg capitulated to Maurice of Saxony, 1551, 5. Hans Sachs, hymnist, b. at Nuremberg, 1494. 5. Hans Egede, apostle of Greenland, d, at Falster, 1758. 6, Ulrich of Wuertemberg d,, 1550. 6. Henry Schiitz, composer, d. at Dresden, 1672. 7. Lazarus Spengler d. at Nuremberg, 1534. 7. " Father " Heyer d. at Philadelphia, Pa., 1873. A. 8. Paul Eber, hymnist, b. at Kissingen, 1511. 8. Battle of Weissenberg (Thirty Years' War), 1620. 9. Martin Chemnitz b. at Treuenbrietzen, 1522. 10. Luther b. at Eisleben, 1483. II. Luther baptized at Eisleben, 1483, 13. Johu Eck (Maier)j b. at Eck, Suabia, 14S6, C. 15. John Martin Boltzius d. at Ebenezer, Ga., 1765. A. 16. Battle of Liitzen (Thirty Years' War), 1632. 16. Gustav Adolph slain at Liitzen, 1632. 16. Ludwig Adolf Petri b. at Liithorst, 1803. 36. Henry Ewald. rationalist, b. at Gottingen, 1803, 17, Jacob Bohme, theosophist, d, at Gorlitz, 1625, 19. Clement VII. became pope, 1523, C. 20-26, First meeting of General Council at Fort Wayne, Ind,, 1867. A. 2T, Frederick Schleiermacher b, at Breslau, 1768. 23. Philip of Hesse b. at Marburg, 1504. 24, John CEcolampadius d. at Basel, 1531, R. 24. Justus Falckner ordained in Philadelphia, 1703. A. 25. Muhlenberg arrived at Philadelphia, 1742, A. 25. Religious conference at Worms opened, 1540. 28. George Major d. at Wittenberg, 1574, December. I. Pope Leo X. d., 1521. C. 3. Nicolas Amsdorf b. at Torgau, 1483. 4. Last session of the Council of Trent, 1563. C. 7. Constantin Tischendorf d. at Leipzig, 1874. 8. Martin Rinkart, hymnist b. at Eilenburg, 1649. 9. Gustavus Adolphus b. at Stockholm, 1594. 9, John Gottlieb Tbllner, rationaUst, b. at Charlottenburg, 1724- . . 10 Luther bumed bull of excommunication, 1520. 10. Henry Miiller v. Ziitphen, martyr, bumed at Heide, 1524. 10. Mathias Flacius deposed for Manichaeism, 1561. II. Pope Leo X. b. at Florence, i475- C. 12-14. Lutheran assembly held at Reading, Pa., 1866. A, 13. Paul Speratus, hymnist, b. at Rothlen, 1484, 13. First diet at Nuremberg reconvened, 1522, 13. Council of Trent opened, 1545. C. 14, George Calixt b. at Medelbye, 1586. 15. Nicolas Selnecker b. at Hersbruck, 1530. 16. Lucas Osiander b. at Nuremberg, 1534* 16. Paul Eber d. at Wittenberg, 1569. 17. Charles A. Stork d., Philadelphia, 1883. A, 18. Veit Ludwig v. Seckendorf, historian, d. at Halle, 1692. 18. John Solomon Semler, rationalist, b. at Saalfeld, 1725. 19. Andrew Osiander b. at Gunzenhausen, 1498. 20. Luther's wife d. at Torgau, 1552. 20. Veit Ludwig V. Seckendorf, historian, b. near Bamberg, 1626. 20. Conrad Hofmann d. at Erlangen, 1877. 21. jEgidius Hunnius b, at Winnenden, 1550. 21. Benjamin Schmolk, hymnist, b. at Braunchitschdorf, 1672. 21. Conrad Hofmann b. at Nuremberg, 1810. 22, Leipzig interim adopted, 1548. 22. Herman Samuel Reimarus, rationalist, b. at Hamburg, 1694. 25. Andrew Rudolf Carlstadt d. at Basel, 1541. 26. Frederick Myconius b. at Lichtenfels, 1490, 26. Victorin Strigel b. at Kaufbeuren, 1514. 27. John Arndt b. at Ballenstadt, 1555. 