g&0e>n , J i_e,J fX^f'x/ /'.' T /srj-. p ffwPRT W f PfW^^S SMALLER DICTIONARY BIBLE. FOE THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND YOUNG PERSONS. By WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D. Table of Shew Bread, From the Arch of Titos. SEW EDITION. mainly tl\£ history of Noah, referring, it would seem, to Adam and his descendants principally ia relation to that patriarch. The name Adam was not confined to the father of the human race, but like homo was applicable to woman as well as man, so that we find it said in Gen. v. 2, "male and female created He them, and called their name Adam in the day when they were created." The man Adam was placed in a garden which the Lord God had planted " eastward in Eden," for the purpose of dressing it and keeping it. [Eden.] Adam was permitted to eat of the fruit of every tree in the garden but one,. which was called the " tree of the knowledge of good and evil." The prohibition to taste the fruit of this tree was enforced by the menace of death. There was also another tree wMch was called "the tree of life." Some suppose it to have acted as a kind of medicine, and that by the continual use of it our first parents, not created immortal, were pre served from death. While Adam was in the garden of Eden, the beasts of the field and the fowls of the air were brought to him to be named, and whatsoever he called every living creature that was the name thereof. Thus the power of fitly designating objects of sense was possessed by the first man, a faculty wMch is generally considered as indicating mature and extensive intellectual resources. Upon the failure of a companion suitable for Adam among the creatures thus brought to htm to be named, the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Mm, and took one of his ribs from him, wMch He fashioned into a woman and brought her to the man. At this time they are both described as being naked without the consciousness of shame. Such is the Scripture account of Adam prior to the Fall. The first man is a true man, with the powers of a man and the innocence of a child. He is moreover spoken of by St. Paul as being, "the figure of Him that was to come," the second Adam, Christ Jesus (Rom. v. 14). By the subtlety of the serpent, the woman who was given to be with Adam, was beguiled into a violation of the one command which had been imposed upon them. She took of the fruit of the forbidden tree and gave it to her husband. The propriety of its name was immediately shown in the results which fol lowed : self-consciousness was the first-fruits of sin ; their eyes were opened and they knew that they were naked. Though the curse of Adam's rebellion of necessity fell upon Mm, yet the very prohibition to eat of the tree o, life after Ms transgression was probably a ADAM 10 ADONIJAH manifestation of Divine mercy, because the greatest malediction of all would have been to have the gift of indestructible life super added to a state of wretchedness and sin. — Adam is stated to have lived 930 years. His sons mentioned in Scripture are Cain, Abel, and Seth : it is implied however that he had others. AD'AM, a city on the Jordan "be side Zaretan," in the time of Joshua (Josh. iii. 16). AD'AMAH, one of the *' fenced cities " of Naphtali, named between Chinnereth and ha-Ramah (Josh. xix. 36). ADAMANT, the translation of the Hebrew word Shamir in Ez. iii. 9 and Zech. vii. 12. In Jer. xvii. 1 it is trans lated " diamond." In these three pas sages the word is the representative of some stone of excessive hardness, and is used metaphorically. Since the Hebrews appear to have been unacquainted with the true diamond, it is very probable, from the expression in Ez. iii. 9, of "adamant harder than flint," that by Shamir is intended Emery, a variety of Corundum, a mineral inferior only to the diamond in hardness. Emery is exten sively used for polishing and cutting gems and other hard substances. AD' AMI, a place on the border of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). A'DAR, a place on the south boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 3). A'DAR. [Months.] AD'ASA, a place in Judaea, about 4 miles from Bethhoron (1 Mace. vii. 40, 45). ADDER. This word is used for any poisonous snake, and is applied in this general sense by the translators of the A. V. They use in a similar way the synonymous term asp. The word adder occurs five times in the text of the A. V. (see below), and three times in -the margin as synonymous with cockatrice, viz. Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 5. It represents four Hebrew words :— 1. 'Acshub is found only in Ps. cxl. 3, " They have sharpened their tongues like a serpent, adders' poison is under their lips." The latter half of this verse is quoted by St. Paul from the LXX in Rom. iii. 13. 'AcshUb may be represented by the Toxic oa of Egypt and North Africa.^ — 2. Pethen. [Asp,] — 3. Tsepha, or Tsiphoni, occurs five times in the He brew Bible. In Prov. xxiii. 32 it is trans lated adder, and in Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix'. 5, Jer. viii. 17, it is rendered cockatrice. From Jeremiah we learn that it was of a hostile nature, and from the parallelism of Is. xi. 8 where it is used to characterise the tribe of Dan : " Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder in the path, that biteth the horse's heels, so that Ms rider shall fall backward.*' Horned Cerastu*. The habit of lurking in tbe sand and biting at the horse's heels, here alluded to, suits the character of a well-known species of veno mous snake, and helps to identify it with the celebrated horned viper, the asp of Cleopatra (Cerastes), which is found abundantly in the dry sandy deserts of Egypt, Syria, and Arabia. The Cerastes is extremely veno mous ; Bruce compelled a specimen to scratch eighteen pigeons upon the thigh as quickly as possible, and they all died in nearly the same interval of time. AD'MAH, one of the " cities of the plain," always coupled with Zeboim (Gen. x. 19, xiv. 2, 8 ; Deut. xxix. 23 ; Hos. xi. 8). ADO'NI-BE'ZEK (lord of Bezek), king of Bezek, a city of the Canaanites. [Bezek.] This chieftain was vanquished by the tribe of Judah (Judg. i. 3-7), who cut off his thumbs and great toes, and brought him prisoner to Jerusalem, where he died. He confessed that he nad inflicted the same cruelty upon 70 petty kings whom he had conquered. ADONI'JAH (my Lord is Jehovah), the fourth son of David by Haggith, born at Hebron, while Ms father was king of Judah (2 Sam. iii. 4). After the death of his three brothers, Amnon, CMleab, and Absalom, he became eldest son ; and when his father's strength was visibly declining, put forward his pretensions to the crown. David promised Bathsheba that her son Solomon should in herit the succession (1 K. i. 30), for there was no absolute claim of primogeniture in these Eastern monarchies. Adonijah's cause was espoused by Abiathar and Joab, the famous commander of David's army. [Joab.] His name and influence secured a large it appears that the Tsiphoni was considered number of followers among the captains of even more dreadful than the Pethen.— 4. ] the royal army belonging to the tribe oJ BhephtphSn occurs only in Gen. xlix. 17, 1 Judah (comp. 1 K. i. 9, 25) ; and these, to- ADONIRAM 11 ADORATION gether with all the princes, except Solomon, were entertained by Adonijah at a great sacrificial feast held "by the stone Zoheleth, wMch is by En-rogel." [Enrogel.] Nathan and Bathsheba, now thoroughly alarmed, apprised David of these proceedings, who immediately gave orders that Solomon should be conducted on the royal mule in solemn procession to Gihon, a spring on the W. of Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxxii. 30). [Gihon.] Here he was anointed and proclaimed king by Zadok, and joyfully recognised by the people. This decisive measure struck terror into the opposite party, and Adonijah fled to sanctuary, but was pardoned by Solomon on condition that . he should " show himself a worthy man," with the threat that " if wickedness were found in him he should die" (i. 52). The death of David quickly fol lowed on these events ; and Adonijah begged Bathsheba, who as "king's mother" would now have special dignity and influence [Asa], to procure Solomon's consent to his marriage with Abishag, who had been the wife of David in his old age (1 K. i. 3). This was regarded as equivalent to a fresh attempt on the throne [Absalom ; Abner] ; and therefore Solomon ordered him to be put to death by Benaiah, in accordance with the terms of his previous pardon. ADONI'RAM (1 K. iv. 6 ; by an unusual contraction Adoram, 2 Sam. xx. 24, and 1 K. xii. 18 ; also Hadoram, 2 Chr. x. 18), chief receiver of the tribute during the reigns of David (2 Sara. xx. 24), Solomon (1 K. iv. 6), and Rehoboam (1 K. xii. 18). This last monarch sent him to collect the tribute from the rebellious Israelites, by whom be was stoned to death. ADO'NI-ZE'DEK (lord of justice), the Amorite king of Jerusalem who organised a league with four other Amorite princes against Joshua. The confederate kings having laid siege to Gibeor.j Joshua marched to the relief of Ms new allies and put the besiegers to ¦flight. The five kings took refuge in a cave at Makkedah, whence they were taken and slain, their bodies hung on trees, and then buried in the place of their concealment (Josh. x. 1-27). ADOPTION, an expression metaphorically used by St. Paul in reference to the present aaad prospective privileges of Christians (Rom. viii. 15, 23 ; Gal. iv. 5 ; Eph. i. 5). He probably alludes to the Roman custom of adoption, by wMch a person, not having children of his own, might adopt as his son one born of other parents. The effect of it was that the adopted child was entitled to the name and sacra privata of his new father, and l auked as Ms heir-at-law : while the father on his part was entitled to the pro perty of tbe son, and exercised towards him all the rights and privileges of a father. In short the relationsMp was to all intents and purposes the same as existed between a natural father and son. The selection of a person to be adopted implied a decided pre ference and love on the part of the adopter : and St. Paul aptly transfers the well-known feelings and customs connected with the act to illustrate the position of the Christianised Jew or Gentile. The Jews themselves were unacquainted with the process of adoption : indeed it would have been inconsistent with the regulations of the Mosaic law affecting the inheritance of property : the instances occasionally adduced as referring to the cus tom (Gen. xv. 3, xvi. 2, xxx. 5-9) are evi dently not cases of adoption proper. ADORA'IM, a fortified city built by Reho boam (2 Chr. xi. 9), in Judah. Adoraim is probably the same place with Adora (1 Mace. xiii. 20), unless that be Dor, on the sea- coast below Carmel. Robinson identifies it with Dura, a " large village " on a rising ground west of Hebron. ADORATION. The acts and postureB by which the Hebrews expressed adoration bear a great similarity to those still in use among Oriental nations. To rise up and suddenly prostrate the body was the most simple Adoration. Modem Egyptian. (Lane.) method ; but, generally speaking, the pros tration was conducted in a more formal manner, the person falling upon the knee and then gradually inclining the body until tbe forehead touched the ground. Such prostration was usual in the worship of Je hovah (Gen. xvii. 3 ; Ps. xcv. 6). But it was by no means exclusively used for that purpose ; it was the formal mode of receiving visitors (Gen, xviii. 2), of doing obeisanoe to one of superior station (2 Sam. xiv. 4), and of showing respect to equals (1 K. ii. 19). ADRAMMELECn 12 ADULTERY Occasionally it was repeated three times (1 Bam. xx. 41), and even seven times (Gen. xxxiii. $). It was accompanied by such acts as a kiss (Ex. xviii. 7), laying hold of the knees or feet of the person to whom tbe adoration was paid (Matt, xxviii. 9), and kissing the ground on which he stood (Ps. lxxii. 9 ; Mic. vii. 17). Similar adoration was paid to idols (1 K. xix. IS) : sometimes however prostration was omitted, and the act consisted simply in kissing the hand to the object of reverence (Job xxxi. 27), and in kissing the statue itself (Hos. xiii. 2). ADRAM'MELECH. 1. The name of an idol introduced into Samaria by the coloMsts from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31). He was worshipped with rites resembling those of Molech, children being burnt in Ms honour. The first part of the word probably means fire. Adrammelech was probably the male power of the sun, and Anammelkch, who is mentioned with Adrammelech as a com panion-god, the female power of the sun. — 2. Son of the Assyrian king Sennacherib, who, together with his brother Sharezer, murdered their father in the temple of Nis- roch at Nineveh, after the failure of the As syrian attack on Jerusalem. The parricides escaped into Armenia (2 K. xix. 37 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 21 ; Is. xxxvii. 38). The date of this event was b.c. 680. ADRAMYT'TIUM, a seaport in the pro vince of ABia [Asia], situated in the district anciently called Aeolis, and also Mysia (see Acts xvi. 7). Adramyttium gave, and still gives, its name to a deep gulf on this coast, opposite to the opening of which is the island of Lesbos. [Mitylene.] It has no Biblical interest, except as illustrating St. Paul's voyage from Caesarea in a ship belonging to this place (Acts xxvii. 2). SMps of Adra myttium must have been frequent on this coast, for it was a place of considerable traffic. The modern Adramyti is a poor village, but it is still a place of some trade and shipbuilding. A'DRIA, more "properly A'DRIAS. It is Important to fix the meaning of this word as used in Acts xxvii. 27. The word Beems to have been derived from the town of Adria, near the Po ; and at first it denoted the part of the Gulf of Venice which- is in that neigh bourhood. Afterwards the signification of the name was extended, so as to embrace the whole of that gulf. Subsequently it obtained a much wider extension, and in the apostolic age denoted that natural division of the Mediterranean which had the coasts of Sicily, Italy, Greece, and Africa for its boundaries. This definition is explicitly given by almost a contemporary of St. Paul, the geographer Ptolemy, who also says that Crete is bounded on the west by Adrias. Later writers state that Malta divides the Adriatic sea from the Tyrrhenian sea, and the isthmus of Corinth the Aegean from the Adriatic. It is through ignorance of these facts, or through the want of attending to them, that writers have drawn an argument from tMs geograpMcal term in favour of the false view which places the apostle's sMpwreck in the Gulf of Venice. [Melita.] A'DRIEL, son of Barzillai, to whom Saul- gave his daughter Merab, although he had previously promised her to David (1 Sam. xviii. 19). His five sons were amongst the seven descendants of Saul whom David sur rendered to the Gibeonites in satisfaction for- the endeavours of Saul to extirpate them (2 Sam. xxi. 8). ADUL'LAM, Apocr. Odollam, a city of Judah in the lowland or Shefelah (Josh. xv. 35) ; the seat of a Canaamte Mng (Josh. xii. 15), and evidently a place of great anti quity (Gen. xxxviii. 1, 12, 20). Fortified- by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 7), it was one of the towns reoccupied by the Jews after their re turn from Babylon (Neb., xi. 30), and still a city in the times of the Maccabees (2 Mace. xii. 38). — Adullam was probably near Deir Dub- ban, 5 or 6 miles N. of Eleutheropolis. The limestone cliffs of the whole of that locality are pierced with extensive excavations, some one of which is doubtless the " cave of Adul lam," the refuge of David (1 Sam. xxii. 1 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 13 ; I CM. xi. 15). ADULTERY. The parties to this crime were a- married woman and a man who was not her husband. The toleration of poly gamy, indeed, renders it nearly impossible to make criminal a similar offence committed by a married man with a woman not his wife. The Mosaic penalty was that both the guilty parties should be stoned, and it applied as well to the betrothed as to the married woman, provided she were free (Deut. xxii. 22-24). A bondwoman so offending was to be scourged, and the man was to make a trespass offering (Lev. xix. 20-22). At a later time, and when, owing to Gentile example, the marriage tie became a looser bond of union, public feeling in regard to adultery changed, and the penalty of death was seldom or never inflicted. Thus, in the case of the woman brought under our Lord's notice (John viii.), it is likely that no one then thought of stoning her in fact, though there remained the written law ready for the purpose of the caviller. It is likely also that a divorce, in which the adulteress lost her dower and rights of maintenance, &c, was ?he usual remedy, suggested by a wish to ADUMMIM 13 AGE avoid scandal and the excitement of com miseration for crime. The expression in St. Matthew (i. 19) "to make her a public example," probably means to bring the case before the local Sanhedrim, whioh was the usual course, but which Joseph did not pro pose to take, preferring repudiation, because that could be managed privately. The famouB trial by the waters of jealousy (Num. v. 11-29), was probably an ancient custom, which Moses found deeply seated, and which is said to be paralleled by a form of ordeal called the " red water " in Western Africa. The forms of Hebrew justice all tended to limit the application of this test. When adultery ceased to be capital, as no doubt it did, and divorce became a matter of mere convemence, it would be absurd to suppose that this trial was continued. And when adultery became common, it would have been 'impious to expect the miracle wMch it sup posed. ADUM'MIM, " the going up to " or " of," one of the landmarks of the boundary of Benjamin,, a rising ground or pass " over against Gilgal," and " on the south side of the * torrent ' " (Josh. xv. 7, xviii. 17), which Is the position still occupied by the road leading up from Jericho and the Jordan valley to Jerusalem, on the south face of the gorge of the Wady Kelt. The pass is still infested by robbers, as it was in the days of our Lord, of whose parable of the Good Samaritan tMs is the scene. AE'GYPT. [Egypt.] AE'NON, a place "near to Salim," at which John baptized (John iii. 23). It was evidently west of the Jordan (comp. iii. 22, with 26, and with i. 28), and abounded in water. This is indicated by the name, which is merely a Greek version of a Chaldee word, signifying " springs." Aenon is given in the Onomasticon as 8 miles south of Scythopolis ** near Salem and the Jordan." AERA. [Chronology.] AETHIO'PIA. [Ethiopia.] AFFINITY. [Marriage.] AG'ABUS, a Christian prophet in the apostolic age, mentioned in Acts xi. 28 and xxi. 10. He predicted (Acts xi. 28) that a famine would take place in the reign of Claudius "throughout all the world." As Greek and Roman writers used " the world *' of the Greek and the Roman world, so a Jewish writer would use it naturally of the Jewish world or Palestine. Josephus men tions a famine which prevailed in Judaea in the reign of Claudius, and swept away many of the inhabitants. TMs, in all probability, is the famine to which Agabus refers. A'GAG, possihlv the title, of the kings of Araalek, like Pharaoh of Egypt. One king of this name is mentioned in Num. xxiv. 7, and another in 1 Sam. xv. 8, 9, 20, 32. The latter was the king of the Amalekites, whom Saul spared," together with the best of the spoil, although it was the well-known will of Jehovah that the Amalekites should he extirpated (Ex. xvii. 14; Deut. xxv. 17). For this act of disobedience Samuel was com missioned to declare to Saul his rejection, and he himself sent for Agag and out him in pieces. [Samuel.] — Haman is called the Agagite in Esth. iii. 1, 10, viii. 3, 5. The Jews consider him a descendant of Agag the Amalekite, and hence account for the hatred with which he pursued their race. A'GAGITE. [Agag.] AGATE is mentioned four times in the text of the A. V. ; viz. in Ex. xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12 ; Is. liv. 12; Ez. xxvii. lfi. In the two former passages, where it is re presented by the Hebrew word shebo, it is spoken of as forming the second stone in the third row of the Mgh priest's breastplate ; in each of the two latter places the original word is cadced, by which, no doubt, is in tended a different stone. [Ruby.] — Our English agate derives its name from the Achates, on the banks of which, according ,to Theophrastus and Pliny, it was first found ; but as agates are met with in almost every country, this stone was doubtless from the earliest times known to the Orientals. It is a silicious stone of the quartz family. AGE, OLD. In early stages of civiliza tion, when experience is the only source of practical knowledge, old age has its special value, and consequently its special honours. A further motive was superadded in the case of the Jew, who was taught to consider old age as a reward for piety, and a signal token of God's favour. For these reasons the aged occupied a prominent place in the social and political system of the Jews. In private life they were looked up to as the depositaries of knowledge (Job xv. 10) : the young were ordered to rise up in their presence (Lev. xix. 32) : they allowed them to give their opinion first (Job xxxii. 4) : they were taught to regard grey hairs as a " crown of glory " and as the " beauty of old men " (Prov. xvi. 31, xx. 29;. The attainment of old age was regarded as a special blessing (Job v. 26), not only on account of the pro longed enjoyment of life to the individual, but also because it indicated peaceful and prosperous times (Zech. viii. 4 ; 1 Mace. xiv. 9 ; Is. lxv. 20). In public afi'siirs age carried v eight with it, especially in the infancy of the state : it formed under Moses the mais qualification of those who acted as the re- AGRICULTURE 14 AGRICULTURE presentatives of the people in all matters of difficulty and deliberation. The old men or Elders thus became a class, and the title gradually ceased to convey the notion of age, and was used in an official sense, like Patres, SenatoreB, and other similar terms. [Eldees.] Still it would be but natural that such an office was generally held by men of advanced age (1 K. xii. 8). AGRICULTURE. TMs, though promi nent in the Scriptural narrative concerning Adam, Cain, and Noah, was little cared for by the patriarchs. The pastoral life was the means of keeping the sacred race, whilst yet a family, distinct from mixture and locally unattached, especially whilst in Egypt. When, grown into a nation, they conquered their future seats, agriculture Bupplied a similar check on the foreign intercourse and speedy demoralisation, especially as regards idolatry, which commerce would have caused. Thus agriculture became the basis i of the Mosaic commonwealth. Taken in connexion with the inalienable character of inheritances, it gave each man and each family a stake in the soil, and nurtured a hardy patriotism. "The land is Mine" (Lev. xxv. 23) was a dictum which made agriculture likewise the basis of the theocratic relation. Thus every family felt its own life with intense keennesB, and had its divine tenure which it was to guard from alienation. The prohibition of culture in the sabbatical year formed, under this aspect, a kind of rent reserved by tbe Divine Owner. Landmarks were deemed sacred (Deut. xix. 1 4), and the inalienability of the heritage was ensured by its reversion to the owner in the year of jubilee ; ,so that only so many years of occupancy could be sold (Lev. xxv. 8-16, 23-35). The prophet Isaiah (v. 8) denounces the contempt of such restrictions by wealthy grandees, who sought to "add field to field," erasing families and depopulating districts. Eain. — The abundance of water in Pales tine, from natural sources, made it a contrast to rainless Egypt (Deut. viii, 7, xi. 8-12). Rain was commonly expected soon after the autumnal equinox. The common scriptural expressions of the "early" and the " latter rain " (Deut, xi. 14 ; Jer. v. 24 ; Hos. vi. 3; Zech. x. 1; Jam. v. 7) are scarcely confirmed by modern experience, the season of rains being unbroken, though perhaps the fall is more strongly marked at the beginmng and the end of it. Crops. — The cereal crops of constant men tion are wheat and barley, and more rarely rye and millet (?). Of the two former, to gether with the vine, olive, and fig, the use of irrigation, the plough and the harrow, mention is made in the book of Job (xxxi. 40 ; xv. 33; xxiv. 6; xxix. 19; xxxix. 10). Two kinds of cummin (the black variety called "fitches," Is. xxviii. 27), and such podded plants as beans and lentiles, may be named among the staple produce. Ploughing and Sowing. — The plough waB probably very light, one yoke of oxen usually sufficing to draw it. Mountains arid steep places were hoed (Is. vii. 25). New ground and fallows, the use of which latter was familiar to the Jews (Jer. iv. 3 ; Hos. x. 12), were cleared of stones and of thorns (Is. v. 2) early in the year, sowing or gathering from "among thorns" being a proverb for slovenly husbandry (Job v. 5 ; Prov. xxiv. 30, 31). Sowing also took place without pre vious ploughing, the seed, as in tbe parable of the sower, being scattered broadcast, and ploughed in afterwards. The soil was then brushed over with a light harrow, often of thorn bushes, la highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (Is. xxxii. 20), as in Egypt by goats. The more formal rou tine of heavy western soils must not be made the standard of such a naturally fine tilth as that of Palestine generally. During the rains, if not too heavy, or between their two periods, would be the best time for these operations ; thus 70 days before the passover was the time prescribed for sowing for the " wave-sheaf," and probably, therefore, for that of barley generally. The oxen were urged on by a goad like a spear (Judg. iii. 31). The custom of watching ripening crops and threshing floors against theft, or damage, is probably ancient. Thus Boaz Blept on the floor (Ruth iii. 4, 7). Barley ripened a week or two before wheat, and as fine harvest weather was certain (Prov. xxvi. 1 ; 1 Sam. xii. 17 ; Am. iv. 7), the crop chiefly varied with the quantity of timely rain. The pro portion of harvest gathered to seed sown was often vast, a hundredfold is mentioned, but in such a way as to signify that it was a limit rarely attained (Gen. xxvi. 12 ; Matt. xiii. 8). Sowing a field with divers seeds was forbidden (Deut. xxii. 9). Reaping and threshing. — The wheat, &c, were reaped by the sickle, or pulled up by the roots. They were bound in sheaves — a pro cess prominent in Scripture. The sheaves or heaps were carted (Am. ii. 13) to the floor — a circular spot of hard ground, probably, ai now, from 50 to 80 or 100 feet in diameter. Such floors were probably permanent, and became well known spots (Gen. 1. 10, 11; 2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 18). On these the oxen, &c, forbidden to be muzzled (Deut. xxv. 4), trampled out the grain, as we find represented on the Egyptian monuments. At a later timo AGRICULTURE 15 AHAB the Jews used a threshing sledge called morag (Is. xii. 15 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 22 ; 1 Chr.xxi. 23), probably resembling the noreg, still employed in Egypt — a etage with three rollers ridged with iron, which, aided by the driver's weight, crushed out, often injuring, the grain, as well as cut or tore the straw, which thus became fit for fodder. Lighter grains were beaten out with a stick (Is. xxviii. 27). The use of animal manure is proved frequent by such recurring expressions as "dung on the face of the earth, field," &c. (Ps. lxxxiii. 10 j 2 K. ix. 37 ; Jer. viii. 2, &c.). Tlireihing-floor. The oxen driven round theheap ; con trary to the usual custom. (Wilkinson, Theles) Winnowing.— The " shovel " and " fan " (Is. xxx. 24), the precise difference of which is doubtful, indicate the process of winnow ing — a conspicuous part of ancient husbandry Winnowing with wooden shovel. (Wilkinson, Thebes.) (Ps. xxxv. 5 ; Job xxi. 18 ; Is. xvii. 13), and important, owing to the slovenly thresh ing. Evening was the favourite time (Ruth iii. 2) when there was mostly a breeze. The " fan " (Matt. iii. 12) was perhaps a broad shovel which threw the grain up against tie wind. The last process was the shaking in a sieve to separate dirt and refuse (Am. ix. 9). Fields and floors were not commonly en closed ; vineyards mostly were, with a tower and other buildings (Num. xxii. 24 ; Ps. lxxx. 13 ; Is. v. 5 ; Matt. xxi. 33 ; comp. Judg. vi. 11). Banks of mud from ditches were also used. — With regard to occupancy, a tenant might pay a fixed money rent (Cant. viii. 11), or a stipulated share of the fruits (2 Sam. ix. 10 ; Matt. xxi. 34), often a half or a third ; but local custom was the only rule. A passer-by might eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but not reap or carry off fruit (Deut. xxiii. 24, 25 ; Matt. xii. 1).— The rights of the corner to he left, and of glean ing [Corner; Gleaning], formed the poor man's claim on the soil for support. For his benefit, too, a sheaf forgotten in carrying to the floor was to be left ; so also with regard to the vineyard and the olive-grove (Lev. xix. 9, 10; Deut. xxiv. 19). Besides there seems a probability that every third year a second tithe, besides the priests', was paid for the poor (Deut. xiv. 28, xxvi. 12 ; Am. iv. 4 ; Tob. i. 7). AGRIP'PA. [Herod.] A'GUR, the son of Jakeh, an unknown Hebrew sage, who uttered or collected the sayings of wisdom recorded in Prov. xxx. A'HAB. 1. Son of Omri, seventh king of Israel, reigned B.C. 919-896. He married Jezebel, daughter of Ethhaal king of Tyre ; and in obedience to her wishes, caused a temple to be built to Baal in Samaria itself, and an oracular grove to be consecrated to Astarte. (See 1 K. xviii. 19.) How the worship of God was restored, and the idola trous priests slain, in consequence of " a sore famine in Samaria," is related under Elijah. One of Ahab's chief tastes was for splendid architecture, which he showed by building an ivory house and several cities. Desiring to add to his pleasure-grounds at Jezreel the vineyard of his neighbour Naboth, he pro posed to buy it or give land in exchange for it ; and when this was refused by Naboth, a false accusation of blasphemy was brought against him, and not only was he himself stoned to death, but his sons also, as we learn from 2 K. ix. 26. Thereupon Elijah declared that the entire extirpation of Ahab's house was the penalty appointed for his long course of wickedness, now crowned by this atrocious crime. The execution, however, of the sen tence was delayed in consequence of Ahab's deep repentance (1 K. xxi.). — Ahab under took three campaigns against Benhadad II. king of Damascus, two defensive and one offensive. In the first, Benhadad laid siege to Samaria, but was repulsed with great Iosb AHASUERUS 16 AHAVA (1 K. xx. 1-21). Next year Benhadad again invaded Israel by way of Aphek, on the E. of Jordan. Tet Ahab's victory was so complete that Benhadad himself fell into his hands ; but wae released (contrary to the will of God as announced by a prophet) on condition of restoring all the cities of Israel which he held, and making " streets " for Ahab in Damascus ; that is, admitting into his capital permanent Hebrew commissioners, in an independent position, with special dwellings for themselves and their retinues, to watch over the com mercial and political interests of Ahab and his subjects (1 K. xx. 22-34). After this great success Ahab enjoyed peace for three years, when he attacked Ramoth in Gilead on the east of Jordan, in conjunction with Jehosha- phat king of Judah, which town ho claimed as belonging to Israel. But God's blessing did not rest on the expedition, and Ahab was told by the prophet Micaiah that it would fail. Ahab took the precaution of disguising him self, so as not to offer a conspicuous mark to the archers of Benhadad ; but he was slain by a "certain man who drew a bow at a ven ture." When he was brought to he buried in Samaria, the dogs licked up his blood as a servant was washing his chariot ; a partial fulfilment of Elijah's prediction (1 K. xxi. 19), which was more literally accomplished in the case of his son (2 K. ix. 26). 2. A lying prophet, who deceived the captive Israelites in Babylon, and was burnt to death by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxix. ill). AHASUE'RUS, the name of one Median and two Persian kings mentioned in the O. T. The following is a list of the Medo-Pcrsian kings from Cyaxares to Artaxerxes Longi- manus, according to their ordinary classical names. The Scriptural names conjectured to correspond to them are added in italics. — 1. Cyaxares, king of Media, son of Phraortes, grandson of Deioces and conqueror of Nine veh, began to reign b.c 634 : Ahasuerus. 2. Astyages his son, last king of Media, b.c. 594 : Darius the Mede. 3. Cyrus, son of his daughter Mandane and Cambyses, a Persian noble, first king of Persia, 559 : Cyrus. 4. Cambyses his son, 529 : Ahasuerus. 5. A Magian usurper, who personated Smerdis, the younger son of Cyrus, 521 : Artaxerxes. 6. Darius Hystaspis, raised to the throne on the overthrow of the Magi, 521 : Darius. 7. Xerxes his son, 485: Ahasuerus. 8. Arta xerxes Longimanus (Macrocheir), his son, 465-495 : Artaxerxes. — 1. In Dan. ix. 1, Ahasuerus is said to be the father of Darius the Mede. Now it is almost certain that Cy axares is a form of Ahasuerus, grecised into Axares with the prefix Cy or Kai. The son it this Cyaxares was Astyages, and it is no improbable conjecture that Darius the M«da was Astyages, set over Babylon as viceroy by his grandson Cyrus, and allowed to live there in royal state. [Darius.] This first Ahasu erus, then, is Cyaxares, the conqueror of Nineveh. And, in accordance with this viewr we read in Tobit xiv. 15 that Nineveh was taken by Nabuchodonosor and Assuerus, i. e. Cyaxares. — 2. In Ezr. iv. 6 the enemies of the Jews, after the death of Cyrus, desirous to frustrate the building of Jerusalem, send accusations against them to Ahasuerus king of Persia. This must be Cambyses. He was plainly called after his grandfather, who was not of royal race, and therefore it is very likely that he also assumed the kingly name or title of Cyaxares, which had been borne by his most illustrious ancestor. — 3. The third is the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther. Hav ing divorced his queen Vashti for refusing to appear in public at a banquet, he married, four years afterwards, the Jewess Esther, cousin and ward of Mordecai. Five years after this, Haman, one of his counsellors, having been slighted by Mordecai, prevailed upon the king to order the destruction of all the Jews in the empire. But before the day appointed for the massacre, Esther and Mor decai overthrew the influence which Haman had exercised, and so completely changed hia feelings in the matter, that they induced him to put Haman to death, and to give the Jews the right of self-defence. This they used so vigorously, that they killed several thousands of their opponents. This Ahasuerus is pro bably Xerxes (the names being identical) : and this conclusion is fortified by the resem blance of character, and by certain chrono logical indications. As Xerxes scourged the sea, and put to death the engineers of his bridge because their work was injured by a storm, so Ahasuerus repudiated his queen Vashti because she would not violate the de corum of her sex, and ordered the massacre of the whole Jewish people to gratify the malice of Haman. In the third year of the reign of Xerxes was held an assembly to ar range the Grecian war. In the third year of Ahasuerus was held a great feast and as sembly in Shushan the palace (Esth. i. 3). In the seventh year of his reign Xerxes re turned defeated from Greece, and consoled himself by the pleasures of the haram. In the seventh year of his reign " fair young virgins were sought" for Ahasuerus, and he replaced Vashti by marrying Esther. The tribute he " laid upon the land and upon the isles of the sea" (Esth. x. 1) may well have been the result of the expenditure and ruin of the Grecian expedition. AH'AVA, a place (Ezr. viii. 15), or a river AHAZ 17 AHIMAAZ (viii. 21), on the hanks of which Ezra col lected the second expedition which returned with him from Babylon to Jerusalem. Per haps it is the modern Sitt on the Euphrates, due east of Damascus. A'HAZ, eleventh king of Judah, son of Jo tham, reigned 741-726. At the time of his accession, Rezin king of Damascus and Pekah king of Israel had recently formed a league against Judah, and they proceeded to lay siege to Jerusalem, Upon this Isaiah hastened to give advice and encouragement to Ahaz, and it was probably owing to the spirit of energy and religious devotion which he poured into his counsels, that the allies failed in their attack on Jerusalem (Is. vii. viii. ix.). But the allies inflicted a most severe injury on Judah by the capture of Elath, a flourishing port on the Red Sea ; while the Philistines invaded the W. and S. (2 K. xvi. ; 2 Chr. xxviii.). The weakminded and helpless Ahaz sought deliverance from these numerous troubles by appealing to Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, who freed him from his most formidable enemies by invading Syria, taking Damascus, killing Rezin, and depriving Israel of its Northern and trans-Jordanic districts. But Ahaz had to purchase this help at a costly price : he became tributary to Tiglath-pileser, sent him all the treasures of the Temple and his own palace, and even appeared before him in Damascus as a vassal. He also ventured to seek for safety in heathen ceremonies ; making his son pass through the fire to Mo- lech, consulting wizards and necromancers ' (Is. viii. 19), sacrificing to the Syrian gods, introducing a foreign altar from Damascus, and probably the worship of the heavenly bodies from Assyria and Babylon ; and " The altars on the top (or roof) of the upper cham ber of Ahaz " (2 K. xxiii. 12) were connected with the adoration of the stars. AHAZI'AH. 1. Son of Ahab and Jezebel, eighth king of Israel, reigned b.c. 896-895. After the battle of Ramoth in Gilead, in which Ahab perished [Ahab], the vassal king of Moab refused his yearly tribute of 100,000 lambs and 100,000 rams with their wool (comp. Is. xvi. 1). Before Ahaziah could take measures for enforcing his claim, he was seriously injured by a fall through a lattice in his palace at Samaria. In Mb health he nad worshipped his mother's gods, and now he sent to inquire of the oracle of Baalzehub in the Philistine city of Ekron whether he should recover bis health. But Elijah, who now for the last time exercised the prophetic office, rebuked him for this impiety, and an nounced to him his approaching death. The only other recorded transaction of his reign, his endeavour to join the king of Judah in Sh. D. £ trading to Ophir, is related under Jehosba- phat (1 K. xxii. 49-53 ; 2 K. i. ; 2 Chr, xx. 35-37).— 2. Fifth king of Judah, son of Je- horam and Athaliah (daughter of Ahab), and therefore nephew of the preceding Ahaziah, reigned one year, b.c. 884. He is called Azariah, 2 Chr. xxii. 6. probably by a copy ist's error, and Jehoahaz, 2 Chr. xxi. 17. He was 22 years old at his accession (2 K. viii. 26 ; his age, 42 in 2 Chr. xxii. 2, is also a copyist's error). Ahaziah was an idolater, and he allied himself with his uncle Jehoram king of Israel, brother and successor of the preceding Ahaziah, against Hazael, the new king of Syria. The two kings were, however, defeated at Ramoth, where Jehoram was severely wounded. The revolution carried out in Israel by Jehu under the guidance of Elisha broke out while Ahaziah was visiting his uncle at Jezreel. As Jehu approached the town, Jehoram and Ahaziah went out to meet him ; the former was shot through the heart by Jehu, and Ahaziah was pursued and mortally wounded. He died when he reached Megiddo. AHI'AH or AHI'JAH. 1. Son of Ahitub, grandson of Phinehas, and great-grandBon of Eli, succeeded his father as high-priest in the reign of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18). Ahiah is probably the same person as Ahimelech the son of Ahitub ; though he may have been his brother. 2. A prophet of Shiloh (1 K. xiv. 2), hence called the Shilonite (xi. 29), in the days of Solomon and of Jeroboam king of Israel, of whom we have two remarkable prophecies extant: the one in 1 K. xi. 31-39, addressed to Jeroboam, announcing the rend ing of the ten tribes from Solomon ; the other in 1 K. xiv. 6-16, delivered in the prophet's extreme old age to Jeroboam's wife, in which he foretold the death of Abijah, the king's son, who was sick, and the destruction of Jeroboam's house on account of the images which he had set up. Jeroboam's speeeh concerning Ahijah (1 K. xiv. 2, 3) shows the estimation in which he held his truth and prophetic powers (comp. 2 Chr. ix. 29). AHI'JAH. [Ahiah.] AHI'KAM, son of Shaphan the scribe, an influential officer at the court of Josiah, was one of the delegates sent by Hilkiah to consult Huldah (2 K. xxii. 12-14). In the reign of Jehoiakim he successfully used his influence to protect the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. xxvi. 24). He was the father of Geda- liah. [Gedaliah.] AHIM'AAZ, son of Zadok, the high-priest in David's reign, and celebrated for bis swift ness of foot. During Absalom's rebellion he carried to David the important intelligence that Ahithophel had counselled an immediate C AH1MAN 13 AIN attack upon David and his followers, and that, consequently, the king must cross the Jordan without the least delay (2 Sam. xv. 24-37, xvii. 15-22). Shortly afterwards he was the first to bring to the king the good news of Absalom's defeat, suppressing his knowledge of the death of his son, which was announced soon afterwards by another (2 Sam. xviii. 19-33). AHI'MAN, one of the three giant Anakim who inhabited Mount Hebron (Num. xiii. 22, 33), seen by Caleb and the spies. The whole race were cut off by Joshua (Josh. xi. 21), and the three brothers were slain by the tribe of Judah (Judg. i. 10). AHIM'ELECH, son of Ahitub (1 Sam. xxii. 11, 12), and high-priest at Nob in the dayB of Saul. He gave David the shew- bread to eat, and the sword of Goliath ; and for so doing was, upon the accusation of Doeg the Edomite, put to death with his whole house by Saul's order. Abiathar alone escaped. [Abiathar.] AHIN'OAM. 1. The daughter of Ahimaaz and wife of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 50). — 2. A native of Jezreel who was married to David during his wandering life (1 Sam. xxv. 43). She lived with him and his other wife Abi gail at the court of Achish (xxvii. 3), was taken prisoner with her by the Amalekites when they plundered Ziklag (xxx. 5), but was rescued by David (18). She is again mentioned as living with him when he was king of Judah in Hebron (2 Sam. Ii. 2), and was the mother of his eldest son Amnon (iii. 2). AHITH'OPHEL (brother of foolishness), a native of Giloh, was a privy councillor of David, whose wisdom was highly esteemed, though his name had an exactly opposite signification (2 Sam. xvi. 23). He was the grandfather of Bathsheba (comp. 2 Sam. xi. 3 with xxiii. 34). When Ahithophel joined the conspiracy of Absalom, David prayed Jehovah to turn his counsel to foolishness (xv. 31), alluding possibly to the significa tion of his name. David's grief at the trea chery of his confidential friend found ex pression in the Messianic prophecies (Ps. xii. 9, lv. 12-14).— In order to show to the people that the breach between Absalom and Mb father was irreparable, Ahithophel per suaded him to take possession of the royal harem (2 Sam. xvi. 21). David, to counter act Ms counsel, sent Hushai to Absalom. AMthophel had recommended an immediate pursuit of David ; but Hushai advised delay, his object being to send intelligence to David, and to give Mm time to collect his forces for a decisive engagement. When AMthophel saw that Hushai's advice prevailed, he despaired of success, and returning to Ms own home " put his household in order and hanged him self" (xvii. 1-23). AHI'TUB. 1. Father of Ahimelech, or Ahijah, the son of Phinehas, and grandson of Eli, and therefore of the family of Ithamar (1 Sam. xiv. 3, xxii. 9, 11). — 2. Son of Amariah, and father of Zadok the high-priest (1 Chr. vi. 7, 8 ; 2 Sam. viii. 17), of the house of Eleazar. AH'OLAH, and AHO'LIBAH, two sym bolical names, are described as harlots, the former representing Samaria, and the latter Judah (Ez. xxiii.). AHOLIBA'MAH, one (probably the second) of the three wives of Esau. She waB the daughter of Anah, a descendant of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 25). In the earlier narrative (Gen. xxvi. 34) Aholibamah is called Judith, daughter of Beeri the Hittite. It appears that her proper personal name was Judith, and that Aholibamah waB the name which she received as the wife of Esau and foundress of three tribes of his descendants. A'l (heap of ruins), a city lying east of Bethel and "beside Bethaven" (Josh. vii. 2, viii. 9). It was the second city taken by Israel after the passage of the Jordan, and was "utterly destroyed" (Josh. vii. 3-5, viii., ix. 3, x. 1, 2, xii. 9). AI'JALON, " a place of deer or gazelles.*1 1. A city of the Kohathites (Josh. xxi. 24 ; 1 Chr. vi. 69), originally allotted to the tribe of Dan (Xosh. xix. 42; A. V. "Ajalon"), which tribe, , however, was unable to dis possess the Amorites of the place (Judg. i. 35). Aijalon was one of the towns fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 10), and the last we hear of it is as being in the hands of the Philistines (2 Chr. xxviii. 18 ; A. V. "Aja lon"). Being on the very frontier of the two kingdoms, we can understand how Aijalon should be spoken of sometimes (1 Chr. vi. 69, comp. with 66) as in Ephraim, and sometimes (2 Chr. xi. 10 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 31) as in Judah and Benjamin. It is represented by the modern Tdlo, a little to the N. of the Jaffa road, about 14 milea out of Jerusalem, — 2. A place in Zebulun, mentioned as the burial-place of Elon, one of the Judges (Judg. xii. 12). AI' JELETH SHA'HAR (i. e. the hind of tht morning dawn), found once only in the Bible, In the title of Ps. xxii. It probably describes to the musician the melody to wMch the psalm was to be played, — " a Psalm of David, ad dressed to the music-master who presides over the band called the Mormng Hind." AIN. 1. One of the landmarks on the eastern boundary of Palestine (Num. xxxiv. 11). It is probably 'Ain el-Azy, the main AJALON 19 ALEXANDER III. source of the Orontes. — 2. One of the south ernmost cities of Judah (Josh. xv. 32), after wards allotted to Simeon (Josh. xix. 7 ; 1 Chr. iv. 32) and given to the priests (Josh. xxi. 16). A'JALON. [Aijalon.] AKRAB'BIM, "the; ascent op," and "the going up to;" also " Maaleh-acra bbim " ( = "the scorpion-pass"). A pass between the south end of the Dead Sea and Zin, forming one of the landmarks on the south boundary at once of Judah (Josh. xv. 3) and of the Holy Land (Num. xxxiv. 4). Also tihe boundary of the Amorites (Judg. i. 36). As to the name, scorpions abound in the whole of this district. ALABASTER occurs in the N. T. only in the notice of the alabaster-box of ointment which a woman brought to our Lord when He sat at meat in the house of Simon the leper at Bethany, the contents of which she poured on the head of the Saviour (Matt. xxvi. 7 ; Mark xiv. 3 ; Luke vii. 37). The ancients considered alabaster to be the best material in which to preserve their oint ments. In Mark xiv. 3, the woman who brought " the alabaster-box of ointment of Bpikenard" is said to break the box before pouring out the ointment, which probably only means breaking the seal which kept the essence of the perfume from evaporating. Alobtistor Vessels.— From the British Museum. The Inscription on tbe centre vessel denotes the quantity it holds. AL'AMOTH (Ps. Tlvi. title; 1 Chr. xv. 20), a word of exceedingly doubtful meaning, some interpreting it to mean a musical in strument, and others a melody. ALEXAN'DER III., king of Macedon, sur- named the great, the son of Philip and Olympias, was born at Fella, b.c. 356, and succeeded his father b.c. 336. Two years afterwards he crossed the Hellespont (b.c. 334) to carry out the plans of Ms father, and execute the mission of Greece to the civilised world. Tbe battle of the Granicus was fol lowed by the subjugation of western Asia ; and in the following year the fate of the East was decided at Issus (b.c. 333). Tyre and Gaza were the only cities in western Syria which offered Alexander any resistance, and these were reduced and treated with unusual severity (b.c. 332). Egypt next submitted to him; and in b.c. 331 he founded Alex andria, wMch remains to the present day the most characteristic monument of bis life and work. In the same year he finally de feated Darius at Gaugamela ; and in b.c. 330 his unhappy rival was murdered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria. The next two years were occupied by Alexander in the consolidation of Ms Persian conquests and the reduction of Bactria. In b.c 327 he crossed the Indus, penetrated to the Hydaspes, and was there forced by the discontent of bis army to turn westward. He reached Susa, b.c. 325, and proceeded to Babylon, b.c. 324, which he chose as the capital of his empire. In the next year (b.c. 323) he died there in the midst of his gigantic plans; and those who inherited Ms conquests left his designs un achieved and unattempted (cf. Dan. vii. 6, viii. 5, xi. 3). — The famous tradition of the visit of Alexander to Jerusalem during his Phoenician campaign, which is related by Josephus, has been a fruit ful source of controversy. The Jews, it is said, had provoked Ms anger by refusing to transfer their allegiance to him when summoned to do so during the siege of Tyre, and after the reduction of Tyre and Gaza he turned towards Jerusalem. Jaddua (Jaddus) the high- priest (Neh. xii. 11, 22) went out to meet him, clad in his robes of hyacinth and gold, and accompanied by a train of priests and citizens arrayed in white. Alexander was so moved by the solemn spectacle that he did reverence to the holy name inscribed upon the tiara of the high-priest; and when Parmenio expressed surprise, he replied that " he had seen the god whom Jaddua repre sented in a dream at Dium, encou raging him to cross over into Asia, and promising him success." After tMs it is said that he visited Jerusalem, offered sacrifice there, heard the prophecies of Da niel which foretold Ma victory, and con ferred important privileges upon the Jews. — In the prophetic visiona of Daniel the em blem by which Alexander is typified (a A*- C 2 ALEXANDER BALAS 20 ALGUM TREES goat) suggests the notions of strength and speed ; and the universal extent (Dan. viii. 5, . . . from the west on the face of the whole earth) and marvellous rapidity of his con quests (Dan. I. c, he touched not the ground) are brought forward as the characteristics of his power, which was directed by the strongest personal impetuosity (Dan. viii. 6, in the fury of his power) . He ruled with great dominion, and did according to his will (xi. 3), " and there was none that could deliver ... out of his hand" (viii. 7). Coin of Lyslmaehus, King of Thrace, representing head of Alexander the Great as a young Jupiter Amnion. ALEXAN'DER BA'LAS was, according to some, a natural Bon of Antiochus IV. Epi- phanes, but he was more generally regarded as an impostor who falsely assumed the con nexion. He claimed the throne of Syria, in 152 b.c, in opposition to Demetrius Soter, and gained the warm support of Jonathan, the leader of the Jews (1 Mace. ix. 73). In 150 b.c he completely routed the forces of Deme trius, who himself fell in the retreat (1 Mace. x. 48-50). After this Alexander married Cleopatra, the daughter of Ptolemy VI. PMlo- metor. But Ms triumph was of short dura tion. After obtaining power he gave Mmself up to a life of indulgence ; and when Deme trius Nicator, the son of Demetrius Soter, landed in Syria, in 147 b.c, the new pre tender found powerful support (1 Mace. x. 67 ff.). In the following year Ptolemy de serted Alexander, who was defeated (1 Mace. xi. 15), and fled to Abae in Arabia, where he was murdered, B.C. 146 (1 Mace. xi. 17). The narrative in 1 Mace, shows clearly the partiality which the Jews entertained for Alexander ; and the Bame feeling was ex hibited afterwards in the zeal with' which they supported his son Antiochus. [Antio chus VI.] ALEXAN'DER. 1. Son of Simon' the Cyrenian, who was compelled to bear the cross for our Lord (Mark xv. 21).- — 2. One of the kindred of Annas the high-priest (Acts iv. 6). — 3. A Jew at EpheBus, whom Ms countrymen put forward during the tumult raised by Demetrius the silversmith (Act* xix. 33), to plead their cause with the mob. — 4. An Ephesian Christian, reprobated by St. Paul in 1 Tim. i. 20, as having, together with one Hymenaeus, put from Mm faith and a good conscience, and so made sMpwreck concerning the faith. TMs may be the same ^ith — 5. Alexander the coppersmith, men tioned by the same apostle (2 Tim. iv. 14) as having done Mm many mischiefs. ALEXAN'DRIA (3 Mace. iii. 1 ; Acts xviii. i 24, vi. 9), the Hellenic, Roman, and Chris tian capital of Egypt, was founded b^ Alexander the Great, b.c. 332, who himself traced the ground-plan of the city. The work thus begun was con tinued after the death of Alexander by the Ptolemies. Under the despotism of the later Ptolemies the trade of Alex andria declined, but its population and wealth were enormous. Its import- , ance as one of the chief corn-ports of Rome secured for it the general favour of the first emperors. Its population was mixed from the first. According to Josephus, Alexander himself assigned to the Jews a place in his new city. Their numbers and importance were rapidly increased under the Ptolemies by freBh immi grations and untiring industry. The Septua- gint translation was made for their benefit, under the first or second Ptolemy. Philo esti- ¦ mates the number of the Alexandrine Jews in his time at little less than 1,000,000 ; and adds, that two of the five districts of Alexandria were called " Jewish districts," and that many Jews lived soattered in the remaining three. Julius Caesar and Augustus confirmed to them the privileges which they had enjoyed before, and they retained them, with various interrup tions, during the tumults and persecutions of later reigns. According to the common legend, St. Mark first " preached the Gospel in Egypt, and founded the first Church in Alexandria." At the beginning of the 2nd century the number of Christians at Alex andria must have been very large, and the great leaders of Gnosticism who arose there (Basilides, Valentinus) exhibit an exaggera tion of the tendency of the Church. ALGUM or ALMUG TREES ; the former occurring in 2 Chr. ii. 8, ix. 10, 11, the latter in 1 K. x. 11, 12. There can be no question that these words are identical. From 1 K. x. 11, 12, 2 Chr. ix. 10, 11, we learn that the almug was brought in great plenty from Ophir for Solomon's Temple and house, and for the construction of musical instruments. It is probable that this tree is the red sandal-wood, which is a native of India and Ceylon. The wood is very heavy, hard, ALLEGORY 21 ALLON and fine grained, and of a beautiful garnet colour. ALLEGORY, a figure of speech, which has been defined by Bishop Marsh, in accordance with its etymology, as " a representation of one thing which is intended to excite the re presentation of another tMng ; " the first re presentation being consistent with itself, hut requiring, or capable of admitting, a moral or spiritual interpretation over and above its literal sense. In every allegory there is a twofold sense ; the immediate or Mstoric, which is understood from the words, and the ultimate, wMch is concerned with the things signified by the words. The allegorical in terpretation is not of the words, but of the things signified by them ; and not only may, but actually does, coexist with the literal in terpretation in every allegory, whether the narrative in which it is conveyed be of things possible or real. An illustration of this may be seen in Gal. iv. 24, where the apostle gives an allegorical interpretation to the Mstorical narrative of Hagar and Sarah ; not treating that narrative as an allegory in itself, as our A. V. would lead us to suppose, but drawing from it a deeper sense than is conveyed by the immediate representation. ALLELU'IA, so written in Rev. xix. 7, foil., or more properly Hallelujah, " praise , ye Jehovah," as it is found in the margin of Ps. civ. 35, cv. 45, cvi., cxi. 1, cxii. 1, cxiii. 1 (comp. Ps. cxiii. 9, cxv. 18, cxvi. 19, cxvii. 2). The literal meaning of " Halle lujah " sufficiently indicates the character of the Psalms in which it occurs, as hymns of praise and thanksgiving. They are all found in the last book of the collection, and bear marks of being intended for use in the temple- service ; the words " praise ye Jehovah " being taken up by the full chorus of Levites. In the great hymn of triumph in heaven over the destruction of Babylon, the apostle in vision heard the multitude in chorus like the voice of mighty thunderings burst forth, " Alleluia, for the Lord God omMpotent reigneth," responding to the voice which came out of the tMone saying " Praise our God, all ye Ms servants, and ye that fear him, both small and great" (Rev. xix. 1-6). In this, as in the offering of incense (Rev. viii.), there is evident allusion to the service of the temple, as the apostle had often witnessed it in its fading grandeur. ALLIANCES. On the first establishment of the Hebrews in Palestine no connexions were formed between them and the surround ing nations. But with the extension of their power under the kings, they were brought more into contact with foreigners, and alli ances became essential to the security of their commerce. Solomon concluded two important treaties exclusively for commercial purposes , the first with Hiram, king of Tyre, originally with the view of obtaining materials and workmen for the erection of the Temple, and afterwards for the supply of Bhip-builders and sailors (1 K. v. 2-12, ix. 27) : the second with a Pharaoh, king of Egypt ; by this he secured a monopoly of the trade in horses and other products of that country (1 K. x. 28, 29). After the division of the kingdom the alliances were of an offensive and defen sive nature. When war broke out between Amaziah and Jeroboam II. a coalition was formed between Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah on the one side, and Ahaz and Tiglath- pileser, king of Assyria, on the other (2 K. xvi. 5-9). By this means an opening was afforded to the advances of the Assyrian power ; and the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, as they were successively attacked, sought the alliance of the Egyptians, who were strongly interested in maintaining the independence of the Jews as a barrier against the encroachments of the Assyrian power (2 K. xvii. 4, xix, 9, 36 ; Is. xxx. 2). On the restoration of independence Judas Mac cabeus sought an alliance with the Romans as a counterpoise to the neighbouring state of Syria (1 Mace. viii.). Treaties of a friendly nature were at the same period con cluded with the Lacedaemonians (1 Mace. xii. 2, xiv. 20). — The formation of an alli ance was attended with various religious rites : a victim was slain and divided into two parts, between wMch the contracting parties passed (Gen. xv. 10). That this custom was maintained to a late period appears from Jer. xxxiv. 18-20. Generally speaking the oath alone is mentioned in the contracting of alliances, either between na tions (Josh. ix. 1 5) or individuals (Gen. xxvi. 28, xxxi. 53 ; 1 Sam. xx. 17 ; 2 K. xi. 4). The event was celebrated by a feast (Gen. I. c; Ex. xxiv. 11 ; 2 Sam. iii. 12, 20). Salt, as symbolical of fidelity, was used on these occasions. Occasionally a pillar or a heap of stones was set up as a memorial of ¦ the alliance (Gen. xxxi. 52). Presents were also sent by the party soliciting the alliance (1 K. xv. 18 ; Is. xxx. 6 ; 1 Mace. xv. 18). The fidelity of the Jews to their engagements was conspicuous at all periods of their Mstory (Josh. ix. 18), and any breach of covenant was visited with very severe puMshment (2 Sam. xxi. 1 ; Ez. xvii. 16). AL'LON, a large strong tree of some de scription, probably an oak. The word is found in two names in the topography of Palestine. — 1. Allon, more accurately Elon, a place named among the cities of Naphtali ALMON-DIBLATHAIM 22 ALPHAEUS (Josh. xix. 33). Probably the more correct construction is to take it with the following word, *'. e. " the oak by Zaanannim," or " the oak of the loading of tents," as if de riving its name from some nomad tribe fre quenting the spot. [Elon.] — 3. Al'lon- ba'chtjth ("oak of weeping"), the tree under which Rebekah's nurse, Deborah, was buried (Gen. xxxv. 8). AL'MON-DIBLATHA'IM, one of the latest stations of the Israelites, between Dibon-gad and the mountains of Abarim (Num. xxxiii. 46, 47). It is probable that Almon-dibla- thaim is identical with Beth-diblathaim. ALMOND-TREE; ALMOND. TMs word is found in Gen. xliii. 11 ; Ex. xxv. 33, 34, sxxvii. 19, 20 ; Num. xvii. 8 ; Eccies. xii. 5; Jer. i. 11, in the text of the A. V. It is inva riably represented by the same Hebrew word fshdked), which sometimes stands for the whoLe tree, sometimes for the fruit or nut. The almond-tree, whose scientific name is Amygdaius eommums, is a native of Asia and North Africa, but it is cultivated in the milder parts of Europe. The height of the tree is about 12 or 14 feet ; the flowers are pink, and arranged for the most part in pairs ; the leaves are long, ovate, with a serrated margin, and an acute point. The covering of the fruit is downy and succulent, enclosing the hard shell which contains the kernel. It is curious to observe, in connexion with the almond-bowls of the golden candlestick, that, in the language of lapidaries, Almonds are pieces of rock-crystal, even now used in adorning braneh-candleBticks. Almond-tree and blossom. . ALMS. The duty of alms-giving, especi- *Uy in kind, consisting chiefly in portions to be left designedly from produce of the field. the vineyard, and the oliveyard (Lev. xix. 9, 10, xxiii. 22; Deut. xv. 11, xxiv. 19, xxvi. 2-13; Ruth ii. 2), is strictly enjoined by the Law. Every third year also (Deut. xiv. 28) each proprietor was directed to share the tithe of Ms produce with " the Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow." The theological estimate of alms giving among the Jews is indicated in the following passages : — Job xxxi. 1 7 ; Prov. x. 2, xi. 4 ; Esth. ix. 22 ; Ps. cxii. 9 ; Acts ix. 36, the case of Dorcas ; x. 2, of Cornelius ; to which may be added, Tob. iv. 10, 11, xiv. 10, 11 ; and Ecclus. iii. 30, xl. 24. And the Talmudists went so far as to interpret righte ousness by almsgiving in such passages as Gen. xviii. 19; Is. liv. 14 ; Ps. xvii. 15. — The Pharisees were zealous in almsgiving, but too ostentatious in their mode of per formance, for which our Lord finds fault with them (Matt. vi. 2). — The duty of re lieving the poor was not neglected by the Christians (Matt. vi. 1-4; Luke xiv. 13; Acts xx. 35 ; Gal. ii. 10). Every Christian was exhorted to lay by on the first day oi each week Bome portion of his profits, to be applied to the wants of the needy (Acts xi. 30 ; Rom. xv. 25-27 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 1-4). It was also considered a duty specially incum bent on widows to devote themselves to such ministrations (1 Tim. v. 10). ALMUG-TREES. [Algum-Trees.] ALOES, LIGN ALOES (in Heb. Ahdltmt Ahdloth), the name of a costly and sweet- smelling wood which is mentioned in Num. xxiv. 6, Ps. xiv. 8, Prov. vii. 17, Cant. iv. 14, John xix. 39. It is usually identified with the Aquilaria Agalloehum, a tree wMch supplies the agalloehum, or aloes-wood of commerce, much valued in India on account of its aromatic qualities for purposes of fumi gation and for incense. This tree grows to the height of 120 feet, being 12 feet in girth. It is, however, uncertain whether the AJtdlim or Ahdloth is in reality the aloes-wood of commerce ; it is quite possible that some kind of odoriferous cedar may be the tree denoted by these terms. AL'PHA, the first letter of the Greek alphabet, as Omega is the last. Its signi ficance is plainly indicated in the contexv, " I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last " (Rev. xxii. 13, i. 8, 11, xxi. 6), which may be compared' with Is. xii. 4. Both Greeks and Hebrews employed the letters of the alphabet as numerals. ALPHABET. [Writing.] ALPHAE'US, the father of the Apostle James the Less (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts L 13), and husband of ALTAR 23 ALTAR Aquilarla Agalloehum. See art * Aloes. that Mary who, with the mother of Jesus and others, was standing by the cross during the crucifixion (John xix. 25). [Mart.] In this latter place he is called Clopas (not, as in the A. V., Cleophas). ALTAR. (A.) The first altar of which we have any account is that bui. dv Noah when he left the ark (Gen. viii. 20). In the early times altars were usually built in certain spots hallowed by religious associations, e. g. where God appeared (Gen. xii. 7, xiii. 18, xxvi. 25, xxxv. 1). Generally of course they were erected for the offer ing of sacrifice; but in some instances tbey appear to have been only memo rials. Altars were most probably ori ginally made of earth. The Law of Moses allowed them to be made either of earth or unhewn stones (Ex. xx. 24, 25). In later times they were frequently built on high places, espe cially in idolatrous worship (Deut. xii. 2).^(B.) The Law of Moses di rected that two altars should be made, the one the Altai- of Burnt-offering (called also simply the Altar), and the other the Altar of Incense. — I. The Altar of Burnt- offering. It differed in construction at differ ent times. (1.) In the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvii. 1 ff. xxxviii. 1 ff.) it was comparatively small and portable. In shape it was square. It was five cubits in length, the same in breadth, and three cubits high. It was made of planks of shittim (or acacia) wood overlaid with brass. The interior was hollow (Ex. xxvii. 8). At the four corners were four projec tions called horns, made, like the altar itself, of shittim- wood overlaid with brass (Ex. xxvii. 2). They probably projected upwards ; and to them the victim was bound when aoout to De sacrificed (Ps. exviii. 27). On the occasion of the consecration of the priests 'Ex. xxix. 12) and the offering of the sin- offering (Lev. iv. 7 ff.) the blood of the vic tim was sprinkled on the horns of the altar. Round the altar, midway between the top and bottom, ran a projecting ledge (A. V. "compass"), on which perhaps the priests stood when they officiated. To the outer edge of this, again, a grating or net-work of brass was affixed, and reached to the bottom of the altar, which thus presented the ap pearance of being larger below than above. At the four corners of the net-work were four brasen rings, into which were inserted the staves by which the altar was carried. These staves were of the same materials as the altar itself. As the priests were for bidden to ascend the altar by steps (Ex. xx. 26), it has been conjectured that a slope of earth led gradually up to the ledge from which they officiated. The place of the altar was at " the door of the tabernacle of the congregation" (Ex. xl. 29). — (2.) In Solo mon's Temple the altar was considerably larger in its dimensions. Like the former it Altar of Burnt Offering. From Sureuhusius' Mithno, ALTAR 24 AMALEKITES was square ; but the length and breadth were now twenty cubits, and the height ten (2 Chr. iv. 1). It differed, too, in the material of which it was made, being entirely of brass (1 K. viii. 64; 2 Chr. vii. 7). It had no grating : and instead of a single gradual slope, the ascent to it was probably made by three successive platforms, to each of which it has been supposed that steps led, as in the figure annexed. — (3.) Tbe altar of burnt-offering in the second (Zerubbabel's) temple. Of this no description is given in the Bible. We are only told (Ezr. iii. 2) that it was built before the foundations of the Temple were laid. According to Josephus it was placed on the same spot on which that of Solomon had originally stood. — (4.) The altar erected by Herod, which is thus de scribed by Josephus : — " In front of the Temple stood the altar, 15 cubits in height, and in breadth and length of equal dimen sions, viz. 50 cubits ; it was built foursquare, with horn-like corners projecting from it ; and on the south side a gentle acclivity led up to it. Moreover it was made without any iron tool, neither did iron ever touch it at any time." According to Lev. vi. 12, 13, a perpetual fire was to be kept burning on the altar. This was the symbol and token of the perpetual worship of Jehovah.- — II. The Altar of Incense, called also the golden altar to distinguish it from the Altar of Burnt- offering, which was called the brasen altar (Ex. xxxviii. 80). — (a.) That in the Taber nacle was made of acacia-wood, overlaid with pure gold. In shape it was square, being a cubit in length and breadth, and 2 cubits in Supposed form oi me Aiuir of Incuusa. height. Like the Altar of Burnt-offering it had horns at the four corners, which were of une piece with the rest of the altar. Its ap pearance may be illustrated by the preceding figure. This altar stood in the Holy Place, " before the vail that is by the ark of the testi mony" (Ex. xxx. 6, xl. 5) — (6.) The Altar in Solomon's Temple was similar (IK. vii. 48 ; 1 Chr. xxviii. 18), but was made at cedai overlaid with gold. — (c.) The Altar of Incense is mentioned as havingbeen removed from the Temple of Zerubbabel by Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Mace. i. 21). Judas Macca- baeus restored it, together with the hojy vessels, &c. (1 Mace. iv. 49). — C. Other altars. (1.) Altars of brick. There seems to be an allusion to such in Is. lxv. 3. (2.) An Altar to an Unknown God. What altar this was has been the subject of much discus sion. St. Paul merely mentions in his speech on the Areopagus that he had himself seen such an altar in Athens. As to the origin of these altars, we are told by Diogenes Laertius that in the time of a plague, wheD the AtheMans knew not what god to propitiate in order to avert it, Epimemdes cauBed black and wMte sheep to be let loose from the Areopagus, and wherever they lay down, to be offered to the respective divinities. It was probably on tMs or similar occasions that altars were dedicated to an Unknown God, since they knew not what god was offended i and required to be propitiated. j AL-TAS'CHITH, found in the introductory verse to the four following Psalms, Ivii., Iviii., lix., Ixxv. Literally rendered, the import of the words is " destroy not," pro bably the beginmng of some song or poem to the tune of which those psalms were to be chanted. AMAL'EKITES, a nomadic tribe, which occupied the peninsula of Sinai and the wil derness intervening between the southern hill-ranges of Palestine and the border of Egypt (Num. xiii. 29 ; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8). Arabian MstorianB represent them as originally dwelling on the shores of the Persian Gulf, whence they were pressed west wards by the growth of the Assyrian empire, and spread over a portion of Arabia at a period antecedent to its occupation by the descendants of Joktan. The physical cha racter of the district wMch the Amalekites occupied necessitated a nomadic life, which they adopted to its fullest extent, taking their families with them even on their military expeditions (Judg. vi. 5). Their wealth con sisted in flocks and herds. Mention is made of a " town " (1 Sam. xv. 5), but their townj oould have been little more than stations, oi nomadic enclosures. The kings or cMeftain* AMANA 25 AMMINADAB frere perhaps distinguished by the hereditary &tle Agag (Num. xxiv. 7 ; 1 Sam. xv. 8). The Amalekites first came in contact with the Israelites at RepMdim, but were signally defeated (Ex. xvii.). In union with the Canaanites they again attacked the, Israelites on the borders of Palestine, and defeated them near Hormah (Num. xiv. 45). Saul under took an expedition against them, overrunning their whole district from Havilah to Shur, and inflicting an immense loss upon them (1 Sam. xv.). Their power was thenceforth broken, and. they degenerated into a horde of banditti. Their destruction was completed by David (1 Sam. xxvii., xxx.). AM' ANA, apparently a mountain in or near Lebanon (Cant. iv. 8). It is commonly assumed that tMs is the mountain in which the river Abana (2 K. v. 12) has its source, but in the absence of further research in the Lebanon tMs is mere assumption. AM'ASA. Son of Ithra or Jether, by Abigail, David's sister (2 Sam. xvii. 25). He joined Absalom in his rebellion, and was by him appointed commander-in-chief in the place of Joab, by whom he was totally de feated in the forest of Ephraim (2 Sam. xviii. ,6). When Joab incurred the displeasure of David for killing Absalom, David forgave the treason of Amasa, recognized him as his nephew, and appointed him Joab's successor (xix. 13). Joab afterwards, when they were both in pursuit of the rebel Sheba, pretending to salute Amasa, stabbed him with his sword (xx. 10), wMch he held concealed in his left hand. AMAZI'AH, son of Joash, and eighth king of Judah, reigned b.c 837-809. He suc ceeded to the throne at the age of 25, on the murder of Ms father, and pumshed the mur derers. In order to restore his kingdom to the greatness of Jehoshaphat's days, he made war on the Edomites, defeated them in the valley of Salt, south of the Dead Sea, and took their capital, Selah or Petra. Flushed with tMs success he had the foolish arrogance to challenge Joash, king of Israel, to battle. But Judah was completely defeated. Ama- ziah himself was taken prisoner, and con veyed by Joash to Jerusalem, which opened its gates to the conqueror. Amaziah lived 1 5 years after the death of Joash ; and in the 29th year of his reign was murdered by conspirators at Lachish, wMther he had retired for safety from Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxv. 27). AMBASSADOR. The earliest examples of ambassadors employed occur in the eases of Edom, Moab, and the Amorites (Num. xx. 14, xxi. 21 ; Judg. xi. 17-19), after wards in that of the fraudulent Uibeonites (Josh. ix. 4, &c), and in the instances of civil strife mentioned Judg. xi. 12, and xx. 12. They are alluded to more frequently during and after the contact of the great adjacent mon archies of Syria, Babylon, &c, with thoBe of Judah and Israel, as in the invasion of Sen nacherib. They were usually men of high rank. In the case quoted the chief captain, the chief cup-bearer, and chief of the eunuchs, were met by delegates of similar digmty from Hezekiah (2 K. xviii. 17, 18; see also Is. xxx. 4). Ambassadors are found to have been employed, not only on occasions of hostile challenge or insolent me^ce (2 K. xiv. 8 ; 1 K. xx. 2, 6), but of friendly com pliment, of request for alliance or other aid, of submissive deprecation, and of curious inquiry (2 IC. xiv. 8, xvi. 7, xviii. 14 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 31). AMBER (Heb. chashmal) occurs only in Ez. i. 4, 27, viii. 2. It is usually supposed that the Hebrew word chashmal denotes a metal, and not the fossil resin called amber. A'MEN, literally, " true ; " and, used as a substantive, " that which is true," " truth " (Is. lxv. 16) ; a word used in strong asse verations, fixing as it were the stamp of truth upon the assertion which it accompanied, and making it binding as an oath (comp. Num. v. 22). According to the Rabbins, " Amen " involved the ideas of swearing, ac ceptance, and truthfulness. In the synagogues and private houses it was customary for the people or members of the family who were present to say " Amen " to the prayers which were offered by the minister or the master of the house, and the custom remained in the early Christian Church (Matt. vi. 13 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 16). And not only public prayers, but those offered in private, and doxologies were appropriately concluded with " Amen " (Rom. ix. 5, xi. 36, xv. 33, xvi. 27 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 13, &c). AMETHYST (Heb. achldmdh). Mention is made of this precious stone, which formed the third in the third row of the high-priest's breastplate, in Ex. xxviii. 1 9, xxix. 1 2, " And the tMrd row a ligure, an agate, and an amethyst." It occurs also in the N. T. (Rev. xxi. 20) as the 12th stone which garnished the foundations of the wall of th« heavenly Jerusalem. Commentators gener ally are agreed that the amethyst is the stone indicated by the Hebrew word, an opinion which is abundantly supported by the ancient versions. AMMIN'ADAB. Son of Ram or Aram, and father of Nahshon, or Naasson (as it is written, Matt. i. 4 ; Luke iii. 32), who waa the prince of the tribe of Judah, at the first numbering of Israel in the second year of AMMLNADIB 26 AMON the Exodus (Num. i. 7, ii. 3 ; Ruth iv. 19, 20 ; 1 Chr. i. 10], He was the fourth generation after Judah, the patriarch of Ms tribe, and one of the ancestors of Jesus Christ. AMMIN'ADIB. In Cant. vi. 12, it is un certain whether we ought to read, Am- minadib, with the A. V., or my willing people, as in the margin. AM'MON, AM'MONITES, CHILDREN OF AMMON, a people descended from Ben- Ammi, the son of Lot by his younger daughter (Gen. xix. 38 ; comp. Ps. lxxxiii. 7, 8), as Moab was by the elder ; and dating from the destruction of Sodom. The near relation between the two peoples indicated in the story of their origin contmued throughout their existence (comp. Judg. x. 6 ; 2 Chr. xx. 1 ; Zeph. ii. 8, &c). Indeed, so ciose was their union, and so near their identity, that each would appear to be occasionally spoken of under the name of the other. Un like Moab, the precise position of the terri tory of the Ammonites is not ascertainable. In the earliest mention of them (Deut. ii. 20) they are said to have destroyed the Rephaim, whom they called the Zamzummim, and to have dwelt in their place, Jabbok being their border (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16). ** Land " or " country " is, however, but rarely ascribed to them, nor is there any reference to those habits and circumstances of civilisation, which so constantly recur in the allusions to Moab (Is. xv., xvi. ; Jer. xlviii.). On the contrary, we find every where traces of the fierce habits of marauders in their incursions (1 Sam. xi. 2 ; Am. i. 13), and a very high degree of crafty cruelty to their foes (Jer. xii. 6, 7 ; Jud. vii. 11, 12). It appears that Moab was the Bettled and civilised half of the nation of Lot, and that Ammon formed its predatory and Bedouin section. On the west of Jordan they never obtained a footing. The hatred in which the Ammomtes were held by Israel is stated to have arisen partly from their opposition, or, rather, their demal of assistance (Deut. xxiii. 4), to the Israelites on their approach to Canaan. But whatever its origin the ani mosity continued in force to the latest date. The last appearances of the Ammonites in the biblical narrative are in the books of Judith (v. vi. vii.) and of the Maccabees (1 Mace. v. 6, 30-43), and it has been already re marked that their chief characteristics — close alliance with Moab, hatred of Israel, and cunning cruelty — are maintained to the end. The tribe was governed by a king (Judg. xi. 12, &c. ; 1 Sam. xii. 12; 2 Sara. x. 1; Jer, xl. 14) and by " princeB " (2 Sam. x. S ; 1 CM. xix. 3). It has been conjectured that Nahash (1 Sam. xi. 1 j 2 Sam. x. 2) was the official title of the king as Pharaoh was of the Egyptian monarchs ; but this is without any sure foundation. — The divimty of the tribe was Molech, generally named in the 0. T. under the altered form of Milcom — " the abomination of the children of Ammon ;" and occasionally as Malcham. In more than one passage under the word rendered " their king " in the A. V. an allusion is intended to this idol. [Molech.] AM'NON. Eldest Bon of David by Ahinoam the Jeareelitess, born in Hebron while his father's royalty was oniy acknowledged in Judah. He dishonoured Ms half-sistei Tamar, and was in consequence murdered by her brother (2 Sam. xiii. 1-29.) A'MON, an Egyptian divinity, whose name occurs in that of No Amon (Nah. iii. 8), in A. V. "populous No," or Thebes, also called No. [No.] The Greeks called this divinity Ammon. The ancient Egyptian name is Amen. Amen was one of the eight gods of the first order, and chief of the triad of Thebes, He was worshipped at that city as Amen-Ra, or " Amen the sun." The god Amon (Wilkinson), A'MON. King of Judah, son and successor of Manasseh, reigned two years from b.c. 642 to 640, Following his father's example, Amon devoted himself wholly to the service of false gods, but was killed in a conspiracy. The people avenged him by putting all the conspirators to death, and secured the suc cession to his son Josiah. To Amon's reign we must refer the terrible picture which the AMORITE 27 AMULETS prophet Zephaniah gives of the moral and religious state of Jerusalem. AM'ORITE, THE AM'ORITES, t. e. the dwellers on the summits — mountaineers- one of the chief nations who possessed the land of Canaan before its conquest by the Israelites. In the genealogical table of Gen. x. "the Amorite " is given as the fourth son of Canaan, with "Zidon, Heth [Hittite], the Jebusite," &c. As dwelling on the elevated portions of the country, they are contrasted with the Canaanites, who were the dwellers in ttie lowlands ; and the two thus formed the main broad divisions of the Holy Land (Num. xiii. 29 ; and see Josh. v. 1, x. 6, xi. 3 ; Deut. i. 7, 20, " mountain of the A. ;" 44). In the very earliest times (Gen. xiv. 7) they are occupying the barren heights west of the Dead Sea, at the place which afterwards bore the name of Engedi. From this point they stretched west to Hebron, where Abram was then dwelling under the " oak-grove " of the three brothers, Aner, Eshcol, and Mamre (Gen. xiv. 13; comp. xiii. 18). At the date of tbe Invasion of the country, Sihon, their then king, had taken the rich pasture- iand south of the Jabbok, and had driven the Moabites, its former possessors, across the wide chasm of the Amon (Num. xxi. 13, 26), which thenceforward formed the boundary between the two hostile peoples (Num. xxi. 13). This rich tract, bounded by the Jabbok on the north, the Arnon on the south, Jordan on the west, and "the wilderness" on the east (Judg. xi. 21, 22), was, perhaps, in the most special sense the " land of the Amorites " (Num. xxi. 31; Josh. xii. 2, 3, xiii. 9; judg. xi. 21, 22) ; hut their possessions are distinctly stated to have extended to the very foot of Hermon (Deut. iii. 8, iv. 48), em bracing "all Gilead and all Bashan" (iii. 10), with the Jordan valley on the east of the river (iv. 49). After the conquest of Canaan notMng is heard in the Bible of the Amorites, except the occasional mention of their name among the early inhabitants of the country. A'MOS. A native of Tekoa in Judah, about six miles S. of BetMehem, originally a shep herd and dresser of sycomore-trees, who was called by God's Spirit to be a prophet, although not trained in any of the regular prophetic schools (i. 1, vii. 14, 15). He travelled from Judah into the northern kingdom of Israel or Ephraim, and there exercised his ministry, apparently not for any long time. His date cannot he later than the 15th year of Uzziah's reign (b.c. 808) ; for he tells us that he pro phesied "in the reigns of Uzziah king of Jiidah, and Jeroboam the son of Joash king of Israel, two years before the earthquake." But Ms ministry probably took place at an earlier period, perhaps about the middle oi Jeroboam's reign. The book of the prophe- cies oi Amos seems divided into four prin cipal portions closely connected together. (1) From i. 1 to ii. 3 he denounces the sins of the nations bordering on Israel and Judah, as a preparation for (2), in which, from ii. 4 to vi. 14, he describes the state of those two kingdoms, especially the former. This is followed by (3) vii. l.-ix, 10, in wMch, after reflecting on the previous prophecy, he re lates his visit to Bethel, and sketches the im pending punishment of Israel which he pre dicted to Amaziah. After this in (4 } he rises to a loftier and more evangelical strain, look ing forward to the time when the hope of the Messiah's kingdom will be fulfilled, ana His people forgiven and established in the enjoyment of God's blessings to all eternity. The cMef peculiarity of the style consists in the number of allusions to natural objects and agricultural occupations, as might be ex pected from the early life of the author. See i. 8, ii. 13, iii. 4, 5, iv. 2, 7, 9, v. 8, 19, vi. 12, vii. 1, ix. 3, 9, 13, 14. The references to it in the N. T. are two : v. 25, 26, 27 is quoted by St. Stephen in Acts vii. 42, 43, and ix. 11 by St. James in Acts xv. 16. A'MOZ, father of the prophet Isaiah, and, according to Rabbinical tradition, brother of Amaziah king of Judah (2 K. xix. 2, 20, xx. 1 ; 2 Chr. xxvi. 22, xxxii. 20, 32 ; Is. i. 1, ii. 1, xiii. 1, xx. 2, xxxvii. 2, 21, xxxviii. 1). AMPHIP'OLIS, a city of Macedonia, tMough wMch Paul and Silas passed on their way from Philippi to Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 1). It was distant S3 Roman miles from Philippi. It stood upon an eminence on the left or eastern bank of the river Stry- mon, just below its egress from the lake Cer- cinitis, and at the distance of about three miles from the sea. Its site is now occupied by a village called Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keni, or ** New Town." AM'RAM. A Levite of the family of the Kohathites, and father of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Ex. vi. 18, 20 ; Num. iii. 19 ; 1 Chr. vi. 2, 3, 18). He is called the "son" of Kohath, but it is evident that in the gene alogy several generations must have been omitted ; for from Joseph to Joshua ten ge nerations are recorded, while from Levi to Moses there are but three. AM'RAPHEL, perhaps a Hamite king of Shinar or Babylonia, who joined the victo rious incursion of the Elamite Chedorlaomer against the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah and the cities of the plain (Gen. xiv.). AMULETS were ornaments, gems, scrolls, &c, worn as preservatives against the power of enchantments, and generally inscribed ANAH 28 ANDREW with mystic forms or characters. The word does not occur in the A. V., but the " ear rings" in Gen. xxxv. 4 were obviously con nected with idolatrous worship, and were probably amulets taken from the bodies of the slain Shechemites. They are subsequently mentioned among the spoils of Midian (Judg. viii. 24). Again, in Hos. ii. 13, "decking herself with earrings" is mentioned as one of the signs of the " days of Baalim." The " earrings" in Is. iii. 20 were also amulets. A'NAH, the son of Zibeon, the son of Seir the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 24), a "duke" or prince of his tribe, and father of Aholi bamah, one of the wives of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14, 25). There is no reason to suppose that he is other than the same Anah who found the "hot springs" (not "mules," as in the A. V.) in the desert as he fed the asses of Zibeon his father, though Bunsen considers him a distinct personage, the son of Seir and brother of Zibeon. AN'AKIM, a race of giants, descendants of Arba (Josh. xv. 13, xxi. 11), dwelling in the southern part of Canaan, and particularly at Hebron, which from their progenitor re ceived the name of " city of Arba." Besides the general designation Anakira, they are va riously called sons of Anak (Num. xiii. 33), descendants of Anak (Num. xiii. 22), and sons of Anakim (Deut. i. 28). These desig nations serve to show that we must regard Anak as the name of the race rather than that of an individual, and this is confirmed by what is said of Arba, their progenitor, that he " was a great man among the An akim" (Josh. xiv. 15). The race appears to have been divided into three tribes or fami lies, bearing the names Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai. Though the warlike appearance of the Anakim had struck the Israelites with terror in the time of Moses (Num. xiii. 28 ; Deut, ix. 2), they were nevertheless dispos sessed by Joshua, and utterly driven from the land, except a small remnant that found refuge in the Philistine cities, Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod (Josh. xi. 21, 22). Their chief city Hebron became the possession of Caleb, who is said to have driven out from it the three sons of Anak mentioned above, that is the three families or tribes of the Anakim (Josh. xv. 14 ; Judg. i. 20). After tMs time they vanish from history. ANAM'MELECH, one of the idols wor shipped by the colonists introduced into Sa maria from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31). He was worshipped with rites resembling those of Molech, children being burnt in his honour, aud is the companion-god to Amiammelech. As Adrammelech is the male power of the sun, so Anammeiech is the female power of the sun. ANANI'AS. 1. A high-priest in Acts xxiii. 2-5, xxiv. 1. He was the son of Nebedaeus, succeeded Joseph son of Camydus, and pre ceded Ismael son of Pbabi. He was nomi nated to the office by Herod king of Chalcis, in a.d. 48 ; was deposed shortly before Felix left the province, and assassinated by the sicarii at the beginning of the last Jewish war. — 2. A disciple at Jerusalem, husband of SappMra (Acts v. 1-11). Having sold his goods for the benefit of the church, he kept back a part of the price, bringing to the apostles the remainder, as if it were the whole, his wife also being privy to the scheme. St. Peter denounced the fraud, and Anamas fell down and expired. — 3. A Jewish disciple at Damascus (Acts ix. 10-17), of Mgh repute (Acts xxii. 12), who sought out Saul during the period of blindness and dejection which followed his conversion, and announced to him his future commission as a preacher of the Gospel. Tradition makes him to have been afterwards bishop of Damascus, and to have died by martyrdom. ANATH'EMA, which literally means a tMng suspended, is the equivalent of the Hebrew word signifying a thing or person devoted. Any object so devoted to Jehovah was irredeemable : if an inanimate object, it was to he given to the priests (Num. xviii. 14) ; if a living creature or even a man, it was to be slain (Lev. xxvii. 28, 29). The word anathema frequently occurs in St. Paul's writings, and is generally translated accursed. Many expositors have regarded his use of it as a techmcal term for judicial excommuni cation. That the word was so used in the early Church there can be no doubt, but an examination of the passages in wMch it oc curs shows that it had acquired a more general sense as expressive either of strong feeling (Rom. ix. 3) or of dislike and con demnation (1 Cot. xii. 3, xvi. 22 ; Gal. i. 9). AN 'ATHOTH, a priests* city, belonging to the tribe of Benjamin, with " suburbB " (Josh. xxi. 18 ; 1 Chr. vi. 60). Anathoth lay on or near the great road from the north to Jeru salem (Is. x. 30), and is placed by Eusebius and Jerome at 3 miles from the city. Its position has been discovered by Robinson at Andta, on a broad ridge l£ hour N.N.E. from Jerusalem. The cultivation of the priests survives in tilled fields of grain, with figs and olives. There are the remains of walls and strong foundations, and the quar ries still supply Jerusalem with building stones. AN'DREW, one among the first called of the Apostles of our Lord (John i. 40 ; Matt. iv. 18) ; brother (whether elder or younger is uncertain) of Simon Peter (ibid.). He was ANDRONICUS 29 ANGELS of Bethsaida, and had been a disciple of John the Baptist. On hearing Jesus a second time designated by Mm as the Lamb of God, he left his former master, and, in eompany with another of John's disciples, attached Mmself to our Lord. By his means his brother Simon was brought to Jesus (John i. 41). The ap parent discrepancy in Matt, iv, 18 ff., Mark i. 16 ff., where the two appear to have been called together, is no real one ; St. John relating the first introduction of the brothers to Jesus, the other Evangelists their formal call to follow Him in Ms ministry. In the catalogue of the Apostles, Andrew appears, in Matt. x. 2, Luke vi. 14, second, next after Ms brother' Peter ; but in Mark iii. 16, Acts i. 13, fourth, next after the three, Peter, James, and John, and in company with Philip. And this appears to have been Ms real place of dignity among the Apostles. The traditions about him are various. Eu- Bebius makes Mm preach in Scythia ; Jerome and Theodoret in Achaia (Greece) ; Nice- phorus in Asia Minor and Thrace. He is said to have been crucified at Patrae in Achaia. Some aneient writers speak of an apocryphal Acts of Andrew. ANDRONI'CUS. 1. An officer left as vice roy (2 Mace. iv. 31) in Antioch by Antiochus Epiphanes during his absence (b.c. 171). At the instigation of Menelaus, AndronicuB put to death the high-priest Onias. This murder excited general indignation ; and on the re turn of Antiochus, Andronicus was publicly degraded and executed (2 Mace. iv. 31-38). — 2. Another officer of Antiochus Epiphanes who was left by rnm on Garizim (2 Mace. v. 23), probably in occupation of the temple there. — 3. A Christian at Rome, saluted by St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 7) together with JuMas. ANGELS. By the word " angels " (i. e. " messengers" of God) we ordinarily under stand a race of spiritual beings, of a nature exalted far above that of man, although in finitely removed from that of God, whose office is " to do Him service in heaven, and by His appointment to succour and defend men on earth." I. Scriptural use of the word. — There are many passages in which the expression the "angel of God," "the angel of Jehovah," is certainly used for a manifestation of God Mmself. This is espe cially the case in the earlier books of the Old Testament, and may be seen at once by a comparison of Gen. xxii. 11 with 12, and of Ex. iii. 2 with 6 and 14 ; where He, who is called the "angel of Jehovah" in one verse, is called "God," and even "Jehovah" in those which follow, and accepts the worship due to God alone. It is to be observed also, that, side by side with these expressions, we read of God's being manifested in the form of man ; as to Abraham at Mamre (Gen. xviii. 2, 22, comp. xix. 1), to Jacob at Penuel (Gen, xxxii. 24, 30), to Joshua at Gilgal (Josh. v. 13, 15), &c. It is hardly to be doubted that both sets of passages refer to the same kind of manifestation of the Divine Presence. The inevitable inference is that by the "Angel of the Lord" in such passages is meant He, who is from the beginning the " Word," i. e. the Manifester or Revealer of God. Besides tMs, which is the Mghest ap plication of the word " angel," we find the phrase used of any messengers of God, such as the prophets (Is. xiii. 19; Hag. i. 13 ; Mal., iii. 1), the priests (Mal. ii. 7), and the rulers of the Christian churches (Rev. i. 20) — II. Nature of angels. — Little is said of their nature as distinct from their office. They are termed " spirits " (as in Heh. i. 14) ; but it is not asserted that the angelic* nature is incorporeal. The contrary seems expressly implied by the words in wMch our Lord declares, that, after the Resurrection, men shall be "like the angels" (Luke xx. 36); because (Phil. iii. 21) their bodies, as well as their spirits, shall have been made entirely like His. The angels are revealed to us as beings, such as man might be and will be when the power of sin and death is removed, partaking in their measure of the attributes of God, Truth, Purity, and Love, because always beholding His face (Matt. xviii. 10), and therefore being "made like Him" (1 John iii. 2). This, of course, im plies finiteness, and* therefore (in the strict sense) " imperfection " of nature, and con stant progress, both moral and intellectual, tMough all etermty. Such imperfection, con trasted with the infinity of God, is expressly ascribed to them in Job iv. 18 ; Matt. xxiv. 36 ; 1 Pet. i. 12. The finiteness of nature implies capacity of temptation ; and accord ingly we hear of " fallen angels." Of the nature of their temptation and the circum stances of their fall, we know absolutely nothing. All that is certain is, that they " left their first estate," and that they are now " angels of the devil " (Matt. xxv. 41 ; Rev. xii. 7, 9), partaking therefore of the falsehood, uncleanness, and hatred, which are his peculiar characteristics (John viii. 44). On the other hand, the title especially as signed to the angels of God, that of the " holy ones" (see Dan. iv. 13, 23, viii. 13 ; Matt. xxv. 31), is precisely the one which is given to those men who are renewed in Christ's image, but which belongs to them in actuality and in perfection oMy hereafter. (Comp. Heb. ii 10, v. 9, xii. 23.) — III. Office of the angels. — Of their office in heaven, we have, ol ANISE course, only vague prophetic glimpses (as in 1 K. xxii. 1 9 ; Is. vi. 1-3 ; Dan. vii. 9, 10 ; Rev, vi. 11, &c), which show us nothing but a never-ceasing adoration. Their office towards man is far more fully described to us. They are represented as being, in the widest sense, agents of God's Provi dence, natural and supernatural, to the body and to the soul. More par ticularly, however, angels are spoken of as ministers of what is called supernatural Providence of God; as agents in the great scheme of the spiritual redemption and sanctifica- tion of man, of which the Bible is the record. During the prophetic and kingly period, angels are spoken of only as ministers of God in the ope rations of nature. But in the cap tivity angels are revealed in a fresh •light, as watching, not only over Jerusalem, but also over heathen kingdoms, under the Providence, and to work out the designs, of the Lord. (See Zeeh. passim, and Dan. iv. 13, 23, x. 10, 13, 20, 21, &c.) The In carnation marks a new epoch of an gelic ministration. " Tlie Angel of Jehovah," the Lord of all created angels, having now descended from heaven to earth, it was natural that His servants should continue to do Him service there. The New Testament is the history of the Church of Clirist, every member of which is united to Him. Accordingly, the angelB are revealed now, as "ministering spirits" to each individual member of Christ for His spiritual guidance and aid (Heb. i. 14). In one word they are Christ's ministers of grace now, as they shall be of judgment hereafter (Matt. xiii. 39, 41, 49, xvi. 27, xxiv. 31, &c). That there are degrees of the angelic nature, ' fallen and unfallen, and special titles and agencies belonging to each, is clearly de clared by St. Paul (Eph. i. 21 ; Rom. viii. 38), but what their general nature is, it is useless to speculate. ANISE. This word occurs only in Matt. xxiii. 23. It is by no means a matter of certainty whether the amse (Pimpinella ani- sum, Lin.) or the dill (Anethum graveolens) Ib here intended, though the probability is more in favour of the latter plant. ANKLET. This word does not occur in the A. "V., but anklets are referred to in Is. iii. 16, 18, 20. They were fastened to the ankle-band of each leg, were as common as bracelets and armlets, and made of much the same materials ; the pleasant jingling and tinkling which they made as they knocked ANNAS Common DU1. (Anethum graveolens.') See art. * Anise- against each other, was no doubt one of the reasons why they were admired (" the bravery of their tinkling ornaments"). They are still worn in the East. AN 'NA. A " prophetess " in Jerusalem at the time of our Lord's presentation in the Temple (Luke ii. 36). She was of the tribe of Asher. AN'NAS, the son of one Seth, was ap pointed Mgh-priest in the year a.d. 7, by Quirinus, the imperial governor of Syria ; but was obliged by Valerius Gratus, procu rator of Judaea, to give way to Ismael, son of Phabi, at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius, A.n. 14. Ismael was succeeded by Eleazar, son of Annas ; then followed, after one year, Simon, son of Camithus, and then, after another year (about a.d. 25), Joseph Caiaphas, son-in-law of Annas (John xviii. 13). But in Luke iii. 2, Annas and Caiaphas are both called high-priests, Annas being mentioned first. Our Lord's first hearing (John xviii. 13) was before Annas, who then sent Mm bound to Caiaphas. In Acts iv. 6, Annas is plainly called the Mgh-priest, and Caiaphas merely named with others of his family. Some maintain that the two, Annas and Caiaphas, were together at the bead of the Jewish people,-!— Caiaphas as actual Mgh- priest, Annas as president of the Sanhedrim. Others again suppose that Annas held the ANOINTING 31 ANTICHRIST office of sagan, or substitute of the high- priest. \ He lived to old age, having had five sous high-priests. ANOINTING in Holy Scripture is either I. Material, with oil, or II. Spiritual, with the Holy Ghost. — I. Material.1 — 1. Ordi nary. Anointing the body or head with oil was a common practice with the Jews, as with other Oriental nations (Deut. xxviii. 40 ; Ruth iii. 3 ; Mic. vi. 15). Abstinence from it was a sign of mourning (2 Sam. xiv. 2 ; Dan. x. 3 ; Matt. vi. 17). Anointing the head with oil or ointment seems also to have been a mark of respect sometimes paid by a host to his guests (Luke vii. 46 and Ps. xxiii. 5). — 2. Official. It was a rite of inau guration into each of the three typical offices of the Jewish commonwealth, (a) Prophets were occasionally anointed to their office (1 K. xix. 16), and are called messiahs, or anointed (1 Chr. xvi. 22 ; Ps. cv. 15). (b) Priests, at the first institution of the Le- vitical priesthood, were all anointed to their offices, the sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself (Ex. xl. 15 ; Num. iii. 3) ; but after wards, anointing seems not to have been re peated at the consecration of ordinary priests, but to have been especially reserved for the bigh-priest (Ex. xxix. 29 ; Lev. xvi. 32) ; so that " the priest that is anointed" (Lev. iv. 3) is generally thought to mean the high- priest, (c) Kings. Anointing was the prin cipal and divinely-appointed ceremony in the inauguration of the Jewish kings (1 Sam. ix. 16, x. 1 ; IK. i. 34, 39). The rite was some times performed more than once. David was thrice anointed to be king. After the sepa ration into two kingdoms, the kings both of Judah and of Israel seem still to have been anointed (2 K. ix. 3, xi. 12). (d) Inani mate objects also were anointed with oil in token of their being set apart for religious service. Thus 'Jacob anointed a pillar at Bethel (Gen. xxxi. 13) ; and at the introduc tion of the Mosaic economy, the tabernacle and all its furniture were consecrated by anointing (Ex. xxx. 26-28). — 3. Ecclesi astical. Anointing with oil in the name of the Lord is prescribed by St. James to be used together with prayer, by the elders of the church, for the recovery of the sick (James v. 14). Analogous to this is the anointing with oil practised by the twelve (Mark vi. 13). — II. Spiritual. — 1. In the O. T. a Deliverer is promised under the title of Messiah, or Anointed (Ps. ii. 2 ; Dan. ix. 25, 26) ; and the nature of his anointing is described to be spiritual, with the Holy Ghost (Is. lxi. 1 ; see Luke iv, 18). In the N. T. Jesus of Nazareth is shown to be the Messiah, or Christ, or Anointed of the Old Testament (John i. 41 ; Acts ix. 22, xvii. 2, 3, xviii. 4, 28) ; and the historical fact of hia being anointed with the Holy Ghost is as serted and recorded (John i. 32, 33 ; Acts iv. 27, x. 38). 2. Spiritual anointing with the noly Ghost is conferred also upon Christians by God (2 Cor. i. 21), and they are described as having an unction from the Holy One, by which they know all things (1 John ii. 20, 27). ANT (Heb. nemdldh). This insect la men tioned twice in the O. T. : in Prov. vi. 6, xxx. 25. In the former of theBe passages the diligence of this insect is instanced by the wise man as an example worthy of imitation ; in the second passage the ant's wisdom is especially alluded to, for these insects, " though they be little on the earth, are ex ceeding wise." It is well known that the ancient Greeks and Romans believed that the ant stored up food, which it collected in the summer, ready for the winter's consump tion ; but this is an error. The European species of ants are all dormant in the winter, and consequently require no food ; and the observations of modern naturalists seem almost conclusive that no ants lay up for future consumption. ANTICHRIST. This term is employed by the Apostle John alone, and is defined by him in a manner which leaves no doubt as to its intrinsic meaning. With regard to its application there is less certainty. In the first passage (1 John ii. 18) in wMch it occurs the apostle makes direct reference to the false Christs, whose coming, it had been fore told, should mark the last days. "Little children, it is the last time : and as ye have heard that the Antichrist cometh, even now have there been many Antichrists ; whereby we know that it is the last time." The allu sion to Matt. xxiv. 24 was clearly in the mind of the Syriac translator, who rendered Antichrist by " the false Christ." In ver. 22 we find, " he is the Antichrist that denieth the Father and the Son ;" and still more po sitively, " every spirit that confesseth not that Jesus CMist is come in the flesh" is of Antichrist (comp. 2 John 7). From these emphatic and repeated definitions it has been supposed that the object of the apostle in his first epistle was to combat the errors of Ce- rinthus, the Docetae, and the Gnostics on the subject of the Incarnation. The Antichrists, against which he warned the churches of Asia Minor as being already in the world, had been of their own number ; " they went out from us, but they were not of us "(1 John ii. 19) ; and the manner in which they are referred to implies that the name was already familiar to those to whom the epistle was ANTIOCH 32 ANTTOCH addressed, through the apostles' oral teach ing (2 Thess. ii. 5). The coming of Anti christ was believed to be foretold in the "vile person" of Daniel's prophecy (xi. 21), which received its first accomplishment in Antiochus Epiphanes, but of which the com plete fulfilment was reserved for the last times. He iB identified with " the man of sin, the son of perdition" (2 Thess. ii. 3), who should be revealed when he " who nowletteth" was removed ; that is, accord ing to the belief of the primitive church, when the Roman order of things ceased to be. TMs interpretation brings Antichrist into close connexion with the gigantic power of evil, sym bolised by the "beast" (Rev. xiii.), who received Ms power from the dragon (t. e. the devil, the serpent of Genesis), continued for forty and two months, and was invested with the kingdom of the ten kings who de stroyed the harlot Babylon (Rev. xvii. 12, 17), the city of seven hills. The destruction of Babylon is to be fol lowed by the rule of Antichrist for a short period (Rev. xvii. 10), to be in his turn overthrown in " the battle of flgr-s^- thafc great day of God Ahuighty" — ^^^fr' (Rev. xvi. 14) with the false prophet and all his followers (Rev. xix.). The personality of Antichrist is to be in ferred as well from the personality of his historical precursor, as from that of Him to whom he stands opposed. Such an interpretation is to be pre ferred to that which regards Anti christ as the embodiment and per- somfication of all powers and agencies inimical to Christ, or of the Antichristian might of the world. But the language of the apostles is intentionally obscure, and this ob scurity has been rather deepened than re moved by the conflicting interpretations of expositors. All that the dark hints of the apostles teach ub is, that they regarded Anti christ as a power whose influence was be ginning to be felt even in their time, but whose full development was reserved till the passing away of the principle which hindered it, and the destruction of the power sym bolised by the mystical Babylon.: ANTIOCH. 1. In Stria. The capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and afterwards the residence of the Roman governors of the pro vince wMch bore the same name. This metro polis was situated where the chain of Lebanon, runmng northwards, and the chain of Taurus, runmng eastwards, are brought to an abrupt, meeting. Here the Orontes breaks through he mountains ; and Antioch was placed a* a bend of the river, partly on an island, partly on the level wMch forms the left bank, and partly on the steep and craggy ascent of Mount SilpiuB, wMch rose abruptly on the south. In the immediate neighbourhood was Daphne, the celebrated sanctuary of Apollo (2 Mace. iv. 33) ; whence the city was some times called Antioch by Daphne, to distin guish it from other cities of the same name. — No city, after Jerusalem, is so intimately connected with the history of the apostolio church.— The chief interest of Antioch, how- M Gate of St. Paul, Antioch. ever, is connected with the progress of Chris tianity among the heathen. Here the first Gentile church was founded (Acts xi. 20, 21) ; here the disciples of Jesus Christ were first called Christians (xi. 26). It was from Antioch that St. Paul started on his three missionary journeys. The city was founded in the year 300 b.c, by Seleucus Nicator. Jews were settled there from the firBt in large numbers, were governed by their own ethnarch, and allowed to have the same poli tical privileges with the Greeks. Antioch grew under the successive Seleucid kings, till it became a city of great extent and of remarkable beauty. Some of the most mag- mficent buildings were on the island. One feature, wMch seems to have been charac teristic of the great Syrian cities, — a vast street with colonnades, intersecting the whole from end to end — was added by Antiochus Epiphanes. By Pompey it was made a free aity, and such it continued till the time of ANTIOCHUS 33 ANTIOCHUS Antoninus Pius. The early Emperors raised there some large and important structures, such as aqueducts, amphitheatres, and baths. Herod the Great contributed a road and a colonnade. — 8. In Pisidia (Acts xiii. 14, xiv. 19, 21; 2 Tim. iii. 11), on the borders of Phrygia, corresponds to Yahbatch, which is distant from Ak-sher six hours over the mountains. This city, like the Syrian An tioch, was founded by Seleucus Nicator. Under the Romans it became a colonia, and was also called Caesarea. ANTI'OCHUS II., king of Syria, surnamed the God, succeeded his father Antiochus Soter in b.c. 261. During the earlier part of his reign he was engaged in a fierce war with Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, in the course of which Parthia and Bactria revolted and became independent kingdoms. At length (b.c. 250) peace was made, and the two mon archs "joined themselves together" (Dan. xi. 6), and Ptolemy ("king of the south") gave his daughter Berenice in marriage to Antiochus ("the king of the north"), who set aside his former wife, Laodice, to receive her. After some time, on the death of Pto lemy (b.c. 247), Antiochus recalled Laodice and her children Seleucus and Antiochus to court. Thus Berenice was "not able to re tain her power ;" and Laodice, in jealous fear lest she might a second time lose her as cendancy, poisoned Antiochus (him " that strengthened her," *". e. Berenice), and caused Berenice and her infant son to be put to death, b.c. 246 (Dan. xi. 6). ANTI'OCHUS III., surnamed the Great, grandson of the preceding, succeeded his brother Seleucus Keraunos, who was assassi nated after a short reign in b.c. 223. He prosecuted the war against Ptolemy Philo- pator with vigour, and at first with success. In b.c 218 he drove the Egyptian forces to Sidon, conquered Samaria and Gilead, and wintered at Ptolemais, but was defeated nest year at Raphia, near Gaza (b.c 217), with im mense loss, and in consequence made a peace with Ptolemy, in which he ceded to him the disputed provinces of Cocle-Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine (Dan. xi. 11, 12). During the next thirteen years Antiochus was en gaged in strengthening his position in Ar.ia Minor, and on the frontiers of Parthia, and by Ms successes gained his surname of the Great. At the end of tMs time, b.c. 205, Ptolemy Philopator died, and left his king dom to his son Ftol. Epiphanes, who was only five years old. Antiochus availed him- Belf of the opportunity which was offered by the weakness of a minority and the unpopu- .arity of the regent, to unite with Philip HI. of Macedon for the purpose of conquering fca. D. B. and dividing the Egyptian dominions. He succeeded in occupying the three disputed provinces, but was recalled to Asia by a war which broke out with Attalus, king of Per- gamus ; and his ally Philip was himself em broiled with the Romans. In consequence of this diversion, Ptolemy by the aid of Scopas, again made Mmself master of Jeru salem, and recovered the territory which he had lost. In b.c. 198 Antiochus reappeared in the field and gained a decisive victory near the sources of the Jordan; and after wards captured Scopas and tbe remnant of his forces who had taken refuge in Sidon. His further designs against Egypt were frus trated by the intervention of the Romans. From Egypt Antiochus turned again to Asia Minor, and after various successes in the Aegaean crossed over to Greece, and by the advice of Hannibal entered on a war with Rome. His victorious course was checked at Thermopylae (b.c. 191), and after subsequent reverses he was finally defeated at Magnesia in Lydia, b.c 190. In b.c. 187 he attacked a rich temple of Belus in Elymais, and was slain by the people who rose in its defence. Heed of Antiochus Hi. (.From a coin.) ANTI'OCHUS IV., EPIPH'ANES (the 7Z- lustrious), was the youngest son of Antiochus the Great. He was given as a hostage to the Romans (b.c. 188) after his father's defeat at Magnesia. In b.c. 175 he was released by the intervention of his brother Seleucus, who substituted his own son Demetrius in his place. Antiochus was at Athens when Se leucus was assassinated by Heliodorus. He took advantage of his position, and, by the assistance of Eumencs and Attalus, easily ex pelled Heliodorus who had usurped the crown, and Mmself " obtained the kingdom by flat teries" (Dan. xi. 21) to the exclusion of his nephew Demetrius (Dan. viii. 7). The acces sion of Antiochus was immediately followed by desperate efforts of the Hellenizing party at Jerusalem to assert their supremacy. Jason, the brother of Onias III., the high-priest, persuaded tbe king to transfer the high- ANTIOCHUS 34 ANTIOCHUS priesthood to him, and at the same time bought permission (2 Mace. iv. 9) to carry out his design of habituating the Jews to Greek customs (2 Mace. iv. 7, 20). Three years afterwards, Menelaus, of the tribe of Benjamin, supplanted Jason by offering the king a larger bribe, and was himself ap pointed Mgh-priest (2 Mace. iv. 23-26). An tiochus undertook four campaigns against Egypt, b.c 171, 170, 169, 168, with greater success than had attended his predecessor, and the complete conquest of the country was prevented only by the interference of the Romans (Dan. xi. 24; 1 Mace. i. 16 ff. ; 2 Mace. v. 11 ff.). On his return from his second Egyptian campaign (b.c. 170) he at tacked Jerusalem. The Temple was plun dered, a terrible massacre took place, and a Phrygian governor was left with Menelaus in charge of the city (2 Mace. v. 1-22 ; 1 Mace. i. 20-28). Two years afterwards, at the close of the fourth expedition, Antiochus detached a force under Apollonius to occupy Jerusalem and fortify it (1 Mace. iv. 61, v. 3 ff. ; Dan. xi. 41). The decrees then fol lowed which have rendered Ms name in famous. The Temple was desecrated, and the observance of the law was forbidden (1 Mace. i. 54). Ten days afterwards an offering was made upon the altar to Jupiter Olympius. At Jerusalem all opposition ap pears to have ceased ; but Mattathias and Ms sons organised a resistance, which preserved inviolate the name and faith of Israel. Mean while Antiochus turned his arms to the East, towards Parthia and Armenia (Dan. xi. 40). Hearing not long afterwards of the riches of a temple of Nanaea in Elymais, hung with the gifts of Alexander, he resolved to plunder it. The attempt was defeated; and though he did not fall like his father in the act of sacri lege, the event hastened his death. He re tired to Babylon, and thence to Tabae in Persia, where he died b.c. 164, having first heard of the successes of the Maccabees in restoring the Temple-worship at Jerusalem (1 Mace. vi. 1-16 ; comp. 2 Mace. i. 7-17 ?). Head of Antlochua IV. Ep' plume*. (From * coin.) ANTI'OCHUS V., EU'PATOR (of nobis descent), succeeded Ms father Antiochus IV.1 b.c. 164, while. still a child, under the guar dianship of Lysias (1 Mace. iii. 32, vi. 17), though Antiochus had on his death-bed as signed this office to Philip his own foster- brother (1 Mace. vi. 14, 15, 55 ; 2 Mace. ix. 29). Shortly after his accession he marched against Jerusalem with a large army to re lieve the Syrian garrison, which was hard pressed by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Mace. vi. 19 ff.). He repulsed Judas at Bethzacharia, and took Bethsura (Bethzur) after a vigorous resistance (1 Mace. vi. 31-50). But when the Jewish force in the Temple was on the point of yielding, Lysias persuaded the king to conclude a hasty peace that he might ad vance to meet Philip, who had returned from Persia and made himself master of Antioch (1 Mace. vi. 51 ff.). Philip was' speedily overpowered ; but in the next year (b.c 162) Antiochus and Lysias fell into the hands of Demetrius Soter, the son of Seleucus Philo- pator, who caused them to be put to death (1 Mace. vii. 2-4 ; 2 Mace. xiv. 1, 2). Head of A^itioohua VL (Prom a ooln.) ANTI'OCHUS VI. was the son of Alex ander Balas and Cleopatra. After his father's death (146 b.c.) he remained in Arabia; but though still a child (1 Mace. xi. 54), he was soon afterwards brought forward (c. 145 b.c.) as a claimant to the throne of Syria against Demetrius Nicator by Tryphon or Diodotus (1 Mace. xi. 39), who had been an officer of his father. Tryphon succeeded in gaining Antioch (1 Mace. xi. 56) ; and after wards the greater part of Syria submitted to the young Antiochus. He afterwards defeated the troops of Demetrius at Hazor (1 Mace. xi. 67) near Cadesh (ver. 73) : and repulsed a second attempt which he made to regain Palestine (1 Mace. xii. 24 ff.). Tryphon having now, with the assistance of Jonathan the Mgh-priest, gained the eupreme power in the name of Antiochus, no longer concealed ANTIOCHUS 35 APOLLOS his design of usurping the crown. As a first step he took Jonathan by treachery and put him to death, n.c. 143 (1 Mace. xii. 40) ; and afterwards murdered the young king, and ascended the throne (1 Mace. xiii. 31). ANTI'OCHUS VII., SIDE'TES (of Side, In Pamphylia), king of Syria, was the second son of Demetrius I. When his brother, De metrius Nicator, was taken prisoner (c. 141 B.c) by Mithridates I. (Arsaces VI., 1 Maec. xiv. 1) king of Parthia, he married his wife Cleopatra and obtained possession of the throne (137 b.c), having expelled the usurper Tryphon (1 Mace. xv. 1 ff.). At first he made a very advantageous treaty with Simon, Mgh-priest of the Jews, but when he grew independent of his help, he withdrew the concessions which he had made, and demanded the surrender of the fortresses which the Jews held, or an equivalent in money (1 Mace xv. 26 ff.). As Simon was unwilling to yield to his demands, he sent a force under Cende- baeus against him, who occupied a fortified position at Cedron (? 1 Mace. xv. 41), near Azotus, and harassed the surrounding country. After the defeat of Cendebaeus by the sons of Simon and the destruction of his works (1 Mace. xvi. 1-10), Antiochus laid siege to Jerusalem, hut granted honourable terms to John Hyrcanus (b.c. 133), who had made a vigorous resistance. In a campaign against the Parthians he was entirely defeated by Phraortes II. (Arsaces VII.), and fell in the battle c. b.c 127-6. AN'TIPAS. [Herod.] ANTIPA'TRIS, a town to which the sol diers conveyed St. Paul by night on their march (Acts xxiii. 31). Its ancient name was Capharsaba ; and Ilerod, when he rebuilt the city, changed it .to Antipatris, in honour of Ms father Antipater. The village Kefr-Saba Etill retains the ancient name of Antipatris. APES (Heb. kophim) are mentioned in 1 K. x. 22, and 2 Chr. ix. 21. There can be little doubt but that the apes were brought from the same country which supplied ivory and pea cocks, both of which are common in Ceylon ; and Sir E. Tennent has drawn attention to the fact that the Tamil names for apes, ivory, and peacocks, are identical with the Hebrew. APHARSATH'CHITES, APHAR'SITES, APHAR'SACITES, the names of certain tribes, colonies from which had been planted in Samaria by the Assyrian leader Asnapper (Ezr, iv. 9, v. 6). The first and last are re garded as the same. Whence these tribes came is entirely a matter of conjecture. A'PHEK, the name of several pla'ces in Palestine. — 1. A royal city of the Canaanites, the king of which was killed by Joshua (Josh. xii, ]8), probably the same as Aphekah in Josh. xv. 53.-2. A city, apparently m the extreme north of Asher ^Josh. xix. 30), from which the Canaanites were not ejected (Judg. i. 31 ; though here it is Aphik). TMs is pro bably the same place as Aphek (Josh. xiii. 4), on the extreme north " border of the Amo rites," identified with the Aphaca of classical times, the modern Afka. — 3. A place at which the Philistines encamped while the Israelites pitched in Eben-ezer, before the fatal battle in which the sons of Eli were killed and the ark taken (1 Sam. iv. 1). This would be somewhere to the N.W. of, and at no great distance from Jerusalem. — 4. The scene of another encampment of the Philis tines, before an encounter not less disastrous than that just named, — the defeat and death of Saul (1 Sam. xxix. 1). It is possible that it may be the same place as the preceding. — . 5. A city on the military road from Syria to Israel (1 K. xx. 26). It is now found in Fik, at the head of the Wady Mk, 6 miles east of the Sea of Galilee. APOCALYPSE. [Revelation.] APOC'RYPHA. The collection of Books to which this term is popularly applied in cludes the following (the order given is that in which they stand in the English version) : —I. 1 Esdras ; II. 2 Esdras ; III. Tobit ; IV. Judith ; V. The rest of the chapters of the Book of Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew nor in the Chaldee ; VI. The Wisdom of Solomon ; VII. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus ; VIII. Baruch ; IX. The Song of the Three Holy Children ; X. The History of Susanna ; XI. The History of the destruction of Bel and the Dragon ; XII. The Prayer of Manasses, king of Judah ; XIII. 1 Maccabees ; XIV. 2 Maccabees. The primary meaning of Apo- crypha, " hidden, secret," seems, towards the close of the 2nd century, to have been associated with the signification " spurious," and ultimately to have settled down into the latter. The separate books of this collection are treated of in distinct Articles. Their re lation to the canonical books of the Old Tes tament is discussed under Canon. APOLLO'NIA, a city of Macedonia, through which Paul and Silas passed in their way from Philippi and Arophipolis to Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 1). According to the Antonine Itinerary, it was distant 30 Roman miles from Amphipolis, and 37 Roman miles from Thessalonica. APOL'LOS, a Jew from Alexandria, elo quent (which may also mean learned) and mighty in the Scriptures : one instructed in the way of the Lord, according to the im perfect view of the disciples of John tbe Baptist (Acts xviii. 25^, but on his coming D 2 APOLLYON 36 APOSTLE to Ephesus during a temporary absence of St. Paul, a.d. 54, more perfectly taught by Aquila and Priscilla. After this he became a preacher of the Gospel, first in Achaia and then in Corinth (Acts xviii. 27, xix. 1), where he watered that which Paul had planted (1 Cor. iii. 6). When the apostle wrote his first Epistle to the Corinthians, Apollos was with or near him (1 Cor. xvi. 12), probably at Ephesus in a.d. 57 : we hear of him then that he was unwilling at that time to journey to Corinth, but would do so when he should have convenient time. ne is mentioned but once more in the N. T-, in Tit. iii. 13. Afterthis nothing is known of Mm. Tradition makes him bishop of Caesarea. It has been supposed by some that Apollos was the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews. APOL'LYON, or, as it is literally in the margin of the A. V. of Rev. ix. 11, "a de stroyer," is the rendering of the Hebrew word Abaddon, " the angel of thj bottomless pit." Tbe angel Apollyon is further described as the Mng of the locusts which rose from the smoke of the bottomless pit at the sounding ot the fifth trumpet. From the occurrence of the word in Ps. lxxxviii. 11, the Rabbins have made Abaddon the nethermost of the two regions into which they divide the lower world. But that in Rev. ix. 11, Abaddon is the ange. and nut the abyss, is perfectly evident in the Greek, There is no authority for connecting it with "the destroyer" alluded to in 1 Cor. x. 10. APOSTLE (one sent forth), in the N. T., originally the official name of those Twelve of the disciples whom Jesus chose to send forth first to preach the Gospel, and to be with Him during the course of his ministry on earth. The word also appears to have been used in a non-official sense to designate a much wider circle of Christian messengers and teachers (see 2 Cor. viii. 23 ; Phil. ii. 25). It is only of those who were officially designated Apostles that we treat in this article. The original qualification of an Apostle, as stated by St. Peter, on the occasion of electing a successor to the traitor Judas, was, that he should have been personally acquainted with the whole ministerial course of our Lord, from his baptism by John till the day when he was taken up into Heaven. The Apostles were from the lower ranks of life, simple and uneducated ; some of them wore related to Jesus according to the flesh ; some had previously been disciples of John the Baptist. Our Lord chose them early in his public career, though it is uncertain precisely at what time. Some of them had certaiMy partly attached themselves to Him before ; but after their call as Apostles they appear to have been continuously with Him, or in Ms service. They seem to have been all on an equality, both during and after the ministry of Christ on earth. Early in our Lord's ministry, He sent them out two and two to preach repentance, and perforin miracles in his name (Matt. x. ; Luke ix.). This their, mission was of the nature of a solemn call to the children of Israel, to whom it was confined (Matt. x. 5, 6). The Apostles were early warned by their Master of the solemn nature and the danger of their calling (Matt. x. 17). They accompanied Him in his journeys of teaching and to the Jewish feasts, saw his wonderful works, heard his discourses addressed to the people, and made inquiries of Him on religious matters. They recognised Him as the Christ of God (Matt. xvi. 16; Luke ix. 20), and ascribed to Hire supernatural power (Luke ix. 54) ; but in the recognition of the spiritual teaching and mission of Christ, they made very slow pro gress, held back as they were by weakness of apprehension and by national prejudices. Even at the removal of our Lord from the earth they were yet weak in their know ledge (Luke xxiv. 21 ; John xvi. 12), though he had for so long been carefully preparing and instructing them. And when that hap pened of which He had so often forewarned them — his apprehension by the chief priests and Pharisees — they all forsook Him and fled (Matt. xxvi. 56). They left his burial to one who was not of their number and to the women, and were only convinced of his resurrection on the very plainest proofs fur nished by himself. On the Feast of Pente cost, ten days after our Lord's ascension, the Holy Spirit came down on the assembled church (Acts ii.) ; and from that time tbe Apostles became altogether different men, giv ing witness with power of the life and death and resurrection of Jesus as He had declared they should (Luke xxiv. 48 ; Acts i. 8, 22, ii. 32, iii. 15, v. 32, xiii. 31). First of all the mother-church at Jerusalem grew up under their hands (Acts iii. -vii.), and their superior dignity and power were universally acknow ledged by the rulers and the people (Acts v. 12 ff.). Even the persecution which arose about Stephen, and put the first check on the spread of the Gospel in Judaea, does not seem to have brought peril to the Apostles (Acts viii. 1). Their first mission out of Jerusalem was to Samaria (Acts viii. 5-25), where the Lord himself had, during his ministry, sown the seed of the Gospel. Here ends, properly speaking (or rather perhaps with the general visitation hinted at in Actt ix. 31), the first period of the Apostles'- agency, during which its centre is Jerusalem, APPEAL 37 ARABAH and the prominent figure is that of St. Peter. — The centre of the second period of the apostolic agency is Antioch, where a church soon was built up, consisting of Jews and Gentiles ; and the central figure of this and of the subsequent period is St. Paul. The third apostolic period is marked by the almost entire disappearance of the Twelve from the sacred narrative, and the exclusive agency of St. Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles. Of the missionary work of the rest of the Twelve, we know absolutely nothing from the 6acrcd narrative. — As regards the apostolic office, it seems to have been pre-eminently that of founding the churches, and upholding them by supernatural power specially bestowed for that purpose. It ceased, as a matter of course, with its first holders : all continua tion of it, from the very conditions of its ex istence (cf. 1 Cor. ix. 1), being impossible. APPEAL. The principle of appeal was recognized by the Mosaic law in the esta blishment of a central court under the pre sidency of the judge or ruler for the time being, before which all cases too difficult for the local courts were to be tried (Deut. xvii. 8-9). According to the above regulation, the appeal lay in the time of the Judges to the judge (Judg. iv. 5), and under the mon archy to the king, who appears to have deputed certain persons to inquire into the facts of the case, and record his decision thereon (2 Sam. xv. 3). Jehoshaphat dele gated his judicial authority to a court per manently established for the purpose (2 Chr. xix. 8). These courts were re-established by Ezra (Ezr. vii. 25). After the institution of the Sanhedrim the final appeal lay to them. St. Paul, as a Roman citizen, exercised a right of appeal from the jurisdiction of the local court at Jerusalem to the emperor (Acts xxv. 11). Since the procedure in the Jewish courts at that period was of a mixed and undefined character, he availed himself of his undoubted privilege to be tried by the pure Roman law. AP'PII FOR'UM, a well-known station on the Appian Way, the great road which led from Rome to the neighbourhood of the Bay of Naples (Acts xxviii. 13). There is no difficulty in identifying the site with some ruins near Treponti. [Three Taverns.] APPLE-TREE, APPLE (Heb. tappiiach). Mention of the apple-tree occurs in the A. V. in Cant. ii. 3, viii. 5, and Joel i. 12. The fruit of this tree is alluded to in Prov. xxv. 11, and Cant. ii. 5, vii. 8. It is a difficult matter to say what is the specific tree denoted by the Hebrew word tappuach. Most modern writers maintain that it is either the quince or the citron. The quince has some plausible wguments in its favour. ItB fragrance was held in high esteem by the ancients. The quince was sacred to Venus. On the other hand, Dr. Royle says, " The rich colour, fragrant odour, and handsome appearance of the citron, whether in flower or in fruit, are particularly suited to the passages of Scrip ture mentioned above." But neither the quince nor the citron nor the apple appears fully to answer to all the Scriptural allu sions. The orange would answer all the de mands of the Scriptural passages, and orange- trees are found in Palestine ; but there does not appear sufficient evidence that this tree was known in the earlier times to the in habitants of Palestine. The question of identi fication, thereforo, must still be left an open one. AQ'UILA, a Jew whom St. Paul found at Corinth on Ms arrival from Athens (Acts xviii. 2). He was a native of Pontus, but had fled, with his wife Priscilla, frnui Rome, in consequence of an order of Claudius com manding all Jews to leave the city. He be came acquainted with St. Paul, and they abode together, and wrought at their com mon trade of making the Cilician tent or hair cloth. On the departure of the Apostle from Corinth, a year and six months after, Priscilla and Aquila accompanied him to Ephesus. There they remained, and there they taught Apollos. At what time they became Chris tians is uncertain. AR, or AR OF MOAB, one of the chief places of Moab (Is. xv. 1 ; Num. xxi. 28). In later times the place was known as Areo- polis and Rabbath-Moab. The site is still called Rabba ; it lies about half-way between Kerak and the Wady Mojeb, 10 or 11 miles from each, the Roman road passing through it. AR'ABAH. Although this word appears in the A. V. in its original shape only in Josh, xviii. 18, yet in the Hebrew text it »s of frequent occurrence. It indicates more particularly the deep-sunken valley or trench which forms the most striking among the many striking natural features of Palestine, and which extends with great unifoimity of formation from the slopes of Hermon to the ElaMtic Gulf (Gulf of Akabah) of the Red Sea ; the most remarkable depression known to exist on the surface of the globe. Through the northern portion of this extraordinary fissure the Jordan rushes through the lake* of Huleh and Gennesareth down its tortuous course to the deep chasm of the Dead Sea. This portion, about 150 miles in length, is known amongst the Arabs by the name of el- Qhor. The southern boundary of the Ghor is the wall of cliffs which crosses the valley about 10 miles south of the Dead Sea. From their summits, southward to the Gulf ol Akabah, the valley changes its name, or, it ARABIA 38 ARABIA ¦would be more accurate to say, retains its old name of Wady eUArabah. ARA'BIA, a country known in the O. T. Tinder two designations: — 1. The East Country (Gen. xxv. 6) ; or perhaps the East (Gen. x. 30 ; Num. xxiii. 7 ; Is. ii. 6) ; and Land of the sons of the East (Gen. xxix. 1) ; Gentile name, Sons of the East (Judg. vi. 3, vii. 12 ; 1 K. iv. 30 ; Job i. 3 ; Is. xi. 14 ; Jer. xlix. 28 ; Ez. xxv. 4). From these pas sages it appears that the Land of the East and Sons of the East indicate, primarily, the country east of Palestine, and the tribes de scended, from Ishmael and from Keturah ; and that this original signification may have become gradually extended to Arabia and its inhabitants generally, though without any strict limitation. 2. 'Arab and 'Arab, whence Arabia (2 Chr. ix. 14; Is. xxi. 13; Jer. xxv. 24; Ez. xxvii. 21). This name seems to have the same geographical reference as the former name to the country and tribes east of the Jordan, and chiefly north of the Arabian peninsula, — Arabia may be divided into Arabia Proper, containing the whole peninsula as far as the limits of the northern deserts ; Northern Arabia, constituting the' great desert of Arabia ; and Western Arabia, the desert of Petra and the peninsula of Sinai, or the country that has been called Arabia Petraea. I. Arabia Proper, or the Arabian peninsula, consists of Mgh table-land, declin ing towards the north ; its most elevated por tions being the chain of mountains running nearly parallel to the Red Sea, and the terri tory east of the southern part of this chain. So far as the interior has been explored, it consists' of mountainous and desert tracts, relieved by large districts under cultivation, well peopled, watered by wells and streams, and enjoying periodical rains. The most fertile tracts are those on the south-west and south. — II. Northern Arabia, or the Arabian Desert, is a high, undulating, parched plain, of which the Euphrates forms the natural boundary from the Persian Gulf to the frontier of Syria, whence it is bounded by the latter country and the desert of Petra on the north-west and west, the peninsula of A /tibia forming its southern limit. It has few oases, the water of the wells is generally either brackish or unpotable, and it is visited by the sand-wind called Samoom. The in habitants were known to the ancients as "dwellers in tents" (comp. Is. xiii. 20; Jer. xlix. 31 ; Ezek. xxxviii. 11) ; and they extended from Babylonia on the east (comp. Num. xxiii. 7; 2 Chr. xxi. 16; Is. ii. 6, xiii. 20), to the borders of Egypt on the west. These tribes, principally descended from Ishmael and from Keturah, have always led a wandering and pastoral life. They conducted a considerable trade of merchan dise of Arabia and India from the shores of the Persian Gulf (Ez. xxvii. 20-24), whence a chain of oases still forms caravan-stations ; and they likewise traded from the western portions of the peninsula. The latter traffic appears to be frequently mentioned in con nexion with Ishmaelites, Keturahites, and other Arabian peoples (Gen. xxxvii. 25, 28; 1 K. x. 15, 25; 2 Chr. ix. 14, 24; Is.lx. 6; Jer. vi. 20) : it seems, however, to have been chiefly in the hands of the inhabitants of Idumaea. — III. Western Arabia includes the peninsula of Sinai [Sinai], and the desert of Petra, corresponding generally with the limits of Arabia Petraea. The latter name is probably derived from that of its chief city ; not from its stony character. It was in the earliest times inhabited by a people whose genealogy is not mentioned in the Bib»e, the Horites or Horim (Gen. xiv. 6, xxxvi. 20, 21, 22, 29, 30 ; Deut. ii. 12, 22). [Horites.] But it was mostly peopled by descendants of Esau, and was generally known as the land of Edom, or Idumaea [Edom] ; as well as by its older appellation, the desert of Seir, or Mount Seir [Seir]. The common origin of the Idumaeans from Esau and Ishmael is found in the marriage of the former with a daughter of the latter (Gen. xxviii. 9, xxxvi. 3). The Nabathaeans succeeded to the Idu maeans. — Inhabitants. — 1. The descendants of Johtan occupied the principal portions of the south and south-west of the peninsula, with colonies in the interior. In Genesis (x. 30) it is said, "and their dwelling was from Mcsha, as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount of the East (Kedem)." The principal Joktanite kingdom, and the chief state of ancient Arabia, was that of the Yemen, founded (according to the Arabs) by Yaarub, the son (or descendant) of Kahtan (Joktan). This was the Biblical kingdom of Sheba. Its rulers, and most of its people, were descend ants of Seba" , (= Sheba), whence the classical Sabaei. The dominant family was apparently that of Himyer, son (or descendant) of SebiL A member of this family founded the more modern Mngdom of the Himyerites. Native tradition seems to prove that the latter ap pellation represented the former only shortly before the Christian era. The rule of the Himyerites (whence the Someritae of classical authors) probably extended over the modern Yemen, Radramawt, and Mahreh. Their kingdom lasted until a.d. 525, when it fell before an Abyssinian invasion. The other chief Joktanite kingdom was that of the Hijuz, founded by Jurhum, the brother of Yaarub, who left the Yemen and settled in the neighbourhood of Mekkeh. This king dom, situate in a less fertile district than tho ARABIA 39 ARAM Yemen, and engaged in conflict with abori ginal tribes, never attained the importance of that of the south. — 2. The Ishmaelites appear to have entered the peninsula from the north-west. That they have spread over the whole of it (with the exception of one or two districts on the soxith coast), and that the modern nation is predominantly Ish- maelite, is asserted by the Arabs. They ex tended northwards from the Hijaz into the Arabian desert, where they mixed with Keturahites and other Abrahamic peoples : and westwards to Idumaea, where they mixed with Edomites, &c. The tribes sprung from Ishmael have always been governed by petty chiefs or heads of families (sheykhs and emeers) : they have generally followed a patriarchal life, and have not originated kingdoms, though they have in some instances succeeded to those of the Joktanites, the principal one of these being that of El- Heereh. With reference to the Ishmaelites generally, there is doubt as to the wide extension given to them by Arab tradition. — 3. Of the descendants of Keturah the Arabs say little. They appear to have settled chiefly north of the pemnsula in Desert Arabia, from Palestine to the Persian Gulf. — 4. In Northern and Western Arabia are other peoples which, from their geographical posi tion and mode of life, are sometimes classed with the Arabs. Of these are Amaleji, the descendants of Esau, &c. — Religion. The most ancient idolatry of the Arabs we must conclude to have been fetishism, of which there are striking proofs in the sacred trees and stones of historical times, and in the worship of the heavenly bodies, or Sabaeism. Magianism, an importation from Chaldaea and Persia, must be reckoned among the religions of the Pagan Arabs ; but it never had very numerous followers. Christianity was introduced into Southern Arabia towards the close of the 2nd century, and about a century later it had made great progress. It floui'ished chiefly in the Yemen, where many churches were built. Judaism was propa gated in Arabia, principally by Karaites, at the captivity, but it was inhoduced before that time : it became very prevalent in tbe Yemen, and in the Hijaz, especially at Khey- bar and El-Medeeneh, where there are said to be still tribes of Jewish extraction. — Language. Arabic, the language of Arabia, is the most developed and the richest of the Shemitic languages, and the only one of which we have an extensive literature : it is, therefore, of great importance to the study of Hebrew. Of its early phases we know no thing ; wMle we have archaic monuments of the Himyeritic (the ancient language of southern Arabia), though we cannot fix their precise ages. It is probable that in the 14th or 13th cent, b.c, the Shemitic languages differed much less than in after times. But it appears from 2 K. xviii. 20, that in the 8th cent, b.c only the educated classes among the Jews understood Aramaic. With these evidences before us, we think that the Him yeritic is to be regarded as a sister of the Hebrew, and the Arabic (commonly so called) as a sister of the Hebrew and Aramaic, or, in its classical phasis, as a descendant of a sister of these two, but that the Himyeritic is mixed with an African language, and that the other dialects of Arabia are in like manner, though in a much less degree, mixed with an African language. — The manners and customs of the Arabs are of great value in illustrating the Bible. No one can mix with this people without being constantly and forcibly re minded either of the early patriarchs or of the settled Israelites. We may instance their pastoral life, their hospitality, their universal respect for age (comp. Lev. xix. 32), their familiar deference (comp. 2 K. v. 13), their superstitious regard for the beard. — Refer ences in the Bible to the Arabs themselves are still more clearly illustrated by the man ners of the modern people, in their predatory expeditions, their mode of warfare, their caravan journeys, &c. — Commerce. Direct mention of the commerce of the south docs not appear to be made in the Bible, but it seems to have passed to Palestine principally through the northern tribes. The Joktanite people of southern Arabia have always been, in contradistinction to the Ishmaelite tribes, addicted to a seafaring life. The latter were caravan-merchants ; the former, the chief traders of the Red Sea, carrying their com merce to the shores of India, as well as to the nearer coasts of Africa. ARABIANS, the nomadic tribes inhabit ing the country to the east and south of Palestine, who in the early times of Hebrew history were known as Ishmaelites and de scendants of Keturah. A'RAD, a royal city of the Canaanites, named with Horinah and Libnah (Josh. xii. 14). The wilderness of Judah was to "the south of Arad" (Judg. i. 16). It may be identified with a Mil, Tel 'Arad, an hour and a half N.E. by E. from Milh (Moladah), and 8 hours fro»i Hebron. A'RAM, the name by which the Hebrews designated, generally, the country lying to the north-east of Palestine ; the great mass of that high table-land which, rising with sudden abruptness from the Jordan and the very margin of the lake of Gennesareth, stretches, at an elevation of no less than 2000 feet above the level of the sea, to the banks of the Euphrates itself, contrasting stronglj ARARAT 40 ARARAT with the low land bordering on the Medi terranean, the "land of Canaan," or the low country (Gen. xxxi. 18, xxxiii. 18, &c). Throughout the A. V. the word is, with only a very few exceptions, rendered, as in the Vulgate and LXX.,— Syria. In the later history we meet with a number of small nations or kingdoms forming parts of the general land of Aram : — 1. Aram-Zobah, or simply Zobah (1 Sam. xiv. 47 ; 2 Sam. viii. 3 ; 1 Chr. xviii. xix.). [Zobah.] 2. Aram beth-rehob (2 Sam. x. 6), or Rehob (x. 8). [Rehob.] 3. Aram-maachah (1 Chr. xix. 6), or Maachah only (2 8am. x. 6). [Maashah.] 4. Geshur, "Jtn Aram" (2 Sam. xv. 8), usu ally named in connexion with Maachah (Deut. iii. 14 ; Josh. xiii. 11, 13, &c). [Geshur.] 5. Aram-Dammesek (Damascus) (2 Sam. viii. 5, 6 ; 1 Chr. xviii. 5, 6). The whole of these petty states are spoken of collectively under the name of " Aram " (2 Sam. x. 13), but as Damascus increased in importance it gradually absorbed the smaller powers (1 K. xx. 1), and the name of Aram was at last applied to it alone (Is. vii. 8; also 1 K. xi. 24, 25, xv. 18, &c). In three passages Aram would seem to denote Assyria (2 K. xviii. 26; Is. xxxvi. 11 ; Jer. xxxv. 11). — 2. Another Aram is named in Gen. xxii. 21, as a son of Kemuel, and de scendant of Nahor. AR'ARAT, a mountainous district of Asia n»entioned in the Bible in connexion with the following events : — (1.) Ab the resting-place of the Ark after the Deluge (Gen. viii. 4) : (2.) as the asylum of the sons of Sennacherib (2 K. xix. 37 ; Is. xxxvii. 38 ; A. V. has " the land of Armenia ") : (3.) as the ally, and probably the neighbour, of Minni and Ashchenaz (Jer, li. 27). [Armenia.] The name Ararat was unknown to the geographers of Greece and Rome, as it still is to the Armenians of the present day : but that it was an indigenous and an ancient name for a portion of Armenia, appears from the state ment of Moses of Chorene, who gives Araratia or, the designation of the central province. In its Biblical sense it is descriptive generally of the Armenian highlands — the lofty plateau which overlooks the plain of the Araxes on the N., and of Mesopotamia on the S. Vari ous opinions have been put forth as to the spot where the Ark rested, as described in Gen. viii. 4 ; but Berosus tbe Chaldaean, contemporary with Alexander the Great, fixes the spot on the mountains of Kur distan. Tradition still points to the Jebel Judi as the scene of the event. Europeans have given the name Ararat exclusively to the mountain which is called Massis by the Armenians, Agrt-Dagh, i. e. Steep Mountain, by the Turks, and Kuh-i-Nuh, i. e. Noah's Mountain, by the Persians. It rises im mediately out of the plain of the Araxes, and terminates in two corneal peaks, named the Great and Less Ararat, about seven miles distant from each other ; the former of which attains an elevation of 17,260 feet above the level of the sea and about 14,000 above the plain of the Araxes, while the latter is lower by 4000 feet. The summit of the higher is covered with eternal snow for about 3000 feet. It is of volcanic origin. The summit of Ararat was long deemed inaccessible. It was first ascended in 1829 by Parrot, who approached it from the N.W. Arguri, the only village known to have been built on its slopes, was the spot where, according to tradition, Noah planted his vineyard. Lower down, in the plain of Araxes, is Nachdjevan, where the patriarch is reputed to have been buried. Returning to the broader significa tion we have assigned to the term, " the mountains of Ararat," as co-extensive with the Armenian plateau from the base of Ararat in the N. to the range of Kurdistan in the S., we notice the following characteristics of that region as illustrating the Bible narrative : — (1.) Its elevation. It rises to a height ot from 6000 to 7000 feet above the level of the sea. (2.) Its geographical position. The Armenian plateau stands equidistant from the Euxine and the Caspian seas on the N., and between the Persian Gulf and the Medi terranean on the S. Viewed with reference to the dispersion of the nations, Armenia is the true centre of the worid : and at the present day Ararat is the great boundary- stone between the empires of Russia, Turkey, and Persia. (3.) Its physical character. The plains as well as the mountains supply evi dence of volcanic agency. Armenia, how ever, differs materially from other regions of similar geological formation, inasmuch as it does not rise to a sharp well-defined central crest, hut expands into plains or steppes, separated by a graduated series of subordinate ranges. (4.) The climate. Winter lasts from October to May, and is succeeded by a brief spring and summer of intense heat. In April the Armenian plains are still covered with snow ; and in the earlj part of Sep tember it freezes keenly at night. (5.) The vegetation. Grass grows luxuriantly on the plateau, and furnishes abundant pasture during the summer months to the flocks of the nomad Kurds. Wheat, barley, and vines ripen at far higher altitudes than on the Alps and the Pyrenees ; and the harvest is brought to maturity with wonderful speed. ARAU'NAH, a Jebusite who sold Ms threshing-floor on Mount Moriah to David as a site for an altar to Jehovah, together with his oxen (2 Sam. xxiv. 18-24 ; 1 Chr.xxi. 25-)* ARBA 41 ARGOB AR'BA, the progenitor of the Anakim, or ¦ons of Anak, from whom their chief city Hebron received its name of Kirjath-Arba, (Josb. xiv. 15, xv. 13, xxi. rl). AR'BAH. Hebron, or Kirjath-Arba, as " the city of Arbah " is always rendered else where (Gen. xxxv. 27). ARBE'LA, mentioned in the Bible only in 1 Mace. ix. 2. It is identified with the modern Irbid, a site with a few ruinB, west of Mejdel, on the south-east side of the Wady Eamdm, in a small plain at the foot of the Mil of Kurun Hattin. ARCHELA'US, son of Herod the Great, by a Samaritan woman, Malthak6, and, with his brother Antipas, brought up at Rome. At the death of Herod (b.c 4) his kingdom was divided between Ms three sons, Herod Anti- pas, Archelaus, and Philip. Archelaus never properly bore the title of king (Matt. ii. 22), but oniy that of ethnarch. In the tenth year of his reign, or the ninth, according to Dion Cassius, i. e. a.d. 6, a complaint was preferred against him by his brothers and his subjects on the ground of his tyranny, in consequence of which he was banished to Vienne in Gaul, where he is generally said to have died. ARCHERY. [Arms.] ARCHIP'PUS, a Christian teacher in Colossae (Col. iv. 17), called by St. Paul Ms "fellow-soldier," (Philem. 2). He was pro bably a member of Philemon's family. ARCHITECTURE. The book of Genesis (iv. 17, 20, 22) appears to divide mankind into great characteristic sections, viz., the " dwellers in tents " and the " dwellers in cities." To the race of Shem is attributed (Gen. x. 11, 12, 22, xi. 2-9) the foundation of those cities in the plain of Shinar, Babylon, Nineveh, and others ; of one of which, Resen, the epithet " great " sufficiently marks its importance in the time of the writer. It is in connexion with Egypt that the Israelites appear first as builders of cities, compelled to labour at the buildings of the Egyptian mon archs. Pithom and Raamses are said to have been built by them (Ex. i. 11). They were by occupation shepherds, and by habit dwel lers in tents (Gen. xlvii. 3). They had therefore originally, speaking properly, no architecture. From the time of the occupa tion of Canaan they became dwellers in towns and in houses of stone (Lev. xiv. 34, 45 ; 1 K. vii. 10) ; but these were not in all, nor indeed in most cases, built by themselves (Deut. vi. 10 ; Num. xiii. 19). The peaceful reign and vast wealth of Solomon gave great impulse to architecture ; for besides the Temple and his other great works, he bMlt fortresses and cities in various places, among which Baalath and Tadmor are in all proba bility represented by Baalbec and Palmyra (1 K. ix. 15, 24). Among the succeeding- kings of Israel and of Judah, more than one is recorded as a builder : Asa (1 K. xv. 23), Baasha (xv. 17), Omri (xvL 24), Ahab (xvi. 32, xxii. 39), Hezekiah (2 K. xx, 20 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 27-30), Jehoash, and Josiah (2 K. xii. 11, 12, xxii. 6) ; and, lastly, Jehoiakim, whose winter palace is mentioned (Jer. xxii. 14, xxxvi. 22; see also Am. iii. 15). On the return from captivity the chief care of the rulers was to rebuild the Temple and the walls of Jerusalem in a substantial manner, with stone, and with timber from Lebanon (Ezr. iii. 8, v. 8 ; Neh. ii. 8, iii.). But the reigns of Herod and his successors were espe cially remarkable for their great architectural works. Not only was the Temple restored but the fortifications and other public build ings of Jerusalem were enlarged and embel lished (Luke xxi. 5). The town of Caesarea was bMlt on the site of Strato's Tower; Samaria was enlarged, and received the name of Sebaste. Of the original splendour of these great works no doubt can be enter tained ; but of their style and appearance we can only conjecture that they were formed on Greek and Roman models. The enormous stones employed in the Assyrian, Persepolitan, and Egyptian buildings, find a parallel in the substructions of Baalbec and in the huge blocks which etill remain at Jerusalem, relics of the buildings either of Solomon or of Herod. But few monuments are known to exist in Palestine by which we can form an accurate idea of its buildings, and even of those which do remain no trustworthy examination haa yet been made. It is probable, however, that the reservoirs known under the names of the Pools of Solomon and Hezekiah contain some portions at least of the original fabrics. ARCTU'RUS. The Hebrew words 'Ash and 'Aish, rendered " Arcturus " in the A. V. of Job ix. 9, xxxviii. 32, in conformity with the Vulg. of the former passage, are now generally believed to be identical, and to represent the constellation Ursa Major, known commoMy as the Great Bear, ot Charles's Wain. AREOP'AGUS. [Mars' Hill.] AR'ETAS. 1. A contemporary of Antiochus Epiphanes (b.c. 170) and Jason (2 Mace. v. 8). — 2. The Aretas alluded to by St. Paul (2 Cor. xi. 32) was father-in-law of Herod Antipas. AR'GOB, a tract of country on the east of the Jordan, in Bashan, the kingdom of Og, con taining 60 great and fortified cities. In latei times it was called Trachonitis, and it is now apparently identified with the Lejah, a very remarkable district south of Damascus, and east of the Sea of Galilee (Deut. iii. 4, 1?, 14). ARGOB 42 ARK AR'GOB, perhaps a Gileadite officer, who was governor of Argob. , He was either an accomplice of Pekah in the murder of Peka- Mah, or was slain by Pekah (2 K. xv. 25). ARIARA'THES, properly Mithridates IV., Philopator, king of Cappadocia b.c. 168-130, mentioned 1 Mace. xv. 22. He fell in b.c 130, in the war of the Romans against Aristonicus. AR'IEH. Either one of the accomplices of Pekah in his conspiracy against Pekahiah, or one of the .princes of Pekaniak, who was put to death with him (2 K. xv. 25). A'RIEL. A designation given by Isaiah to the city of Jerusalem (Is. xxix. 1, 2, 7). Its meaning is obscure. We must under stand by it either " Lion of God," or " Hearth of God." The latter meaning is suggested by the use of the word in Ez. xliii. 15, 16, as a synonym for the altar of burnt offering. On the whole it seems moat probable that, as a name given to Jerusalem, Ariel means " Lion of God," whilst the word used by Ezekiel means " Hearth of God." ARIMATHAE'A (Matt, xxvii. 57 ; Luke xxiii. 51 ; John xix. 38). St. Luke calls it *' a city of Judaea." It is identified by many with the modern Rami ah. ARIOCH. 1. The king of EUasar, one of the allies of Chedorlaomer in Ms expedition against his rebellious tributaries (Gen. xiv. J). — 2. The captain of Nebuchadnezzar's body-guard (Dan. ii. 14, &c). — 3. Properly Eirioch, or Erioch, mentioned in Jud. i. 6 as king of the Elymaeans. ARISTAR'CHUS, a Thessalonian (Acts xx. 4, xxvii. 2), who accompanied St. Paul on his third missionary journey (Acts xix. 29). He was with the apostle on his return to Asia (Acts xx. 4) ; and again (xxvii. 2) on his voyage to Rome. We trace him after wards as St. Paul's fellow-prisoner in Col. iv. 10, and Philem. 24. Tradition makes Mm bishop of Apamea. ARISTOBU'LUS. 1. A Jewish priest (2 Mace. i. 10), who resided in Egypt in the reign of Ptolemaeus VI. Philometor. There can be little doubt that he is identical with the peripatetic philo sopher of that name, who dedicated to Ptol. Philometor his allegoric exposi tion of the Pentateuch. — 2. A resident at Rome, some of whose household are greeted in Rom. xvi. 10. Tradition makes him one of the 70 disciples, and G reports that he .preached the Gospel in Britain. ARK, NOAH'S. [Noah.] ARK OF THE COVENANT. The first piece of the tabernacle's furniture, for wMch precise directions were deli vered [Ex. xxt ).— I. It appears to have been an oblong chest of shittim (acacia) wood, 2j cubits long, by l£ broad and deep. Within and without gold was overlaid on the wood, and on the upper side or lid, which was edged round about with gold, the mercy seat waB placed. The ark was fitted with rings, one at each of the four corners, and through these were passed staves of the same wood similarly overlaid, by which it was carried by the Kohathites (Num. vii. 9, x. 21). The ends of the staves were visible without the veil in the holy place of the temple of Solomon (1 K, viii. 8). The ark, when transported, was ' enveloped in the "veil" of the dismantled tabernacle, in the curtain of badgers' skins, and in a blue cloth over all, and was there fore not seen (Num. iv. 5, 20). — II. Its pur pose or object was to contain inviolate the Divine autograph of the two tables, that "covenant" from which it derived its title. It was also probably a reliquary for the pot of manna and the rod of Aaron. Occupying. the most holy spot of the sanctuary, it tended to exclude any idol from the centre of wor ship. It was also the support of the mercy seat, materially symbolising, perhaps, the "covenant" as that on which "mercy" rested. — III. The chief facts in the earlier history of the ark (see Josh. iii. and vi.) need not be recited. Before David's time its abode was frequently shifted. It sojourned among several, probably Levitical, families (1 Sam. vii. 1 ; 2 Sam. vi. 3, 11 ; 1 Chr. xiii. 13, xv. 24, 25) in the border villages of Eastern Judah, and did not take its place in the tabernacle, but dwelt in curtains, i.e. in a separate tent pitched for it in Jerusalem by David. Its bringing up by David thither was a national festival. Subsequently the Temple, when completed, received, in the installation of the ark in its shrine, the signal of its inauguration by the effulgence of Divine glory instantly manifested. When idolatry became more shameless in the king dom of Judah, Manasseh placed a "carved Egyptian Ark. tWilkhuin, 6nc. Egvi't.) ARKITE, THE 43 ARMS, ARMOUR image " m the " house of God," and pro bably removed the ark to make way for it. This may account for the subsequent state ment that it was reinstated by Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiii. 7, xxxv. 3). It was probably taken captive or destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (5 Esdr. x. 22). Prideaux's argument that there must have been an ark in the second temple is of no weight against express testi mony, such as that of Josephus. ARK'ITE, THE, one of the families of the Canaanites (Gen. x. 17 ; 1 Chr. i. 15), and from the context evidently located in the north of Phoenicia, The site which now bears the name of 'Arka lies on the coast, 2 -to 2\ hours from the shore, about 12 miles north of Tripoli, and 5 south of the Nahr el-Kebir. ARMAGED'DON, "the Mil, or city of Megiddo" (Rev. xvi. 16). The scene of the struggle of good and evil is suggested by that battle-field, tho plain of Esdraelon, which was famous for two great victories, of Barak over the Canaanites, and of Gideon over the Midianites ; and for two great disasters, the deaths of Saul and of Josiah. ARME'NIA is nowhere mentioned under that name in the original Hebrew, though it occurs in the English version (2 K. xix. 37) for Ararat. Armenia is that lofty plateau whence the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Araxes, and Acampsis, pour down their waters in different directions ; the tro first to the Persian Gulf, the last two respectively to the Caspian and Euxine seas. It may be termed the nucleus of the mountain system of western Asia: from the centre of the plateau rise two lofty chains of mountains, which run from E. to W., converging towards the Caspian sea, but parallel to each other towards the W. The slight acquaintance which the Hebrews had with this country was pro bably derived from the Phoeni cians. There are signs of their knowledge having been progres sive. Isaiah, in his prophecies regarding Babylon, speaks of the hosts as coming from the "mountains" (xiii. 4), while Jeremiah employs the specific names Ararat and Minni (li. 27). Bzekiel, apparently better ac quainted with the country, uses a name which was familiar to it* own inhabitants, Togarmah. (1.) Ararat is meaitioned as the Itlace whither the sons of Sen nacherib fled (Is. xxxvii. 38).. It was the central district sur rounding the mountain of that name. (2.) Minni only occurs in Jer. li. 27. It is pio- bably identical with the district Minyas, in the upper valley of the Murad-su branch of the Euphrates. (3.) Togarmah is noticed in two passages of Ezekiel (xxvii. 14, xxxviii. 6), both of which are in favour of its identity with Armenia. ARMLET, an ornament universal in the East, especially among women ; used by princes as one of the insignia of royalty, and by distinguished persons in general. The word is not used in the A. V., as even in 2 Sam. i. 10 they render it by "the bracelet on his arm." Sometimes only one was worn, on the right arm (Ecclus. xxi. 21). From Cant. viii. 6, it appears that the signet some times consisted of a jewel on the armlet. Assyrian Armlet. (JFvom Nineveh Marbles, British Museum.) These ornaments were used by most ancient princes. They are frequent on the sculptures of Persepolis And Nineveh, and were worn by the kings of Persia, ARMS, ARMOUR. The subject naturally divides itself into — I. Offensive weapons i Egyptian sword. ARMS, ARMOUR 44 ARMS, ARMOUR Arms. II. Defensive weapons : Armour. — I. Offensive weapons. — 1. Apparently the ear liest known and most widely used was the Chereb, or " Sword." Very little can be gathered as to its shape, size, material, or mode of use. Perhaps if anything is to be inferred it is that the Chereb was both a lighter and a shorter weapon than the modern sword. It was carried in a sheath (1 Sam. jrsiiui sword ur ueiiuico xvii. 51; 2 Sam. xx. 8 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 27), slung by a girdle (1 Sam. xxv. 13) and rest ing upon the thigh (Ps. xiv. 3 ; Judg. iii. 16), or upon the hips (2 Sam. xx. 8). Doubt less it was of metal, from the allusion to its brightness and "glittering ;" but from Josh. v. 2, 3, we may perhaps infer that in early times the material was flint. — 2. Next to the 1'eraian spears. sword was the SrEAR ; and of tMs weapon we meet with at least three distinct kinds, a. The Chanith, a " Spear," and that of the largest kind. It was the weapon of Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 7, 45 ; 2 Sara. xxi. 19 ; 1 Chr. xx. 5), and also of other giants (2 Sam. xxiii. 21 ; 1 Chr. xi. 23) and mighty warriors (2 Sam. ii. 23, xxiii. 18 ; 1 Chr. xi. 11, 20). &. Apparently lighter than the preceding was the Ctddn, or " Jave lin." When not in ac tion the Cidon was car ried on the back of the warrior (1 Sam. xvii, 6, A. V. "target"). c. Another kind of spear was the Romach. In the historical books it occurs in Num. xxv. 7, and 1 K. xviii. 28, and frequently in the later books, as in 1 Chr. xii. 8 ("buckler"), 2 Chr. xi. 12. d. The Shelach was probably a lighter missile or "dart." See 2 Chr. xxiii. 10, xxxii, 5 " darts ") ; Neh. iv. 17, 23 (see margin) ; Job xxxiii. 18, xxxvi. 12 ; Joelii. 8. e. She- bet, a rod or staff, is used once only to de note a weapon (2 Sam. xviii. 14). — 3. Of mis sile weapons of offence the chief was undoubtedly the Bow, Kesheth. It is met with in the earliest stages of the Ms- tory, in use both for the chace (Gen. xxi. 20, Egyptian bows. ARMS, ARMOUR 45 ARMY xxvii. 3) and war (xlviii. 22). The Arrows were carried in a quiver (Gen. xxvii. 3 ; Is. xxii. 6, xlix. 2; Ps. cxxvii. 5). From an allusion in Job vi. 4, they would seem to have been sometimes poisoned ; and Ps. cxx. 4 may point to a practice of using arrows with some burning material attached to them. 4. The Sling is first mentioned in Judg. xx. 16. This simple weapon with which David killed the giant Philistine was the natural attendant of a shepherd. Later in the monarchy, slingers formed part of the regular army (2 K. iii. 25). II. Armour. — 1. The Breastplate, enume rated in the description of the arms of Go liath, a " coat of mail," literally a " breast plate of scales" (1 Sam. xvii. 5). This word has furnished one of the names of Mount Hermon (see Deut. iii. 9).- — 2. The haber geon is mentioned but twice — in reference to the gown of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 32, xxxix. 23). It was probably a quilted shirt or doublet. — 3. The Hklmet is referred to in Assyrian helmets. 1 Sam. xvii. 5 ; 2 Chr, xxvi. 14 ; Ezek. xxvii. 10. — 4. Greaves, or defences for the feet made of brass, are named in 1 Sam. xvii. 6, only. — 5. Two kinds of Shield are distin- Assyrfan shields Egyptian gbiold. guishable. a. The large shield, encompassing (Ps. v. 12) the whole person. When not in actual conflict, it was carried before the warrior (1 Sam. xvii. 7, 41). b. Of smaller dimensions was the buckler or target, pro bably for use in hand-to-hand fight (1 K. x, 16, 47 ; 2 Chr. ix. 15, 16).— 6. What kind of arm was the Shelet it is impossible to de termine. By some translators it is rendered a "quiver," by some "weapons" generally, by others a " shield." It denoted certain weapons of gold taken by David from Ha- dadezer king of Zobah (2 Sam. viii. 7 ; 1 Chr. xviii. 7), and dedicated in the Temple (2 K. xi. 10 ; 2 Chr. xxiii. 9 ; Cant. iv. 4). In Jer. li. 11 ; Ezek. xxvii. 11, the word has the force of a foreign arm. ARMY. I. Jewish Army. — The military organisation of C±e Jews commenced with their departure from the land of Egypt, and was adapted to the nature of the expedition on which they then entered. Every man above 20 years of age was a soldier (Num. i. 3) : each tribe formed a regiment with its own banner and its own leader (Num. ii. 2, x. 14) : their positions in the camp or on the march, were accurately fixed (Num. ii.) : the whole army started and stopped at a given signal (Num. x. 5, 6) : thus they came up out of Egypt ready for the fight (Ex. xiii. 18). On the approach of an enemy, a con scription was made from the general body under the direction of a muster-master (Deut. xx. 5 ; 2 K. xxv. 19), by whom also the officers were appointed (Deut. xx. 9). The army was then divided into thousands and hundreds under their respective captains (Num. xxxi. 14), and still further into fami lies (Num. ii. 34 ; 2 Chr. xxv. 5, xxvi. 12), the family being regarded as the unit in the Jewish polity. With the kings arose the custom of maintaining a body-guard, which formed the nucleus of a standing army. Thus Saul had a band of 3 0 0 0 select warriors ( 1 Sam. xiii. 2, xiv. 52, xxiv. 2), and David, before his accession to the throne, 600 (1 Sam. xxiii. 13, xxv. 13). TMs band he retained after he became king, and added the Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. xv. 18, xx. 7), together with another class, Shalishim, officers of high rank, the cMef of whom (2 K. vii. 2 ; 1 Chr. xii. 18) was immediately about the king's person. David further organized a national militia, divided into twelve regiments under their respective officers, each of which was called out for one month in the year (1 Chr. xxvii. 1) ; at the head of the army when in active service he appointed a commander-in- chief (1 Sam. xiv. 50). Hitherto the army had consisted entirely of infantry (1 Sam. iv. 10, xv. 4), the use of horses having been ARNON 46 ARZA restrained by divine command (Deut. xvii. 16) ; but we find that as the foreign relations of the kingdom extended, much importance was attached to them. David had reserved a hundred chariots from the spoils of the Syrians (2 Sam. viii. 4) : these probably served as the foundation of the force which' Solomon afterwards enlarged through his alliance with Egypt (1 K. x. 26, 28, 29). It does not appear that the system established by David was maintained by the kings of Judah ; but in Israel the proximity of the hostile kingdom of Syria necessitated the maintenance of a standing army. The militia was occasionally called out in time of peace (2 Chr. xiv. 8, xxv. 5, xxvi. 11) ; but such cases were exceptional. On the other hand the body-guard appears to have been regu larly kept up (1 K. xiv. 28 ; 2 K. xi. 4, 11). Occasional reference is made to war-chariots (2 K. viii. 21) ; but in Hezckiah's reign no force of the kind could be maintained, and the Jews were obliged to seek the aid of Egypt for horses and chariots (2 K. xviii. 23, 24 ; Is. xxxi. 1). The maintenance and equipment of the soldiers at the public ex pense dates from the establishment of a standing army. It is doubtful whether the soldier ever received pay even under the kings. The numerical strength of the Jewish army cannot be ascertained with any degree of accuracy : the numbers, as given in the text, are manifestly incorrect, and the dis crepancies in the various statements irrecon cilable. II. Roman Army. — The Roman army was divided into legions, the number of which varied considerably, each under six tribuni ("chief captains," Acts xxi. 31), who com manded by turns. The legion was subdivided into ten cohorts ("band," Acts x. 1), the cohort into three maniples, and the maniple into two centuries, containing originally 100 men, as the name implies, but subsequently from 50 to 100 men, according to the strength of the legion. There were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each under the command of a centurion (Acts x. 1, 22 ; Matt. viii. 5, xxvii. 54). In addition to the legionary cohorts, independent cohorts of volunteers served under the Roman standards. One of these cohorts was named tbe Italian (Acts x. 1), as consisting of volunteers from Italy. The cohort named "Augustus" (Acts xxvii. 1) may have consisted of the volunteers from Sebaste. Others, however, think that it was s cohors Augusta, similar to the legio Augusta. The head-quarters of the Roman forces in Judaea were at Caesarea. AR'NON, the river or torrent which formed the boimdarv between Moab and the Amorites, I on the'north of Moab (Num. xxi. 13, 14, 24, 26 ; Judg. xi. 22), and afterwards between Moab and Israel (Reuben) (Deut, ii. 24, 36, iii. 8, 12, 16, iv. 48 ; Josh. xii. 1, 2, xiii. 9, 16; Judg. xi. 13, 26). There can be no doubt that the Wady el-Mojeb of the present day is the Arnon. Its principal source is near Katrane, on the Haj route. AR'OER. 1. A city on the torrent Arnon, the southern point of the territory of Sihon, king of the Amorites, and afterwards of the tribe of Reuben (Deut. ii. 36, iii. 12, iv. 48 ; Josh. xii. 2, xiii. 9, 16 ; Judg. xi. 26 ; 2 K. x. 33 ; 1 Chr. v. 8), but later again in pos session of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 19). It is the modern Ard,ir, upon the very edge of the precipitous north bank of the Wady Mojeb. — ¦ 2. Aroer "that is * facing* Rabbah" (Rabbah of Ammon), a town built by and belonging to Gad (Num. xxxii. 34 ; Josh. xiii. 25 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 5). This is probably the place men tioned in Judg. xi. 33, which was shown in Jerome's time. — 3. Aroer, in Is. xvii. 2, if a place at all, must be still further north than either of the two already named.— 4. A town in Judah, named only in 1 Sam. xxx. 28, perhaps Wady Ar'drah, on the road from Petra to Gaza. AR'PAD or AR'PHAD (Is. xxxvi. 19, xxxvii. 13), a city or district in Syria, appa rently dependent on Damascus (Jer. xlix. 23). No trace of its existence has yet been dis covered (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13 ; Is. x. 9). ARPHAX'AD, the son of Shem and an cestor of Eber (Gen. x. 22, 24, xi. 10). — 2. ARr-HAXAD, a king " who reigned over the Modes in Ecbatana" (Jud. i. 1-4) : perhaps the same as Phraortes, who fell in a battle with the Assyrians, 633 b.c ARSA'CES VI., a king of Parthia, who assumed the royal title of Arsaces in addition to his proper name, Mithridates I. (1 Mace. xiv. 1-3). ARTAXER'XES. 1. The first Artaxerxes is mentioned in Ezr. iv. 7, and appears identical with Smerdis, the Magian impostor, and pretended brother of Cambyses, who usurped the tMone b.c. 522, and reigned eight months. 2. In Neh. ii. 1 we have another Artaxerxes. We may safely identify him with Artaxerxes Macrocheir or Longi- manus, the son of Xerxes, who reigned b.c. 464-425. A'RUMAH, a place apparently in the neighbourhood of Sheehem, at which Abim- elech resided (Judg. ix. 41). AR'VAD (Ez. xxvii. 8, 11). The island of Ruad, which lies off Tortosa (Tartus), 2 or 9 miles from the Phoenician coast. AR'ZA, prefect of the palace at Tirzah to Elah king of Israel, who was assassinated ASA 47 ASHES at a banquet in his house by Zimri (1 K. xvi. 9). A'SA, son of Abijah, and third king of Judah (b.c 956-916). In his zeal against heathenism he did not spare Ms grandmother Maaehah, who occupied the special dignity of *' King's Mother," to which great importance was attached in the Jewish court. Asa burnt the symbol of her religion (1 K. xv. 13), and threw its ashes into the brook Kidron, and then deposed Maachah from her dignity. He also placed in the temple certain gifts which his father had dedicated, and renewed the great altar which the idolatrous priests appa rently had desecrated (2 Chi. xv, 8), Besides this, he fortified cities on his frontiers, and raised an army, amounting, according to 2 Chr. xiv. 8, to 580,000 men, a number probably exaggerated by an error of the copyist. During Asa's reign, Zerah, at the head of an enormous host (2 Chr. xiv. 9), attacked Mareshah. There he was utterly defeated, and driven back with immense loss to Gerar. The peace which followed this victory was broken by the attempt of Baasha of Israel to fortify Ramah. To stop this Asa purchased the help of Benhadad I. king of Damascus, by a large payment of treasure, forced Baasha to abandon his purpose, and destroyed the works which he had begun at Ramah. In his old ago Asa suffered from the gout. He died greatly loved and honoured in the 41st year of his reign. A'SAHEL, nephew of David, being the youngest son of his sister Zeruiah. He was celebrated for his swiftness of foot. When fighting under the command of his brother Joab against Ishbosheth's army at Gibeon, he pursued Abner, who was obliged to kill Mm in self-defence (2 Sam. ii. 18 ff.) A'SAPH. 1. A Levite, son of Berechiah, one of the leaders of David's choir (1 Chr. vi. 39). Psalms 1. and lxxiii.-lx xxiii. are attri buted to him ; and he was in after times celebrated as a seer as well as a musical com poser (2 Chr. xxix. 30 ; Neh. xii. 46).— 2. The father or ancestor of Joah, the recorder or chronicler to the kingdom of Judah in the reign of Hezekiah (2 K. xviii. 18, 37 ; Is. xxxvi. 3, 22). It is not improbable that this Asaph is the same as the preceding. AS'ENATH, daughter of Potipherah, priest, or possibly prince, of On [Potipherah], wife of Joseph (Gen. xii. 45), and mother of Ma- nasseh and Ephraim (xii. 50, xlvi. 20). ASH (Heb. oren) occurs only in Is. xliv. 14. It is impossible to determine what is the tree denoted by the Hebrew word ; the LXX. and the Vulg. understand some species of pine-tree. Perhaps the larch (Laryx Etvro- fuea) may be intended. A'SHAN, a city in the low country of Judah (Josh. xv. 42). In Josh. xix. 7, and 1 Chr. iv, 32, it is mentioned again as belonging to Simeon. It has not yet been identified, unless it be the same as Ain (comp. Josh. xxi. 16 with 1 Chr. vi. 59) ; in which case B,obinson found it at El Ghuwexn. ASHBE'A, a proper name, but whether of a person or place is uncertain (1 Chr. iv. 21). ASH'DOD, or AZO'TUS (Aotsviii. 40), one of the five confederate cities of the Philistines, situated about 30 miles from the southern frontier of Palestine, 3 from the Mediterra nean Sea, and nearly midway between Gaza and Joppa. It was assigned to the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 47), but was never subdued by the Israelites. Its chief importance arose from its position on the high road from Palestine to Egypt. It iB now an insig nificant village, with no memorials of its ancient importance, but is still called Esdud. ASH'DOTH-PIS'GAH, a curious and pro bably a very ancient term of doubtful mean ing, found only in Deut. iii. 17 ; Josh. xii. 3, xiii. 20 ; and in Deut. iv. 49, A. V. " springs of Pisgah." A'SHER, Apocr. and N. T. A'SER, the 8th son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's handmaid (Gen. xxx. 13). The general position of his tribe was on the sea-shore from Carmel northwards, with Manasseh on the south, Zebulun and Issachar on the south-east, and Naphtali on the north-east. The boundaries and towns are given in Josh. xix. 24-31, xvii. 10, 11; andJudg. i. 31, 32. They pos sessed the maritime portion of the rich plain of Esdraelon, probably for a distance ¦ 8 or 10 miles from the shore. This territory con tained some of the richest soil in all Palestine ; and to this fact, as well as to their proximity to the Phoenicians, the degeneracy of the tribe maybe attributed (Judg. i. 31, v. 17). A'SHER, a place which formed one bound ary of the tribe of Manasseh on the south (Josh. xvii. 7). Mr. Porter suggests that Teydslr may be the Asher of Manasseh (BZandb. p. 348). ASH'ERAH, the name of a Phoenician goddess, or rather of the idol itself (A. V. " grove "). Asherah is closely connected with Ashtoreth and her worship (Judg. iii. 7, comp. ii. 3 ; Judg. -vi. 25 ; IK. xviii. 19) ; Ashtoreth being, perhaps, the proper name of the goddess, whilst Asherah is the name of her image or symbol, which was of wood (see Judg. vi. 25-30 ; 2 K. xxiii. 14). ASHES. The ashes on the altar of burnt- offering were gathered into a cavity in its surface. On the days of the three solemn festivals the ashes were not removed, but tbe accumulation was taken away afterwards in ASHIMA 48 ASP tbe morning, the priests casting lots for the office. The ashes of a red heifer burnt entire, according to regulations prescribed in Num. xix. had the ceremonial efficacy of purifying the unclean (Heb. ix. 13), but of polluting the clean. [Sacrifice.] Ashes about the person, especially on the head, were used aa a sign of sorrow. [Mourning.] ASH'IMA, a god of the Hamathite colonists in Samaria (2 K. xvii. 30). It has been re garded as identical with the Mendesian god of the Egyptians, the Pan of the Greeks, and has also been identified with the Phoenician god Esmun. ASH'KELON, AS'KELON, Apocr. AS'CA- LON, one of the five cities of the lords of the Philistines (Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. vi. 17), but less often mentioned and apparently less known to the Jews than the other four. Samson went down from Timnath to Ash- kelon (Judg. xiv. 19), as if to a remote place whence his exploit was not likely to be heard of. In the post-biblical times Ashkelon rose to considerable importance. Near the town were the temple and sacred lake of Derceto, the Syrian Venus. The soil around was re markable for its fertility. Ascalon played a memorable part in the struggles of the Cru sades. ASH'KENAZ, one of the three sons of Gomer, son of Japhet (Gen. x. 3). We may probably recognize the tribe of Ashkenaz on the northern shore of Asia Minor, in the name of Lake Ascanius, and in Europe in the name ScandAz, nScanrf-inavia. Knobel considers that Ashkenaz is to be identified with the German race, ASH'NAH, the name of two cities, both in the Lowlands of Judah : (1) named between Zoreah and Zanoah, and therefore probably N.W. of Jerusalem (Josh. xv. 33) ; and (2) between Jiphtah and Nezib, and therefore to the S.W. of Jerusalem (Josh. xv. 43). Each, according to Robinson's Map (1857), would be about 16 miles from Jerusalem. ASH'TAROTH, and once AS'TAROTH, a city on the E. of Jordan, in Bashan, in the kingdom of Og, doubtless so called from being a seat of the worship of the goddess of the same name. It is generally mentioned as a description or definition of Og (Deut. i. 4 ; Josh. ix. 10, xii. 4, xiii. 12). The only trace of the name yet recovered in these in teresting districts is TelUAskterah, or Ashe rah, and of this nothing more than the name is known. ASH'TEROTH KARNA'IM = " Ashtaroth of the two horns or peaks," a place of very great antiquity, the abode of the Rephaim 'Gen. xiv. 5). The name reappears but once, as Carnairn, or Carnion (1 Mace. v. 26, 43, 44; 2 Mace. xii. 21, 26), in "the land ol Galaad." It is probably the modern Es- Sanamein, on the Haj route, about 25 miles S. of Damascus. ASHTO'RETH, the principal female divin ity of the PhoeMcians, called Ishtar by the Assyrians, and Astarte by the Greeks and Romans. She was by some ancient writers identified with the moon. But on the other hand the Assyrian Ishtar was not the moon- goddess, but the planet Venus ; and Astarte was by many identified with the goddess Venus (or Aphrodite) as well as with tbe planet of that name. It is certain that the worship of Astarte became identified with that of Venus, and that tMs worship was connected with the most impure rites is apparent from the close connexion of this goddess with Asherah (1 K. xi. 5, 33; 2 K. xxiii. 13). ASH'URITES, THE. This name occurs only in 2 Sam. ii. 9. By some of the old interpreters the name is taken as meaning the Geshurites, but if we follow the Targum of Jonathan, which has Beth-Asher, " the house of Asher," " the Asherites " will denote the inhabitants of the whole of the country W. of the Jordan above Jezreel. ASIA. The passages in the N.T., where this word occurs, are the following : Acts ii. 9, vi. 9, xvi. 6, xix. 10, 22, 26, 27, xx. 4, 16, 18, xxi. 27, xxvii. 2; Rom. xvi. 5; 1 Cor. xvi. 19 ; 2 Cor. i. 8 ; 2 Tim. i. 15 ; 1 Pet. i. 1 ; Rev. 1. 4, 11. In all these it maybe con fidently stated that the word is used for a Roman province which embraced the western part of the peninsula of Asia Minor, and of which Ephesus was the capital. ASIAR'CHAE (chief of Asia, A. V. ; Acts xix. 81), officers chosen annually by the cities of that part of the province of Asia, of which Ephesus was, under Roman govern ment, the metropolis. They had charge of the public games and religious theatrical spectacles, the expenses of which they bore. ASMODE'US (Tob. iii. 8, 17), the same as Abaddon or Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11; comp. Wisd. xviii. 25). From the fact that the Talmud calls him "king of the demons," some assume him to be identical with Beel zebub, and others with Azrael. In the book of Tobit this evil spirit is represented as lov ing Sara, the daughter of Raguel, and caus ing the death of her seven husbands. ASNAP'PER, mentioned In Ezr. iv. 10 as the person who Bettled the Cuthaeans in the cities of Samaria. He was probably a general of Esarhaddon. ASP (pethen). The Hebrew word occurs in the six following passages : — Deut. xxxii. 33; Job xx. 14, 16; Ps. Iviii. 5, xci. 13; Is. xL 8. It is expressed in the passages ASPALATHUS 49 ASSIDEANS from the Psalms by adder in the text of the A. V., and "by asp in the margin : elsewhere the text of the A. V. has asp as the repre- Egyptian coDra. (A'aw naje.) sentative of the original word pethen. That some kind of poisonous serpent is denoted by the Hebrew word is clear from the passages quoted above. We further learn from Ps. Iviii. 5, that the pethen was a snake upon wMch the serpent-charmers practised their art. From Is. xi. 8, it would appear that the pethen was a dweller in holes of walls, &c. As the Egyptian cobra is more fre quently than any other species the subject upon which the serpent- charmers of the Bible lands practise their art, and as it iB fond of con cealing itself in walls and in !¦ -!i- ¦^"^¦VSt*"-**^* (Is. xi. 8), it appears to have the M^^^^ ^*s best claim to represent the pethen. $Pa5i§r ASPAL'ATHUS, the name of some \Afcj, sweet perfume mentioned in Ecclus. xxiv. 15. The Lignum Rhodianum is by some supposed to be the sub stance indicated by the aspalathus ; the plant which yields it is the Con volvulus scoparius of Linnaeus. AS'PHAR, the pool in the "wilder ness of Thecoe " (I Mace. ix. 33). Is it possible that the name iB a cor ruption of locus Asphaltites ? ASS. Five Hebrew names of the genus Asinus occur in the 0. T. 1. Chamor denotes the male domestic ass, though the word was no doubt used in a general sense to express any ass whether male or female. The ass in eastern countries is a very dif ferent animal from what he is in western Europe. The most noble and honourable amongst the Jews were wont to be mounted Su. D. B. on asses : and in this manner our Lord him self made his triumphant entry into Jeru salem (Matt. xxi. 2).— 2. Athon, the common domestic she-ass. Balaam rode on a she- ass. The asses of Kish which Saul sought were she-asses. The Shunammite (2 K. iv. 22, 24) rode on one when she went to seek Elisha. They were she-asses which formed the special care of one of David's officers (1 Chr. xxvii. 30).— 3. 'Air, the name of a wild ass, which occurs Gen. xxxii. 16, xlix. 11 ; Judg. x. 4, xii. 14 ; Job xi. 12 ; Is. xxx. 6, 24 ; Zech. ix. 9. — 4. Pere, a species of wild ass mentioned Gen. xvi.- 12 ; Ps. civ. 11 ; Job vi. 5, xi. 12, xxiv. 5, xxxix. 5 ; Hos. viii. 9 ; Jer. ii. 24, xiv. 6 ; Is. xxxii. 14.— 5. Arod occurs only in Job xxxix. 5 ; but in what re spect it differs from the Pere is uncertain. — The species known to the ancient Jews are Asinus hemippus, which inhabits the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia, and the northern parts of Arabia ; the Asinus vulgaris of the N.E. of Africa, the true onager or aboriginal wild ass, whence the domesticated breed has sprung ; and probably the Asinus onager, the Koulan or Ghorkhur, which is found in Western Asia from 48° N. latitude southward to Persia, BelucMstan, and Western India. Mr. Layard remarks that in fleetness the wild ass ( Asinus hemippus) equals the gazelle, and to overtake them is a feat which only one or two of the most celebrated mares have been known to accomplish. Syrian Wild Ass. (Atiniu Bemtppui.) Specimen in Zoological Gardens. ASSH'URIM, a tribe descended from De- dan, the grandson of Abraham (Gen. xxv. 3). Like the other descendants of Keturah, they have not been identified with any degree of certainty. Knobel considers them the same with the Asshur of Ez. xxvii. 26, and con nected with southern Arabia. ASSIDE'ANS, i. e. the pious, " puritans," £ ASSOS 50 ASSYRIA the name assumed by a section of the orthodox Jews (1 Mace. ii. 42, vii. 13 ; 2 Mace. xiv. 6) aB distinguished' from the Hellenizing faction. They appear to have existed as a party before the Maccabaean rising, and were probably bound by some peculiar vow to the external observance of the Law. AS'SOS or AS'SUS, a seaport of the Ro man province of Asia, in the district anciently called Mysia. It was situated or the northern shore of the gulf of Adramvt- tium, and was only about seven miles from the opposite coast of Lesbos, near Methymna (Acts xx. 13, 14). ASSYR'IA, ASSH'UR, was a great and powerful country lying on the Tigris (Gen. ii. 14), the capital of which was Nineveh (Gen. x. PI, &c). It derived its name ap parently from Asshur, the son of Shem (Gen. x. 22), who in later times was worshipped by the Assyrians as their chief god. The boundaries of Assyria differed greatly at different periods. Probably in the earliest times it was confined to a small tract of low country, lying chiefly on the left bank of the Tigris. Gradually its limits were extended, until it came to be regarded as comprising the whole region between the Armenian mountains (lat. 37° 30') upon the north, and upon the south the country about Baghdad (lat. 33° 30'). Eastward its boundary was the high range of Zagros, or mountains of Kurdistan; westward, it was, according to the views of some, bounded by the Mesopo- tamian desert, while, according to others, it reached the Euphrates. — 1. General cha racter of the country. On the N. and E. the high mountain-chains of Armenia and Kur distan are succeeded by low ranges of lime stone-hills of a somewhat arid aspect. To these ridges there succeeds at first an un dulating zone of country, well watered and fairly productive, which extends in length for 250 miles, and is interrupted only by a single limestone-range. Above and below tMs barrier is an immense level tract, now for the most part a wilderness, wMch bears marks of having been in early times well cultivated and thickly peopled throughout. - — 2. Provinces of Assyria. — The classical geographers divided Assyria into a number of regions, which appear to be chiefly named from cities, as ArbelitiB from Arhela ; Cala- cene (or Calachine) from Calah or Halah (Gen. x. 11; 2 K. xvii. 6); Apolloniatis from Apollonia ; Sittacene from Sittace, &c. Adiabene, however, the richest region of all, derived its appellation from the Zab (Diab) river on which it lay. — 3. Chief cities. — The chief cities of Assyria in the time of its great ness appear to have been the following : — Nineveh, wMch is marked by the moundi opposite Mosul (Nebi-Yunus and Kouyunjik) ; Calah or Halah, now Nimrud ; Asshur, now Kilch Sherghat ; Sargina, or Dur-Sargina, now Khorsabad ; Arbela, still Arbil ; Opis at the junction of the Diyaleh with the Tigris; and Sittace, a little further down the latter river, if this place should not rather be reckoned to BabyloMa.— 4. History of As syria — original peopling. — Scripture informi us that Assyria was peopled from Babylon (Gen. x. 11), and both classical tradition and the monuments of the country agree in thia representation. — 5. Date of the foundation of the kingdom. — As a country, Assyria was evidently known to Moses (Gen. ii. 14, xxv. 18; Num. xxiv. 22, 24); but it does not appear in Jewish Mstory as a kingdom till the reign of Menahem (about b.c. 770). Herodotus relates that the Assyrians were " lords of Asia " for 520 years, till the Median kingdom was formed, b.c 708. He would thus, it appears, have assigned to the foun dation of the Assyrian empire a date not very greatly anterior to b.c. 1228. This is, perhaps, the utmost that can be determined with any approach to certainty. — 6. Early kings from the foundation of the kingdom to Put. — The Mesopotamian researches have rendered it apparent that the original seat of government was not at Nineveh, but at Kileh- Sherghat, on the right bank of the Tigris. The kings proved to have reigned there are fourteen in number, divisible into three groups ; and their reigns are thought to have covered a space of nearly 350 years, from b.c 1273 to b.c 930. The most re markable monarch of the series was called Tiglath-pileser. He appears to have been king towards the close of the twelfth centurj, and thus to have been contemporary with Samuel. The later kings of the series are only known to us as the ancestors of two great monarchs ; Sardanapalus the first, and his son, Shalmaueser or Shalmanubar, a still greater conqueror. His son and grandson followed in his steps, but scarcely equalled his glory. The latter is thought to be identical with the Biblical Pul, Phul, or Phaloch [Pul]. — 7. The kings from Pul to Esarhaddon. — In the 2nd book of Kings wo find the names of Pul, Tiglath-pileser, Shal- maneser, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon (2 K. xv. 19, 29, xvii. 3, xviii. 13, xix. 87) ; and in Isaiah we have the name of " Sargon, Mng of Assyria " (xx. 1). The inscriptions, by showing us that Sargon was the father of Sennacherib, fix his place in the list, and give us for the monarchs of the last half of the 8th and the first half of the 7th century b.c the (probably) complete list of Tiglath- 'lip- i^ara g wm9i ASSYRIA 61 ATAD pileser II., Shalmaneser II., Sargon, Senna cherib, and Esarhaddon. — 8. Lower Dynasty. It seems to be certain that at, or near, the accession of Pul, about b.c 7.70, a great change of some kind or other occurred in Assyria. Probably the Pul or Phaloch of Scripture was really the last king of the old monarchy, and Tiglath-pileser II., his suc cessor, was the founder of what has been called the "Lower Empire." — 9. Supposed loss of the empire at this period. — Many writers of repute have been inclined to accept the statement of Herodotus with respect to the breaking up of the whole empire at this period. It is evident, however, both from Scripture and from the monuments, that the shoek sustained through the domestic revolu tion has been greatly exaggerated. It is plain, from Scripture, that in the reigns of Tiglath-pileser, Shahnaneser, Sargon, Sen nacherib, and Esarhaddon, Assyria was as great as at any former era. On every ground it seems necessary to conclude that the second Assyrian kingdom was really greater and more glorious than the first ; that under it the limits of the empire reached their ful lest extent, and the internal prosperity was at the highest. — 10. Successors of Esarhad don. — By the end of the reign of Esarhaddon the triumph of the arms of Assyria had been so complete that scarcely an enemy was left who coMd cause her serious anxiety. In Scripture it is remarkable that we hear no thing of Assyria after the reign of Esar haddon, and profane history is equally silent until the attacks begin which brought about her downfall. — 11. Fall of Assyria. — The fall of Assyria, long previously prophesied by Isaiah (x. 5-19), was effected by the growing strength and boldness of the Medes. If we may trust Herodotus, the first Median attack on Nineveh took place about the year b.c 633. For some time their efforts were unsuccessful ; but after a wMle, having won over the Babylonians to their side, they became superior to the Assyrians in the field, and about b.c 625, or a little earlier, laid final siege to the capital. — 12. Fulfilment of prophecy. — The prophecies of Nahum and Zephaniah (ii. 13-15) against Assyria were probably de livered shortly before the catastrophe. In accordance with Nahum's announcement (iii. 19) we find that Assyria never succeeded in maintaining a distinct nationality. — 13. General character of the empire. — The As syrian monarchs bore sway over a number of petty kings through the entire extent of their dominions. These native princes were feu datories of the Great Monarch, of whom they ueld their crown by the double tenure of hon age and tribute. It is not quite certain how far Assyria reqMred a religious con formity from the subject people. Her religion was a gross and complex polytheism, com prising the worship of thirteen principal and numerous minor divinities, at the head of all of whom stood the chief pod, Asshur, who seems to be the deified patriarch of the nation (Gen. x. 22). The inscriptions appear to state that in all countries over which the Assyrians established their supremacy, they set up " the laws of Asshur," and " altars to the Great Gods." — 14. Its extent. — On the west, the Mediterranean and the river Halys appear to have been the boundaries ; on the north, a fluctuating line, never reacMng the Euxine nor extending beyond the northern frontier of Armenia ; on the east, the Caspian Sea and the Great Salt Desert ; on the south, the Persian Gulf and the Desert of Arabia. The countries included within these limit? are the following : — Susiana/Chaldaea, Baby lonia, Media, Matiene, Armenia, Assyria Proper, Mesopotamia, parts of Cappadocia and Cilicia, Syria, Phoemcia, Palestine, and Idumaea. Cyprus was also for a while a dependency of the Assyrian kings, and they may perhaps have held at one time certain portions of Lower Egypt. — 15. Civilisation of the Assyrians. — The civilisation of the Assyrians waB derived originally from the Babylonians. They were a Shemitic race, originally resident in Babylonia (wMch at that time was Cushite), and thus acquainted with the Babylonian inventions and dis coveries, who ascended the valley of the TigriB and established in the tract imme diately below the Armenian mountains a separate and distinct nationality. Still, as their civilisation developed, it became in many respects peculiar. Their art is of home growth. But they were still in the most im portant points barbarians. Their government was rude and inartificial ; their religion coarse and sensual ; and their conduct of war cruel. ASTV'AGES, the last king of the Medes, B.C. 595-560, or b.c 592-558, who was con quered by Cyrus (Bel and Dragon, 1), The name is identified by Rawlinson and Niebuhr with Deioces = Ashdahak, the emblem of the Median power. ASUP'PIM, and HOUSE OF, 1 Chr. xxvi. 15, 17, literally "house of the gatherings." Some understand it as a proper name of chambers on the south of the Temple ; others of certain store-rooms, or of the council- chambers in the outer court of the Temple in wMch the elders held their deliberations. A'TAD, THE THRESHI> G-FLOOR OF, called also Abel-Mizraim (Gen. 1. 10, 11). According to Jerome it was in his day called E 2 ATARGATIS 52 ATHENS Bethgla or Bethacla (Beth-Hogla). Beth- Hogla is known to have lain between the Jordan and Jericho, therefore on the west side of Jordan. ATAR'GATIS, or Derceto, a Syrian god dess, represented generally with the body of a woman and the tail of a fish (comp. Da- gon). Her most famous temples were at Hierapolis (Mabug) and Ascalon. There was a temple of Atargatis (2 Mace. xii. 26) at Karnion, which was destroyed by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Mace. v. 44). AT'AROTH. 1. One of the towns in the "land of Jazer and land of Gilead" (Num. xxxii. 3), taken and built by the tribe of Gad (xxxii. 34). From its mention with places which have been identified on the N.E. of the Dead Sea near the mountain of the Jebel Attarus, a connexion has been assumed be tween Ataroth and that mountain. But some other identification is necessary. — 2. A place on the (south?) boundary of Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh. xvi. 2, 7). It is im possible to say whether Ataroth is or is not the same place, as, 3. Ataroth-adar, or -addar on the wett border of Benjamin, "near the * mountain' that is on the south side of the nether Beth-horon" (Josh. xvi. 5, xviii. 13). In the Ouomasticon mention is made of an Atharoth in Ephraim, in the mountains, 4 miles N. of Sebaste ; as well as two places of the name not far from Jeru salem. — 4. " Ataroth, the house of Joab," a place (?) occurring in the list of the descen dants of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 54). A'THACH (1 Sam. xxx. 30). As the name does not occur elsewhere, it has been sug gested that it is an error of the transcriber for Ether, a town in the low country of Judah (Josh. xv. 42). ATHALI'AH, daughter of Ahab and Jeze bel, married Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and introduced into the S. kingdom the worship of Baal. After the great revolution, by which Jehu seated him self on the throne of Samaria, she killed all the members of the royal family of Judah who had escaped Ms sword (2 K. xi. 1), availing herself probably of her position as King's Mother [Asa], to perpetrate the crime. From the slaughter of the royal house, one infant named Joash, the youngest son of Ahaziah, was rescued by Ms aunt Jebosheba, wife of Jehoiada (2 Chr. xxiii. 11) the Mgh- priest (2 Chr. xxiv. 6). The child was brought up under Jehoiada's care, and con cealed in the Temple for six years, during wMch period Athaliah reigned over Judah. At length Jehoiada thought it time to pro duce the lawful king to the people, trusting to their zeal for the worship of God, and loyalty to the house of David, which had been so strenuously called out by Asa and Jehoshaphat. His plan was successful, and Athaliah was put to death. ATH'ENS, the capital of Attica, and the chief seat of Grecian learning and civilisation during the golden period of the history of Greece. St. Paul visited it in his journey from Macedonia, and appears to have re mained there some time (Acts xvii. 14-34 : comp. 1 Thess. iii. 1). In order to under stand the localities mentioned in the nar rative it is necessary to give a brief account of the topography of the city. Athens is situated about three miles from the sea-coast, in the central plain of Attica. In this plain rise several eminences. Of these the most prominent is a lofty insulated mountain, with a conical peaked summit, now called the Hill of St. George, and which bore in ancient times the name of Lycabettus. This moun tain, which was not included within the ancient walls, lies to the north-east of Athens, and forms the most striking feature in the environs of the city. It is to Athens what Vesuvius is to Naples, or Arthur's Seat to Edinburgh. South-west of Lycabettus there are four hills of moderate height, all of which formed pan of the city. Of these the nearest to Lycabettus, and at the distance of a mile from the latter, was the Acropolis, or citadel of Athens, a square craggy rock rising abruptly about 150 feet, with a flat summit of about 1000 feet long from east to west, by 500 feet broad from north to south. Imme diately west of the Acropolis is a second hill of irregular form, the Areopagus (Mars' Mill) . To the south-west there rises a third hill, the Pnyx, on which the assemblies of the citizens were held ; and to the south of the latter is a fourth hill, known as the Museum. On the eastern and western sides of the city there run two small streams, which are nearly exhausted before they reach the sea, by the heats of summer and by the channels for artificial irrigation. That on the east is the Ilissus, which flowed through the southern quarter of the city: that on tbe west is the Cephissus. South of the city was seen the Saronic gulf, with the harbours of Athens. — Athens is said to have derived its name from the prominence given to the worship of the goddess Athena (Minerva) by its Mng Erechtheus. The inhabitants were previously called Cecropidae, from Cecrops, who, according to tradition, was the ori ginal founder of the city. This at first occupied only the hill or rock which after wards became the Acropolis; but gradually the buildings spread over the ground at the southern foot of this MU. It was not e h pfH 03 OgH PiGOw H"1 ATHENS 53 ATHENS till the time of Pisistratus and his sons (b.c. 560-514) that the city began to as sume any degree of splendour. The most remarkable building of these despots was the gigantic temple of the Olympian Zeus or Jupiter. Xerxes reduced the ancient city almost to a heap of ashes. After the de parture of the Persians, its reconstruction on a much larger scale was commenced under the superintendence of Themistocles, whose first care was to provide fot its safety by the erection of walls. The Acropolis now formed the centre of the city, round which the new walls described an irregular circle of about 60 stadia or 1\ miles in circumference. Bi.t the views of Themistocles were not confined to the mere defence of Athens : he contem plated making her a great naval power, and for this purpose adequate docks and arsenals were required. Previously the Athenians had used as their only harbour the open roadstead of Phalerum on the eastern side of tbe Phaleric bay, where the seashore is nearest to Athens. But Themistocles trans ferred the naval station of the Athenians to the peninsula of Piraeus, which is distant about A\ miles from Athens, and contains three natural harbours. It was not till the Plan of Athens. I. Pnyx Ecclesia. 2. Thes&in). 3. Theatre of Dionysus. 5. Temple of the Olympian Jupiter. 4 OdSum of Policies. administration of Pericles that the walls were built which connected Athens with her ports. Under the administration of Pericles, Athens was adorned with numerous public buildings, which existed in all their glory when St. Paul visited the city, and of which some idea may be formed from the accompanying restora tion. The Acropolis was the chief centre of the architectural splendour of Athens. After the Persian wars the Mil had ceased to be inhabited, and was appropriated to the worship of Athena and to the other guardian deities of the city: It was covered with the temples of gods and heroes ; and thus its platform presented no only a sanctuary, but a museum, containing the finest productions of the architect and the sculptor, in which the whiteness of the marble was relieved by brilliant colours, and rendered still more dazzling by the transparent clearness of the Athenian atmosphere. The only approach to it was from the Agora on its western side. At the top of a magnificent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad, stood the Propylaea, constructed under the auspices of Pericles. and which served as a suitable entranop tp the exquisite works within. The Propylaea were themselves one of the masterpieces of Athenian art. They were entirely of Pen- telic marble, and covered the whole of the ATHENS 54 ATHENS western end of the Acropolis, having a breadth of 168 feet. On passing through the Propylaea all the glories of the Acropolis became visible. The chief building was the Parthenon (i. e. House of the Virgin), the most perfect production of Grecian archi tecture. It derived its name from its being the temple of Athena Parthenos, or Athena the Virgin, the invincible goddess of war. It stood on the highest part of the Acropolis, near its centre. It was entirely of Pentelic marble, on a rustic basement of ordinary limestone, and its architecture, wMch was of the Doric order, was of the purest kind. It was adorned with the most exqMsite sculp tures, executed by various artists under the direction of Phidias. A large number of these sculptures were brought to England by Lord Elgin, of whom they were purchased by the nation and deposited in the British Museum. But the chief wonder of the Parthenon was the colossal statue of the Virgin Goddess executed by Phidias Mmself. The Acropolis was adorned with another colossal figure of Athena, in bronze, also the work of PMdias. It stood in the open air, nearly opposite the Propylaea. With its pedestal it must have been about 70 feet Mgh, and consequently towered above the roof of the Parthenon, so that the point of its spear and the crest of its helmet were visible off the promon tory of Sunium to ships approaching Athens. Another magnificent building on the Acropolis was the Erecktheum, or temple of Erechtheus. It was one of the finest models of the Ionic order, as the Parthenon was of the Doric. It stood to the north of the latter building, and close to the northern wall of the Acro polis. Among the remarkable places in other parts of the city we may mention, first, the Dionysiac theatre, which occupied the slope at the south-eastern extremity of the Acro polis. The middle of it was excavated out of the rock, and the rows of seats ascended in curves one above another, the diameter in creasing with the height. It was no doubt sufficiently large to accommodate the whole body of Athenian citizens, as well as the strangers who flocked to Athens during the Dionysiac festival, but its dimensions cannot now be accurately ascertained. It had no roof, but the spectators were* probably pro tected from the sun by an awning, and from their elevated seats they had a distinct view of the sea, and of the peaked hills of Salamis in the horizon. Above them rose the Par thenon and the other buildings of the Acro polis, so that they sat under the shadow of the ancestral gods of the country. The Are opagus, or Hill of Ares (Mars) is described elsewhere. [Mars' Hill.] The P?iyx, or place for holding the public assemblies of the Athenians, stood on the side of a low rocky hill, at the distance of about a quarter of a mile from the Areopagus. Projecting from the hill, and hewn out of it, still stands a solid rectangular block, called the Bema or pulpit, from whence the orators addressed the multitude in tbe area before them. The position of the Bema commanded a view of the Propylaea and the other magMficent edi fices of the Acropolis, while beneath it waB the city itself studded with monuments of Athenian glory. The Athenian orators fre quently roused the national feelings of their audience by pointing to the Propylaea and to the other splendid buildings before them. Between the Pnyx on the west, the Areopagus on the north, and the Acropolis on the east, and closely adjoining the base of these hills, stood the Agora or "Market," where St. Paul disputed daily. In a direction from north west to south-east a street called the Ceramlcus ran diagonally through the Agora, entering it through the valley between the Pnyx and the Areopagus. The street was named after a district of the city, wMch was divided into two parts, the Inner and Outer Ceramlcus. The former lay within the city walls, and included the Agora. The Outer Ceramlcus, which formed a handsome suburb on the north-west of the city, was the burial-place of all persons honoured with a public funeral. Through it ran the road to the gymnasium and gardens of the Academy, which were situated about a mile from the walls. Tha Academy was the place where Plato and his disciples taught. On each side of this road were monuments to illustrious Athemans, especially those who had fallen in battle. East of the city, and outside the walls, was the Lyceum, a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, and celebrated as the place in which Aristotle taught. — The remark of the sacred historian respecting the inquisitive character of the Athenians (Acts xvii. 21) is attested by the unanimous voice of antiquity. Demo sthenes rebukes his countrymen for their love of constantly going about in the market, and asking one another What news 1 Their natural liveliness was partly owing to the purity and clearness of the atmosphere of Attica, which also allowed them to pass much of their time in the open air. The trans parent clearness of the atmosphere is noticed by Euripides (Medea, 829), who describes the Athenians as " delicately marching through most pellucid air." Modern tra vellers have not failed to notice the same peculiarity. Thus Dean Stanley speaks " of the transparent clearness, the brilliant colour ing of an Athenian sky ; of the flood of firet. ATHENS 55 ATONEMENT, THE DAY OF with which the marble columns, the moun tains, and the sea are all bathed and pene trated by an illumination of an Athenian Bunset." — St. Paul began his address at Athens by speaking of their " carefulness in religion," which is translated in the A. V. " too superstitious," an unfortunate mistranslation, as Conybeare and Howson remark, "because it entirely destroys the graceful courtesy of St. Paul's opening ad dress, and represents him aB beginning his speech by offending his audience." The Athenian carefulness in religion is con firmed by the ancient writers. Thus Pausa- nias says that the Athenians surpassed all other states in the attention which they paid to the worship of the gods ; and hence the city was crowded in every direction with temples, altars, and other sacred build ings. The altar " to the Unknown God," which St. Paul mentions, has been spoken of elsewhere. [Altar, p. 24, b.] Of the Christian church, founded by St. Paul at Athens, according to ecclesiastical tradition, Dionysius the Areopagite was the first bishop. [Dionybius.] ATONEMENT, THE DAY OF, the great day of national humiliation, and the only one commanded in the Mosaic law. [Fasts.] The mode of its observance is described in Lev. xvi., and the conduct of the people is emphatically enjoined in Lev. xxiii. 