28, John Staupitz d. at Salzburg, 1524, C, 29. First General Conference adjourned, Philadelphia, 1898, A INDEX OF CONTRIBUTORS. Names arranged alphabetically according to first initials. A. C. B., . A.E. F., . A. E. W., . A. G. T., . A. G. v., . A. F. E., . A. L. G., . A. L. S., . A. L. Y., . A.M., . . A. O. B., . A. P. F., . A. S., . . A. S. H., . B. F., . . . . B. F. G., . . . B. P B. S., . . . . C. A. B., . . . C. A. M., . C. A. S., . C. E. H., . C. E. Hpt., C. E. K., . C. E. L., . C. F. O., . C. G., . . C. L. F., . C. M. J., . C. S. A., . C. W. F., . D. H. B., . . . D. L. R., . . . D. M. G E. A. F E. A. M., . E. B., . . E. F. B., . E. F. E., . E. P. M., . A. Prof. A. C. Burgdorf, St. Louis, Mo. Rev. August E. Frey, . Brooklyn, N. Y. Rev. A. E. Wagner, ... Topeka, Kan. Prof. A. G. Tuve, Canton, S. Dak. Prof. Andrew G. Voight, D. D Wilmington, N. C Rev. A. F. Ernst Watertown, Wis. Prof. August L. Graebner. . St. Louis, Mo. Rev. August L. Steimle, Brooklyn, N. Y. Rev. Adolphus L. Yount, D. D .... Greensburg, Pa. Prof. A. W. Meyer, Winfield, Kan. Rev. A. O. Bersell, Ph. D., Rock Island, 111. Rev. A. P. Fors, Geneseo, 111. Prof. Adolph Spaeth, D. D., LL.D., Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. Arthurs. Hardy East Schodack, N. B. Ban- Ferree, Esq New York, N. Y. Rev. B. F, Grenoble Constantine, Mich. Rev. Bernhard Pick, Ph. D., D.D Albany, N. Y. Prof. Benj a,min Sadtler, D. D Baltimore, Md. c. Rev. Carl A. Blomgren, Ph. D Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. C. Armand Miller New York, N. Y. Prof. Carl A. Swensson, Ph. D., Lindsborg, Kan. Rev. Charles E. Hay, D.D. , Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. C. Elvin Haupt, Lancaster, Pa. Rev. Charles E. Keller Akron, O. Prof. Conrad E. Lindberg, D. D Rock Island, 111. Rev. Charles F. Oehler, . Sacramento, Cal. Rev. Charles Gausewitz Owatonna, Minn. Rev. Charles L. Fry, Lancaster, Pa. Rev. Charles M. Jacobs, Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. Charles S. Albert, D. D., Philadelphia, Pa. Prof. C. W. Foss, Ph. D Rock Island, 111. D. Prof. David H. Bauslin, D. D Springfield, O. Rev. D. Luther Roth, Butler, Pa. Rev. David M. Gilbert, D. D Harrisburg, Pa. E. Rev. Erik. A. Fogelstroem, Omaha, Neb. E. Augustus Miller, Esq Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. Edmund Belfour, D. D., Pittsburg, Pa. Prof. Edward F. Bartholomew, D. D., Rock Island, 111. E. F. Eilert, Esq., New York, N. Y. Rev. Edward F. Mohldehnke, D. D New York, N. Y. 569 570 Index of Contributors E. G. L., . E. T- W., . . . E. T. H., . . . F. A. K., . . . F. B. F. D. A., . F. T- B., . F. T. F. S., F. K. 1 • • F. L. F. Lo F. V. N. P., F. W S., . F. W w., G. B. c, . . . G. C. F. H., G. F. S., . G. H G.,. G. H S., . G. H. T., . G. G. G. T. F., . G. S., G. U. W., . G. W. M., H B. W., . . . H. E. J H H A H L. B., . . . H M M. R., . H R H R G., . . H S. w H W . H., . . H w . McK., . H w . R., T. A. C, T. A. K., T. A. M. Z., . T. A. s.. J. A. Sng., . |. A. W. T. A. W. K., . J. B. , J. Bel., . T. B. G., T. B. R., T. C. B., ¦T-C. ,T., T. D. D. I.E. W. T- P , T. Fr T.F. B., T-F. C, T. G. B., J.G. M. H., Prof. E. G. Lund, D. D., Minneapolis, Minn. Prof. Edmund J. Wolf, D. D Gettysburg, Pa. Rev. Edward T. Horn, D. D., Reading, Pa. F. Rev. Frederick A. Kaehler, D. D Buffalo, N. Y. Rev. Fried. Beer, Winnipeg, Man. Rev. Frank D. Altman, D. D., Atchison, Kan. Rev. Frederick J. Bergman Gardar, N. Dak. Rev. F. J. F. Schantz, D. D Meyerston, Pa. Rev. F. Kuegele, Koiner's Store, Va. Prof. Franz Lutz, Waverly, la. Rev. F. Lochte, Waseca, Minn. Prof. Franklin