26-32. — II. It was kept on the tenth day of Tisri, that is, from the evening of the ninth to the evemng of the tenth of that month, five days before the Feast of Tabernacles. [Festivals.] — III. The observances of the day, as de scribed in the law, were as follow. It was kept by the people as a high solemn sabbath. On this occasion only the high priest was permitted to . enter into the Holy of Holies. Having bathed his person and dressed him- Belf entirely in the holy wMte linen gar ments, he brought forward a young bullock for a sin-offering, purchased at his own cost, on account of himself and his family, and two young goats for a sin-offering with a ram for a burnt-offering, which were paid for out of the public treasury, on account of the people. He then presented the two goats before the Lord at the door of the tabernacle and cast lots upon them. On one lot " for Jehovah " was inscribed, and on the other " for Azazel." He next sacrificed the young bullock as a sin-offering for himself and his family. Taking with him some of the blood of the bullock, he filled a censer with burn ing coals from the brazen altar, took a hand ful of incense, and entered into the most holy place. He then threw the incense upon the coals and enveloped the mercy-seat in a cloud of smoke. Then, dipping his finger into the, blood, he sprinkled it seven times before tl'e mercy-seat eastward. The goat upon which the lot " for Jehovah" had fallen was then slain and the high priest Bprinkled its blood before the mercy-seat in the same manner as he had done that of the bullock. Going out from the Holy of Holies he purified the holy place, sprinkling some of the blood of both the victims on the altar of incense. At this time no one besides the high priest waB suf fered to be present in the holy place. The purification of the Holy of Holies, and of the holy place, being thus completed, the high priest laid his hands upon the head of the goat on which the lot "for Azazel" had fallen, and confessed over it all the sins of the people. The goat was then led, by a man chosen for the purpose, into the wilder ness, into " a land not inhabited," and was there let loose. The high priest after this returned into the holy place, bathed himself again, put on his usual garments of office, and offered the two rams as burnt-offerings, one for himself and one for the people. He also burnt upon the altar the fat of the two sin-offerings, while their flesh was carried away and burned outside the camp. They who took away the flesh and the man who had led away the goat had to bathe their persons and wash their clothes as soon as their service was performed. The accessory burnt-offerings mentioned Num. xxix. 7-11, were a young bullock, a ram, seven lambs, and a young goat. — IV. There has been . much discussion regarding the meaning of the word Azazel. The opinions which seem most worthy of notice are the following : — 1. It has been regarded as a designation of the goat itself. This view has been most favoured by the old interpreters, who in general supposed it to mean the goat sent away, or let loose. But in this case it does not seem possible to make sense out of Lev. xvi. 10 and 26. 2. Some have taken Azazel for the name of the place to which the goat was sent. 3. a) Gesenius supposes it to be some false deity who was to be appeased by such a sacrifice as that of the goat. 6) But others have regarded him as an evil spirit, or the devil himself. 4. An explanation of the word which seems less objectionable, if it is not wholly satisfactory, would render the designation of the lot " for complete sending away,» — v. In considering the meaning of the particular rites of the day, three points appear to be of a very distinctive character. 1. The white garments of the high priest. 2. His entrance into the Holy of Holies. 3. The scapegoat. The writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews (ix. 7-25) teaches us to apply ATROTH 56 AXE the first two particulars. The high priest himself, with Ms person cleansed and dressed in white garments, was the best outward type which a living man could present in his own person of that pure and holy One who was to purify His people and to cleanse them from their sins. But respecting the meaning of the scapegoat, we have no such light to guide us, and the subject is one of great doubt and difficulty. It has been generally considered that it was dismissed to signify the carrying away of the sins of the people, as it were, out of the sight of Jehovah. If we keep in view that the two goats are spoken of as parts of one and the same sin- offering, we shall not have much difficulty in seeing that they form together but one sym bolical expression : the slain goat setting forth the act of sacrifice, in giving up its own life for others "to Jehovah;" and the goat which carried off its load of sin " for com plete removal," as signifying the cleansing influence of faith in. that sacrifice. AT'ROTH, a city of Gad (Num. xxxii. 3.5). ATTALI'A, a coast-town of Pamphylia, mentioned Acts xiv. 25. It was built by Attalus Philadelphus, Mng of Pergamus, and named after the monarch. All its remains are characteristic of the date of its founda tion. Leake fixes Attalia at Adalia, on the S. coast of Asia Minor, N. of the Duden Su the ancient Catarrhactes. AT'TALUS, the name of three kings of Pergamus who reigned respectively b.c 241- 197, 159-138 (Philadelphus), 138-133 (Philo metor). It is uncertain whether the letters sent from Rome in favour of the Jews (1 Mace. xv. 22) were addressed to Attalus II. or At talus III., as their date falls in b.c. 139-8, about the time when the latter succeeded his uncle. AUGUS'TUS CAES'AR, the first Roman emperor. He was born a.u.c 691, b.c. 63. His father was Caiua Octavius ; his mother Atia, daughter of Julia the sister of C. Julius Caesar. He was principally educated by his great-uncle Julius Caesar, and was made his heir. After his murder, the young Octavius, then Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was taken into the Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, and, after the removal of the latter, divided the empire with Antony. The struggle for the supreme power was ter minated in favour of Octavianus by the battle of Actium, b.c 31. On this victory, he was saluted Imperator by the senate, who con ferred on him the title Augustus (b.c. 27). The first link binding Mm to N. T. history is his treatment of Herod after the battle of Actium. That prince, who had espoused Antony's side, found Mmself pardoned, takea into favour and confirmed, nay even increased in his power. After Herod's death in A.n. 4, Augustus divided his domiMons almost exactly according to his dying directions, among his sons. Augustus died at Nola in Campania, Aug. 19, a.u.c 767, a.d. 14, in his 7 6th year ; but long before Ms death he had associated Tiberius with Mm in the empire. AUGUSTUS' BAND (Acts xxvii. 1). [Army.] A'VA, a place in the empire of Assyria, apparently the same as Ivah (2 K. xvii. 24). AV'ARAN, the surname of Eleazar, brother of Judas Maccabeus (1 Mace. ii. 5). A'VEN. 1. The "plain of Aven" is men tioned by Amos (i. 5) in his denunciation of Syria and the country to the N. of Palestine. It has not been identified with certainty. — 2, In Hos. x. 8 the word is clearly an abbre viation of Bethaven, that is Bethel (comp. iv. 15, &c). — 3. The sacred city of Heliopolis or On, in Egypt (Ez. xxx. 17). A'VIM, A'VIMS, or A'VITES. 1. A people among the early inhabitants of Pales tine, whom we meet with in the S.W. comer of the sea-coast, whither they may have made their way northwards from the Desert. The only notice of them which has come down to us is contained in a remarkable fragment of primeval history preserved in Deut. ii. 23. It is a curious fact that both the LXX. and Jerome identified the Avvim with the Hivites. — 2. The people of Avva, among the colonists who were sent by the king of Assyria to re-inhabit the depopulated : cities of Israel (2 K. xvii. 31). AWL, a tool of which we do not know tbe ancient form. The only notice of it is in connexion with the custom of boring the ear of the slave (Ex. xxi. 6 ; Deut. xv. 17). AXE. Seven Hebrew words are rendered " ax " in the A. V. : the one of most com mon occurrence being Garzen, from a root signifying "to cut or sever," as "hatchet," from "hack," corresponds to the Lat. securis. It consisted of a head of iron (cf. Is. x. 34), fastened, with thongs or otherwise, upon a handle of wood, and so liable to Blip off (Deut. xix. 5 ; 2 K. vi. 5). It was used for felling trees (Deut. xx. 19), and also for Egyptian Axe. (British Mtwoum.) AZARIAH 56 a BAAL shaping the wood when felled, perhaps like the modern adze (1 K. vi. 7). — The "battle- ax " {moppets, Jer. li. 20) was probably, as its root indicates, a hsavy mace or maul, like tha$ which gave his surname to Charles Martel. AZARI'AH, a common name in Hebrew and especially in the families of the priests of the line of Eleazab, whose name has precisely the same meaning as Azamah. It is nearly identical, and is often confounded with Ezra as well as with Zerahiah and Seraiah. The principal persons who bore this name were : — 1. Son of Ahianaaz (1 Chr. vi. 9). He appears from 1 K. iv. 2, to have sucoeeded Zadok, bis grandfather, in the high ^priesthood, in the reign of Solomon, Ahimaaz having died before Zadok. [Ain- haaz.] To him, it can scarcely be doubted, Instead of to his grandson, Azariah the son of Johanan, belongs the notice in 1 Chr. vi. 10. Josephus merely mentions Azarias as the son and successor of Ahimaaz. — 2. Azariah, the son of Oded (2 Chr. xv. 1), oalled simply Oded in ver. 8, was a remark able prophet hi the days of king Asa, and a contemporary of Azariah the son of Johanan the high priest, and of Hanani the seer. — 3. The high priest in the reign of TJzziah, king of Judah, whose name, perhaps from this cir cumstance, is often corrupted into Azariah (2 K. xiv. 21, xv. 1, 6, 7, 8, &c). The most memorable event of his life is that whioh is recorded in 2 Chr. xxvi. 17-20. When king TJzziah, elated by his great pros perity and power, " transgressed against the Lord his God, and went into the Temple of the Lord to burn incense upon the altar of incense," Azariah the priest, accompanied by eighty of his brethren, went in boldly after him, and withstood him. He was contem porary with Isaiah the prophet, and with Amos and Joel, and doubtless witnessed the great earthquake in Uzziah's reign (Am. i. 1 ; Zech. xiv. 5). AZ'EKAH, a town of Judah, with depend ent villages, lying in the Shefelah or rich agricultural plain. It is most clearly defined as being near Shochoh (1 Sam. xvii. 1) ; but its position has not yet been recognized. AZMA'VETH, a place to all appearance in Benjamin, being named with Anathoth, Kir- jath- Jearim and other towns belonging to that tribe (Ezr. ii. 24). The name elsewhere occurs as Bbth-Azmaveth. AZ'MON, a place named as being on the S. boundary of the Holy Land, apparently near the torrent of Egypt ( Wadi el-Arish) (Num. xxxiv. 4, 5 ; Josh. xv. 4). It has not yet been identified. AZ'NOTH-TA'BOl, the ears (t. «. possibly the summits) of Tabor, one of the landmarks of the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 34). The town, if town it be, has hitherto escaped recognition. AZ'ZAH. The more acourate rendering of the name of the well-known Philistine city, Gaza (Deut. ii. 23 ; 1 K. iv. 24 ; Jer. xxv. 20). BA'AL, tbe supreme male divinity of the Phoenician and Canaanitish nations, as Ashtoreth was their supreme female divinity. Both names have the peculiarity of being used in the plural, and it seems certain that these plurals designate not statues of the divinities, but different modifications of the divinities themselves. The word Baal is in Hebrew a common noun of frequent occur rence, having the meaning Lord, not so much, however, in the sense of Ruler as of Master, Owner, Possessor. There can be no doubt of the very high antiquity of the wor ship of Baal. We find it established amongst the Moabites and their allies the Midianitee in the time of Moses (Num. xxii. 41), and through these nations the Israelites were seduced to the worship of this god under the particular form of Baal-Peor (Num. xxr. 3-18 ; Deut. iv. 8). In the times of the kings the worship of Baal spread greatly, and together with that of Asherah became the religion of the court and people of the ten tribes (1 K. xvi. 31-33, xviii. 19, 22). And, though this idolatry wa3 occasionally put down (2 K. iii. 2, x. 28) it appears never to have been permanently abolished among them (2 K. xvii. 16). In the kingdom of Judah also Baal-worship extensively prevailed. The worship of Baal amongst the Jews seems to have been appointed with much pomp and ceremonial. Temples were erected to him (1 K. xvi. 32 ; 2 K. xi. 18) ; his images were set up (2 K. x. 26) ; his altars were very numerous (Jer. xi. 18), were erected particu larly on lofty eminences (1 K. xviii. 20), and on the roofs of houses (Jer. xxxii. 29) ; there were priests in great numbers (1 K. xviii. 19), and of various classes (2 K. x. 19) ; the worshippers appear to have been arrayed in appropriate robes (2 K. x. 22) ; the worship was performed by burning incense (Jer. vii. 9) and offering burnt-sacrifices, which occa sionally consisted of human victims (Jer. xix. 5). The officiating priests danced with frantic shouts around the altar, and cut themselves with knives to excite the attention and com- passion of the god (1 K. xviii. 26-28). Throughout all the Phoenician colonies we continually find traces of the worship of thi» god; nor need we hesitate to regard the BAAL 56 & BABEL, BABYLON Babylonian Bel (Is. xlvi. 1) or Belus, as essentially identical with Baal, though per haps under some modified form. Among the compounds of Baal which appear in the O. T. are : — 1. Ba'al-bk'iuth (Judg. viii. 33, ix. 4). The name signifies the Covenant-Baal, the god who comes into covenant with the worsMppers. — 2. Ba'al-ze'bub, worshipped at Ekron (2 K. i. 2, 3, 16). The meaning of the name is Baal or Lord of the fly. The name occurs in the N. T. in the well-known form Beelzebub. — 3. Ba'al-pe'or. We have already referred to the worship of tMs god. The narrative (Num. xxv.) seems clearly to show that this form of Baal-worsMp was connected with licentious rites. Baal-Peor -was identified by the Rabbins and early fathers with Priapus. BA'AL, geographical. This word occurs as the prefix or suffix to the names of several places in Palestine. It never eeems to have become a naturalized Hebrew word ; and such places called by this name or its com pounds as can be identified, were either near Phoenicia, or in proximity to some other acknowledged seat of heathen worship. Some of the places in the names of which Baal forms a part are as follows : — 1. Ba'al, a town of Simeon, named only in 1 Chr. iv. 33, which from the parallel list in Josh. six. seems to have been identical with Baalath- Beee. — 2. B a' alah. (a.) Another name for Kirjath-Jkahim, or Knu at h-Baal, the well- known town, now Kuriet el Enah. It is mentioned in Josh. xv. fl, 10 ; 1 Chr. xiii. 6. In Josh. xv. 11, it is called Mount Baalah, and in xv. 60, and xviii. 14, Kirjath-Baal. It would seem as if Baalah were the earlier or Canaanite appellation of the place. In 2 Sam. vi. 2, the name occurs slightly altered as " Baale of Judah." (6.) A town in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 29), which in xix. 3 is called Balah, and in the parallel list (1 CM. iv. 29) Bilhah. — 3. Ba'al-gad, used to denote the most northern (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7), or perhaps north-western (xiii. 5), point to which Joshua's victories extended. It was in all probability a Phoenician or Ca naanite sanctuary of Baal under the aspect of Gad, or Fortune.— 4. Ba'al-ha'mon, a place at which Solomon had a vineyard, evidently of great extent (Cant. viii. 11).— 5. Ba'al-ha'zor, a place "by Ephraim," where Absalom appears to have had a sheep- farm, and where Amnon was murdered (2 6am. xiii. 23). — 6. Mount Ba'al-hxr'mon ¦'Judg. iii. 3), and simply Baal-hermon (1 at, Matt. xxi. 42; Luke xxiv. 27), or Tlie Holy Scriptures (ra lepa ypap.fi.a7 a, 2 Tim. iii. 15). The use of the phrase rj TroAata SiafoJKTj in 2 Cor. iii. 14, for the law as read in the synagogues, led gradually to the extension of the word to include the other bookB of the Jewish Scriptures. Of the Latin eqMvalents, wMch were adopted by different writers (Instrumentum, Testamen- tum), the latter met with the most general acceptance, and perpetuated itself in the lan guages of modern Europe, whence the terms Old Testament and New Testament, though the Greek word properly signifies " Cove nant" rather than "Testament." But the application of the word Bible to the collected books of the Old and New Testaments is not to be traced further back than the 5th cen tury of our era. — II. The existence of a col lection of sacred books recogMsed as autho ritative, leads naturally to a more or less systematic arrangement. The Prologue to Ecclesiasticus mentions " the law and the prophets and the other Books." In the N. T. there is the same kind of recognition. " The Law and the Prophets " is the shorter (Matt. xi. 13, xxii. 40 ; Acts xiii. 15, &c.) ; " the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms " (Luke xxiv. 44), the fuller statement of the division popularly recogMsed. The arrangement of the books of the Hebrew text under these three heads, requires however a further notice — I. The Law, containing Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Peuteronomy, natu rally continued to occupy the position which it must have held from the first as the most ancient and authoritative portion. In the Hebrew classification the titles were taken from the initial words, or prominent words in the iMtial verse ; in that of the LXX. they were intended to he significant of the subject of each book.- — 2. The next group presents a more singular combination. The arrangement stands as follows : — j Joshua. Elder J Judges. ( 1 & 2 Kings. Prophets j Isaiah. Greater ...A Jeremiah. ( Ezekiel. t The twelve Lesser < minor I Prophets. — the Hebrew titles of these books correspond ing to those of the English bibles. — 3. Last in order came the group known to the Jews as Cethubim, including the remaining books BIBLE 75 BIRTH-DATS of the Hebrew Canon, arranged in the follow ing order, and with subordinate divisions : (a) Psalms, Proverbs, Job. (6) The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther— the five rolls, (c) Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 and 2 Chronicles. — The history of the arrangement of the Books of the New Testament presents some variations, not with out interest, as indicating differences of feel ing or modes of thought. The four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles uMformly stand first. They are so far to the New what the Pentateuch was to the Old Testament. The position of the Acts as an intermediate book, the sequel to the Gospels, the prelude to the Epistles, was obviously a natural one. After this we meet with some striking differences. The order in the Alexandrian, Vatican and Ephraem MSS. (A B C) giveB precedence to the Catholic Epistles, and this would appear to have been characteristic of the Eastern Churches. The Western Church on the other hand, as represented by Jerome, Augustine, and their successors, gave priority of position to the Pauline Epistles. The Apocalypse, as might be expected from the peculiar cha racter of its contents, occupied a position by itself. — III. Division into Chapters and Verses. — The Hebrew of the Old Testament. It is hardly possible to conceive of the litur gical use of the books of the Old Testament, without some kind of recogMsed division. The references however in Mark xii. 26 and Luke xx. 37, Rom. xi. 2 and Acts viii. 32, indicate a division which had become familiar, and show that some at least of the sections were known popularly by the titles taken from their subjectB. In like manner the ex istence of a cycle of lessons is indicated by Luke iv. 17 ; Acts xiii. 15, xv. 21 ; 2 Cor. iii. 14. The Talmudic division is on the following plan. The Law was in the first instance divided into fifty-four Parshioth, or sections, so as to provide a lesson for each Sabbath in the Jewish intercalary year. Co-existing with this there was a subdivi sion into lesser ParsMoth. A different ter minology was employed for the Elder and Later Prophets, and the division was less uniform. The name of the sections in this case was Haphtaroth. Of the traditional di visions of the Hebrew Bible, however, that which has exercised most influence in the received arrangement of the text, was the subdivision of the larger sections into verses (Pesukim). These do not appear to have been used till the post-Talmudic recension of the text by the Masoretes of the 9th century. The chief facts that remain to be stated as to the verse division of the Old Testament are, that it was adopted by Stephens in his edition of the Vulgate, 1555, and by Frellon in that of 1556 ; that it appeared for the first time in an English translation, in the Geneva Bible of 1560, and was thence transferred ta the Bishops' Bible of 1568, and the Authorised Version of 1611. With the New Testament, the division into chapters adopted by Hugh de St. Cher superseded those that had been in use previously, appeared in the early edi tions of the Vulgate, was transferred to the English Bible by Coverdale, and so became umversal. As to the division into verses, the absence of an authoritative standard left more scope to the individual discretion of editors or printers, and the activity of the two Stephenses caused that which they adopted in their numerous editions of the Greek Tes tament and Vulgate to be generally received. In the Preface to the Concordance, published by Henry Stephens, 1594, he gives an account 'of the origin of tMs division. The whole work was accomplished "inter equitandum" on his journey from Paris to Lyons. While it was in progress men doubted of its success. No sooner waB it known than it met with universal acceptance. The edition in which this division was first adopted was published in 1 5 5 1 . It was used for the English version published in Geneva in 1560, and from that time, with slight variations in detail, has been universally recognised. BID'KAR, Jehu's "captain," originally his fellow-officer (2 K. ix. 25) ; who com pleted the sentence on Jehoram son of Ahab. BIG'THAN and BIG'THANA, an eunuch (chamberlain, A. V.) in the court of Aha suerus, one of those " who kept the door " and conspired with Teresh against the king's life (Esth. ii. 21). The conspiracy was de tected by Mordecai. BIK'ATH-AVEN, Amos i. 5 marg. [Aven 1.] BIL'DAD, the second of Job's three friends. He is called "the Shuhite," which implies both Ms family and nation (Job ii. 11). BIL'HAH, handmaid of Rachel (Gen. xxix. 29), and concubine of Jacob, to whom she bore Dan and Naphtali (Gen. xxx. 3-8, xxxv. 25, xlvi. 25 ; 1 Chr. vii. 13). [Reuben.] BIRDS. [Sparrow.] BIR'SHA, king of Gomorrha at the time of the invasion of Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2). BIRTH-DATS. The custom of observing birthdays is very ancient (Gen. xl. 20 ; Jer. xx. 15) ; and in Job i. 4, &c, we read that Job's sons " feasted every one his day." In Persia they were celebrated with peculiar honours and banquets, and in Egypt the king's birthdays were kept with great pomp. It is very probable that in Matt. xiv. 6, the feast to commemorate Herod's accession is in tended, for we know that such feasts were BIRTHRIGHT common, and were called " the day of the king " (Hos. vii. 5). BIRTHRIGHT. The advantages accruing to the eldest son were not defiMtely fixed in patriarchal times. Great respect was paid to him in the household, and, as the family widened into a tribe, this grew into a sus tained authority, undefined save by custom, in all matters of common interest. Thus the *' princes " of the congregation had probably rights of primogeniture (Num. vii. 2, xxi. 18, xxv. 14). A "double portion" of the paternal property was allotted by the Mosaic law (Deut. xxi. 15-17). The first-born of the king was his successor by law (2 Chr. xxi. 3) ; David, however, by divine appointment, ex cluded Adonijah in favour of Solomon. BISHOP. This word, applied in the N. T. to the officers of the Church who were charged with certain functions of superintendence, had been in Use before as a title of office. When the organisation of the Christian churches in Gentile cities involved the as signment of the work of paBtoral superin^ tendence to a distinct order, the title bishop (en-toTcon-ov) presented itself as at once conve nient and familiar, and was therefore adopted as readily as the word elder (irpefffivTepos) had been in the mother church of Jerusalem. That the two titles were originally equivalent is clear from the following facte. — 1. Bishops and elders are nowhere named together as being orders distinct from each other*- — 2. Bishops and deacons are named as apparently an exhaustive division of the officers of the church addressed by St. Paul as an apostle (Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. i. 1, 8).— 3. The same persons are described by both names (Acts xx. 17, 18 ; Tit. i. 5, 8).— 4. Elders dis charge functions which are essentially epis copal, i. e. involving pastoral superintendence (1 Tim. v. 17 ; 1 Pet. v. 1, 2).' — Assuming as proved the identity of the bishops and elders of the N. T. we have to inqMre into — 1. The relation which existed between the two titles. 2. The functions and mode of appointment of the men to whom both titles were applied. 3. Their relations to the general government and discipline of the Church, — I. There can be no doubt that elders had the priority in order of time. The order itself is recognised in Acts xi. 30, and in Acts xv. 2. The ear liest use of " bishops," on the other hand, iB in the address of St. Paul to the elders of Miletus (Acts xx. 28), and there it is rather descriptive of functions than given as a title.— II. Of the order in which the first elders were appointed, as of the occasion which led to the institution of the office, we have no record. Arguing from the analogy of the Seven in Acts vi. 5, 6, it would seem 76 BITHTNIA probable that they were chosen by the mem bers of the Church collectively, and then Bet apart to their office by the laying on of the apostles* hands. In the case of Timothy (1 Tim. iv. 14; 2 Tim. i. 6) the "pres byters," probably the body of the elders at Lystra, had taken part with the apostle in this act of ordination. The conditions which were to be observed in choosing these officers, as stated in the pastoral epistles, are, blame less life and reputation among those " that are without " as well as within the Church, fitness for the work of teaching, the wide kindliness or temper which shows itself in hospitality, the being " the husband of one wife " (i. e. according to the most probable interpretation, not divorced and then married to another), showing powers of government in his own household as well as in self-control, not being a recent and, therefore, an untried convert. When appointed, the duties of the bishop-elders appear to have been as follows : — 1. General superintendence over the spi ritual well-being of the flock (1 Pet. v. 2). 2. The work of teaching, both publicly and- privately (1 Thess. v. 12 ; Tit. i. 9 ; 1 Tim* v. 17). 3. The work of visiting the sick ap pears in Jam. v. 14, as assigned to the elder* of the Church. 4. Among other acts of cha rity that of receiving strangers bCcupied a conspicuous place (1 Tim. iii. 2 ; Tit. i. 8). The mode in which these officers of the Church were supported or remunerated varied probably in different cities. Collectively at Jerusalem^ and probably in other churches, the body of bishop-elders took part in deli berations (Acts xv. 6-22, xxi. 18), addressed other churches (ibid. xv. 23), were joined' with the apostles in the work of ordaining by the laying on of hands (2 Tim. i. 6). — III. It is clear from what has been said tnat episcopal functions in the modern sense of the words, as implying a special superin tendence over the ministers of the Church, belonged only to the apostles and those whom they invested with their authority. BITHI'AH, daughter of a Pharaoh, and wile of Mered, adescendantof Judah (1 Chr. iv. 18). BITHR'ON (more accurately " the Bith- ron"), a place, doubtless a district in the Jordan valley, on the east side of the rivet (2 Sam. ii. 29). EITHTN'IA. This province of Asia Minor is mentioned only in Acts xvi. 7, and in 1 Pet. i. 1. Bithynia, considered as a Roman province, was on the west contiguous to Asia. On the east its limits underwent great modi fications. The province was originally inhe rited by the Roman republic (b.c. 74) as a legacy from Nioomedes III. The chief town of Bithynia was- Nicaca, celebrated for the BITTER HERBS 77 BLOOD, REVENGER OF general Counoil of the Church held there in a.d. 325 against the Arian heresy. BITTER HERBS. The Israelites were com manded to eat the Paschal lamb " with un- leavenedbread and with bitter herbs" (Ex. xii. 8). These may well be understood to denote various sorts of bitter plants, such particMarly as belong to the cruciferae, as some of the bitter cresses, or to the chicory group of the compo- sitae, the hawkweeds, and sow-thistles, and wild lettuces wMch grow abundantly in the Peninsula of Sinai, in Palestine, and in Egypt. BITTERN. The Hebrew word has been the subject of various interpretations. Phi lological arguments appear to be rather in favour of the "hedgehog" or "porcupine," for the Hebrew word Mppdd appears to be identical with kunfud, the Arabic word for the hedgehog ; hut zoologically, the hedgehog or porcupine is quite out of the question. The word occurs in Is. xiv. 23, xxxiv. 11 ; Zeph. ii. 14, and we are inclined to believe that the A. V. is correct. The bittern (Bo- taurus stellaris) belongs to the Arde&dae, the heron family of birds. Bittern (Botaurun sleHans). BLAINS, violent ulcerous inflammations, the sixth plague of Egypt (Ex. ix. 9, 10), and hence called in Deut. xxviii. 27, 35, "the botch of Egypt." It seems to have been the black leprosy, a fearful kind of elephantiasis. ' BLASPHEMT, in its technical English sense, sigMfles the speaking enl of God, and in this sense it is found Ps. lxxiv. 18 ; Is. Iii. 5 ; Rom. ii. 24, &c. But according to its derivation it may mean any species of ca lumny and abuse : see 1 K. xxi. 10 ; Acta xviii, 6 ; Jude 9, &o. Blasphemy was pu nished with stoning, which was inflicted on the son of Shelomith (Lev. xxiv. 11). On this charge both our Lord and St. Stephen were condemned to death by the Jews. It only remains to speak of " the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost," which has been so frmtful a theme for speculation and contro versy (Matt. xii. 32 ; Mark iii. 28). It con sisted in attributing to the power of Satan those unquestionable miracles, which Jesus performed by " the finger of God," and the power of the Holy Spirit. BLAS'TUS, the chamberlain of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 2-0). BLINDNESS is extremely common in the East from many causes. Blind beggars figure repeatedly in the N. T. (Matt. xii. 22), and "opening the eyes of the blind" is men tioned in prophecy as a peculiar attribute of the Messiah (Is. xxix. 18, &c). The Jews were specially charged to treat the blind with compassion and care (Lev. xix. 14 ; Deut. xxvii. 18). Blindness wilfully inflicted for political or other purposes is alluded to in Scripture (1 Sam. xi. 2 ; Jer. xxxix. 7). BLOOD, ISSUE OF. The menstruous dis charge, or the fluxus uteri (Lev. xv. 19-30 ; Matt. ix. 20 ; Mark v. 25, and Luke viii. 43). The latter caused a permanent legal unclean- ness, the former a temporary one, mostly for seven days ; after which the woman was to be purified by the customary offering. BLOOD, REVENGER OF. It was, and even still is, a common practice among nations of patriarchal habits, that the nearest of kin should, as a matter of duty, avenge the death of a murdered relative. Compen sation for murder is allowed by the Koran. Among the Bedouins, and other Arab tribes, should the offer of blood-money be refused, the ( Thar,' or law of blood, comes into operation, and any person within the fifth degree of blood from the homicide may be legally killed by any one within the same degree of consanguinity to the victim. The right to blood-revenge is never lost, except as annulled by compensation : it descends to the latest generation. The law of Moses was very precise in its directions on the subject of Retaliation. — 1. The wilful mur derer was to be put to death without per mission of compensation. The nearest re lative of the deceased became the authorised avenger of blood (Num. xxxv. 19). 2. The BOANERGES 78 BRASS law of retaliation was not to extend beyond the immediate offender (Deut. xxiv. 16 ; 2 K. xiv. 6 ; 2 Chr. xxv. 4 ; Jer. xxxi. 29, 30 ; Ezek. xviii. 20). — 3. The involuntary shedder of blood was permitted to take flight to one of six Levitical cities, specially ap pointed as cities of refuge (Num. xxxv. 22, 23 ; Deut. xix. 4-6). BOANER'GES, a name signifying " sons of thunder," given by our Lord to the two sons of Zebedee, James and John (Mark iii. 17). See Luke ix. 54 ; Mark ix. 38 ; comp. Matt. xx. 20, &c. BOAR. [Swine.] BO'AZ. 1. A wealthy Bethlehemite, kins man to Elimelech, the husband of Naomi. He married Ruth, and redeemed the estates of her deceased husband MaMon (iv. J ff.). Boaz is mentioned in the genealogy of Christ (Matt. i. 5), but there is great difficulty in assigning his date. — 2. Boaz, the name of one of Solomon's brazen pillars erected in the temple porch. [Jaghin.] It stood on the left, and was 18 cubits Mgh (1 K. vii. 15, 21 ; 2 Chr. iii. 15 ; Jer. Iii. 21). BO'HAN, a Reubenite, after whom a stone was named. Its position was on the border of the territories of Benjamin and Judah (Josh. xv. 6, xviii. 17). BOOTT consisted of captives of both sexes, cattle, and whatever a captured city might contain, especially metallio treasures. Within the limits of Canaan no captives were to be made (Deut. xx. 14 and 16) ; beyond these limits, in case of warlike resistance, all the women and cMldren were to be made cap tives, and the men put to death. The law of booty is given in Nhm. xxxi. 26-47. As regarded the army David added a regulation that the baggage guard shoMd share equally with the troops engaged (1 Sam. xxx. 24, 25). BOTTLE. 1. The Bkin bottle; 2. The bottle of earthen or glass-ware, both of them capable of being closed from the air. — 1. The Arabs keep their water, milk, and other liquors, in leathern bottles. These are made of goatsMnp. When the animal is killed they cut off its feet and its head, and they draw it in this manner out of the skin, without opening its belly. The great leathern bottles are made of the skin of a he-goat, and the small ones, that serve instead of a bottle of water on the road, are made of a Md's skin. The effect of external heat upon a skin-bottle is indicated in Ps. cxix. 83, "a bottle in the smoke," and of expansion produced by fer mentation in Matt. ix. 17, " new wine in old bottles."— 2. Vessels of metal, earthen, or glass ware for liquids were in use among the Greeks, Egyptians, Etruscans, and Assyrians, and also no doubt among the Jews, especially in later times. Thus Jer. xix. 1, " a potter's earthen bottle." The Jews probably bor rowed their manufactures in tMs particMar from Egypt. Skin Bottles. (From *« Museo Borbonlco.) BOX-TREE. The Heb. teasshur occurs m Is. xii. 19, lx. 13. The Tahnudical and Jewish writers generally are of opinion that the box-tree is intended. Box-wood writing tablets are alluded to in 2 Esdr. xiv. 24. BO'ZEZ, one of the two sharp rocks be tween the passages by wMch Jonathan entered the Philistine garrison. It seems to have been that on the north (1 Sam. xiv. 4, 5). BOZ'RAH. 1. In Edom — the city of Jobab the son of Zerah, one of the early kings of that nation (Gen. xxxvi. 33 ; 1 Chr. i. 44). This is doubtless the place mentioned in later times by Isaiah (xxxiv. 6, lxiii. 1) in con nexion with Edom, and by Jeremiah (xlix. 13, 22), Amos (i. 12), and Micah (ii. 12). There is no reaBon to doubt that its modern representative is el-Busaireh, which lies on the mountain district to the S. E. of the Dead Sea. — 2. In Ms catalogue of the cities of the land of Moab, Jeremiah (xlviii. 24) mentions a Bozrah as in " the plain country" (ver. 21, i. e. the high level downs on the east of the Dead Sea). BRACELET. [See Armlet.] Bracelets of fine twisted Venetian gold are still common in Egypt. In Gen. xxxviii. 18, 25, the word rendered " bracelet " means probably " a string by wMch a seal-ring was suspended." Men as well as women wore bracelets, as we see from Cant. v. 14. Layard says of the Assyrian kings : " The arms were encircled by armlets, and the wrists by bracelets." Assyrian Bracelet Clasp. (Nineveh .Marbles.) BRAMBLE. [Thorns.] BRASS. The word nechdsheth is impro perly translated by " brass." In most places w» ts: O B BRAZEN-SERPENT 79 BRIDGE of the 0. T. the correct translation would be copper, although it may sometimes possibly mean bronze, a compound of copper and tin. Indeed a simple metal was obviously intended, as we see from Deut. viii. 9, xxxii. 25, and Job xxviii. 2. Copper was known at a very early period (Gen. iv. 22). The word xaA" Kokifiavov in Rev. i. 15, ii. 18 (A. V. "fine brass"), has excited much difference of opi nion. Some suppose it to have been orichal- cum, which was so rare as to be more valuable than gold. BRAZEN-SERPENT. [Serpent.] BREAD. The preparation of bread as an article of food dates from a very early period : the earliest undoubted instance of its use is found in Gen. xviii. 6. The corn or grain employed was of various sorts : the best bread was made of wheat, wMch after being ground produced the "flour" or "meal" (Judg. vi. 19 ; 1 Sam. i. 24 ; 1 K. iv. 22, xvii. 12, 14), and when sifted the "fine flour " (Ex. xxix. 2 ; Gen. xviii. 6) usually employed in the sacred offerings (Ex. xxix. 40 ; Lev. ii. 1 ; Ez. xlvi. 14), and in the meals of the wealthy (1 K. iv. 22 ; 2 K. vii. 1 ; Ez. xvi. 13, 19 ; Rev. xviii. 13). "Barley" was used oMy by the very poor (John vi. 9, 13), or in times of scarcity (Ruth iii. 15, compared with i. 1 ; 2 K. iv. 38, 42'; Rev. vi. 6). " Spelt" was also used both in Egypt (Ex. ix. 32) and Palestine (Is. xxviii. 25 ; Ez. iv. 9; IK. xix. 6). .The bread taken by persons on a journey (Gen. xiv. 23, Josh. ix. 12) was probably a kind of biscuit. The process of making bread was as follows : — the flour was Egyptians kneading dough with their hands. (Wilkinson, from a painting in the Tomb of Kameses ILL at Thebes.) first mixed with water, or perhaps milk ; it was then kneaded with the hands (in Egypt with the feet also) in a Bmall wooden bowl or " kneading-trough " until it became dough (Ex. xii. 34, 39 ; 2 Sam. xiii. 3 ; Jer. vii. 18 ; Hos. vii. 4). When the kneading was com pleted, leaven was generally added [Leaven] : but when the time for preparation was short, it was omitted, and unleavened cakes, hastily baked, were eaten, as is still the prevalent custom among the Bedouins (Gen. xviii. 6, xix. 3 ; Ex. xii. 89 ; Judg. vi. 19 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 24). The leavened mass was allowed to stand for some time (Matt. xiii. 33 ; Luke xiii. 21). The dough was then divided into round cakes (Ex. xxix. 23; Judg. vii. 13, viii. 5 ; 1 Sam. x. 3 ; Prov. vi. 26), not un like flat stones in shape and appearance (Matt. vii. 9 ; comp. iv. 3), about a span in diameter and a finger's breadth in thickness. In the towns where professional bakers re- Bided, there were no doubt fixed ovens, in shape and size resembling those in use among ourselves : but more usually each household possessed a portable oven, consisting of a stone or metal jar about three feet high, which was heated inwardly with wood (1 K. xvii. 12 ; Is. xliv. 15 ; Jer. vii. 18) or dried grass and flower-stalks (Matt. vi. 30). BRICK. Herodotus (i. 179), describing the mode of building the walls of Babylon, Bays that the clay dug out of the ditch was made into bricks as soon as it was carried up, and burnt in kilns. The bricks were ce mented with hot bitumen, and at every thir tieth row crates of reeds were stuffed in (comp. Gen. xi. 3). The Babylonian bricks were more commonly burnt in kilns than those used at Nineveh, which are chiefly sun- dried like the Egyptian. They are usually from 12 to 13 in. square, and S£ in. thick. They thus possess more of the character of tiles (Ez. iv. 1). The Israelites, in common with other captives, were employed by the Egyptian monarchs in making bricks and in building (Ex. I. 14, v. 7). Egyptian bricks were not generally dried in kilns, but in the sun. When made of the Nile mud, they re quired straw to prevent cracking ; and crude brick walls had frequently the additional se curity of a layer of reeds and sticks, placed at intervals to act as binders. A brick pyra mid is mentioned by Herodotus (ii. 136) as the work of King AsycMs. The Jews learned the art of brick-making in Egypt, and we find the use of the brick-kiln in David's time (2 Sam. xii. 31), and a complaint made by Isaiah that the people built altars of brick instead of unhewn stone as the law directed (Is. lxv. 3 ; Ex. xx. 25). BRIDGE. The only mention of a bridge in the Canomcal Scriptures is indirectly in the proper name Geshur, a district in BaBhan, N.E. of the sea of Galilee. At this place a bridge still exists, called the bridge of the sons of Jacob. Judas Maccabaeus is said to have intended to make a bridge in order to BRK5ANDINE 80 BURNT-OFFERING besiege the town of Camphor or Caspis, situate near a lake (2 Mace. xii. 13). The Romans were the first constructors of arched bridges. The bridge connecting the Temple with the upper city, of which Josephus speaks, seems to have been an arched viaduct. BRIGANDINE, Jer. xlvi. 4; elsewhere " habergeon," or " coat of mail." BRIMSTONE. The Hebrew word iB con nected with gopher, " gopher-wood," A. V. Gen. vi. 14, and probably signified in the first instance the gum or resin that exuded from that tree ; hence it was transferred to all inflammable substances, and especially to sulphur, wMch is found in considerable quan tities on the shores of the Dead Sea (Gen. xix. 24). BROTHER. The Hebrew word is used in various senses in the O. T. as 1. Any kins man, and not a mere brother ; e. g. nephew (Gen. xiv. 16, xiii. 8), husband (Cant. iv. 9). 2. One of the same tribe (2 Sam. xix. 13). 8. Of the same people (Ex. ii. 14), or even of a cognate people (Num. xx. 14). 4. An ally (Am. i. 9). 5. Any friend (Job v. 15). 6. One of the same office (1 K. ix. 13). 7. A fellow man (Lev. xix. 17). 8. Metaphoric ally of any similarity, as in Job xxx. 19. The word oSeA^os has a similar range of meanings in the N. T. BUL. [Months.] BULL, BULLOCK, terms used synonym ously with ox, oxen, in the A. V. as the representatives of several Hebrew words. Bdkdr, the most common, is properly a ge neric name for horned cattle when of full age and fit for the plough. Accordingly it is variously rendered bullock (Is. lxv. 25), cow (Ez. iv. 15), oxen (Gen. xii. 16). In Is. li. 20, the " wild bull " (" wild ox " in Deut. xiv. 5) was possibly one of the larger species of antelope, and took its name from its swift ness. Dr. Robinson mentions large herds of black and almost hairless buffaloes as still existing in Palestine, and these may be the animal indicated. BURIAL, SEPULCHRES, TOMBS. On this subject wo na-n to notice : 1. the place of burial, its site md shape ; 2. the mode of burial ; 3. the pre^h.ent notions regarding this duty. — 1. A natural cave enlarged and adapted by excavation, or an artificial imita tion of one, was the standard type of sepulchre. TMs was what the structure of the Jewish soil supplied or suggested. Sepulchres, when the owner's means permitted it, were com monly prepared beforehand, and stood often in gardens, by roadsides, or even adjoining houses. Kings and prophets alone were pro bably buried within towns (1 K. ii. 10, xvi. 6, 28; 2 K. x. 35, xiii. 9 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 14, xxviii. 27 ; 1 Sam. xxv. 1, xxviii. 3). Sarah's tomb and Rachel's seem to have been chosen merely from the accident of the place of death ; but the successive interments at the former (Gen. xlix. 31) are a chronicle of the strong family feeling among the Jews. Cities soon became populous and demanded ceme teries (Ez. xxxix. 15), which were placed without the walls. Sepulchres were marked sometimes by pillars, as that of Rachel, or by pyramids as those of the Asmoneans at Modin. Such as were not otherwise notice able were scrupMously " whited " (Matt, xxiii. 27) once a year, after the rains before the passover, to warn passers by of defile ment. — 2. "The manner of the Jews" in cluded the use of spices, where they could command the means. Thus Asa lay in a "bed of spices" (2 Chr. xvi. 11). A portion of these were burnt in honour of the deceased, and to this use was probably destined part of the 1 00 pounds weight of " myrrh and aloes " in our Lord's caBe. In no instance, save that of SaM and his sons, were the bodies burned ; and even then tbe bones were in terred, and re-exhumed for solemn entomb ment. It was the office of the next of kin to perform and preside over the whole funereal office ; but a company of public buriers, ori ginating in an exceptional necessity (Ez. xxxix. 12-14), had become, it seems, cus tomary in the times of the N. T. (Acts v, 6, 10). The bier, the word for which in the O. T. is the same as that Tendered " bed " was borne by the nearest relatives. The grave-clothes were probably of the fashion worn in life, but swathed and fastened with bandages, and the head covered separately. — 3. The precedent of Jacob's and Joseph's re mains being returned to the land of Canaan was followed, in wish at least, by every pious Jew. Following a similar notion, some of the Rabbins taught that only in that land could those who were buried obtain a share in the resurrection which was to usher in Messiah's reign on earth. Tombs were, in popular belief, led by the same teaching, invested with traditions. BURNT-OFFERING. The word is applied to the offering, which was wholly consumed by fire on the altar, and the whole of which, except the refuse ashes, " ascended " in the smoke to God. The burnt-offering is first named in Gen. viii. 20, as offered after the Flood. Throughout the whole of the Book of Genesis (see xv. 9, 17, xxii. 2, 7, 8, 13) it appears to be the only sacrifice referred to ; afterwards it became distinguished as one of the regular classes of sacrifice under the Mosaic law. The meaning of the whole burnt-offering was that wMch is the original fmm mi. il m»mmmm .,„ QHHH pkw i yj^i'-wont 1 BWiii *tJfft m T 4B td o BUSH 81 CAIN idea of -all sacrifice, the offering by the sacri- ficer of himself, soul and body, to God, the submission of Ms will to the Will of the Lord. The ceremonies of the burnt-offering are given in detail in the Book of Leviticus. There were, as public burnt-offerings — 1st. The daily burnt-offering] (Ex. xxix. 38- 42 ; Num. xviii. 3-8). 2ndly. The Sabbath burnt-offering (Num. xxviii. 9, 10). Srdly. The offering at the new moon, at the three great festivals, the great Day of Atonement, and feast of trumpets. (See Num. xxviii. 11- xxix. 39). Private burnt-offerings were ap pointed at tbe consecration of priests (Ex. xxxix. 15 ; Lev. viii. 18, ix. 12), at the puri fication of women (Lev. xii. 6, 8), at the cleansing of ¦ the lepers (Lev. xiv. 19), and removal of other ceremonial uncleanness (xv. 15, 30), on any accidental breach of the Na- zaritic vow, or at its conclusion (Num. vi. ; comp. Acts xxi. 26), &c. But freewill burnt- offerings were offered and accepted by God on any solemn occasions (Num. vii. ; 1 K. viii. 64). BUSH. The Hebrew word s&neh occurs only in those passages which refer to Jeho vah's appearance to Moses " in the flame of fire in the hush " (Ex. iii. 2, 3, 4 ; Deut. xxxiii. 16). Celsius has argued in favour of the Rubus vulgaris, i. e. R. fruticosus, the bramble or blackberry bush. Sprengel iden tifies the sSneh with what he terms the Rubus sanctus, and says it grows abundantly near Sinai. It is quite impossible to say what kind of thorn hush is intended. BUTTER, curdled milk (Gen.- xviii. 8 ; Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Judg. v. 25 ; Job xx. 17). Milk is generally offered to travellers in Pa lestine in a curdled or sour state, "lebben," thick, almost like butter. Hasselquist de scribes the method of making butter employed by the Arab women : " they made butter in a leather bag, hung on three poles erected for the purpose, in the form of a cone, and drawn to and fro by two women." BUZ, the second son of Milcah and Nahor (Gen. xxii. 21). Elihu "the Buzite " was probably a descendant of Buz. c AB. [Measures.] CA'BUL, a place named as one of the land marks on the boundary of Asher (Josh. xix. 27). It may fairly be considered as still exist ing in the modern Kabul, 8 or 9 miles east of Akka, and about the same distance from Jefat. CAE'SAR, always in the N. T. the Roman emperor, the sovereign of Judaea 'John xix. 12, 15; Acts xvii. 7). 8m. D. B. CAESARE'A (Acts viii. 40, ix. 30, x. 1, 24, xi. 11, xii. 19, xviii. 22, xxi. 8, 16, xxiii. 23, 33, xxv. 1, 4, 6, 13), was situated on the coast of Palestine, on the line of the great road from Tyre to Egypt, and about half way between Joppa and Dora. The distance from Jerusalem was about 70 miles ; Josephus states it in round numbers as 600 stadia. In Strabo's time there was on this point of the coast merely a town called " Strato's tower" with a landing-place, where as, in the time of Tacitus, Caesarea is spol en of as being the head of Judaea. It was in this interval that the city was built by Herod the Great. It was the official residence of the Herodian kings, and of Festus, Felix, and the other Roman procurators of Judaea. Caesarea continued to be a city of some im portance even in the time of the Crusades, and the name still lingers on the site (Kaisa- riyeh) . CAESARE'A PHILIP'PI is mentioned only in the two first Gospels (Matt. xvi. 1 3 ; Mark viii. 27) and in accounts of the same transactions. It was at the easternmost and most important of the two recognised sources of the Jordan, the other being at Tel-el-Kadi. The spring rises, and the city was built, on a limestone terrace in a valley at the base of Mount Hermon. Caesarea Philippi has no O. T. history, though it has been not unrea sonably identified with Baal- Gad. There is no difficulty in identifying it with the Pa- nium of Josephus. Panium became part of tbe territory of Philip, tetrarch of Tracho- nitis, who enlarged and embellished the town, and called it Caesarea Philippi, partly after his own name, and partly after that of the em peror. It is still called Banias. CAGE. The term so rendered in J^r. v. 27, is more properly a trap, in which de coy birds were placed (comp. Ecclus. xi. 30). In Rev. xviii. 2, the Greek term means a prison. CAI'APHAS, in full Joseph Caiaphas, Mgh-priest of the Jews under Tiberius (Matt. xxvi. 3, 57 ; John xi. 49, xviii. 13, 14, 24, 28; Acts iv. 6). The Procurator Valerius Gratus appointed him to the dignity. He was son-in-law of Annas. [Akras.] CAIN. The historical facts in the life of Cain, as recorded in Gen. iv. are briefly these : — He was the eldest son of Adam and Eve ; he followed the business of agriculture ; in a fit of jealousy, roused by the rejection of his own sacrifice and the acceptance of Abel's, he committed the crime of murder, for which he was expelled from Eden, and led the life of an exile ; he settled in the land of Nod, and built a city which he named after his son Enoch ; his descendants are enumerated, to- G CAINAN 82 CALF gether with the inventions for which they were remarkable. CAI'NAN. 1. Son of Enos, aged 70 years when he begat Mahalaleel his son. He lived 840 years afterwards, and died aged 910 (Gen. v. 9-14). — 2. Son of Arphaxad, and father of Sala, according to Luke iii. 35, 36, and usually called the second Cainan. He is also found in the present copies of the LXX., but is nowhere named in the Hebrew MSS. It seems certain that his name was intro duced into the genealogies of the Greek O. T. in order to bring them into harmony with the genealogy of Christ in St. Luke's Gospel. CA'LAH, one of the most ancient cities of Assyria (Gen. x. 11). The site of Calah is probably marked by the Nimrud ruins. If this be regarded as ascertained, Calah must be considered to have been at one time (about b.c. 930-720) the capital of the empire. CALAMUS. [Reed.] CALDRON, a vessel for boiling flesh, either for ceremonial or domestic use (2 Chr. xxxv. 13; 1 Sam. ii. 14; Mic. iii. 3; Job xii. 20). Bronze ealdron from Egyptian Thebes. (Brit. Mus.) CA'LEB. 1. According to 1 Chr. ii. 9, 18, 19, 42, 50, the son of Hezron, the son of Pharez, the son of Judah, and the father of Hur by Ephrath or Ephratah, and conse quently grandfather of Caleb the spy.- — 2. Son of Jephunneh, by which patronymic the illus trious spy is usually designated (Num. xiii. 6, and ten other places), with the addition of that of " the Kenezite," or " son of Kenaz," in Num. xxxii. 12 ; Josh. xiv. 6, 14. Caleb is first mentioned in the list of the rulers or princes who were sent to search the land of Canaan in the second year of the Exodus. He and Oshea or Joshua the son of Nun were the only two of the whole number who encouraged the people to enter in boldly to the land, and take possession of it. Forty-five years afterwards, Caleb came to Joshua and claimed possession of the land of the Anakims, Kirjath-Arba, or Hebron, and the neighbour ing hill country (Josh. xiv.). This was im mediately granted to him, and the following chapter relates how he took possession of Hebron, driving out the three sons of Anak ; and how he offered Achsah Ms daughter in marriage to whoever would take Kirjath- Sepher, i. e. Debir ; and how when Othniel, his younger brother, had performed the feat, he not only gave him Ms daughter to wife, but with her the upper and nether springs of water which she asked for. It is probable that Caleb was a foreigner by birth ; a pro selyte, incorporated into the tribe of Judah. CALF. In Ex. xxxii. 4, we are told that Aaron, constrained by the people in the ab sence of Moses, made a molten calf of the golden earrings of the people, to represent the Elohim which brought Israel out of Egypt. Probably it was a wooden figure laminated with gold, a process which is known to have existed in Egypt. " A gilded ox covered with a pall " was an emblem of Osiris (Wilk inson, iv. 335). To punish the apostasy Moses burnt the calf, and then grinding it to powder scattered it over the water, which he made the people drink. The process which he used is difficult of explanation. Bochart and Ro- senmuller think that he merely cut, ground, and filed the gold to powder. It has always been a great dispute respecting this calf and those of Jeroboam, whether, I. the Jews in tended them for some Egyptian god, or II. Bronze Figure of Apis. (Wilkinson , for a mere cherubic symbol of Jehovah. Of the various sacred cows of Egypt, those of Isis, of Athor, and of the three kinds of sacred bulls, Apis, Basis, and Mnevis, Sir G. Wilkinson fixes on the latter as the prototype of the golden calf. It seems to us more likely that in this calf-worship the Jews merely " Likened their Maker to the graved ox," or in other words, adopted a well-unders^cod cherubic emblem. The calf at Dan was CALNEH 83 CAMPHIRE carried away hy Tiglath-Pileser, and that of Bethel ten years after by his son Shalmaueser. CAL'NEH, or CAL'NO, appears in Genesis (x. 10) among the cities of Nimrod. Probably the site is the modern Niffer. In the 8th century b.c Calneh was taken by one of the Assyrian kings, and never recovered its pros perity (Is. x. 9 ; Am. vi. 2). CAL'VARY, a word occurring in the A. V. only in Luke xxiii. 33, and there arising from the translators having literally adopted the word caVoaria, i. e. a bare scull, the Vulgate rendering of Kpaviov, which again is nothing but the Greek for Goi-gotha. The popular expression " Mount Calvary " is not war ranted by any statement in the accounts of the place of our Lord's crucifixion. CAMEL. It is clear from Gen. xii. 16 that camels were early known to the Egyptians, though no representation of this animal has yet been discovered in the paintings or hiero glyphics. The Ethiopians had " camels in abundance" (2 Chr. xiv. 15) ; the queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem "with camels that bare spices and gold and precious stones" (IK. x. 2) ; the men of Kedar and of Hazor possessed camels (Jer. xlix. 29, 32) ; David took away the camels from the Geshurites and the Amalekites (1 Sam. xxvii. 2, xxx. 17) ; forty camels* burden of good things were sent to Elisha by Benhadad king of Syria from wards (xiii. 12). The camel was used for riding (Gen. xxiv. 64 ; 1 Sam. xxx. 17) ; as a beast of burden generally (Gen. xxxvii, 25 ; 2 K. viii. 9 ; 1 K. x. 2, &c.) ; and for draught purposes (Is. xxi. 7). From 1 Sam. xxx. 17 we learn that camels were used in war. John the Baptist wore a garment made of camel's hair (Matt. iii. 4 ; Mark i. 6), and some have supposed that Elijah " was clad in a dress of the same stuff." Dr. Kitto says " the Arabs adorn the necks of their camels with a band of cloth or leather, upon which are strung small shells called cowries in the form of half-moons," this very aptly illustrates Judg. viii. 21, 26-a The species of camel which was in common use amongst the Jews and the heathen nations of Palestine was the Ara bian or one-humped camel (Camelus Ara- bicus). The dromedary is a swifter animal than the baggage-camel, and is used chiefly for riding purposes ; it is merely a finer breed than the other : the Arabs call it the Heirie. The speed of the dromedary has been greatly exaggerated, the Arabs asserting that it is swifter than the horse ; eight or nine miles an hour is the utmost it is able to perform ; this pace, however, it is able to keep up for hours together. CA'MON, the p*ace in wMch Jair the Judge was buried (Judg. x. 5). CAMP. [Encampments.] CAMPHIRE (Heb. copher). There can be Damascus (2 K. viii. 9); the Ishmaelites trafficked with Egypt in the precious gums of Gilead, carried on the backs of camels (Gen. xxxvii. 25) ; the Midianites and the Amaletetes possessed camels " as the sand by the sea-side for multitude" (Judg. vii. 12); Job had three thousand camels before his affliction (Job i. 3), and six thousand after- Lawtrmia sUba. „ Tne word erroMOMly translated " caroelB " in Es"»- ,ffi. To probably .igniflw » mute » of a fln. breeu. CANA 84 CANDLESTICK no doubt that " camphire " is an incorrect rendering of the Hebrew term, which occurs in the sense of some aromatic substance only in Cant. i. 14, iv. 13. The margin in both passages has " cypress." The substance really denoted by Gopher is the Lawsonia alba of botanists, the henna of Arabian naturalists. The inhabitants of Nubia call the henna-plant Khofreh. The henna-plant grows in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, and N. India. The flowers are white and grow in clusters and are very fragrant. The whole shrub is from four to six feet high. The Lawsonia alba, the only known species, belongs to the natural order Lythraceae. CA'NA OF GALILEE, once CANA IN GALILEE, a village or town not far from Capernaum, memorable as the scene of Christ's first miracle (John ii. 1, 11, iv. 46) as well as of a subsequent one (iv. 46, 54), and also as the native place of the Apostle Nathanael (xxi. 2). The traditional site is at Kefr Kenna, a small village about 4 .J, miles north west of Nazareth. The rival site is a village situated further north, about 5 miles north of Seffurieh (Sepphoris) and 9 of Nazareth, near the present Jefat, the Jotapata of the Jewish wars. This village still bears the name of Kana-eUjelil. The Gospel history will not be affected whichever site may be discovered to be the real one. CA'NAAN. 1. The fourth son of Ham (Gen. x. 6 ; 1 Chr. i. 8) ; the progenitor of the Phoenicians ("Zidon"), and of the va rious nations who before the Israelite conquest peopled the sea-coast of Palestine, and ge nerally the whole of the country westward of the Jordan (Gen. x. 13) ; 1 Chr. i. 13). — 2. The name " Canaan " is sometimes employed for the country itself. In several passages the word iB concealed in the A. V. by being translated. These are: Is. xxiii. 8, "traf fickers," andxxiii. 11, " tho merchant city ;" Hos. xii. 7, "He is a merchant;" Zeph. i. 11, "merchant-people." CA'NAAN, THE LAND OF, lit. "Low land," a name denoting the country west of the Jordan and Dead Sea, and between those waters and the Mediterranean ; specially op posed to the " land of Gilead," that is the high table-land on the east of the Jordan. It is only in later notices, such as Zeph. ii. 5, and Matt. xv. 22, that we find it applied to the low maritime plains of Philistia and Phoe- mcia (comp. Mark vii. 26). CA'NAANITE, THE, the designation of the Apostle Simon, otherwise known as " Si mon Zelotes." It occurs in Matt. x. 4 ; Mark iii. 18, and is derived from a Chaldee or Syi'iac word, by which the Jewish sect or faction of " the Zealots " was designated. The Greek equivalent is Zelotes (Luke vi. 1 5 * Acts i. 13). CA'NAANITES, THE, a word used m two senses : — 1. a tribe which inhabited a parti cular locality of the land west of the Jordan before the conquest ; and 2. the people who inhabited generally the whole of that country. — 1. -For the tribe of "the Canaanites" only — the dwellers in the lowland. The whole of the country west of Jordan was a "lowland" as compared with the loftier and more extended tracts on the east : but there was a part of this western country which was still more emphatically a " lowland." " The Canaanite dwells by tbe sea, and by the side of Jordan" (Num. xiii. 29}. In Gen. x. 18- 20 the seats of the Canaanite tribe are given as on the sea-shore and in the Jordan Valley (comp. Josh. xi. 3). — 2. Applied as a genera. name to the non-Israelite inhabitants of the land, as we have already seen was the case with " Canaan." Instances of this are, Gen. xii. 6 ; Num. xxi. 3 ; Judg. i. 10 ; and Gen. xiii. 12. See also Gen. xxiv. 3, 37, comp. xxviii. 2, 6 ; Ex. xiii. 11, comp. 5. Like the Phoenicians, the Canaanites were probably given to commerce ; and thus the name be came probably in later times an occasional synonym for a merchant (Job xii. 6 ; Prov. xxxi. 24; comp. Is. xxiii. 8, 11 ; Hos. xii 7; Zeph. i. 11). CANDA'CE, a queen of Ethiopia (Meroe), mentioned Acts viii. 27. The name was not a proper name of an individual, but that of a dynasty of Ethiopian queens. CANDLESTICK, which Moses was com manded to make for the tabernacle, is de scribed Ex. xxv. 31-37; xxxvii. 17-24. It is called in Lev. xxiv. 4, " the pure," and in Ecclus. xxvi. 17, " the holy candlestick." With its various appurtenances it required a talent of " pure gold," and it was not moulded, but "of beaten work." Josephus, however, says that it was of east gold, and hollow. The candlestick was placed on the south side of the first apartment of the tabernacle, opposite the table of shew-bread (Ex. xxv. 37), and was lighted every evening and dressed every morning (Ex. xxvii. 20, 21, xxx. 8; comp. 1 Sam. iii. 2). Each lamp was supplied with cotton, and half a log of the purest olive-oil (about two wine-glasses), which was sufficient to keep them burning during a long night. When carried about, the candlestick was covered with a cloth of blue, and put with its appendages in badger- skin bags, wMch were supported on a bar (Num. iv. 9). In Solomon's Temple, instead of this candlestick, there were ten golden candlesticks similarly embossed, five on the right, and five on the left (1 K. vii. 49; SANE 85 CANTICLES 2 Chr. iv. 7). They were taken to Babylon (Jer. Iii. 19). In the Temple of Zerubbabel there was again a single candlestick (1 Mace. i. 23, iv. 49). Candlestick. (From Arch of Titus.) CANE. [Reed.] CANKERWORM. [Locust.] CAN'NEH (Ez. xxvii. 23), probably a contraction of Calneh, which is the reading of one MS. CANOPY (Jud. x. 21, xiii. 9, xvi. 19). The canopy of Holofernes is the only one mentioned. It probably retained the mos quito nets or curtains in which the name originated, although its description (Jud. x. 21) betrays luxury and display rather than such simple usefulness. CANON OF SCRIPTURE, THE, may be generally described as " the collection of books which form the original and authorita tive written rule of the faith and practice of the Christian Church. The word Canon, in classical Greek, is properly a straight rod, as the rod of a shield, or that used in weaving, or a carpenter's rule. In patristic writings the word is commonly used both as "a rule" in the widest sense, and especially in the phrases " the rule of the Church," " the rule of faith," "the rule of truth." As applied to Scripture the derivatives of Canon were used long before the simple word. The title "Canonical" was first given to writings in the sense of " admitted by the rule," and not as " forming part of and giving the rule." The first direct application of the term Canon to the Scriptures seems to be in the veiseo of Amphilochius (c. 380 a.d.), where the word indicates the rule by which the contents of the Bible must be determined, and thus secondarily an index of the constituent books. Among Latin writers it is commonly found from the time of Jerome and Augustine, and their usage of the word, which is wider than that of Greek writers, is the source of its modern acceptation. The uncanonical books were described simply as " those without," or " those uncanonized.'' The Apocryphal books which were supposed to occupy an in termediate position, were called "books read," or "ecclesiastical," though the latter title was also applied to the canonical Scrip tures. The canonical books were also called "books of the Testament," and Jerome styled the whole collection by the striking name of " the holy library," which happily expresses the unity and variety of the Bible. Popular belief assigned to Ezra and " the great synagogue " the tassk of collecting and promulgating the Scriptures as part of their work in organizing the Jewish Church. Doubts have been thrown upon this belief, but it is in every way consistent with the Ms- tory of Judaism and with the internal evi dence of the hooks themselves. After the Maccabaean persecution the history of the formation of the Canon is merged in the his tory of its contents. The Old Testament appears from that time as a whole. The complete Canon of the New Testament, as commonly received at present, was ratified at the third Council of Carthage (a.d, 397), and from that time was accepted throughout the Latin Church. Respecting the books of which the Canon is composed, see the article Bible. CANTICLES, Song of Songs, i. e. the most beautiful of songs, entitled in the A. V. The Song of Solomon. — I. Author and date. — By the Hebrew title it is ascribed to Solomon ; and so in all the versions, and by the majority of Jewish and Christian writers, ancient and modern. A few of the Talmudical writers as signed ft to the age of Hezekiah. More recent criticism, however, has called in question this deep-rooted, and well accredited tradition, but on the whole it seems unnecessary to depart from tbe plain meaning of the Hebrew title. Supposing the date fixed to the reign of Solomon, there is great difficulty in deter mining at what period of that monarch's life the poem was written. — II. Form. — It may be called a drama, as it contains the dramatic evolution of a simple love-story. — III. Mean ing. — The schools of interpretation may be divided into three ; — the mystical, or typical; the allegorical; and the literal. — 1. The mys tical interpretation is properlv an offshoot CAPERNAUM 86 CAPTAIN of the allegorical, and probably owes its origin to the necessity wMch was felt of sup plying a literal basis for the speculation of the allegorists. This basis is either the mar riage of Solomon with Pharaoh's daughter, or his marriage with an Israelitish woman, the Shulamite. The mystical interpretation makes its first appearance in Origen, who wrote a voluminous commentary upon the Canticles. — 2. Allegorical. — Notwithstanding the attempts which have been made to dis cover the principle of interpretation in the LXX. (Cant. iv. 8), Jesus son of Sirach (xlvii. 14-17; Wisd. viii. 2), and Josephus [c.-Apion. i. $ 8), it is impossible to trace it with any certainty farther back than the Tahnud. According to the Talmud the beloved is taken to be God, the loved one, or bride, is the congregation of Israel. In the Christian Church, the Tahnudical interpreta tion, imported by Origen, was all but uni- versajly received. — 3. The Literal interpre tation. — According to the most generally received interpretation of the modern liter- alists, the Song is intended to display the victory of humble and constant love over the temptations of wealth and royalty. — IV. Ca- nonicity. — The hook has been rejected from the Canon by some critics ; but in no case has its rejection been defended on external grounds. It is found in the LXX., and in the translations of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. It is contained in the cata logue given in the Talmud, and in the catalogue of Melito ; and in short we have the same evidence for its canonicity as that which is commonly adduced for the canonicity of any book of the 0. T. CAPER'NAUM was on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Matt. iv. 13; comp. John vi. 24), and, if recent discoveries are to be trusted, was of sufficient importance to give to that Sea, in whole or in part, the name of the " lake of Capernaum." It was in the "land of Gennesaret" (Matt. xiv. 34, comp. John vi. 17, 21, 24). It was of suffi cient size to be always called a " city " (Matt. ix. 1 ; Mark i. 33) ; had its own synagogue, in which our Lord frequently taught (John vi. 59; Mark i. 21; Luke iv. 33, 38)— a synagogue built by the centurion of the de tachment of Roman soldiers which appears to have been quartered in the place (Luke vii. 1, comp. 8 ; Matt. viii. 8). But besides the garrison there was also a customs* station, where the dues were gathered both by sta tionary (Matt. ix. 9 ; Mark ii. 14 ; Luke v. 27) and by itinerant (Matt. xvii. 24) officers. The only interest attaching to Capernaum is as the residence of our Lord and his Apostles* the scene of so many miracles and " gracious words." At Nazareth He was "brought up," but Capernaum was emphatically His " own city ;" it was when He returned thither that He is said to have been " at home " (Markii. 1). The spots which lay claim to its site are 1. Khan Minyeh, a mound of niins, which takes its name from an old khan hard by. This mound is situated close upon the sea-shore at the north-western extremity of the plain (now El Ghuweir). 2. Three miles north of Khan Minyeh is the other claimant, Tell Hum., — ruins of walls and foundations covering a space of " half a mile long by a quarter wide," on a point of the shore pro jecting into the lake and backed by a very gently rising ground. Khan Minyeh Et-Ta- bighah, and Tell Hum, are all, without doubt, ancient sites, but it is impossible to say which of them represents Capernaum, which Chorazin, or which Bethsaida. CAPH'TOR, CAPH'TORIM, thrice men tioned as the primitive seat of the Philistines (Deut. ii. 23 ; Jer. xlvii. 4 ; Am. ix. 7), who are once called CAPHTORIMS (Deut. ii. 23), as of the same race as the Mizraite people of that name (Gen. x. 14 ; " Caphthorim," 1 Chr. i. 12). The position of the country, since it was peopled by Mizraites, must be supposed to be in Egypt or near to it in Africa, for the idea of the south-west of Pa lestine is excluded by the migration of the Philistines. Mr. R. S. Poole has proposed to recognise Caphtor in the ancient Egyptian name of Coptos, or the Coptite nome. It is probable that the Philistines left Caphtor not long after the first arrival of the Mizraite tribes, while they had not yet attained that attachment to the soil that afterwards so eminently characterized the descendants of those which formed the Egyptian nation. CAPPADO'CIA, CAPPADO'CIANS (Acts ii. 9; 1 Pet. i. 1). The range of Mount Taurus and the upper course of the Eu phrates may safely be mentioned, in general terms, as natural boundaries of Cappadocia on the south and east. Its geographical limits on the west and north were variable. In early times the name reached as far north wards as the Euxine Sea. Cappadocia is an elevated table-land intersected by moun tain-chains. It seems always to have been deficient in wood ; but it was a good grain country, and particularly famous for grazing. Its Roman metropolis was Caesarea. The native Cappadocians seem originally to have belonged to the Syrian stock. CAPTAIN, (l.) As a purely military title Captain answers to sar in the Hebrew army, and "tribune" in the Roman. The "cap tain of the guard" in Acts xxviii. 16 was pro bably the praefectus praetorio, (2.) Katsta, CAPTIVITIES 87 CARMEL occasionally rendered captain, applies some times to a military (Josh. x. 24 ; Judg. xi. 6, 11 ; Is. xxii. 3 ; Dan. xi. 18), sometimes to a oivil command (e. g. Is. i. 10, iii. 6). (3.) The " captain of the temple " mentioned by Rt. Luke (xxii. 4 ; Acts iv. 1, v. 24) su perintended the guard of priests and Levites, who kept watch by Mght in the Temple. CAPTIVITIES OF THE JEWS. The present article is confined to the forcible de portation of the Jews from their native land, and their forcible detention, under the Assy rian or Babylonian kings. The kingdom of Israel was invaded by three or four successive kings of Assyria. Pul or Sardanapalus, ac cording to Rawlinson, imposed a tribute [b.c. 771 or 762 Rawl.) upon Menahem (1 Chr. v. 26, and 2 K. xv. 19). Tiglath-Pileser earned away (b.c. 740) the trans-Jordanic tribes (1 Chr. v. 26) and the inhabitants of Galilee (2 K. xv. 29, comp. Is. ix. 1) to As syria. Shalmaneser twice invaded (2 K. xvii. 8, 5) the kingdom which remained to Hoshea, took Samaria (b.c 721) after a siege of three years, and carried Israel away into Assyria. Sennacherib (b.c. 713) is stated to have carried into Assyria 200,000 captives from the Jewish cities which he took (2 K. xviii. 13). Nebuchadnezzar, in the first half of his reign (b.c. 606-562), repeatedly invaded Judaea, besieged Jerusalem, carried away the inhabitants to Babylon, and destroyed the Temple. Two distinct deportations are men tioned in 2 K. xxiv. 14 (including 10,000 persons) and xxv. 11. One in 2 Chr. xxxvi. 20. Three in Jer. Iii. 28-30, including 4600 persons, and one in Dan. i. 3. The two principal deportations were, (1) that which took place b.c. 598, when Jehoiachin with all the nobles, soldiers, and artificers was carried away ; and (2) that which foUowed the de struction of the Temple and the capture of ZedeMah b.c. 588. The 70 years of captivity predicted by Jeremiah (xxv. 12) are dated by Prideaux from b.c. 606. The captivity of Ezekiel dates from b.c 598, when that pro phet, like Mordecai the uncle of Esther (Esth. ii. 6), accompanied Jehoiachin. The captives were treated not as slaves but as colonists. The Babylonian captivity was brought to a close hy the decree (Ezr. i. 2) of Cyrus (b.c 536), and the return of a portion of the nation under Sheshbazzar or Zerubbabel (b.c. 535), Ezra (b.c. 458), and Nehemiah (b.c. 445). The number who returned upon the decree of b.c. 536 was 42,360, besides serv ants. Those who were left in Assyria (Esth. viii. 9, 11), and kept up their national dis tinctions, were known as The Dispersion (John vii. 35 ; 1 Pet. i. 1 ; James i. 1). Many attempts have been made to discover the ten tribes existing as a distinct community. But though history bears no witness of their present distinct existence, it enables us to track the footsteps of the departing race in four directions after the time of the Captivity. (1.) Some returned and mixed with the Jews (Luke ii. 36 ; Phil. iii. 5, &c). (2.) Some were left in Samaria, mingled with the Sa maritans (Ezr. vi. 21 ; John iv. 12), and be came bitter enemies of the Jews. (3.) Many remained in Assyria, and were recognised as an integral part of the Dispersion (see Acts ii. 9, xxvi. 7). (4.) Most, probably, apostatized in Assyria, adopted the usages and idolatry of the nations among whom they were planted, and became wholly swallowed up in them. CARBUNCLE. The representative in the A. V. of the Hebrew words 'ekddch and bar- hath or bdreketh. — 1. 'Ekddch (Is. liv. 12) may be a general term to denote any bright sparkling gem, but it is impossible to deter mine its real meaning. — 2. BdrSkath, bdre- /ceta (Ex. xxviii. 17, xxxix. 10; Ez. xxviii. 13), is supposed to be the smaragdus or emerald. CAR'CHEMISH occupied nearly the site of the later Mabug, or Hierapolis. It seems to have commanded the ordinary passage of the Euphrates at Bir, or Bireh-jtk. Carche- mish appears to have been taken by Pharaoh- Necho shortly after the battle of Megiddo (c. b.c 608), and retaken by Nebuchadnezzar after a battle three years later, b.c 605 (Jer. xlvi. 2). CA'RIA, the southern part of the region which in the N. T. is called Asia, and the south-western part of the peninsula of Asia Minor. At an earlier period we find it men tioned as a separate district (1 Mace. xv. 23). A little later it was incorporated in the pro vince of Asia. ' CAR'MEL. 1. A mountain which forms one of the most striking and characteristic features of the country of Palestine. As if to accentuate more distinctly the bay which forms the one indentation in the coast, this noble ridge, the only headland of lower and central Palestine, forms its southern bound ary, running out with a bold bluff promon tory all but into the very waves of the Medi terranean. From this point it stretches in a nearly straight line, bearing about S.S.E., for a little more than twelve miles, whea it ter minates suddenly in a bluff somewhat corre sponding to its western end, breaking down abruptly into the Mils of Jenin and Samaria, which form at that part the central mass of the country. Carmel thus stands as a wall between the maritime plain of Sharon on the south, and the more inland expanse of Es- draelon on the north. Its structure is in the CARNAIM CATS main the Jura formation (upper oolite), which is prevalent in the centre of Western Pales tine — n soft white limestone, with nodules and veins of flint. In form Carmel is a tolerably continuous ridge, at the W. end about 600, and E. about 1600 feet above the sea. There seem to he grounds for believing that from very early times it was considered as a sacred spot. In later times we know that its reputation was not confined to Pales tine. But that which has made the name of Carmel most familiar to the modern world is its intimate connexion with the history of the two great prophets of Israel — Elijah and Elisha. It is now commonly called Mar Elyas ; Kurmel being occasionally, but only seldom, heard. — 2. A town in the mountain ous country of Judah (Josh. xv. 55), familiar to us as the residence of Nabal (1 Sam. xxv. 2, 5, 7, 40). CARNA'IM, a large and fortified city in " the land of Galaad." It was besieged and taken by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Mace. v. 26,43, 44). A comparison with 2 Mace. xii. 21,26, enables us to identify it with Ashteroth-Karnaim. CARPENTER. [Handicraft.] CAR'PUS, a Christian at Troas (2 Tim. iv. 13). According to Hippolytus, Carpus was bishop of Berytus in Thrace. CARRIAGE. This word occurs only six times in the text of the A. V., and signifies what we now call " baggage." In the margin of 1 Sam. xvii. 20, and xxvi. 5-7 — and there only — "carriage" is employed in the sense of a wagon or cart. CART, Gen. xiv. 19, 27 ; Num. vii. 3, 7, 8, a vehicle drawn by cattle (2 Sam. vi. 6), to be distinguished from the chariot drawn Egyptian cart with two wheels. (Wilkinson.) by horses. Carts and wagons were either open or covered (Num. vii. 3), and were used for conveyance of persons (Gen. xiv. 19), burdens (1 Sam. vi. 7, 8), or produce (Am. li. 13). The oMy cart used in Western Asia has two wheels of solid wood. But in tho monuments of ancient Egypt representations are found of carts with two wheels, having four or six spokes, used for carrying produce, and of one used for religious purposes having four wheels with eight spokes. CAS'LUHIM, a Mizraite people or tribe (Gen. x. 14 ; 1 Chr. i. 12). The only clue we have as yet to the position of the Cas- luhim is their place in the list of the sons of Mizraim between the Pathrusim and thtf Caphtorim, whence it is probable that they were seated in Upper Egypt. CASSIA. The representative in the A. V, of the Hebrew words kidddh and ketzioth. — 1. Kidddh occurs in Ex. xxx. 24, and in Ez-. xxvii. 19. The accounts of cassia as given by ancient authors are confused ; and the inves tigation of the subject is a difficult one. It is clear that the Latin writers by the term casia understood both the Oriental product now under consideration, as well as some low sweet herbaceous plant ; but the Greek word is limited to the Eastern product. The cassia- bark of commerce is yielded by various kinds of Cinnamomum, which grow in different parts of India. — 2. Ketzioth, only in Ps. xiv. 8. This word is generally supposed to be another term for cassia : the old versions, as well as the etymology of the Hebrew word, are in favour of this interpretation. CASTLE. [Fortifications.] CAS'TOR AND POLLUX (Acts xxviii. 11). The twin sons of Jupiter and Leda, were regarded as the tutelary divinities of sailors. They appeared in heaven as the constellation Gemini. In art they were sometimes repre sented simply as stars hovering over a sMp, but more frequently as young men on horse back, with corneal caps and stars above them. Such figures were probably painted or sculp tured at the bow of the ship. Silver coin of Bruttii. Obv. : Heads of Castor and Pollux to right. Kev. : Castor and Pollux mounted, advancing to right. In the exergue BPETTII1N. CATS occur only in Baruch vi. 22. The Greek word, as used by Aristotle, has more particular reference to the wild cat. Hero dotus (ii. 66) applies it to denote the domestic animal. The context of the passage in Baruch CATERPILLAR 89 CENSER appears to point to the domesticated animal. Perhaps the people of Babylon originally pro cured the cat from Egypt. The domestic cat of the ancient Egyptians is supposed by some to be identical with the Felis maniculata. Felio m&ntcuktta. CATERPILLAR. The representative in the A.V. of the Hebrew words chdsxl and yelek. — 1. Chdsil occurs in 1 K. viii. 37 ;. 2 Chr. vi. 28 ; Ps. lxxviii. 46 ; Is. xxxiii. 4 ; Joel i. 4 ; and seems to be applied to a locust, perhaps in its larva state. — 2. Yelek. [Locust.] CAVE. The chalky limestone of wMch the rocks of Syria and Palestine chiefly consist presents, as is the case in all limestone for mations, a vast number of caverns and natural fissures, many of which have also been artifi cially enlarged and adapted to various pur poses both of shelter and defence. The most remai'kable caves noticed in Scripture are : — ,1. That in which Lot dwelt after the destruc tion of Sodom (Gen. xix. 30). 2. The cave of Machpelah (xxiii. 17). 3. Cave of Mak- kedah (Josh. x. 10). 4. Cave of Adullam (I Sam. xxii. 1'). 6. Cave of Engedi (xxiv. 3). 6. Obadiah's cave (1 K. xviii. 4). 7. Eli jah's cave in Horeb (xix. 9). 8, 9. The rock Bepulehres of Lazarus, and of our Lord (John xi. 38 ; Matt, xxvii. 60). CEDAR. The Heb. word erez, invariably rendered " cedar " by the A. V., stands for that tree in most of the passages where the word occurs. The erez, or " firmly rooted and strong tree," from an Arabic root which has this signification, is particularly the name of the cedar of Lebanon ( Cedrus Libani) ;. but that the word is used in a wider sense to de note other trees of the Coniferae is clear from some Scriptural passages where it occurs. For instance, the "cedar wood" mentioned in Lev. xiv. 6 can hardly be the wood of the Lebanon cedars, seeing that the Cedrus Li bani could never have grown in the peninsula of Sinai. There is another passage (Ez. xxvii. 5), in which perhaps erez denotes some fir ; in all probability the Pinus Halepensis, which grows in Lebanon, and is better fitted for furnishing ship-masts than the wood of the Cedrus Libani. Tbe Cedrus Libani, Pinus Halepensis, and Juniperus excelsa, were pro bably all included under the term erez ; though there can be no doubt that by this name is more especially denoted the cedar of Lebanon, as being the firmest and grandest of the conifers. As far as is at present known, the cedar of Lebanon is confined in Syria to one valley of the Lebanon range, viz., that of the Kedisha river, which flows from near the highest point of the range westward to the Mediterranean, and enters the sea at the port of Tripoli. The grove is at the very upper part of the valley, about 1 5 miles from the sea, 6500 feet above that level, and its position is moreover above that of all other arboreous vegetation. CE'DRON. In tMs form is given in the N. T. the name of the brook Kidron in the ravine below the eastern wall of Jerusalem (John xviii. 1, only). Beyond it was the garden of Gethsemane. [Kidron.] CEILING. The descriptions of Scripture (1 K. vi. 9, 15, vii. 3 ; 2 Chr. iii. 5, 9 ; Jer. xxii. 14 ; Hag. i. 4), and of Josephus, show that the ceilings of the Temple and the palaces of the Jewish kings were formed of cedar planks applied to the beams or joints crossing from wall to wall, probably with sunk panels, edged and ornamented with gold, and carved with incised or other patterns, sometimes painted (Jer. xxii., 14). CELO SYRIA. [Coelestria.] CEN'CHREA (accurately GENCHREAE), the eastern harbour of Corinth (i. e. its harbour on the Saronic Gulf) and the emporium of its trade with the Asiatic shores of tbe Mediter ranean, as Lechaeum on the Corinthian Gulf connected it with Italy and the west. St. Paul sailed from Cenchreae (Acts xviii. 18) on his return to Syria from his second missionary journey ; and when he wrote his epistle to the Romans in the course of the third journey, an organised church seems to have been formed here (Rom. xvi. 1). CENSER. A small portable vessel of metal fitted to receive burning coals from the altar, and on wMch the incense for burning was sprinkled (2 Chr. xxvi. 18 ; Luke i. 9). The only distinct precepts regarding the use of the censer are found in Num. iv. 14, and in Lev. xvi. 12. Solomon prepared "censers of pure gold " as part of the same furmture (1 K. vii. 50; 2 Chr. iv. 22). Possibly their genera. use may have been to take up coals from the brazen altar, and convey the incense wMle CENSUS 90 CHALDEA burning to the " golden altar," or " altar of incense," on which it was to be offered morn ing and evening (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). SoUzziah, when he was intending "to burn incense upon, the altar of incense," took a censer in Ms hand" (2 Chr. xxvi. 16, 19). The word rendered " censer " in Hebr. ix. 4 probably means the " altar of incense." CENSUS. [Taxing.] CENTURION. [Armv.] CEPHAS. [Peter.] CHAFF. The Heb. words rendered cluaff in A. V. -do not seem to have precisely the same meaning: chashash = dry grass, hay; and occurs twice only in 0. T., viz., Is. v. 24, xxxiii. 11. Mots is chaff separated by winnowing from the grain — the husk of the wheat. The carrying away of chaff by the wind is an ordinary Scriptural image of the de struction of the wicked, and of their power - lessness to resist God's judgments (Ps. i. 4 ; Is. xviii. 13 ; Hos. xiii. 3 ; Zeph. ii. 2). CHAIN. Chains were used, 1. as badges ¦of office; 2. for ornament; 3. for confining prisoners. 1. The gold chain placed about Joseph's neck (Gen. xii. 42), and that pro mised to Daniel (Dan. v. 7), are instances of the first use. In Ez. xvi. 11, the chain is mentioned as the symbol of sovereignty. 2. Chains -for ornamental purposes were worn by men as well as women in many countries both of Europe and Asia, and probably this was the case among the Hebrews (Prov. i. 9). The necklace consisted of pearls, corals, &c, threaded on a string. Besides the necklace, other chains were worn (Jud. x. 4) hanging down as far as the waist, or even lower. Some were adorned with pieces of metal, shaped in the form of the moon (" round tires like the moon," A. V. ; Is. iii. 18). The Midianites adorned the necks of their camels with it (Judg. viii. 21, 26). To other chains were suspended various trinkets — as scent-bottles (Is. iii. 20) and mirrors (Is. iii. 23). Step-chains were attached to the ankle- rings, which shortened the step and produced a mincing gait (Is. iii. 16, 18). 3. Tho means adopted for confining prisoners among the Jews were fetters similar to our handcuffs (Judg. xvi. 21 ; 2 Sam. iii. 34 ; 2 K. xxv. 7 ; Jer. xxxix. 7). Among the Romans, the prisoner was handcuffed to one, and occa sionally to two guards (Acts xii. 6, 7, xxi. 33). CHALCEDONY, only in Rev. xxi. 19. The name is applied in modern mineralogy to one of the varieties of agate. There can, however, he little doubt that the stone to which Theophrastus refers, as being found in the island opposite Chalcedon and used as a solder, must have been the green transparent carbonate of copper, or our copper emerald. CHALDE'A, more correctly CHALDAE'A, properly only the most southern portion of BabyloMa, is used in Scripture to signify that vast alluvial plain which has been formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris — at least so far as it lies to the west of the latter stream. This extraordinary flat, unbroken except by the works of man, ex tends a distance of 400 miles along the course of the rivers, and is on an average about 100 miles in width. The general aspect of the country is thus described by a modern traveller, who well contrasts its condition now with the appearance which it must have presentedin ancient tmies. " In former days," he says, " the vast plains of Babylon were nourished by a complicated system of canals and watercourses, wMch spread over the sur face of the country like a network. The wants of a teeming population were supplied by a rich soil, not less bountiful than that on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. Like islands rising from a golden sea of waving corn, stood frequent groves of palm-trees and plea sant gardens, affording to the idler or tra veller their grateful and highly- valued shade. Crowds of passengers hurried along the dusty roads to and from the busy city. The land was rich in corn and wine. How changed is the aspect of that region at the present day I Long lines of mounds, it is true, mark the courses of those main arteries wMch formerly diffused life and vegetation along their banks, but their channels are now bereft of moisture and choked with drifted sand ; the smaller offshoots are wholly effaced. * A drought is upon her waters,' says the prophet, * and they shall be dried up ! ' All that remains of that ancient civilisation — that * glory of kingdoms,' — 'the praise of the whole earth,' — is recognisable in the numerous mouldering heaps of brick and rubbish which overspread the surface of the plain. Instead, of the luxurious fields, the groves and gardens, nothing now meets the eye but an arid waste — the dense population of former times is vamshed, and no man dwells there." (Loftus's Chaldaea, pp. 1 4-15). The true Chaldaea is always in the geographers a dis tinct region, being the most southern portion of BabyloMa, lying chiefly (if not solely) on the right bank of the Euphrates. Babylonia above this is separated into two districts, called respectively Amordacia and Auranitis. The former is the name of the central ter ritory round Babylon itself ; the latter is ap plied to the regions towards the north, where Babylonia borders on Assyria. Cities. — Babylonia was celebrated at all times for the number and antiquity of its cities. The most important of those wMch have been identified CHALDEANS 91 CHAMELEON are Borsippa (Birs-Nimrud), Sippara or Se pharvaim (Mosaib), Cutha (Ibrahim), Calneh (Niffer), Erech (Warka), Ur (Mugheir), Chil- mad (Kalwadha), Larancha (Senkereh), Is (Hit), Duraba (Akkerkuf) ; but besides these there were a multitude of others, the sites of which have not been determined. The ex traordinary fertility of the Chaldaean soil has been noticed by various writers. It is said to be the only country in the world where wheat grows wild. Herodotus declared (i. 193) that grain commonly returned 200-fold to the sower, and occasionally 300-fold. The palm was undoubtedly one of the principal objects of cultivation. The soil is rich, but there is now little cultivation, the inhabitants subsist ing chiefly upon dates. More than half the country is left dry and waste from the want of a proper system of irrigation ; while the remaining half is to a great extent covered with marshes owing to the same neglect. CHALDE'ANS, or CHAL'DEES, appear in Scripture, until the time of the Captivity, as the people of the country which has Babylon for its capital, and which is itself termed Shinar ; but in the Book of Daniel, while this meaning is still found (v. 30, and ix. 1), a new sense shows itself. The Chaldeans are classed with the magicians and astronomers ; and evidently form a sort of priest class, who have a peculiar "tongue" and "learning" (i. 4), and are consulted by the king on re ligious subjects. The same variety appears in profane writers. It appears that the Chaldeans (Kaldai or Kaldi) were in the earliest times merely one out of the many CusMte tribes inhabiting the great alluvial plain known afterwards as Chaldaea or Baby lonia. Their special seat was probably that southern portion of the country which is found to have so late retained the name of Chaldaea. Here was Ur "of the Chaldees," the modern Mugheir, which lies south of the Euphrates, near its junction with the Sliat- el-Hie. In process of time, as the Kaldi grew in power, their name gradually pre vailed over those of the other tribes inhabit ing the country ; and by the era of the Jewish captivity it had begun to be used generally for all the inhabitants of Babylonia. It had come by this time to have two senses, both ethnic : in the one it was the special appel lative of a particular race to whom it had. be longed from the remotest times, in the other it designated the nation at large in which this race was predominant. It has been ob served above that the Kaldi proper were a CusMte race. This is proved by the remains of their language, which closely resembles the Galla or ancient language of Ethiopia. Now U appears by the inscriptions that while, both in Assyria and in later Babylonia, the Shemitic type of speech prevailed for civil purposes, the ancient Cushite dialect was retained, as a learned language for scientific and religious literature. This is no doubt the " learning " and the "tongue" to which reference is made in the Book of Daniel (i. 4). The Chaldeans were really the learned class ; they were priests, magicians, or astronomers, and in the last of the three capacities they probably effected discoveries of great import ance. In later times they seem to have de generated into mere fortune-tellers. ^js-m^m^. r - m n J-^iHl III 4 Costumes of the Chaldeans. (Rawlinson. From Ancient Monuments.) CHALDEES. [Chaldeans.] CHAMBERLAIN. Erastus, "the cham berlain " of the city of Corinth, was one of those whose salutations to the Roman Chris tians are given at the end of the Ep. ad dressed to them (Rom. xvi. 23). The office which he held was apparently that of public treasurer, or arcarius, as the Vulgate renders his title. These arcarii were inferior ma gistrates, who had the charge of the public chest (area publico), and were under the authority of the senate. They kept the ac counts of the public revenues. The office held by Blastus, "the king's chamberlain," was entirely different from this (Acts xii. 20). It was a post of honour which involved great intimacy and influence with the king. The margin of our version gives " that was over the king's bedchamber." For Chamberlain as used in the 0. T., see Eunuch, CHAMELEON, the translation of the Hebrew coach, which occurs in the sense of some kind of unclean animal in Lev. xi. 30. Others suppose it to he the lizard, known by the name of the "Monitor of the Nile" (Monitor Niloticus^ Grey), a large strong CHAMOIS 92 CHEBAR reptile common in Egypt and other parts of Africa. CHAMOIS, the translation of the Hebrew zemer in Deut. xiv. 5. But the translation is incorrect ; for there is no evidence that the chamois has ever been seen in Palestine or the Lebanon. It is probable that some moun tain sheep is intended. CHA'NAAN, the manner in which the word Canaan is spelt in the A. V. of the Apocrypha and N. T. (Jud. v. 3, 9, 10 ; Bar. iii. 22 ; Sus. 56 ; 1 Mace. ix. 37 ; Acts vii. 11, xiii. 19). CHAPITER, the capital of a pillar ; also possibly a roll moulding at the top of a bMlding or work of art, as in the case (1) of the pillars of the Tabernacle and Temple, and of the two pillars called especially Jachin and Boaz ; and (2) of the lavers belonging to the Temple (Ex. xxxviii. 17 ; IK. vii. 27, 31, 38). CHARGER, a shallow vessel for re ceiving water or blood, also for presenting offerings of fine flour with oil (Num. vii. 79). The daughter of Herodias brought the head of St. John the Baptist in a charger (Matt. xiv. 8) : probably a trencher or platter. [Basin.] CHARIOT, a vehicle used either for war like or peaceful purposes, but most commonly the former. Of the latter use the following only are probable instances as regards the Jews, 1 K. xviii. 44, and as regards other nations, Gen. xii. 43, xlvi. 29 ; 2 K. v. 9 ; Acts viii. 28. Theearliest mention of chariots in Scripture is in Egypt, where Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was placed in Pharaoh's Becond chariot (Gen. xii. 43) and later when he went in his own chariot to meet his father on his entrance into Egypt from Canaan (xlvi. 29). In the funeral procession of Jacob chariots also formed a part, possibly by way of escort or as a guard of honour (1. 9) . The next mention of Egyptian chariots is for a warlike purpose (Ex. xiv. 7). In this point of view chariots among some nations of antiquity, as elephants among others, may be regarded as filling the place of heavy artillery in modern times, so that the military power of a nation might be esti mated by the number of its chariots. Thus Pharaoh in pursuing Israel took with him 600 chariots. The Canaanites of the valleys of Palestine were enabled _ to resist the Israelites successfully in consequence of the number of their chariots of iron, i. e. perhaps armed with iron scythes (Josh. xvii. 18 ; Judg. i. 19). Jabin, king of Canaan, had 000 chariots (Judg. iv. 3). The Philistines in Saul's time had 30,000 (1 Sam. xiii. 5). David took from Hadadezer, king of Zobah, 1000 chariots (2 Sam. viii. 4), and from the Syrians a little later 700 (x. 18), who, m order to recover their ground, collected 32,000 chariots (1 Chr. xix. 7). Up to this time the Israelites possessed few or no chariots, partly no doubt in consequence of the theocratic pro- Mbition against multiplying horses, for fear of intercourse with Egypt, and the regal despot ism implied in the possession of them (Deut. xvii. 16 ; 1 Sam. viii. 11, 12). But to some extent David (2 Sam. viii. 4), and in a much greater degree Solomon, broke through the prohibition. He raised, therefore, and main tained a force of 1400 chariots (1 K. x. 25) by taxation on certain cities agreeably to Eastern custom in such matters (1 K. ix. 19, x. 25). From tMs time chariots were regarded as among the most important arms of war, though the supplies of them and of horses appear to have been mainly drawn from Egypt (I K. xxii. 34 ; 2 K. ix. 16, 21, xiii. 7, 14, xviii. 24, xxiii. 30 ; Is. xxxi. 1). Most commonly two persons, and sometimes three, rode in the chariot, of whom the third was employed to carry the state umbrella (2 K. ix. 20, 24 ; 1 K. xxii. 34 ; Acts viii. 33). A second chariot usually accompanied the king to battle to be used in case of necessity (2 Chr. xxv. 34). The prophets allude fre quently to chariots as typical of power (Ps. xx. 7, civ. 3; Jer. li. 21 ; Zech. vi. 1). In the N. T., the only mention made of a chariot, except in Rev. ix. 9, is in the case of the Ethiopian or Abyssinian eunuch of Queen Candace (Acts viii. 28, 29, 38). Jewish chariots were no doubt imitated from Egyp tian models, if not actually imported from Egypt. Aaeyrian chariot CHE'BAR,. a river in the "land of the Chaldaeans " (Ez. i. 3), on the banks of which some of the Jews were located at the time of the captivity, and where Ezekiel saw his earlier visions (Ez. i. 1, iii. 15, 23, &c.}. . It is commonly 1 egarded as identical with the CHEDORLAOMER 93 CHERUB Hahor, or river of Gozan, to which some por tion of the Israelites were removed by the Assyrians (2 K. xvii. 6). But this is a mere conjecture. Perhaps the Chebar of Eeckiel is the Nahr Malcha or Royal Canal of Nebu chadnezzar — the greatest of all the cuttings in Mesopotamia. CHEDORLAO'MER, a king of Elam, in the time of Abraham, who with three other chiefs made war upon the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar, and reduced them to servitude (Gen. xiv. 17). Tho name of a king is found upon the bricks recently discovered in . Chaldaea, which is read Kudar-mapula. This man has been sup posed to be identical with Chedorlaomer, and the opinion is confirmed by the fact that he is further distinguished by a title which may be translated " Ravager of the west." CHEESE is mentioned only three times in the Bible, and on each occasion under a dif ferent name in the Hebrew (Job x. 10 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 18 ; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). It is difficult to decide how far these terms correspond with our notion of cheese ; for they simply express various degrees of coagulation. It may be observed that cheese is not at the present day common among the Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly preferred ; but there is a substance, closely corresponding to those jrientioned in 1 Sam. xvii. ; 2 Sam. xvii., con sisting of coagulated buttermilk, which is dried until it becomes quite hard, and is then ground : the Arabs eat it mixed with butter. CHEM'ARIMS, THE. This word only occurs in the text of tbe A. V. in Zeph. i. 4. In 2 K. xxiii. 5 it is rendered " idolatrous priests," and in Hos. x. 5 "priests," and in both cases "chemarim" is given in the margin. So far as regards the Hebrew usage of the word it is exclusively applied to the priests' of the false worship, and was in all probability a term of foreign origin. CHE'MOSH, the national deity of the Moabites (Num. xxi. 29; Jer. xlviii. 7, 13, 46). In Judg. xi. 24, he also appears as the god of the Ammonites. Solomon introduced, and Josiah abolished, the worship of Chemosh at Jerusalem (I K. xi. 7 ; 2 K. xxiii. 13). Jerome identifies him with Baal-Peor ; others with Baal-Zebub, on etymological grounds ; others with Mars, and others with Saturn. CHER'ETHITES and PEL'ETHITES, the life-guards of King David (2 Sam. viii. 18 xv. 18, xx. 7, 23; 1 K. i. 38, 44; 1 Chr xviii. 17). These titles are commonly said to signify " executioners and couriers." It is plain that these royal guards were em ployed as executioners (2 K. xi. 4), and as couriers (1 K.xiv. 27). But it has been con jectured that they may have been foreign mercenaries. They are connected with the Gittites, a foreign tribe (2 Sam. xv. 21) ; and the Cherethites are mentioned as a nation (1 Sam. xxx. 14), dwelling apparently on the coast, and therefore probably Philistines, of which name PeletMtes may be only another form. CHE'RITH, THE BROOK, the torrent-bed or wady in which Elijah hid himself during the early part of the three years' drought (1 K. xvii. 3, 5). The position of the Cherith has been much disputed. The argu ment from probability is in favour of the Cherith being on the east of Jordan, and the name may possibly bo discovered there. CHER'UB, CHER'UBIM. The symbolical figure so called was a composite creature- form, which finds a parallel in the religious insignia of Assyria, Egypt, and Persia, e. g. the sphinx, the winged bulls and lions of Nineveh, &c. The Hebrew idea seems to limit the The winged female Sphinx. (Wilkinson.) number of the cherubim. A pair (Ex. xxv. 18, &c.) were placed on the mercy-seat of the ark : a pair of colossal size overshadowed it in Solomon's Temple with the canopy of their contiguously extended wings. Ezekiel, i. 4-14, speaks of four, and similarly the apo calyptic "beasts" (Rev. iv. 6) are four. So at the front or east of Eden were posted " the cherubim," as though the whole of some re cognised number. The cherubim are placed beneath the actual presence of Jehovah, whose moving throne they appear to draw (Gen. iii. 24; Ez. i. 5, 25, 26, x. 1, 2, 6, 7 ; Is. vi. 2, 3, 6). The glory symbolising that pre sence which eye cannot see rests or rides on them, or one of them, thence dismounts to the temple threshold, and then departs and mounts again (Ez. x. 4, 18 ; comp. ix. 3; Ps. xviii. 10). There is in them an entire absence of human sympathy, and even on the mercy-seat they probably ap peared not merely as admiring and wonder ing (1 Pet. i. 12), but as guardians of the covenant and avengers of its breach. Those CHESALON 94 CHILDREN on the ark were to be placed with wings stretched forth, one at each end of the mercy- seat, and to be made "of the mercy-seat." They are called the cherubim of glory (Heb. ix. 5), as on them the glory, when visible, rested. They were anointed with the holy oil, like the ark itself, and the other sacred furniture. Their wingB were to be stretched Assyrian Gryphon. (Layard, il. 459.) upwards, and their faces " towards each other and towards the mercy-seat." It is remark able that with such precise directions as to their position, attitude, and material, nothing, save that they were winged, is said concern ing their shape. On the whole it seems likely that the word " cherub '.' meant not only the composite creature-form, of which the man, lion, ox, and eagle were the ele ments, but, further, some peculiar and mystical form, which Ezekiel, being a priest, would know and recognise as " the face of a cherub " (Ez. x. 14) ; but which was kept secret from all others ; and such probably were those on the ark, though those on the hangings and panels might be of the popular device. What this peculiar cherubic form was is per haps an impenetrable mystery. It might well be the symbol of Him whom none could behold and live. For as symbols of Divine attributes, e. g. omnipotence and omniscience, not as representations of actual beings, the cherubim should be regarded. CHE'SALON, a place named as one of the landmarks on the west part of the north boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 10), probably Kesla, about six miles to the N.E. of Ain- shems, on the western mountains of Judah. CHE'SIL, a town in the extreme south of Palestine, named with Hormah and Ziklag (Josh. xv. 30). In Josh. xix. 4 the name Bethul occurs in place of it, whence we may conclude that Chesil was an early variation of Bethul. CHESTNUT-TREE (Heb. 'armon: Gen. xxx. 37 ; Ezek. xxxi. 8) : it is spoken of as one of the glories of Assyria, for which the "plane-tree" ought probably to have been substituted. The context of the passages where the word occurs indicates Bome tree which thrives best in low and rather moist situations, whereas the chestnut-tree is a tree which prefers dry and hilly ground. CHESUL'LOTH (lit. "the loins"), one of the towns of Issachar, deriving its name, perhaps, from its situation on the slope of some mountain (Josh. xix. 18). From its position in the lists it appears to he between Jezreel and Shunem (Salam). CHET'TIIM, 1 Mace. i. 1. [Chittim.] CHE'ZIB, a name which occurs but once (Gen. xxxviii. 5), probably the same aa Achzib. CHI'DON. the 'name which in 1 Chr. xiii. 9 is given to the threshing-floor at which the accident to the ark too* p.aee. In the parallel account in 2 Sam. vi. the name is given as Nachon. CHILDREN. The blessing of offspring, but especially of the male sex, is highly valued among all Eastern nations, while the absence is regarded as one of the severest punishments (Gen. xvi. 2; Dent. vii. 14; 1 Sam. i. 6 ; 2 Sam. vi. 23 ; 2 K. iv. 14 ; Is. xlvii. 9 ; Jer. xx. 15 ; Ps. exxvii. 3, 5). As soon as the child was born, it was washed in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in swaddling clothes. Arab mothers sometimes rub their children with earth or sand (Ez. xvi. 4 ; Job xxxviii. 9 ; Luke ii. 7). On the 8th day the rite of circumcision, in the case of a boy, was performed, and a name given, sometimes, but not usually, the same as that of the father, and generally conveying some special meamng. At the end of a certain time the mother was to make an offering of purification of a lamb as a burnt-offering, and a pigeon or turtle-dove as a sin-offering, or in case of poverty, two doves or pigeons, one as a burnt-offering, the other as a sin- offering (Lev. xii. 1-8 ; Luke ii. 22). The period of nursing appears to have been some times prolonged to three years (Is. xlix. 15 ; 2 Mace. vii. 27). Nurses were employed in cases of necessity (Ex. ii. 9 ; Gen. xxiv. 59, xxxv. 8 ; 2 Sam. iv. 4 ; 2 K. xi. 2 ; 2 Chr. xxii. 11). The time of weaning was an oc casion of rejoicing (Gen. xxi. 8). Arab children wear little or no clothing for four or five years : the young of both sexes are usually carried by the mothers on the hip or the shoulder, a custom to which allusion is made by Isaiah (Is. xlix. 22, lxvi. 12). Both boys and girls in their early years were under the care of the women (Prov. xxxi. 1). Afterwards the boys were taken by the father under his charge. Those in wealthy families had tutors or governors, who were sometimes CHILEAB 95 CHRISTIAN eunuchs (Num. xi. 12 ; 2 K. x. 1. 5 • Is. xlix. 23 ; Gal. iii. 24 ; Esth. ii. 7). Daughters usually remained in the women's apartments till marriage, or, among the poorer classes, were employed in household work (Lev. xxi. 9 ; Num. xii. 14 ; 1 Sam. ix. 11 ; Prov. xxxi. 19, 23; Ecclus. vii. 25, xiii. 9 ; 2 Mace! iii. 19). The firstborn male children were regarded as devoted to God, and were to be redeemed by an offering (Ex. xiii. 13 ; Num. xviii. 15; Luke ii. 22). The authority of parents, especially of the father, over children was very great, as was also the reverence enjoined by the law to he paid to parents. The disobedient child, the striker or reviler of a parent, was liable to capital punishment, though not at the independent will of the parent. The inheritance was divided equally between all the sons except the eldest, who received a double portion (Deut. xxi. 17 ; Gen. xxv. 31, xlix. 3 ; 1 Chr. v. 1, 2 ; Judg. xi. 2, 7). Daughters had by right no portion in the inheritance ; but if a man had no son, his inheritance passed to Ms daughters, who were forbidden to marry out of their father's tribe (Num. xxvii. 1, 3, xxxvi. 2, 8). CHIL'EAB. [Abigail.] CHTM'HAM, a follower, and probably a son of Barzillai the Gileadite, who returned from beyond Jordan with David (2 Sam, xix. 37, 38, 40). David appears to have be stowed on him a possession at Bethlehem, on which, in later times, an inn or Khan was Btanding (Jer. xii. 17). CHIN'NERETH, SEA OF (Num. xxxiv. 11 ; Josh. xiii. 27), the inland sea, which is most familiarly known to us as the " lake of Gennesareth." It seems likely that Chinne- reth was an ancient Canaanite name existing long prior to the Israelite conquest. CHI'OS. The position of this island in re ference to the neighbouring islands and coasts could hardly be better described than in the detailed account of St. Pail's return voyage from Troas to Caesarea (Acts xx. xxi.). Having come from Assos to Mitylene in LeBbos (xx. 14), he arrived the next day over against Chios (v. 15), the next day at Samos and tarried at Trogyllium (ib.) : and the following day at Miletus (ib.) : thence he went by Cos and Rhodes to Patara (xxi. 1). Chios is separated from the mainland by a strait of only 5 miles. Its length is about 32 miles, and in breadth it varies from 8 to 18. CHIS'LEU. [Months.] CHIT'TIM, KITTIM, a family or race de scended from Javan (Gen. x. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 7 ; A. V. Kittim), closely related to the DodaMm, and remotely to the other descendants of Javan. CMttim is frequently noticed in Scrip ture ; Balaam predicts that a fleet should thence proceed for the destruction of Assyria (Num. xxiv. 24) : in Is. xxiii. 1, 12, it appears as the resort of the fleets of Tyre : in Jer. ii. 10, the "isles of CMttim" are to the far west, as Kedar to the east of Palestine : the Tyrians procured thence the cedar or box wood, which they inlaid with ivory for the decks of their vessels (Ez. xxvii. 6) : in Dan, xi. 30, " ships of CMttim " advance to the south to meet the king of the north. At a later period we find Alexander the Great de scribed as coming from tbe land of Chettii:b (1 Mace. i. 1), and Perseus as king of the Citims (1 Mace. viii. 5). Josephus considered Cyprus as the original seat of the Chittim, adducing as evidence the name of its prin cipal town, Citium. Citium was without doubt a Phoenician town. From the town the name extended to the whole island of Cyprus, which was occupied by Phoenician colomes. The name CMttim, which in the first instance had applied to Phoenicians only, passed over to the islands which they had occupied, and thence to the people who suc ceeded the Phoenicians in the occupation of them. Thus in Mace, CMttim evidently = Macedonia. CHI'UN. [Remphan.] CHLO'E, a woman mentioned in 1 Cor. i. 11. CHORA'ZTN, one of the cities in which our Lord's mighty works were done, but named only in His denunciation (Matt. xi. 21 ; Luke x. 13). St. Jerome describes it as on the shore of the lake, two miles from Capernaum, but its modern site is uncertain. CHRIST. [Jesus.] CHRISTIAN. The disciples, we are told (Acts xi. 26), were first called Christians at Antioch on the Orontes, somewhere about a.d. 43. The name, and the place where it was conferred, are both significant. It is clear that the appellation "Christian" was one which could not have been assumed by the Christians themselves. They were known to each other as brethren of one family, as disciples of the same Master, as believers in the same faith, and as distinguished by the same endeavours after holiness and consecra tion of life; and so were called brethren (Acts xv. 1, 23 ; 1 Cor. vii. 12), disciples (Acts ix. 26, xi. 29), believers (Acts v. 14), saints (Rom. viii. 27, xv. 25). But the outer world could know nothing of the true force and significance of these terms. To the con temptuous Jew they were Nazarenes and Galilaeans, names which carried with them the infamy and turbulence of the places whence they sprung, and from whence no thing good and no prophet might come. The Jews could add nothing to the scorn which CHRONICLES 90 CHRONICLES these names expressed, and had they endea voured to do so they would not have defiled the glory of their Messiah by applying Ms title to those whom they could not but regard as the followers of a pretender. The name " Christian," then, which, in the only other cases where it appears in the N. T. (Acts xxvi. 28 ; 1 Pet. iv. 16), is used con temptuously, could not have been applied by the early disciples to themselves, nor could it have come to them from their own nation the Jews ; it must, therefore, have been imposed upon them by the Gentile world, and no place could have so appropriately given rise to it as Antioch, where the first Church was planted among the heathen. Its inhabitants were celebrated for their wit and a propensity for conferring nicknames. The Emperor Julian himself was not secure from their jests. Apollonius of Tyana was driven from the city by the insults of the inhabitants. Their wit, however, was often harmless enough; and there is no reason to suppose that the name " Christian " of itself was intended as a term of scurrility or abuse, though it would natu rally be used with contempt. Suidas says the name was given in the reign of Claudius, when Peter appointed * Evodius bishop of Antioch, and they who were formerly called Nazarenes and Galilaeans had their name changed to Christians. CHRONICLES, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF, the name originally given to the record made by the appointed historiographers in the kingdomsof Israel and Judah. In the LXX. these books are called Paralipomena (i. e. things omitted), which is understood as meaning that they are supplementary to the books of Kings. The Vulgate retains both *he Hebrew and Greek name in Latin cha racters, Dibre jammim, or hajamim, and Paralipomenon. The constant tradition of the Jews is that these books were for the most part compiled by Ezra. In fact, the internal evidence as to the time when the book of Chromcles was compiled, seems to tally remarkably with the tradition concern ing its authorship. As regards the plan of tho book, of which the book of Ezra is a con tinuation, forming one work, it becomes ap parent immediately we consider it as the compilation of Ezra or some one nearly con temporary with him. One of the greatest difficulties connected with the captivity and the return must have been the maintenance of that genealogical distribution of the lands which yet was a vital point of the Jewish economy. Another difficulty intimately con nected with the former was the maintenance of the temple services at Jerusalem. This could only be effected by the residence of the priests and Levites in Jerusalem in the order of their courses : and this residence was only practicable in case of the payment of the ap pointed tithes, first-fruits, and other offerings. But then again the registers of the Levitical genealogies were necessary, in order that it might be known who were entitled to such and such allowances, as porters, as singers, as priests, and bo on ; because all these offices went by families ; and again the payment of the tithes, first-fruits, &c, was dependent upon the different families of Israel being established each in his inheritance. Obviously therefore one of the most pressing wants of the Jewish community after their return from Babylon would be trusty genealogical records. But further, not only had Zerubbabel, and after Mm Ezra and Nehemiah, laboured moBt earnestly to restore the temple and the public worship of God there to the condition it had been in under the kings of Judah ; but it ap pears clearly from their policy, and from the language of the contemporary prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, that they had it much at heart to re-infuse something of national life and spirit into the heart of the people, and to make them feel that they were still the inheritors of God's covenanted mercies, and that the captivity had only temporarily inter rupted, not dried up, the stream of God's favour to theiT nation. Now notMng could more effectually aid these pious and patriotic designs than setting before the people a com pendious history of the kingdom of David, which should embrace a full account of its prosperity, should trace the sins which led to its overthrow, should carry the thread through the period of the captivity, and con tinue it as it were unbroken on the other side ; and those passages in their former his tory would bo especially important which exhibited their greatest and best kings as engaged in building or restoring the temple, in reforming all corruptions in religion, and zealously regulating the services of the house of God. As regards the kingdom of Israel or Samaria, seeing it had utterly and hopelessly passed away, and that the existing inhabitants were among tbe bitterest " adversaries of Judah and Benjamin," it would naturally en gage very little of the compiler's attention. These considerations explain exactly the plan and scope of that historical work which con sists of the two books of Chronicles and the book of Ezra. For after having in the first eight chapters given the genealogical divisions and settlements of the various tribes, the compiler marks distinctly his own age and his own purpose, by informing us in ch. ix. ] of the disturbance of those settlements by the Babylomsh captivity, and, in the follow- CHRYSOLITE 97 CHURCH Ing verses, of the partial restoration of them at the return from Babylon (2-24) ; and that this list refers to the families who had re turned from Babylon is clear, not only from the context, but from its reinsertion, Neh. xi. 3-22, with additional matter evidently ex tracted from the public archives, and relating to times subsequent to the return from Babylon, extending to Neh. xii. 27, where Nehemiah's narrative is again resumed in continuance with Neh. xi. 2. Having thus shown the re-establishment of the returned families, each in their own inheritance ac cording to the houses of their fathers, the compiler proceeds to the other part of his plan, which is to give a continuous history of the kingdom of Judah from David to Ms own times, introduced by the closing scene of Saul's life (ch. x.), which introduction is itself prefaced by a genealogy of the house of Saul (ix. 35-44). As regards the materials used by Ezra, they are not difficult to discover. The genealogies are obviously transcribed from some register, in which were preserved the genealogies of the tribes and families drawn up at different times ; while the history is mainly drawn from the same documents as those used in the Books of Kings. [Kings, Books «f.] CHRYSOLITE, one of the precious stones in the foundation of the heavenly Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20). It has been already stated [Beryl] that the chrysolite of the ancients is . identical with the modern Oriental topaz, the tarshish of the Hebrew Bible. CHRYSOPRASE occurs only in Rev. xxi. 20. The true chrysoprase is sometimes found in antique Egyptian jewellery set alter nately with bits of lapis-lazuli ; it is not im probable therefore that this is the stone wMch was the tenth in the walls of the heavenly Jerusalem. CHUB, the name of a people in alliance with Egypt in the time of Nebuchadnezzar (Ez. xxx. 5), and probably of northern Africa, or of the lands near Egypt to the South. CHUN, a city of Hadadezer (1 Chr. xviii. 8), called Berothai in 2 Sam. viii. 8. CHURCH. I. The derivation of the word church is uncertain. It is generally said to be derived from the Greek kuriakon (Kvptaicav), " belonging to the Lord." But the derivation has been too hastily assumed. It is probably connected with kirk, the Latin circus, cir cu ius, the Greek kuklos (kvkaos).— II. Ecclesia (iKKX-qa-ia), the Greek word for Church, ¦ originelly meant an assembly called out by the magistrate, or by legitimate authority. This is the ordinary classical sense of the word. But it throws no light on the nature of the institution so designated in the New Sm. D. B. Testament. For to the writers of the N.T. the word had now lost its primary significa tion, and was either used generaHy for any meeting (Acts xix. 32), or more particularly, it denoted (1) the religious assemblies of the Jews (Deut. iv. 10, xviii. 16) ; (2) the whole assembly or congregation of the Israelitish people (Acts vii. 38 ; Heb. ii. 12 ; Ps. xxii. 22; Deut. xxxi. 30). It was in this kiBt sense that the word was adopted and applied by the writers of the N. T. to the Christian congregation. The chief difference between the words " ecclesia " and " church," would probably consist in this, that " ecclesia " primarily signified the Christian body, and secondarily the place of assembly, while the first signification of " church " was the place of assembly, which imparted its name to the body of worshippers. — III. The Church as described in the Gospels. — The word occurs only twice. Each time in St. Matthew (Matt. xvi. 18, "On this rock will I build my Church;" xviii. 17, "Tell it unto tbe Church"). In every other case it is spoken of as " the kingdom of heaven " by St. Matthew, and as " the kingdom of God " by St. Mark and St. Luke. St. Mark, St. Luke, and St. John, never use the expression " kingdom of heaven." St. John once uses the phrase "kingdom of God" (iii. 3). St. Matthew occasionally speaks of " the king dom of God" (vi. 33, xxi. 31, 43), and sometimes simply of " the kingdom " (iv. 23, xiii. 19, xxiv. 14). In xiii. 41 and xvi. 28, it is " the Son of Man's kingdom." In xx. 21, "thy kingdom," i.e. Christ's. In the one Gospel of St. Matthew the Church is spoken of no less than thirty-six times as " the kingdom." Other descriptions or titles are hardly found in the Evangelists. It is Christ's household (Matt. x. 25), the salt and Ught of the world (v. 13, 15), Christ's flock (Matt. xxvi. 31 ; John x. 1), its members are the branches growing on Christ the Vine (John xv.) ; but the general description of it, not metaphorically but directly, is, that it is a Mngdom (Matt. xvi. 19). From the Gospel then, we learn that Christ was about to establish His heavenly kingdom, on earth, which was to be the substitute for the Jewish Church and kingdom, now doomed to destruc. tion (Matt. xxi. 43). — IV. The Church as described in the Acts and in the Epistles — its Origin, Nature, and Constitution. — From the Gospels we learn little in the way of detail as to the kingdom which was to be established. It was in the great forty days wMch inter vened between the Resurrection and the Ascension that our Lord explained specifically to His Apostles " the things pertaining to the kingdom o? God " (Acts i. 3), that is, Ms CHURCH CHURCH future Church. — Its Origin. — The removal of Christ from the earth had left his followers a shattered company with no bond of external or internal cohesion, except the memory of the Master whom they had lost, and the recollection of his injunctions to unity and love.. They continued together, meeting for prayer and supplication, and waiting for Christ's promise of the gift of the Holy Ghost. They numbered in all some 140 persons, namely, the eleven, the faithful women, the Lord's mother, Ms brethren, and 120 disciples. They had faith to believe that there was a work before them which they were about to be called to perform ; and that they might be ready to do it, they filled up the number of the Twelve by the appointment of Matthias " to be a true witness " with the eleven " of the Resurrection." The Day of Pentecost is the birth-day of the Christian Church. The Spirit, who was then sent by the Son from the Father, and rested on each of the Disciples, combined them once more into a whole — combined them as they never had before been combined, by an internal and spiritual bond of cohesion. Before they had been individual followers of Jesus, now they became his mystical body, animated by His Spirit. — Its Nature. — "Then they that gladly received his word were baptized .... and they continued stedfastly in the Apostles' doctrine and fellowship, and in breaking of bread and in prayers" (Acts ii. 41). Here we have indirectly exhibited the essential conditions of Church Communion. They are (1) Baptism, Baptism implying on the part of the recipient repentance and faith ; (2) Apostolic Doctrine ; (3) Fellowship with the Apostles; (4) the Lord's Supper ; (5) Public WorsMp. Every requisite for church-mem bership is here enumerated not only for the Apostolic days, but for future ages, St. Luke's treatise being historical, not dogma tical, he does not directly enter further into the essential nature of the Church. The community of goods, which he describes as being uMversal amongst the members of the infant society (ii. 44, iv. 32), is specially declared to be a voluntary practice (v. 4), not a necessary duty of Christians as such (comp. Acts ix. 36, 39, xi. 29). From the illustrations adopted by St. Paul in his Epistles, we have additional light thrown upon the nature of the Church. The passage wMch is most illustrative of our sub ject in the Epistles is Eph. iv. 3, 6. Here we see what it is that constitutes the unity of the Churoh in the mind of the Apostle : (1) unity of Headship, " one Lord ;" (2) unity of belief, "one faith;" (3) unity of Sacra ments, " one baptism : " (4) unity of hope of eternal life, " one hope of your calling ;" (5) unity of love, " uMty of the Spirit in the bond of peace ; " (6) unity of organisation, "one body." The Church, then, at tMa period was a body of baptized men and women who believed in Jesus as the Christ, and in the revelation made by Him, who were united by having the same faith, hope, and animating Spirit of love, the same Sacra ments, and the same spiritual invisible Head. — What was the Constitution of this body ?— On the evening of the Day of Pentecost, the 3140 members of wMch it consisted were (1) Apostles, (2) previous Disciples, (3) converts. At this time the Church was not only morally but actually one congregation. Soon, how ever, its numbers grew so considerably that it was a physical impossibility that all its members should come together in one spot. It became, therefore, an aggregate of con gregations, though without losing its essential unity. The Apostles, who had been closest to the Lord Jesus in his life on earth would doubtless have formed the centres of the several congregations. Thus the Church continued for apparently some seven years, but at the end of that time " the number of disciples was" so greatly "multiplied" (Acts vi. 1 ) that the twelve Apostles found them selves to be too few to carry out these works unaided. They thereupon for the first time exercised the powers of mission intrusted to them (John xx. 21), and by laying their hands on the Seven who were recommended to them by the general body of Christians, they appointed them to fulfil the secular task of distributing the common stock. It is a question wMch cannot be certainly answered whether the office of these Seven is to be identified with that of the deacons elsewhere found. "We incline to the hypothesis which makes the Seven the originals of the Deacons. From this time therefore, or from about this time, there existed in the Church — (1) the Apostles ; (2) the Deacons and Evangelists ; (3) the multitude of the faithful. We hear of no other Church-officer till the year 44, seven years after the appointmentoi" the deacons. We find that there were then in the Church of Jerusalem officers named Presbyters (xi. 30) who were the assistants of James, the chief administrator of that Church (xii. 17). The circumstances of their first appointment are not recounted. No doubt they were similar to those under wMch the Deacons were appointed. The name of Presbyter or Elder implies uiat the men selected were of mature age. By the year 44, therefore, there were in the Church of Jerusalem — (1) the Apostles holding the government of the whole body in their own CHURCH 99 CINNEROTH hands : (2) Presbyters invested by the ApostleB with authority for conducting public worship in each congregation ; (3) Deacons or Evangelists similarly invested with the lesser power of preaching and of baptizing unbelievers, and of distributing the common goods among the brethren. The same order was established in the Gentile Churches founded by St. Paul, the only difference being that those who were called Presbyters in Jerusalem bore indifferently the name of Bishops (Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 1, 2 ; Tit. i. 7) or of Presbyters (1 Tim. v. 17 ; Tit. i. 5) elsewhere. It was in the Church of Jerusa lem that another order of the ministry found its exempler. James the brother of the Lord remained unmolested during the perse cution of Herod Agrippa in the year 44, and from this time he is the acknowledged head of the Church of Jerusalem. A consideration of Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, 19; Gal. ii. 2, 9, 12; Acts xxi. 18, will remove all doubt oil this point. Whatever Ma pre-eminence was, he appears to have borne no special title indi cating it. The example of the Mother Church of Jerusalem was again followed by the Pauline Churches. Timothy and Titus had probably no distinctive title, but it is impossible to read the Epistles addressed to them without seeing that they had an authority superior to that of the ordinary bishops or priests (1 Tim. iii., v. 17, 19 ; Tit. i. 5). Thus, then, we see that where the Apostles were themselves able to superintend the Churches that they had founded, the Church-officers consisted of — (1) Apostles; (2) Bishops or Priests; (3) Deacons and Evangelists. When the Apostles were unable to give personal superintendence, they delegated that power which they had in common to one of themselves, as in Jerusa lem, or to one in whom they had confidence, as at Ephesus and in Crete. As the Apostles died off, these Apostolic Delegates necessarily multiplied. By the end of the first century, when St. John was the only Apostle that now survived, they would have been esta blished in every country, as Crete, and in every large town where there were several bishops or priests, such as the seven towns of Asia mentioned in the Book of Revelation. These superintendents appear to be addressed by St. John under the name of Angels. With St. John's death the Apostolic College was extinguished, and the Apostolic Delegates or Angels were left to fill their places in the government of the Church, not with the full unrestricted power of the Apostles, hut with authority only to be exercised in limited dis tricts. In the next century we find that these officers bore the name of Bishops, while those who in the first century were called indifferently Presbyters or Bishops had now only the title of Presbyters. We conclude, therefore, that the title bishop was gradually dropped by the second order of the miMstry, and applied specifically to those who repre sented what James, Timothy, and Titus had been in the Apostolic age. CHUSH'AN-RISHATHA'IM, the king of Mesopotamia who oppressed Israel during eight years in the generation immediately following Joshua (Judg. iii. 8). The seat of his dominion was probably the region between the Euphrates and the Khabour. Chushan- Rishathaim's yoke was broken from the neck of the people of Israel at the end of eight years by Othniel, Caleb's nephew (Judg. iii. 10), and nothing more is heard of Mesopo tamia as an aggressive power. The rise of the Assyrian empire, about b.c 1270, would naturally reduce the bordering nations to insignificance. CHU'ZA (properly CHUZAS), the house- steward of Herod Antipas (Luke viii. 3). CILIC'IA, a maritime province in the S.E. of Asia Minor, bordering on Pamphylia in the W., Lycaonia and Cappadocia in the N., and Syria in the E. The connexion between the Jews and Cilieia dates from the time when it became part of the Syrian kingdom. In the Apostolic age they were still there in considerable numbers (Acts vi. 9). Cilieia was from its geographical position the high road between Syria and the West, it was also the native country of St. Paul ; hence it was visited by him, firstly, soon after his conversion (Gal. i. 21 ; Acts ix. 30); and again in his second apostolical journey, when he entered it on the side of Syria, and crossed Antitaurus by the Pylae Ciliciae into Lycaonia (Acts xv. 41). CINNAMON, a well-known aromatic sub stance, the rind of the Laurus cinnamomum, called Korunda-gauhah in Ceylon. It ie mentioned in Ex. xxx. 23 as one of the com ponent parts of the holy anointing oil, which Moses was commanded to prepare — in Prov. vii. 17 as a perfume for the bed — and in Cant. iv. 14 as one of the plants of the garden which is the image of the spouse. In Rev. xviii. 13 it is enumerated among the merchandise of the great Babylon. It was imported into Judaea by the Phoenicians or by the Arabians, and is now found in Suma tra, Borneo, China, &c, but chiefly, and of the best quality, in the S.W. part of Ceylon. CIN'NEROTH, ALL, a district named with the "land of Naphtali" and other northern places as having been laid waste by Benhadad (1 K. xv. 20). It was possibly the small enclosed district north of Tiberias, H 2 CIRCUMCISION 100 CITIES OF REFUGE and by the side of the lake, afterwards known as " the plain of Gennesareth." CIRCUMCISION was peculiarly, though not exclusively, a Jewish rite. It was enjoined upon Abraham, the father of the nation, by God, at the institution, and as the token, of the Covenant, wMch assured to him and his descendants the promise of the Messiah (Gen. xvii.). It was thus made a necessary condition of Jewish nationality. Every male child was to be circumcised when eight days old (Lev. xii. 3) on pain of death. If the eighth day were a Sabbath the rite was not postponed (John vii. 22, 23). Slaves, whether homeborn or purchased, were cir cumcised (Gen. xvii. 12, 13) ; and foreigners must have their males circumcised before they could be allowed to partake of the passover (Ex. xii. 48), or become Jewish citizens. It seems to have been customary to name a child when it was circumcised (Luke i. 59). The use of circumcision by other nations besides the Jews is to be gathered almost entirely from sources ex traneous to the Bible. The rite has been found to prevail extensively both in ancient and modern times. The biblical notice of the rite describes it as distinctively Jewish ; so that in the N. T. " the circumcision " and " the uncircumcision " are frequently used as synonyms for the Jews and the Gentiles. Circumcision certainly belonged to the Jews as it did to no other people, by virtue of its divine institution, of the religious privileges which were attached to it, and of the strict regulations which enforced its observance. Moreover, the O.T. history incidently discloses the . fact that many, if not all, of the nations with whom they came in contact were uncir- cumcised. The origin of the custom amongst one large section of those Gentiles who follow it, is to be found in the biblical record of the circumcision of Ishmael (Gen. xvii. 25). Though Mohammed did not enjoin circum cision in the Koran, he was circumcised him self, according to the custom of his country ; and circumcision is now as common amongst the Mohammedans as amongst the Jews. The process of restoring a circumcised person to his natural condition by a surgical operation was sometimes undergone. Some of the Jews in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, wishing to assimilate themselves to the heathen around them, "made themselves uncircumcised " (1 Mace. i. 15). Against having recourse to this practice, from an excessive anti-Judaistic tendency, St. Paul cautions the Corinthians (1 Cor. vii. 18). The attitude which Christianity, at its intro duction, assumed towards circumcision was one of absolute hostility, so far as the necessiiy ef the rite to salvation, or its possession of any religious or moral worth were concerned (Acts xv. ; Gal. v. 2). The Abyssinian Christians still practise circum cision as a national custom. CIS, the father of Saul (Acts xiii. 21), usually called Kish. CISTERN, a receptacle for water, either conducted from an external spring, or pro ceeding from rainfall. The dryness of the summer months between May and September, in Syria, and the scarcity of springs in many parts of the country, make it necessary to collect in reservoirs and cisterns the rain water, of which abundance falls in the inter mediate period. The larger sort of public tanks or reservoirs are usually called in A. V. " pool," while for the smaller and mora private it is convenient to reserve the name cistern. Both pools and cisterns are frequent throughout the whole of Syria and Palestine. On the long forgotten way from Jericho to Bethel, " broken cisterns " of high antiquity are found at regular intervals. Jerusalem depends mainly for water upon its cisterns, of which almost every private house possesses one or more, excavated in the rock on which the city is built. The cisterns have usually a round opening at the top, sometimes built up with stonework above and furniBhed with a curb and a wheel for the bucket (Eccl. xii. 6), so that they have externally much the appearance of an ordinary well. The water is conducted into them from the roofs of the houses during the rainy season, and with care remains sweet during the whole summer and autumn. In this manner most of the larger houses and public buildings are supplied. Empty cisterns were sometimes used as prisons and places of confinement. Joseph was cast into a " pit " (Gen. xxxvii. 22), and his " dungeon " in Egypt is called by the same name (xii. 14). Jeremiah waa thrown into a miry though empty cistern, whose depth is indicated by the cords used to let him down (Jer. xxxviii. 6). CITHERN (1 Mace. iv. 54), a musical instrument, resembling a guitar, most pro bably of Greek origin, employed by the Chaldeans, and introduced by the Hebrews into Palestine on their return thither after the Babylonian captivity. CITIES OF REFUGE. Six Levitical cities specially chosen for refuge to the involuntary homicide until released from banishment by the death of the high-priest (Num. xxxv. 6, 13, 15; Josh. xx. 2, 7, 9). There were three on each side of Jordan. 1. Kedesh, in Naphtali (1 Chr. vi. 76). 2. Shechem, in Mount Ephraim (Josh. xxi. 21 ; 1 Chr. vi. 67 ; 2 Chr. x. 1). 3. Hebbon, in Judah CITIMS 101 CLOUD (Josh. xxi. IS ; 2 Sam. v. 6 ; 1 Chr. vi. 55, xxix. 27 ; 2 Chr. xi. 10). 4. On the E. side of Jordan — Bezer, in the tribe of Reuben, in the plains of Moab (Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh. xx. 8, xxi. 36 ; 1 Mace. v. 26). 5. Ramoth-Gilead, in the tribe of Gad (Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh. xxi. 38 ; IK. xxii. 3). 6. Golan, in Bashan, in the half-tribe of Manasseh (Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh. xxi. 27 • 1 Chr. vi. 71). CIT'IMS, 1 Mace. viii. 5. [Chittim.] CITIZENSHIP. The use of this term in Scripture has exclusive reference to tht usages of the Roman empire. The privilege of Roman citizenship was originally acquired in various ways, as by purchase (Acts xxii. 28), by military services, by favour, or by manumission. The right once obtained de scended to a man's children (Acts xxii. 28). Among the privileges attached to citizenship, we may note that a man could not be bound or imprisoned without a formal trial (Acts xxii. 29), still less be scourged (Acts xvi. 37 ; Cic. in Yerr. v. 63, 66). Another privilege attaching to citizenship was the appeal from a provincial tribunal to the emperor at Rome (Acts xxv. 11). CITRON. [Apple Tree.] CLAUDA (Acts xxvii. 16), a small island nearly due W. of Cape Matala on the S. coast of Crete, and nearly due S. of Phoenice, now Gozzo. CLAU'DIA, a Christian woman mentioned in 2 Tim. iv. 21, as saluting Timotheus. There is reason for supposing that this Claudia was a British maiden, daughter of king Cogidubnus, an ally of Rome, who took the name of his imperial patron, Tiberius Claudius. She appears to have become the wife of Pudens, who is mentioned in the same verse. CLAU'DIUS, fourth Roman emperor, reigned from 41 to 54 a.d. He was the son of Nero Drusus, was born in Lyons Aug. 1, b.c 9 or 10, and lived private and unknown tiU the day of his being called to the throne, January 24, a.d. 41. He was nominated to the supreme power mainly through the influence of Herod Agrippa the First. In the reign of Claudius there were several famines, arising from unfavourable harvests, and one such occurred in Palestine and Syria (Acts xi. 28-30) under the procurators Cnspius Fadus and Tiberius Alexander, which perhaps lasted some years. Claudius was induced by a tumult of the Jews in Rome, to expel them from the city (cf. Acts xviii. 2). The date of this event is uncertain. After a weak and foolish reign he was poisoned by Ms fourth wife Agrippina, the mother of Nero, Oct. 13, A.h. 54. CLAU'DIUS LYS'IAS. [Lysias.] CLAY. As the sediment of water remain ing in pits or in streets, the word is used frequently in O. T. (Is. lvii. 20 ; Jer. xxxviii. 6 ; Ps. xviii. 42), and in N. T. (Jomi ix. 6)] a mixture of sand or dust with spittle. It is also found in the sense of potter's clay (Is. xii. 25). The great seat of the pottery of the present day in Palestine is Gaza, where are made the vessels in dark blue clay so frequently met with. Another use of clay was for sealing (Job xxxviii. 14). Wine jars in Egypt were sometimes sealed with clay ; mummy pits were sealed with the same substance, and remains of clay are still found adhering to the stone door-jambs. Our Lord's tomb may have been thus sealed (Matt, xxvii. 66), as also the earthen vessel containing the evidences of Jeremiah's pur chase (Jer. xxxii. 14). The seal used for public documents was rolled on the moist clay, and the tablet was then placed in the fire and baked. The practice of sealing doors with clay to facilitate detection in case of malpractice is still common in the East. CLEM'ENT (Phil. iv. 3), a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, when he was at Philippi. It was generally believed in the ancient church, that tMs Clement was identical with the Bishop of Rome, who afterwards became so cele brated. CLE'OPAS, one of the two disciples who were going to Emmaus on the day of the re surrection (Luke xxiv. 18). It is a question whether this Cleopas is to be considered as identical with Cleophas (accur. Clopas) or Alphaens in John xix. 25. On the whole, it eeems safer to doubt their identity. CLEOPAT'RA. 1. The "wife of Ptolemy" (Esth. xi. 1) was probably the granddaughter of Antiochus, and wife of Ptol. VI. Philo metor. — 2. A daughter of Ptol. VI. Philometor and Cleopatra (1), who was married first to Alexander Balas b.c. 150 (1 Mace. x. 58), and afterwards given by her father to Deme trius Nicatorwhen he invaded Syria (1 Mace. xi. 12). During the captivity of Demetrius in Parthia, Cleopatra married his brother Antiochus VII. Sidetes. She afterwards mur dered Seleucus, her eldest son by Demetrius ; and at length was herself poisoned b.c 120 by a draught which she had prepared for her second son Antiochus VIII. CLE'OPHAS. [Cleopas; Alphaeus.] CLOTHING. [Dress.] CLOUD. The shelter given, and refresh- i ment of rain promised, by clouds, give them their peculiar prominence in Oriental imagery, and the individual cloud in an ordinary cloud less region becomes well defined and is dwelt upon like the individual tree in the bare CLOUD, PILLAR OF 102 COLQSSB landscape. When a cloud appears, rain is ordinarily apprehended, and thus the " cloud without rain " becomes a proverb for the man of promise without performance (Prov. xvi. 15; Is. *x viii. 4, xxv. 5; Jude 12; comp. Prov. xxv. 14). The cloud is a figure of transitoriness (Job xxx. 15 ; Hos.vi. 4), and of whatever intercepts divine favour or human supplication (Lam. ii. 1, iii. 44). Being the least substantial of visible forms, it is the one amongst material things which suggests most easily spiritual being. Hence it is the recog nised machinery by which supernatural ap pearances are introduced (Is. xix. 1 ; Ez. i. 4 ; Rev. i. 7). A bright cloud, at any rate at times, visited and rested on the Mercy Seat (Ex. xxix. 42, 43 ; 1 K. viii. 10, 11 ; 2 Chr. v. 14 ; Ez. xliii. 4) and was by later writers named Shechinah. CLOUD, PILLAR OF. This was the active form of the symbolical glory-cloud, betoken ing God's presence to lead His chosen host, or to inquire and visit offences, as the luminous cloud of the sanctuary exhibited the same under an aspect of repose. The cloud, which became a pillar when the host moved, seems to have rested at other times on the tabernacle, whence God is said to have " come down in the pillar " (Num. xii. 5 ; so Ex. xxxiii. 9, 10). It preceded the host, apparently resting on the ark which led the way (Ex. xiii. 21, xl. 36, &c. ; Num. ix. 15-23, x. 34). CNI'DUS is mentioned in 1 Mace. xv. 23, a<3 one of the Greek cities which contained Jewish residents in the 2nd century b.c, and in Acts xxvii. 7, as a harbour which was passed by ?t. Paul after leaving Myra, and before running under ' the lee of Crete. It was a city of great consequence, situated at the extreme S.W. of the peninsula of Asia Minor, on a promontory now called Cape Crio, which projects between the islands of Cos and Rhodes (see Acts xxi. 1). COAT. [Dress.] COCK. In the N. T. the " cock" is men tioned in reference to St. Peter's denial of our Lord, and indirectly in the word " cock- crowing" (Matt. xxvi. 34 ; Mark xiv. 30, xiii. 35, &c). We know that the domestic cock and hen were early known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and as no mention is made in the O. T. of these birds, and no figures of them occur on the Egyptian monu ments, they probably came into Judaea with the Romans, who, as is well known, prized these birds both as articles of food and for eock -fighting. COCKATRICE. [Adder.] COCKLE (Heb. boshdh) occurs only in Job xxxi. 40. We are inclined to believe that the boshdh denotes any bad weeds or fruit, and may in Job signify bad or smutted barley. COELE-SYR'IA, "the hollow Syria," was (strictly speaking) the name given by the Greeks, after the time of Alexander, to the remarkable valley or hollow which intervenes between Libanus and Anti-Libanus, stretch ing a distance of nearly a hundred miles. But the term was also used in a much wider sense. In the first place it was extended so as to include the inhabited tract to the east of the Anti-Libanus range, between it and the desert, in which stood the great city of Damascus ; and then it was further carried on upon that side of Jordan, through Tra- chonitis and Peraea, to Idumaea and the borders of Egypt. The only distinct refer ence to the region, as a separate tract of country, which the Jewish Scriptures con tain, is probably that in Amos (i. 5), where "the inhabitants of the plain of Aven" are threatened in conjunction with those of Damascus. In the Apocryphal Books there is frequent mention of Coele-Syria in a some what vague sense, nearly as an equivalent for Syria (1 Esd. ii. 17, 24, 27, iv. 48, vi. 29, vii. 1, viii. 67 ; 1 Mace. x. 69 ; 2 Mace. iii. 5, 8, iv. 4, viii. 8, x. 11). In all these cases the word is given in A. V. as Celosyria. COFFIN. [Burial.] COLLEGE, THE. In 2 K. xxii. 14 it is said in the A. V. that Huldah the prophetess "dwelt in Jerusalem in the college" (Heb. mishneh), or, as the margin has it, "in the second part." The same part of the city is undoubtedly alluded to in Zeph. i. 10 (A. V. "the second"). It is probable that the mishneh was the '* lower city," built on the Mil Akra. COLONY, a designation of Philippi, in Acts xvi. 12. After the battle of Actium, Augustus assigned to his veterans those parts of Italy which had espoused the cause of Antony, and transported many of the ex pelled inhabitants to Philippi, Dyrrachium, and other cities. In this way Philippi was made a Roman colony with the " Jus Ita- licuni." COLOS'SE (more properly COLOS'SAE), a city in the upper part of the basin of the Maeander, on one of its affluents named the Lycus. Hierapolis and Laodicaea were in its immediate neighbourhood (Col. ii. 1, iv. 13, 15, 16 ; see Rev. i. 11, iii. 14). Colossae fell, as these other two cities rose in import ance. It was situated close to the great road which led from Ephesus to the Euphrates. Hence our impulse would be to conclude that St. Paul passed this way, and founded or confirmed the Colossian Church on his third missionary journey /Acts xviii. 23, xix. 1). V e " Dan shall judge (yddan) his people." The records of Dan are unusually meagre. Only one son is attributed to him (Gen. xlvi. 23) ; hut when the people were numbered in the wilderness of Sinai, Ms tribe was, with the exception of Judah, the most numerous of all, containing 62,700 men able to serve. The position of Dan during the march through the desert was on the north side of the tabernacle (Num. ii. 25), the hindmost of the long pro cession (ii. 31, x. 25). It arrived at the threshold of the Promised Land, and passed the ordeal of the rites of Baal-peor (Num. xxv.) with an increase of 1700 on the earlier census. In the division of the Promised Land Dan was the last of the tribes to receive Ms portion, and that portion, according to the record of Joshua, strange as it appears in the face of the numbers just quoted, was the smallest of the twelve (Josh. xix. 48). But I 2 DAN 11G DANCE notwithstanding its smallness it had eminent natural advantages. On the north and east it was completely embraced by its two brother- tribes Ephraim and Benjamin, while on the south-east and south it joined Judah, and was thus surrounded by the three most powerful states of the whole confederacy. From Japho — afterwards Joppa, and now 7ff/a— on the north, to Ekron and Gathrimmon on the souths a length of at least 14 miles, that noble tractj one of the most fertile in the whole of Pales tine, was allotted to this tribe. But this rich district, the corn-field and the garden of the whole south of Palestine, was too valuable to be given up without a struggle by its original possessors. The Amorites accordingly " forced the children of Dan into the mountain, for they would not suffer them to come down into the valley" (Judg. i. 34). With the help of Ephraim, Dan prevailed against the Amorites for a time, but in a few years the Philistines took the place of the Amorites and with the same result. These considerations enable us to understand how it happened that long after the partition of the land all the inheritance of the Danites had not fallen to them among the tribes of Israel (Judg. xviii. 1). They also explain the warlike and independent charac ter of the tribe betokened in the name of their head-quarters Mahaneh-Dan, "the camp, or host of Dan," in the fact specially insisted on and reiterated (xviii. 11, 16, 17) of the com plete equipment of their 600 warriors " ap pointed with weapons of war," — and the law less freebooting style of their behaviour to Micah. In the " security " and " quiet " (Judg. xviii. 7, 10) of their rich northern possession the DaMtes enjoyed the leisure and repose which had been denied them in their original seat. But of the fate of the city to which they gave " the name of their father " (Josh. xix. 47) we know scarcely anything. In the time of David Dan still kept its place among the tribes (1 CM. xii. 35). Asher is omitted, but the " prince of the tribe of Dan " is mentioned in the list of 1 Chr. xxvii. 22. But from this time forward the name as ap plied to the tribe vanishes ; it is kept alive only by tho northern city. In the genealogies of 1 Chr. ii.-xii. Dan is omitted entirely. Lastly, Dan is omitted from the list of those who were sealed by the Angel in the vision of St. John (Rev. vii. 5-7).— 2. The well- known city, so familiar as the most northern landmark of Palestine, in the common ex pression "from Dan even to Beersheba." The name of the place was originally Laish or Leshem (Josh. xix. 47). Its inhabitants lived "after the manner of the Zidonians," i.e. engaged in commerce, and without defence. Living thuB " qMet and secure," they fell an easy prey to the active and practised free booters of the DaMtes. They conferred upon their new acquisition the name of their own. tribe, " after the name of their father who was born unto Israel " (Judg. xviii. 29 ; Josh. xix. 47), and Laish became Dan. After the establishment of the Danites at Dan it became the acknowledged extremity of the country. Dan was, with other northern cities, laid waste by Benhadad (1 K. xv. 20 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 4), and this is the last mention of the place. With regard to the mention of Dan in Gen. xiv. 14 it is probable that the passage origin ally contained an older name, as Laish ; and that when that was superseded by Dan, the new name was inserted in the MSS. The Tell el-Kadi, a mound from the foot of which gushes out one of the largest fountains in the world, the main source of the Jordan, is very probably the site of the town and citadel of Dan. The spring Ib called el Ledddn, possibly a corruption of Dan, and the stream from the spring Nahr ed Dhan, while the name, Tell el Kadi, " the Judge's mound," agrees in signification with the ancient name. — 3. Ap parently the name of a city, associated with Javan, as one of tbe places in Southern Arabia from which the PhoeMcians obtained wrought iron, cassia, and calamus (Ez. xxvii. 19). DANCE. The dance is spoken of in Holy Scripture universally as symbolical of some rejoicing, and is often coupled for the sake of contrast with mourning, as in Eccl. iii. 4 (comp. Ps. xxx. 11 ; Matt. xi. 17). In the earlier period it is found combined with some song or refrain (Ex. xv. 20, xxxii. 18, 19 ; 1 Sam. xxi. 11) ; and with the tambourine (A.V. "timbrel"), more especially in those impulsive outbursts of popular feeling which cannot find sufficient vent in voice or in gesture singly. Dancing formed a part of the religious ceremonies of the Egyptians, and was also common in private entertain ments. The " feast unto the Lord," which Moses proposed to Pharaoh to hold, was really a dance. Women, however, among the Hebrews made the dance their especial means of expressing their feelings ; and so welcomed their husbands or friends on their return from battle. The " eating and drink ing and dancing" of the AmaleMtes is recorded, as is the people's "rising up to play," with a tacit censure. The Hebrews, however, save in such moments of tempta tion, seem to have eft dancing to the women. But more especially, on such occasions of triumph, any woman whose nearness of kin to the champion of the moment gave her a public character among her own sex, seemc to have felt that it was her part to lead such a demonstration of triumph, or of welcome DANCE 117 DANIEL, THE BOOK OF (Ex. xv. 20; Judg. xi. 34). TMs marks the peculiarity of David's conduct, when, on the return of the Ark of God from its long sojourn among strangers and borderers, he (2 Sam. vi. 5-22) was himself the leader of the dance ; and here too the women, with their timbrels (see especially w. 5, 19, 20, 22), took an important share. This fact brings out more markedly the feelings of Saul's daughter Michal, keeping aloof from the occasion, and " looking tMough a win dow " at the scene. She should, in accord ance with the examples of Miriam, &c, have herself led the female choir, and so come out to meet the Ark and her lord. She stays with the "household" (ver. 20), and " comes out to meet " him with reproaches, perhaps feeling that his zeal was a rebuke to her apathy. From the mention of "damsels," "timbrels," and "dances" (Ps. lxviii. 25, exlix. 3, cl. 4), as elements of religious wor ship, it may perhaps be inferred that David's feeling led him to incorporate in its rites that popular mode of festive celebration. In the earlier period of the Judges the dances of the virgins in Shiloh i(Judg. xxi. 19-23) were certainly part of a religious festivity. Danc ing also had its place among merely festive amusements apart from any religious cha racter (Jer. xxxi. 4, 13 ; Lam. v. 15 ; Mark vi. 22 ; Luke xv. 25). DANCE. By this word is rendered in the A. V. the Hebrew term, mdchoi, a musieal instrument of percussion, supposed to have been used by the Hebrews at an early period of their history. In the grand Hallelujah Psalm (cl.) which closes that magnificent collection, the sacred poet exhorts mankind to praise Jehovah in His sanctuary with all kinds of music ; and amongst the instruments mentioned at the 3rd, 4th, and 5th verses is found mdchoi. It is generally believed to have been made of metal, open like a ring : Musical Instruments. Dance (Mendelssohn). it had many small bells attached to its border, and was played at weddings and merry making by women, who accompanied it with the voice. DAN'IEL. — 1. The second son of David by Abigail the Carmelitess (1 Chr. iii. l). In 2 Sam. iii. 3, he is called Chileab. — 2. The fourth of "the greater prophets." Nothing is known of his parentage or family. He appears, however, to have been of royal or noble descent (Dan. i. 3), and to have possessed considerable personal endowments (Dan. i. 4). He was taken to Babylon in "the third year of Jehoiakim" (b.c 604), and trained for the king's service with his three compaMons. Like Joseph in earlier times, he gained the favour of his guardian, and was divinely supported in Ms resolve to abstain from the "king's meat" for fear of defilement (Dan. i. 8-16). At the close of his three years' discipline (Dan. i. 5, 18), Daniel had an opportuMty of exercising his peculiar gift (Dan. i. 17) of interpreting dreams, on the occasion of Nebuchadnezzar's decree against the Magi (Dan. ii. 14 ff.). In con sequence of his success he was made " ruler of the whole province of Babylon," and " chief of the governors over all the wise men of Babylon" (ii. 48). He afterwards interpreted the second dream of Nebuchad nezzar (iv. 8-27), and the handwriting on the wall which disturbed the feast of Bel shazzar (v. 10-28) though he no longer held Ms official position among the magi (Dan. v. 7, 8, 12), and probably lived at Susa (Dan. viii. 2). At the accession of Darius he was made first of the " three presidents " of the empire (Dan. vi. 2), and was delivered from the lions' den, into which he had been cast for his faithfulness to the rites of his faith (vi. 10-23 ; cf. Bel and Dr. 29-42). At the accession of Cyrus he still retained his pro sperity (vi. 28 ; cf. i. 21 ; Bel and Dr. 2); though he does not appear to have ¦ remained at Babylon (cf. Dan. i. 21), and in "the third year of Cyrus " (b.c 534) he saw hie last recorded vision on the banks of the Tigris (x. 1, 4). In the prophecies of Ezekiel mention is made of Daniel as a pattern of righteousness (xiv. 14, 20) and wisdom (xxviii. 3) ; and since Daniel was still young at that time (circ. b.c 588-584), 6ome have thought that another prophet of the name must have lived at 6ome earlier time, perhaps during the captivity of Nineveh, whose fame was transferred to his later namesake. On the other hand the narrative in Dan. i. 11, implies that Daniel was conspicuously distin guished for purity and knowledge at a very early age (cf. Hist. Sua. 45), and he may have been nearly forty years old at the time of Ezekiel's prophecy. DAN'IEL, THE BOOK OF, is the earliest example of apocalyptic literature, and in a great degree the model according \o which all later apocalypses were constructed. In DANIEL, THE BOOK OF 118 DARIC this aspect it stands at the head of a series of writings in which the deepest thoughts of the Jewish people found expression after the close of the prophetic era. The language of the book, no less than its general form, belongs to an era of transition. Like the book of Ezra, Daniel is composed partly in the ver nacular Aramaic (Chaldee), and partly in the sacred Hebrew. The introduction (i.-ii. 4 o) is written in Hebrew. On the occasion of the " Syriac " (i. e. Aramaic) answer of the Chaldaeans, the language changes to Aramaic, and this is retained till the close of the seventh chapter (ii. 4 6 — vii.). The personal introduction of DaMel as the writer of the text (viii. 1) is marked by the resump tion of the Hebrew, which continues to the close of the book (viii. — xii.). The use of Greek technical terms marks a period when commerce had already united Persia and Greece. — The book may be divided into three parts. The first chapter forms an introduc tion. The next six chapters (ii.-vii.) give a general view of the progressive history of the powers of the world, and of the principles of the divine government as seen in events of the life of Daniel. The remainder of the book (viii.-xii.) traces in minuter detail the fortunes of the people of God, as typical of the fortunes of the Church in all ages. — The unity of the book in its present form, not withstanding the difference of language, is generally acknowledged. Still there is a remarkable difference in its internal cha racter. In the first seven chapters Daniel is spoken of historically (i. 6-21, ii* 14-49, iv. 8-27, v. 13-29. vi. 2-28, vii. 1, 2) : in the last five he appears personally as the writer (vii. l?-28, viii. 1-ix. 22, x. 1-9, xii, 5). The c&ase of the difference of person is commonly supposed to lie in the nature of the case. It is, however, more probable that the peculiarity arose from the manner in which the book assumed its final Bhape. The book exercised a great influence upon the Christian Church. Apart from tbe general type of Apocalyptic composition which the Apostolic writers derived from Daniel (2 Thess. ii. ; Rev. passim : cf. Matt. xxvi. 64, xxi. 44 ?), the New Testament incidentally acknowledges each of the characteristic elements of the book, its miracles (Hebr. xi. 33, 34), its pre dictions (Matt. xxiv. 15), and its doctrine of angels (Luke i. 19, 26). At a still earlier time the same influence may be traced in the Apocrypha. — The authenticity of the book has been attacked in modern times, and ite composition ascribed to the times of the Maccabees : but in doctrine the book is closely connected with the writings of the Exile, and forms a last step in the development 1 of the ideas of Messiah (vii. IS, &c), of the resurrection (xii. 2, 3), of the ministry of angels (viii. 16, xii. 1, &c), of personal devotion (vi. 10, 11, i. 8), which formed the basis of later speculations, but received no essential addition in the interval before the coming of our Lord. Generally it may be said that while the book presents in many respects a startling and exceptional character, yet it is far more difficMt to explain its com position in the Maccabaean period than to connect the peculiarities wMch it exMbits with the exigencies of the Return. DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS TO. The Greek translations of DaMel, like that of Esther, contain several pieces which are not found in the original text. The most important of these additions are contained in the Apocrypha of the English Bible under the titles of The song of the three Holy Children, The History of Susannah, and The History of . . . Bel and the Dragon. The first of these pieces is incorporated into the narrative of Daniel. After the three confessors were thrown into the furnace (Dan. iii. 23), Azarias is represented praying to God for deliverance (Song of Three Children,, 3-22) ; and in answer the angel of the Lord shields them from the fire which consumes their enemies (23-27), whereupon "the three, as out of one mouth," raise a triumphant song (29-68), of which a chief part (35-66) has been used as a hymn in the Christian Church since the 4th century. The two other pieces appear more distinctly as appendices, and offer no semblance of forming part of the original text. The History of Susannah (or The judgment of Daniel) is generally found at the beginning of the hook, though it also occurs after the 12 th chapter. The History of Bel and the Dragon is placed at the end oi the book. The character of these additions indicates the hand of an Alexandrine writer ; and it is not unlikely that the translator of Daniel wrought up traditions which were already current, and appended them to his work. DARIC (A. V. " dram ; " Ezr. ii. 69 ; viii. 27 ; Neh. vii. 70, 71, 72 ; 1 Chr. xxix. 7), a gold coin current in Palestine in the period after the return from: Babylon. At these times there was no large issue of gold money except by tbe Persian Mugs. The Darics DARIUS 119 DAVID which have been discovered are thick pieces of pure gold, of archaic style, bearing on the obverse the figure of a kiug with bow and javelin, or how and dagger, and on the reverse an irregular incuse square. DARI'US, the name of several kinga of Media and Persia. TMee kings bearing this name are mentioned in the O. T. —1. Darius the Mede (Dan. xi. 1, vi. 1), "the Bon of Ahasuerus of the seed of the Medes" (ix. 1), who succeeded to the Babylonian Mngdom on the death of Belshazzar, being then sixty-two years old (Dan. v. 31 ; ix. 1). Only one year of his reign is mentioned (Dan. ix. 1, xi. 1) ; but that was of great importance for the Jews. Daniel was advanced by the king to the highest dignity (Dan. vi. 1 ff.), probably in consequence of his former services (cf. Dan. v. 17); and after Ms miraculous deliverance, Darius issued a decree enjoiMng throughout his domimons " reverence for the God of Daniel" (Dan. vi. 25 ff.). The extreme obscurity of the BabyloMan annals has given occasion to different hypotheses as to the name under wMch Darius the Mede is known in Mstory ; but he is probably the same as "Astyages," the last king of the Medes. — 2. Darius the son of Hvstaspeb the founder of the Perso-Arian dynasty. Upon the usurpation of the Magian Smerdis, he conspired with six other Tersian cMefs to overthrow the impostor, and on the success of the plot was placed upon the throne, b.c 521. His designs of foreign conquest were interrupted by a revolt of the BabyloMans. After the subjugation of Babylon Darius turned Ms arms against ScytMa, Libya, and India. The defeat of Marathon (b.c. 490) only roused him to prepare vigorously for that decisive struggle with the West wMch was now inevitable. His plans were again thwarted by rebellion. With regard to the Jews, Darius Hystaspes pursued the same policy as Cyrus, and restored to them the privileges which they had lost (Ezr. v. 1, &c. ; vi. 1, &c). — 3. Darius the Persian (Neh. xii. 22), may be identified with Da- Tius II. Nothus (Ochus), king of Persia b.c 424-3 — 405-4, if the whole passage in ques tion was written by Nehemiah. If, however, the register was continued to a later time, as js not improbable, the occurrence of the name Jaddua (w. 11, 22), points to Darius III. Codomannus, the antagonist of Alex ander, and last king of Persia b.c 336-330 (1 Mace. i. 1). DARKNESS is spoken of as encompassing the actual presence of God, as that out of which He speaks, the envelope, as it were, of Divine glory (Ex. xx. 21 ; IK. viii. 12). The plague of Darkness in Egypt has been ascribed by various commentators to non- miraculous agency, but no sufficient account of its intense degree, long duration, and limited area, as proceeding from any physical cause, has been given. The darkness "over all the land " (Matt, xxvii. 45) attending the crucifixion has been similarly attributed to an eclipse. Phlegon of Tralles indeed men tions an eclipse of intense darkness, which began at noon, and was combined, he says, in Bithynia, with an earthquake, which in the uncertain state of our chronology more or less nearly synchronises with the event. Darkness is also, as in the expression " land of darkness," used for the state of the dead (Job x. 21, 22) ; and frequently figuratively, for ignorance and unbelief, as the privation of spiritual light (John i. 5, iii. 19). DATES, 2 Chr. xxxi. 5 marg. [Palm Tree.] DA'THAN, a Reubenite chieftain, son of Eliab, who joined the conspiracy of Korah the Levite (Num. xvi. I, xxvi. 9 ; Deut. xi. 6 ; Ps. cvi. 17). DAUGHTER. 1. The word is used in Scripture not only for daughter, but for granddaughter or other female descendant, much in the same way and like extent with "Bon" (Gen. xxiv. 48, xxxi. 43).— 2. The female inhabitants of a place, a country, or the females of a particular race are called daughters (Gen. vi. 2, xxvii. 46, xxviii. 6, xxxvi. 2 ; Num. xxv. 1 ; Deut. xxiii. 17 ; Is. iii. 16 ; Jer. xlvi. 11, xlix. 2, 3, 4 ; Luke xxiii. 28). — 3. The same notion of descent explains the phrase " daughters of music," i. e. singing birds (Eccl. xii. 4), and the use of the word for branches of a tree (Gen. xlix. 22), the pupil of the eye (Lam. ii. 18 ; Ps. xvii. 8), and the expression " daughter of 90 years," to denote the age of Sarah (Gen. xvii. 17._4. it is also used of cities in general, Is. x. 32, xxiii. 12 ; Jer. vi. 2, 26 ; Zech. ix. 9). — 5. But more specifically of dependent towns or hamlets, while to the principal city the correlative "mother" is applied (Num. xxi. 2k ; Josh. xvii. 11, 16 ; Judg. i. 27 ; 1 Chr. vii. 28 ; 2 Sam. xx. 19). DAVID, the son of Jesse. His life may be divided into three portions: — I. His youth before his introduction to the court of Saul. II. His relations with Saul. III. His reign. I. The early life of David contains in many important respects the antecedents of his future career. 1. His family may best be seen in the form of a genealogy. It thus appears that David was the youngest son, probably the youngest child, of a family of ten. His mother's name is unknown. His father, Jesse, was of a great age when David was still young (1 Sam. xvii. 12). His DAVID 120 DAVID parents both lived till-after his final rupture with Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 3). Through them David inherited several points wMch he never lost, (a) His connexion with Moab through Mb great-grandmother Ruth. TMs "he kept up when he escaped to Moab and entrusted hiB aged parents to the care of the king (1 Sam. xxii. 3). (b) His birthplace, Bethlehem. His' recollection of the well of Bethlehem is one of the most touching incidents of his later life (1 Chr. xi. 17), and it is his connexion with it that brought the place again in after times into universal fame (Luke ii. 4). (c) His general connexion with the tribe of Judah. (d) His relations to ZerMah and Abigail. Though called in I Chr. ii. 16, sisters of David, they are not expressly called the daughters of Jesse ; and Abigail, in 2 Sam. xvii. 25, is called the daughter of Nahash. , Is it too much to suppose that David's mother had been the wife or concubine of Nahash, and then married by Jesse? 2. As the youngest of the family he may possibly have received from Ms parents the name, which first appears in him, of David the beloved, the darling. Perhaps for this same reason he was never intimate with his brethren. The familiarity which he lost with his brothers he gained with his nephews. The three sons of his sister Zeruiah, and the one son of his sister Abigail, were probably of the same age as David himself, and they accordingly were to him throughout life in the relation usually occupied by brothers and cousins. The two sons of his brother Shimeah are both con nected with his after history. One was Jonadab, the friend and adviser of his eldest Bon Amnon (2 Sam. xiii. 3). The other was Jonathan (2 Sam. xxi. 21), who afterwards became the counsellor of David himself (1 Chr. xxvii. 32). The first time that David appears in history at once admits us to the whole family circle. There was a practice once a year at Bethlehem, probably at the first new moon of the year, of holding a sacrificial feast, at which Jesse, as the chief proprietor of the place, would preside (1 Sam. xx. 6), with the elders of the town. At this or such like feast (xvi. 1) suddenly appeared the great prophet Samuel, driving a heifer before hhn, and having in his hand a horn of the consecrated oil of the Tabernacle. The heifer was killed. The party were waiting to begin the feast. Samuel stood with Ms horn to pour forth the oil, as if for an invi tation to begin (Comp. ix. 22). He was restrained by divine intimation as son after son passed by. Eliab, the eldest, by " his height " and " Ms countenance," seemed the natural counterpart of Saul, whose rival, unknown to them, the prophet came to select. But the day was gone when kings were chosen because they were head and shoulders taller than the rest. " Samuel said unto Jesse, Are these all thy children 1 And he said, There remaineth yet the youngest, and behold he keepeth the sheep." This is our first and most characteristic introduction to the future king. The boy was brought in. We are enabled to fix his appearance at once in our minds. He was of short stature, with red or auburn hair, such as is not un- frequently seen in his countrymen of the East at the present day. In later life he wore a beard. His bright eyes are especially mentioned (xvi. 12), and generally he was remarkable for the grace of his figure and countenance (" fair of eyes," " comely," "goodly," xvi. 12, 18, xvii. 42), well made, and of immense strength and agility. His swiftness and activity made him (like his nephew Asahel) like a wild gazelle, his feet like hart's feet, and his arms strong enough Sainton or Salmah (Ruth iv. SI, 1 Chr. ii. 11). Elimolech =¦ Naomi (Ruth 1. 1), Boaz = I, (S Sain. xvii. 25) NahaBh=unknown=Jee»e. = Ruttn= Mahton. I (Ruth iv. 10). (Ruth iv. 17). Chilion = Orpaa Jonathan (I Chr. xxvii. S Zeruiah (I Chr. li. 16). Abigail = Jcther Ozem (one DAVI& ilraH Eliab. A bin- Sliammah, Kethan- R&dda (I Chr. (Jerome, Elihu adab. Shimmah, eeL (Rael, (Asam, ib not u. 17). Qu. Hefc, (1 Chr. Shimeah Job. Ant. Joa. Ant. given, ¦ Chr. xxvii. (SSam. vi, 8. 1. vi. S. l). unions xi. 40). 16). J xxi. 21). I Rei, Ewald.) Abishai. Joab. Aaahel. Amusa Abihail=Rehoboaro. Jonathan I (2 Chr. xi, IB). (2 Sam. xxi. 21 j Zebadlah 1 Chr. xxvii. 32). (1 Chr. xivi:. 7). (Nathan • * Jer. Qu. Heb. on 1 Sam. xvi. IS) Jonadab (2 Sam. xiii. 8). Joel! (Jerome, Qu. Heb. on 1 Chr. xi. 88). Elihu. Syr. and Arab. 1 Chr. li. 15). DAVID 121 DAVID to break a bow of steel (Ps. xviii. 33, 34). He was pursmng the occupation allotted in Eastern countries usually to the slaves, the females, or the despised of the family. He usually carried a switch or wand in his hand (1 Sam. xvii. 40), such as would be used for his dogs (xvii. 43), and a scrip or wallet round his neck, to carry anything that was needed for his shepherd's life (xvii. 43). 3. But there was another preparation still more needed for Ms office, which is his next intro duction to the Mstory. When the body guard of Saul were discussing with their master where the best minstrel could be found to chase away his madness by music, one of the young men in the guard suggested David. Saul, with the absolute control inherent in the idea of an Oriental Mng, instantly sent for him, and in the successful effort of David's harp we have the first glimpse into that genius for music and poetry which was afterwards consecrated in the Peahns. 4. One incident alone of Ms . solitary shepherd Ufe has come down to us — Ms conflict with the lion and the bear in defence of his father's flocks (1 Sam. xvii. 34, 35j. But it did not stand alone. He was already known to Saul's guards for his martial exploits, probably against the Philis tines (xvi. 18), and, when he suddenly appeared in the camp, Ms elder brother immediately guessed that he had left the sheep in his ardour to see the battle (xvii. 28). The scene of the battle is at Ephes- dammim, in the frontier-hills of Judah, called probably from this or similar encounters "the bound of blood." Saul's army is encamped on one side of the ravine, the Philistines on the other, the watercourse of Elah or "the Terebinth" runs between them. A Philistine of gigantic stature, and clothed in complete armour, insults the com paratively defenceless Israelites, amongst whom the king alone appears to be well armed (xvii. 38; comp. xiii. '20). No one can he found to take up the challenge. At this juncture David appears in the camp. Just as he comes to the circle of waggons which formed, as in Arab settlements, a rude fortification round the Israelite camp (xvii. 20), he hears the well-known shout of the Israelite war-cry (comp. Num. xxiii. 21). The martial spirit of the boy is stirred at the sound ; he leaves his provisions with the baggage-master, and darts to join his brothers, like one of the royal messengers, into the midst of the lines. Then he hears the challenge, now made for the fortieth time — sees the dismay of Ms countrymen — hears the reward proposed by the king — goes with the impetuosity of youth from soldier to soldier talking of the .event, in spite of his brother's rebuke — is introduced to Saul — undertakes the combat. His victory over the gigantic PMlistine.is rendered more con spicuous by his own diminutive stature, and by the simple weapons with which it was accomplished— not the armour of Saul, which he naturally found too large, but the shep herd's sling, which he always carried with him, and the five polished pebbles wMch he picked up as he went from the watercourse of the valley, and put in his shepherd's wallet. Two trophies long remained of the battle— one, the huge sword of the Philistine, which was hung up behind the ephod in the Tabernacle at Nob (1 Sam. xxi. 9) ; the other, the head, which he bore away himself, and which was either laid up at Nob, or subsequently at Jerusalem. — II. Relations with Saul. — We now enter on a new aspect of David's life. The victory over Goliath had been a turning point of his career. Saul inquired his parentage, and took him finally to his court. Jonathan was inspired by the romantic friendship which bound the two youths together to the end of their lives. The triumphant songs of the Israelitish women announced that they felt that in him Israel had now found a deliverer mightier even than Saul. And in those songs, and in the fame which David thus acquired, was laid the foundation of that unhappy jealousy of Saul towards Mm which, mingling with the king's constitational malady, poisoned his whole future relations to David. Three new qualities now began to develop themselves in David's character. The first was Ms prudence. Secondly, we now see Ms magnanimous for bearance called forth, in the first instance, towards Saul, but displaying itself (with a few painful exceptions) in the rest of his life. Thirdly, Ms hairbreadth escapes, continued through so many yearB, impressed upon hinf a sense of dependence on the Divine help, clearly derived from tMs epoch. TMs coui se of life subdivides itself into four portions : — 1. His life at the court of Saul till his final escape (1 Sam. xviii. 2-xix. 18). His office is not exactly defined. But it would seem that, having been first armour-bearer (xvi. 2 1, xviii. 2), then made captain over a thou sand — the subdivision of a tribe — (xviii. 13), he finally, on his marriage with Michal, the Mng's second daughter, was raised to the high office of captain of the king's body guard, second only, if not equal, to Abner, the captain of the host, and Jonathan, the heir apparent. These three formed the usual companions of the king at his meals (xx. 25). David was now chiefly known for his suc cessful exploits against the Philistines, by DAVID 122 DAVID one of wMch he won Ms wife, and drove back the Philistine power with a blow from which it only rallied at the disastrous close of Saul's reign. He also still performed from time to time the office of minstrel. But the suc cessive snares laid by SaM to entrap Mm, and the open violence into wMch the king's madness twice broke out, at last convinced him that Ms life was no longer safe. He had two faithful allies, however, in the court — the son of Saul, his friend Jonathan — the daughter of Saul, Ms wife Michal. Warned by the one, and assisted by the other, he escaped by Mght, and was from thenceforward a fugitive. Jonathan he never saw again except by stealth. Michal was given in mar riage to another (Phaltiel), and he saw her no more till long after her father's death. 2. His escape (1 Sam. xix. 18-xxi. 15). He first fled to Naioth (or the pastures) of Ramah, to Samuel. This is the first recorded occasion of his meeting with Samuel since the original interview during his boyhood at Bethlehem. Up to this time both the king and Mmself had thought that a reumon was possible (see xx. 5, 26). But the madness of Saul now became more settled and ferocious in character, and David's danger proportionably greater. The secret interview with Jonathan confirmed the alarm already excited by Saul's endeavour to seize him at Bamah, and he now determined to leave his country, and take refuge, like Coriolanus, or Themistocles in like circumstances, in the court of his enemy. Before this last resolve, he visited Nob, the seat of the tabernacle, partly to obtain a final interview with the high-priest (1 Sam. xxii. 9, 15), partly to obtain food and weapons. On the pretext of a secret mission from Saul, he gained an answer from the oracle, some of the consecrated loaves, and the consecrated sword of Goliath. His stay at the court of Achish was short. Dis covered possibly by " the sword of Goliath," his presence revived the national enmity of the Philistines against their former con queror, and he only escaped by feigning mad ness (1 Sam. xxi. 13). 3. His life as an in dependent outlaw (xxii. 1-xxvi. 25). (a) His first retreat was the cave of Adullam, pro bably the large cavern, not far from Bethle hem,, now called Khureitun. From its vicinity to Bethlehem, he was joined there by Ms whole family, now feeling themselves insecure from Saul's fury (xxii. 1). This was pro bably the foundation of his intimate connexion with bis nephews, the sons of Zeruiah. (6) His next move was to a stronghold, either the mountain, afterwards called Herodium, close to Adullam, or the fastness called by Josephus Hasada, the Grecised form of the Hebrew word Matzed (1 Sam. xxii. 4, 5 ; 1 Chr. xii. 16), in the neighbourhood of En-gedi. Whilst there he had deposited Ms aged parents, for the sake of greater security, be yond the Jordan, with their ancestral kinsman of Moab (ib. 3). The neighbouring king, Nahash of Ammon, also treated Mm kindly (2 Sam. x. 2). Here occurred the chivalrous exploit of the three heroes just mentioned to procure water from the well of Bethlehem, and David's chivalrous answer, like that of Alexander in the desert of Gedrosia (1 Chr. xi. 16-19; 2 Sam. xxiii. 14-17). He was joined here by two separate bands. One a little body of eleven fierce Gadite moun taineers, who swam the Jordan in flood-time to reach Mm (1 CM*, xii. 8). Another was a detachment of men from Judah and Ben jamin under Ms nephew Amasai, who hence forth attached himself to David's fortunes (1 Chr. xii. 16-18). (c) At the warning of Gad, he fled to the forest of Hareth, and then again fell in with the Philistines, and again, apparently advised by Gad (xxiii. 4), made a descent on their foraging parties, and relieved Keilah, in which he took up his abode. Whilst there, now for" the first time in a fortified town of his own (xxiii. 7 ) , he was joined by a new and most important ally — Abiathar, the last survivor of the house of Ithamar. By this time the 400 who had joined him at Adullam (xxii. 2) had swelled to 600 (xxiii. 13). (d) The situation of David was now changed by the appearance Of SaM himself on the scene. Apparently the danger was too great for the little army to keep together. They escaped from Keilah, and dispersed, " whithersoever they could go," among the fastnesses of Judah. Hence forth it becomes difficult to follow Ms move ments with exactness. But thus much we discern. He is in the wilderness of Zipk. Once (or twice) the Ziphites betray his move ments to Saul. From thence Saul literally hunts him like a partridge, the treacherous Ziphites beating the hushes before him, and 3000 men, stationed to catch even the print of his footsteps on the hills (1 Sam. xxiii. 14, 22, xxiv. 11, xxvi. 2, 20). David finds himself driven to the extreme south of Judan, in the wilderness of Maon. On two, if not three occasions, the pursuer and pursued catch sight of each other (1 Sam. xxiii. 25-29, xxiv. 1-22, xxvi.). Whilst he was in the wilderness of Maon occurred David's ad venture with Nabal, instructive as showing his mode of carrying on the freebooter's life, and his marriage with Abigail. His marriage with Ahinoam from Jezreel, also in the same neighbourhood (Josh. xv. 56), seems to have taken place a short time before (1 Sam. xxv. DAVID 123 DAVID 43, xxvii. 3 ; 2 Sam. iii. 2). 4. His service under Achish (1 Sam. xxvii. 1 ; 2 Sam. i. 27). Wearied with his wandering life he at last crosses the Philistine frontier, hot, as before, in the capacity of a fugitive, but the chief of a powerful band — his 600 men now grown into an organise*! force, with their wives and families around them (xxvii. 3, 4). After Sie manner of Eastern potentates, Aohish lave him, for his support, a city — Ziklag on Le frontier of Philistia (xxvii. 6). There We meet with the first note of time in David's life. He was settled there for a year and four months (xxvii. 7), and a body of Ben- jamite archers and slingers, twenty- two of whom are specially named, joined him from the very tribe of his rival (1 Chr. xii. 1-7). He deceived Achish into confidence by attack ing the old Nomadic inhabitants of the desert frontier, and representing the plunder to be of portions of the southern tribes or the Nomadic allied tribes of Israel. But this confidence was not shared by the Philistine nobles, and accordingly David was sent hack by Achish from the last victorious campaign against Saul. During his absence the Be- doMn Amalekites, whom he had plundered during tbe previous year, had made a descent upon Ziklag, burnt it to the ground, and carried off the wives and children of the new settlement. A wild scene of frantic grief and recrimination ensued between David and his followers. It was calmed by an oracle of assurance from Abiathar. Assisted by the Manassites who had joined him on the march to Gilboa (1 Chr. xii. 19-21), he overtook the invaders in the desert, and recovered the spoil (I Sam. xxx.). Two dayB after this victory a Bedouin arrived from the north with the fatal news of the death at Gilboa. The reception of the tidings of the death of his rival and of his friend, the solemn mourn ing, the vent of Ms indignation against the hearer of the message, the pathetic lamenta tion that followed, will close the second period of David's life (2 Sam. i. 1-27). — III. David's reign. — (I.) As king of Judah at Hebron, 1\ years (2 Sam. ii. 1-v. 5). Hebron was selected, doubtless, as the ancient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, the burial-place of the patriarchs and the inheritance of Caleb. Here David was first formally anointed king (2 Sam. ii. 4). To Judah his dominion was nominally confined. Gradually his power increased, and during the two years which followed the elevation of Ishbosheth a series of sMrmishes took place between the two kingdoms. Then rapidly followed, though without David's con- ¦ent, the successive murders of Abner and of Ishbosheth (2 Sam. iii. 30, iv. 5). The throne, so long waiting for him, was now vacant, and the united voice of the whole people at once called him to occupy it. A solemn league was made between him and his people (2 Sam. v. 3). For the third time David was anointed king, and a festival of three days celebrated the joyful event (1 Chr. xii. 39). His little band had now swelled into "a great host, like the host of God" (1 Chr. xii. 22). The command of it, which had formerly rested on David alone, he now devolved on his nephew Joab (2 Sam. ii. 28). (II.) Reign over all iBrael, 33 years (2 Sam. v. 5 to 1 K. ii. 11). (1) The foundation of Jerusalem. One fastness alone in the centre of the land had hitherto defied the arms of Israel. On this, with a singular prescience, David fixed as his future capital. By one sudden assault Jebus was taken. The reward bestowed on the successful Bcaler of the pre cipice was the highest place in the army. Joab henceforward became captain of the host (1 Chr. xi. 6). The royal residence was instantly fixed there — fortifications were added by the Mng and by Joab — and it was known by the special name of the " city of David" (1 CM. xi. 7 ; 2 Sam. v. 9). The PMlistines made two ineffectual attacks on the new king (2 Sam. v. 17-20), and a retri bution on their former victories took place by the capture and conflagration of their own idols (1 Chr. xiv. 12). Tyre, now for the first time appearing in the sacred history, allied herself with Israel ; and Hiram sent cedarwood for the buildings of the new capital (2 Sam. v. 11), especially for the palace of David himself (2 Sam. vii. 2). Unhallowed and profane as the city had been before, it was at once elevated to a sanctity which it has never lost, above any of the ancient sanc tuaries of the land. The ark was now re moved from its obscurity at Kirjath-jearim with marked solemmty. A temporary halt (owing to the death of Uzza) detained it af Obed-edom's house, after which it again moved forward with great state to Jerusalem. It was the greatest day of David's life. One incident only tarnished its splendour — the reproach of Michal, Ms wife, as he was finally entering his own palace, to carry to Ms own household the benediction which he had already pronounced on Ms people. His act of severity towards her was an additional mark of the stress which he himself laid on the solemnity (2 Sam. vi. 20-23 ; 1 Chr. xv. 29). (2) Foundation of the Court and Empire of Israel, 2 Sam. viii. to xii. The erection of the new capital at Jerusalem introduces us to a new era in David's life and in the history of the monarchy. He became a kmg on the scale of the great Oriental sovereigns of Egypt and Persia, with a regular administration and DAVID 124 DAVID organization of court and camp ; and he also founded an imperial dominion which for the first time realised the prophetic description of the bounds of the chosen people (Gen, xv. 18-21). The internal organization now esta blished lasted till the final overthrow of the monarchy. The empire was of much shorter duration, continuing only through the reigns of David and Ms successor Solomon. But, for the period of its existence, it lent a peculiar character to the sacred history. (a) In the internal organization of the Mng- dom the first new element that has to be con sidered is the royal family, the dynasty, of which David was the founder, a position which entitled him to the name of " Patri arch " (Acts ii. 29), and (ultimately) of the an cestor of the Messiah. Of these, Absalom and Adomjah both inherited their father's beauty (2 Sam. xiv. 25 ; IK. i. 6) ; but Solomon alone possessed any of his higher qualities. It was from a union of the children of Solomon and Absalom that the royal line was carried on (1 K. xv. 2). David's strong parental affection for all of them is very re markable (2 Sam. xiii. 31, 33, 36, xiv. 33, xviii. 5, 33, xix. 4 ; 1 K. i. 6). (b) The military orgamzation, which was in fact in herited from SaM, but greatly developed by David, was as follows : (1) " The Host," i. e. the whole available military force of Israel, consisting of all males capable of bear ing arms, and summoned only for war. There were 12 divisions of 24,000 each, who were held to be in duty month by month ; and over each of them presided an officer, selected for this purpose from the other military bodies formed by David (1 CM. xxvii. 1-15). The army was still distinguished from those of surrounding nations by its primitive as pect of a force of infantry without cavalry. The only innovations as yet allowed were the introduction of a very limited number of chariots (2 Sam. viii. 4) and of mules for the princes and officers instead of the asses (2 Sam. xiii. 29, xviii. 9). (2) The Body-guard, This also had existed in the court of Saul, and David Mmself had probably been its com manding officer (1 Sam. xxii. 14). But it now assumed a peculiar organization. They were at least in name foreigners, as having been drawn from the Philistines, probably during David's residence at the court of Gath. They are usually called from this circum stance "Cherethites and Pelethites." The captain of the force waa, however, not oMy not a foreigner, but an Israelite of the Mghest distinction and purest descent, who first ap peals in this capacity, but who outlived David, and became the chief support of the throne of his son, namely Benaiah, son of the chief-priest Jehoiada, representative of the eldest branch of Aaron's house (2 Sam. viii* 18, xv. 18, xx. 23 ; 1 K. i. 38, 44). (3) The most peculiar military institution in David's army was that which arose out of the peculiar circumstances of bis early life. The nucleus of what afterwards became the only standing army in David's forces was the hand of 600 men who had gathered round him in his wanderings. The number of 600 was still preserved. It became yet further subdivided into three large bands of 200 each, and small bands of 20 each. The small bands were commanded by 30 officers, one for each band, who together formed " the thirty," and the 3 large bands by 3 officers, who together formed " the three," and the whole by one chief, "the captain of the mighty men" (2 Sam. xxiii. 8-39; 1 Chr. xi. 9-47). The commander of the whole force was Abishai, David's nephew (1 Chr. xi. 20 ; and comp. 2 Sam. xvi. 9). (e) Side by side with this military organization were established social and moral institutions. Some were entirely for pastoral, agricultural, and financial pur poses (1 Chr. xxvii. 25-31), others for judicial (1 Chr. xxvi. 29-32). Some few are named as constituting what would now be called the court, or council of the Mng ; the councillors, Ahithophel of Gilo, and Jonathan, the king's nephew (1 Chr. xxvii. 32, 33) ; the com panion or "friend," Hushai (1 Chr. xxvii. 33; 2 Sam. xv. 37, xvi. 19); the scribe, Sheva, or Seraiah, and at one time Jonathan (2 Sam. xx. 25 ; 1 CM. xxvii. 32) ; Jehosha phat, the recorder or historian (2 Sam. xx. 24), and Adoram the tax-collector, both of whom survived Mm (2 Sam. xx. 24 ; IK. xii. 18, iv. 3, 6). But the more peculiar of David's institutions were those directly bear ing on religion. Two prophets appear as thr king's constant advisers. Of these, Gad, wha seems to have been the elder, had been David's companion in exile ; and, from Ms being called "the seer," belongs probably to the earliest form of the prophetic schools. Nathan, who appears for the first time after the esta blishment of the Mngdom of Jerusalem (2 Sam. vii. 2), is distingmshed both by his title of "prophet," and by the nature of the pro phecies which he utters (2 Sam. vii. 5-17, xii. 1-14), as of the purest type of prophetic dispensation, and as the hope of the new generation, which he supports in the person of Solomon (1 K. i.). Two Mgh-priests also appear— representatives of the two rival houses of Aaron (1 Chr. xxiv. 3) ; here again, as in the case of the two prophets, one, Abia thar, who attended him at Jerusalem, com panion of Ms exile, and connected with the old time of the judges (1 Chr. xxvii. 34), DAVID 125 DAVID joining him after the death of Saul, and be coming afterwards the support of Ma son ; the other Zadoc, who ministered at Gibeon (1 Chr. xvi. 39), nndwho was made the head of the Aaronic family (xxvii. 17). Besides these four great religious functionaries there were two classes of subordinates — prophets, specially instructed in singing and musie, under Asaph, Heman the grandson of Samuel, and Jedutbun (1 Chr. xxv. 1-31) — Levitea, or attendants on the sanctuary, who again were subdivided into the guardians of the gates and guardians of the treasures (1 Chr. xxvi. 1-28) which had been accumulated, since the re- establishment of the nation, by Samuel, Saul, Abner, Joab, and David Mmself (1 CM. xxvi. 26-28). (d) From the internal state of David's kingdom we pass to its external re lations. These will be found at length under the various countries to which they relate. It will be here only necessary to briefly indi cate the enlargement of his domiMons. Within ten years from the capture of Jerusalem, he had reduced to a state of permanent sub jection the Philistines on the west (2 Sam. viii. 1) ; the Moabites on the east (2 Sam. viii. 2), by the exploits of Benaiah (2 Sam. xxiii. 20) ; the Syrians on the north-east as far as the Euphrates (2 Sam. viii. 3) ; the Edomiteb (2 Sam. viii. 14), on the south ; and finally the Ammonites, who had broken their ancient alliance, and made one grand resistance to the advance of his empire (2 Sam. x. 1-19, xii. 26-31). These three last wars were en tangled with each other. The last and crown ing point was the siege of Rabbah. (3) Three great calamities may be selected as marking the beginning, middle, and close of David's -otherwise prosperous reign ; wMch appears to be intimated in the question of Gad (2 Sam. xxiv. 13), "a three years' famine, a three months' flight, or a three days' pestilence." (a) Of these, the first (the three years' famine) introduces us to the last notices of David's relations with the house of SaM. There has often arisen a painful suspicion in later times, as there seems to have been at the time (xvi. 7), that the oracle, wMch gave as the cause of the famine Saul's massacre of tbe GibeoMtes, may have been connected with the desire to extinguish the last remains of the fallen dynasty. But such an explanation is not needed. The massacre was probably the most recent national crime that had left any deep impression ; and the whole tenour of David's conduct towards Saul's family is of an opposite kind. (6) The second group of incidents contains the tragedy of David's life, which grew in all its parts out of the polygamy, with its evil consequences, into wMch he had plunged on becoming king. Underneath the splendour of his last glorious campaign against the Ammonites, was a dark story, known probably at that time only to a very few ; the double crime of adultery with Bathsheba, and of the virtual murder of Uriah. The crimes are undoubtedly those of a common Oriental despot. But the rebuke of Nathan ; the sudden revival of the king's conscience ; Ms grief for the sickness of the child ; the gathering of his uncles and elder brothers around him ; his return of hope and peace ; are characteristic of David, and of David only. But the clouds from tMs time gathered over David's fortunes, and hencefor ward "the sword never departed from Ms house" (2 Sam. xii. 10). The outrage on his daughter Tamar ; the murder of his eldest son Amnon ; and then the revolt of his best- beloved Absalom, brought on the crisis wMch once more sent Mm forth a wanderer, as in the days when he fled from Saul ; and this, the heaviest trial of Ms life, was aggravated by the impetuosity of Joab, now perhaps, from his complicity in David's crime, more unmanageable than ever. The rebellion was fostered apparently hy the growing jealousy of the tribe of Judah at seeing their king ab sorbed into the whole nation ; and if, as ap pears from 2 Sam. xi. 3, xxiii. 34, Ahitho phel was the grandfather of Bathsheba, its main supporter was one whom David had provoked by his own crimes. For its general course the reader is referred to the names just mentioned. Mahanaim was the capital of David's exile, as it had been of the exiled house of Saul (2 Sam. xvii. 24 ; comp. ii. 8, 12). His forces were arranged under the three great military officers who remained faitMul to Ms fortunes — Joab, captain of the host ; Abishai, captam of " the mighty men ;" and Ittai, who seems to have taken the place of . Benaiah as captain of the guard (2 Sam. xviii. 2). On Absalom's side was David's nephew Amasa (ib. xvii. 25). The final battle was fought in the "forest of Ephraim," wMch terminated in the accident leading to the death of Absalom. At this point the narrative resumes its minute detail. The return was marked at every stage by re joicing and amnesty (2 Sam. xix. 16-40; 1 K. ii. 7). Judah was first reconciled. The embers of the insurrection, still smouldering (2 Sam. xix. 41-43) in David's hereditary enemies of the tribe of Benjamin, were trampled out by the mixture of boldness and sagacity in Joab, now, after the murder of Amasa, once more in his old position. And David again reigned in undisturbed peace at Jerusalem {2 Sam. xx. 1-22). (c) The closing period of David's life, with the ex ception of one great calamity, may be con- DAVID 126 DAY sidered as a gradual preparation for the reign of his successor. This calamity was the three days' pestilence which visited Jerusalem at the warning of the prophet Gad. The occa sion wMch led to tMs warning was the census of the people taken by Joab at the long's orders (2 Sam. xxiv. 1-9 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 1-7, xxvii. 23, 24). Joab's repugnance to the measure was such that he refused altogether to number Levi and Benjamin (1 Chr. xxi. 6). The plague and its cessation were commemo rated down to the latest times of the Jewish nation. Outside the walls of Jerusalem, Araunah or Oman, a wealthy Jebusite — per haps even the ancient Mng of Jebus (2 Sam. xxiv. 23) — possessed a threshing-floor ; there he and Ms sons were engaged in threshing the corn gathered m from the harvest (1 Chr. xxi. 20). At this spot an awful vision ap peared, such as is described in the later days of Jerusalem, of the Angel of the Lord stretcMng out a drawn sword between earth and sky over the devoted city. The scene of euch an apparition at such a moment was at once marked out for a sanctuary. David de manded, and Araunah willingly granted, the site ; the altar was erected on the rock of the threshing-floor ; the place was called by the name of "Moriah" (2 Chr. iii. 1) ; and for the first time a holy place, sanctified by a vision of the Divine presence, was recognised in Jerusalem. It was tMs spot wMch after wards became tho altar of the Temple, and therefore the centre of the national worship, with but slight interruption, for more than 1000 years, and it is even contended that the same spot is the rock, still regarded with almost idolatrous veneration, in the centre of the Mussuhnan " Dome of the Rock." A for midable conspiracy to mterrupt the succession broke out in the last days of David's reign, wMch detached from his person two of Ms court, who from personal offence or adherence to the ancient family had been alienated from Mm — Joab and Abiathar. But Zadok, Nathan, Benaiah, Shimei, and Rei remaining firm, the plot was stifled, and Solomon's inauguration took place under his father's auspices (1 K. i. 1-53). By tMs time David's infirmities had grown upon him. The warmth of his ex hausted frame waB attempted to be restored by the introduction of a young Shunammite, of the name of Abishag, mentioned appar ently for the sake of an incident wMch grew up in connexion with her out of the later events (2 K. i. 1, ii. 17). His last song is preserved — a striking union of the ideal of a just ruler wMch he had placed before him, and of the diffieMties wMch he had felt in realising it (2 Sam. xxiii. 1-7). His last words, as recorded, to his successor, are general exhortations to his duty, combined with warnings against Joab and Shimei, and chargeB to remember the children of Barzillai (1 K. ii. 1-9). He died, according to Jose phus, at the age of 70, and " was buried in the city of David." After the return from the captivity, "the sepulchres of David" were still pointed out " between Siloah and the house of the mighty men," or "the guardhouse " (Neh. iii. 16). His tomb, which became the general sepulchre of the Mngs of Judah, was pointed out in the latest times of the Jewish people. The edifice shown as such from the Crusades to the present day is on the southern hill of modern Jerusalem, commonly called Mount Zion, under the so- called " Coenaculum ;" but it cannot be identified with the tomb of David, wMch was emphatically within the walls. DAVID, CITY OF. [Jerusalem.] DAY. The variable length of the natural day at different seasons led in the very ear liest times to thfc adoption of the civil day (or one revolution of the sun) as a standard of time. The commencement of the civil day varies in different nations : the BabyloMana reckoned it from sunrise to sunrise ; the Umbrians from noon to noon : the Romans from midnight to midnight ; the Athenians and others from sunset to sunset. The Hebrews naturally adopted the latter reckon ing (Lev. xxiii. 32, *' from even to even shall ye celebrate your sabbath ") from Gen. i. 5, " the evening and the morning were the first day." The Jews are supposed, like the modern Arabs, to have adopted from an early period minute specifications of the parts of the natural day. Roughly indeed they were content to divide it into " morning, evening, and noonday" (Ps. Iv. 17) ; but when they wished for greater accuracy they pointed to six unequal parts, each of which was again subdivided. These are held to have been: — 1. "The dawn." 2. "Sunrise." 3. " Heat of the day," about 9 o'clock; 4. "The two noons" (Gen. xliii. 16 ; Deut. xxviii. 29) ; 5. " The cool (lit, wind) of the day," before sunset (Gen. iii. 8); so called by the Persians to tMs day ; 6. "Evening." The phrase "between the two evenings" (Ex. xvi. 12, xxx. 8), being the thne marked for slaying the paschal lamb and offering the evening sacrifice (Ex. xii. 6, xxix. 39), led to a dispute between the Karaites and Samaritans on the one hand, and the Pharisees on the other. The former took it to mean between sunset and full darkness (Deut. xvi. 6); the Rabbinists explained it as the time between the begin ning and end of sunset. — Before the captivity the Jews divided the Mght into three watches (Ps. lxiii. 6. xc. 4), viz. the first watch, last- DAYSMAN 127 DEBIR ing till midnight (Lam. ii. 19, A. V. **the beginMng of the watches"); the "Middle watch," lasting till cockcrow (Judg. vii. 19) ; nnd the morning watch, lasting till sunrise (Ex. xiv. 24). These divisions were probably connected with the Levitical duties in the Temple service. The Jews, however, say (in spite of their own definition, " a watch is the third part of the night ") that they always had four night-watches (comp. Neh. ix. 3), hut that the fourth was counted as a part of the morning. In the N. T. we have allusions to four watches, a division borrowed from the Greeks and Romans. These were, 1. from twilight till 9 o'clock (Mark xi. 1 1 ; John xx. 19); 2. midMght, from 9 till 12 o'clock (Mark xiii. 35) ; 3. till 3 in the morning (Mark xiii. 35 ; 3 Mace. v. 23) ; 4. till day break (John xviii. 28). The word held to mean " hour " is first found in Dan. iii. 6, 15, v. 5. Perhaps the Jews, like the Greeks, learnt from the Babylonians the division of the day into 12 parts. In our Lord's tmie the division was common (John xi. 9). DAYSMAN, an old English term, meaning umpire or arbitrator (Job ix. 33). Itisderived from day, in the specific sense of a day fixed for a trial. DEACON. The office described by tMa title appears in the N. T. as the correlative of Bishop. [Bishop.] The two are mentioned together in PM1. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 2, 8. Like most words of similar import, it appears to have been first used in its generic sense, im plying subordinate activity (1 Cor. iii. 5 ; 2 Cor. vi. 4), and afterwards to have gained a more denned connotation, as applied to a distinot body of men in the CMistian society. The narrative of Acts vi. is commonly referred to as giving an account of the institution of this office. The Apostles, in order to meet the complaints of the HelleMstic Jews, that their widows were neglected in the daily ministration, call on the body of believers to choose seven men " full of the Holy Ghost and of wisdom," whom they " may appoint over this business." It may be questioned, however, whether the seven were not ap pointed to higher functions than those of the deacons of the N. T. There are indications, however, of the existence of another body in the Churoh of Jerusalem whom we may com pare with the deacons of Phil. i. 1, and 1 Tim. iii. 8. As the " elders " of Acts xiv. 23, xv. 6 ; 1 Pet. v. 1, were not merely men advanced in years, so the "young men" of Acts v. 6, 10, were probably not merely young men, but persons occupying a distinct position and exercising distinct functions. Assuming the identity of the two names we have to ask — (1) To what previous organisa tion, if any, the order is traceable ? (2) What were the qualifications and functions of the men so designated? I. As the constitution of the Jewish synagogue had its elders or pastors, so also it had its subordinate officers (Luke iv. "20), whose work it was to give the reader the rolls containing the lessons for the day, to clean the synagogue, to open and close it at the right times. II. The moral qualifications described in 1 Tim. iii., as necessary for the office of a deacon, are substantially the same as those of the bishop. The deacons, however, were not required to be " given to hospitality," nor to be "apt to teach." It was enough for tbem to " hold the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience." They were not to gain their living by disreput able occupations. On offering themselves for their work they were to be subject to a strict scrutiny (1 Tim. iii. 10), and if this ended satisfactorily were to enter on it. From the analogy of the synagogue, and from the scanty notices of the N. T., we may think of the deacons or "young men" in the Church of Jerusalem as preparing the rooms in wMch the disciples met, taking part in the distribu tion of alms out of the common fund, at first with no direct supervision, then under that of the Seven, and afterwards under the elders, maintaining order at the daily meetings of the disciples to break bread, baptising new con verts, distributing the bread and the wine of the Lord's Supper, which the Apostle or his representative had blessed. It does not appear to have belonged to the office of a deacon to teach publicly in the Church. DEACONESS. The wordStaKovos is found in Rom. xvi. 1 (A. V. " servant"), associated with a female name, and this has led to the conclusion that there existed in the Apostolic age, as there undoubtedly did a little later, an order of women bearing that title, and ex ercising in relation to their own sex functions wMch were analogous to those of the deacons. On this hypothesis it has been inferred that the women mentioned in Rom. xvi. 6, 12, belonged to such an order. The rMes given as to the conduct of women in 1 Tim. iii. 11, Tit. ii. 3, have in like manner been referred to them, and they have been iden tified even with the "widows" of 1 Tim. v. 3-10. DEAD SEA. This name nowhere occurs in the Bible, and appears not to have existed until the 2nd century after Christ. In the O. T. the lake is called " the Salt Sea," and "the Sea of the Plain," and under the former of these names it is described. DEARTH. [Famine.] DE'BIR, the name of three places of Pales tine. 1. A town in the mountains of Judah DEBORAH 128 DEDICATION, JEAST OF THE (Josh. xv. 49), one of a group of eleven cities to the west of Hebron. The earlier name of Debir was Kirjathsepher, "city of book" (Josh. xv. 15; Judg. i. 11), and Kirjath- sannah, "city of pahn" (Josh. xv. 49). It was one of the cities given with their " sub urbs" to the priests (Josh. xxi. 15 ; 1 Chr. vi. 58). Debir has not been discovered with certainty in modern trnies ; but about three miles to the west of Hebron is a deep and secluded valley called the Wady Nunkur, enclosed on the north by hills, of which one bears a name certainly suggestive of Debir — Dewir-ban. — 2. A place on the north boundary of Judah, near the " Valley of Achor " (Josh. xv. 7), and therefore somewhere in the com plications of Mil and ravine behind Jericho. A Wady Dabor is marked in Van de Velde's map as close to the S. of Neby Musa, at the N. W. corner of the Dead Sea. — 3. The " border of Debir " is named as forming part of the boundary of Gad (Josh. xiii. 26), and as apparently not far from Mahanaim. DEB'ORAH. 1. The nurse of Rebekah (Gen. xxxv. 1). Deborah accompaMed Re bekah from the house of Bethuel (Gen. xxiv. 59), and is only mentioned by name on the occasion of her burial, under the oak-tree of Bethel, which was called in her honour Allon- Bachuth.- — 2. A prophetess who judged Israel (Judg. iv., v.). She lived under the palm- tree of Deborah, between Ramah and Bethel in Mount EpMaim (Judg. iv. 5), which, as palm-