V. N. Painter, D. D., Salem, Va. Prof. Frederick W. Stellhorn, D. D., Columbus, O. Rev. Frederick W. Weiskotten, Philadelphia, Pa. G. Rev. George C. Cromer Litchfield, 111. Rev. George C. F. Haas, New York, N. Y. Prof. George F. Spieker, D.D. , Philadelphia, Pa. Prof. George H. Gerberding, D. D., Chicago, 111. Rev. George H. Schodde, Ph. D., Columbus, O. Rev. George H. Trabert, D. D., Minneapolis, Minn. Rev. George A. Genzmer Asbury Park, N. J. Prof. George J. Fritschel, D. D., Loganville, Wis. Prof. George Sverdrup Minneapolis, Minn. Rev. George I J. Wenner, D. D., New York, N. Y. Rev. George W. Mechling, D. D., Lancaster, O. H. Rev. Henry B. Wile, D. D., Carlisle, Pa. Prof. Henry E. Jacobs, D. D., LL.D., Philadelphia, Pa. Prof. H. H. Aaker, Moorhead, Minn. The late Prof. H. Louis Baugher, D. D. Gettysburg, Pa. H. M. Muhlenberg Richards, Esq., Reading, Pa. Rev. H. Rembe Desboro, Ont., Can. Rev. Henry R. Grabau, Williamsville, N. Y. Rev. Henry S. Wingard, D. D Springfield, Ga. Rev. Hugo W. Hoffmann Brooklyn, N. Y. Prof. Harvey W. McKnight, D. D., LL.D Gettysburg, Pa. Prof. H. W. Roth, D. D Chicago, 111. J. Prof. Jacob A. Clutz, D. D Atchison, Kan. Rev. J. Alfred Koser Sioux City, la. Rev. John A. M. Ziegler, Ph. D Louisville, Ky. Rev. Joseph A. Seiss, D.D., LL.D., L.H.D Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. John A. Singmaster, D. D AUentown, Pa. Rev. John A. Waters Jumonville, Pa. Rev. John A. W. Kirsch Buffalo, N. Y. Rev. Jon Bjarnason Winnipeg, Man., Can. Rev. J. Belsheim Christiana, Norway. Prof. James B. Greiner, . Rural Retreat, Va. Rev. Junius B. Remensnyder, D. D., New York, N. Y. Rev. James C. Barb, D. D Caney Branch, Tenn. Rev. Jens C. Jenssen, Clinton, Wis. Prof. Julius D. Dreher, D. D Salem, Va. Rev. John E. Whitteker Philipsburg, Pa. Prof. John Fritschel, Clinton, la. Prof. Jacob Fry, D. D. Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. James F. Beates, Seattle, Wash. Rev. Jeremiah F. Ohl, Mus. Doc Philadelphia. Pa. Rev. John G. Butler, D. D. Washin^on, D. C. Rev. John G. M. Huisch Cairo, 111. Index of Contributors 573 J. G. T., J. H., . J. Hf., . J. H.W., J. J. s.. J- J. Y., J. K. N., . J. K. R., . J. M. R., . J. N., . J. R. D., . J- T., . J. W. B., . J. W. E., J. W. H., J. W. R., K. G., . . K. L. W., . . L. A. F L. A. v., L. B. W., L. D. R., L. H. B., L. L., . L. L. S., L. M. K., L. N.F M. B. M. F. T., . M. G. G. S., M. J. A., . M. L. W., M. M: K., . M. R., . . M. S., . . M. v., . . M. W., . M. W. H. N. F., O. C, . O. S. M., o. z., . p. A. L., P. A. P., P. M. L., P. S. v.. R. A. Y., R. C. H., R. F. W., Prof. John G. Traver Hartwick Sem., N. Y. Rev. John A. W. Haas New York, N. Y. , Prof. J. Haefner, Brenhem, Tex. . Rev. James H. Weber, D. D Sunbury, Pa. Rev. J. J. Skordalsvold Minneapolis, Minn. Rev. Jacob J. Young, D. D New York, N. Y. Prof. J. K. Nikander Hancock, Mich. Rev. John K. Reed , Oregon, 111. Prof. J. Mosheim Ruthrauff, D. D Carthage, 111. Prof. John Nicum, D. D Rochester, N. Y. Prof. Jonathan R. Dimm, D. D., Selins Grove, Pa. Rev. John Teleen Chicago, 111. Rev. J. W. Buzzard, Carson City, Col. Rev. John W. Early Reading, Pa. Rev. John W. Horine Charleston, S. C. Prof. James W. Richard, D. D Gettysburg, Pa. K. Rev. Karl Goedel Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. K. L. Wolters Utica, N. Y. L. Prof. Luther A. Fox, D. D., Salem, Va. Prof. Lauritz A. Vigness, Ottawa, 111. Prof. Luther B. Wolf, Ph. D. Guntur, India. Rev. Luther D. Reed, Allegheny, Pa. Prof. Lars H. Beck, Ph. D Roselle, N. J. Prof. Lauritz Larsen Decorah, la. Rev. Luther L. Smith Strasburg, Va. Rev. Luther M. Kuhns Omaha, Neb. Rev. Lindley N. Fleck, Stogstown, Pa. M. Prof. Meyer Brandtvig Jewel, la. Rev. M. F. Troxell, D. D Springfield, 111. Prof. Melanchthon G. G. Scherer Mt. Pleasant, N. C. Prof. M. J. F. Albrecht, Milwaukee, Wis. Rev. M. L. Wagner Vandalia, 111. Rev. Michael M. Kinard, Ph. D., Columbia, S. C. Rev. M. Ren, Rock Falls, 111. Rev. Matthias Sheeleigh, D. D Fort Washington, Pa. Prof. Milton Valentine, D. D., LL.D Gettysburg, Pa. Prof. Matthias Wahlstrom, Ph. D., St. Peter, Minn. Rev. M. W. Hamma, D. D Washington, D. C. N. . Prof. Nils Forsander, D.D. , Rock Island, HI. o. Prof. Olof Olsson, D. D., Ph. D., Rock Island, 111. Rev. O. S. Meland, Red Wing, Minn. Prof. Otto Zoeckler, D. D., Greifswald, Germany. P. Rev. Preston A. Laury, Marietta, Pa. Rev. Philip A. Peter West Batimore, O. Prof. Peter Matthias Lindberg, Rock Island, 111. Prof. P. S. Vig Blair, Neb. R. Prof. Robert A. Yoder, Hickory, N. C. Rev. Robert C. Holland, D. D., Charlotte, N. C. Prof. Revere F. Weidner, D. D., LL. D., Chicago, ni. 572 Index of Contributors S. A. H., . S. A. R., . S. B., . . S. E. G., . S. E. C, . S. F., . . S. G. D., . S. M. H., . S. P. A. L., S. P. L., . S. S., . . S. W. o.. . T. B. R., . . . T. L. S., . . T. M., . . . T. N. M., . . T. R. N., . . . V. L. C, W. A.L., . W. A. S., . W. B., . . W. D. A., . W. E. P., . W. G., . . W. H., . . W. Hp., . W. H. T. D. W. K. P., W. L., . . W. B. . W. M. B W. P., . W. S., . W. Su., W. W., Jr. s. Rev. Samuel A. Holman, D. D Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. Stephen A. Repass, D. D., AUentown, Pa. Prof. Samuel P. Breckinridge, D. D Columbus, O. Rev. S. E. Greenawalt Pindlay, O. Prof. Solomon E. Ochsenford, D.D., AUentown, Pa. Prof. Sigismund Fritschel, D. D., Dubuque, la. S. G. Domblaser Columbus, Ohio. Prof. S. M. HiU Wahoo, Neb. Rev. S. P. A. Lindahl Rock Island, IU. Prof. Simon P. Long Lima, Ohio. Rev. Samuel Schwann, Ph. D., D.D Wheeling, W. Va. Rev. Stephen W. Owen, D. D Hagerstown, Md. T. Prof. Theophilus B. Roth, D. D GreenviUe, Pa. Prof. Theodore L. Seip, D. D., AUentown, Pa. Prof. T. Mees, Ph.D., Woodville, O. Prof. Theo. N. Mohn Northfield, Minn. Rev. R. Neumaerker St. Joseph, Mo. V. Rev. Victor L. Conrad, D.D., Ph. D., Philadelphia, Pa. W. Rev. William A. Lambert Albany, N. Y. Rev. WiUiam A. Sadtler, Ph. D Chicago, IU. William Benbow, Esq., Reading, Pa. Prof. W. D. Ahl St. Paul, Minn. Rev. William E. Parsons, D. D Washington, D. C. Prof. W. Grabau Buffalo, N. Y. The late Rev. William Hull, D. D Albany, N. Y. Rev. William Hoppe, Bethlehem, Pa. Prof. W. H. T. Dau, Conover, N. C. Rev. William K. Frick Milwaukee, Wis. Rev. William Ludwig, Brooklyn, N. Y. Rev. W. M. Baum, D. D Philadelphia, Pa. Rev. William M. Baum, Jr Schoharie, N. Y. Prof. William Proehl, Dubuque, la. Prof. WiUiam Schmidt St. Paul, Minn. Rev. W. Schueltzke Springfield, IU. Prof. William Wackernagel, D. D AUentown, Pa. 3 9002 08837 7560 ' -;.. ,."'..'''i„'«*'i-"."^.-V««-""*'>'''"'/'' '¦'¦''!"'.'-I«' -- 3C?= s?GOC-r- ¦^¦?"-=^-32?3 ^'mmmS: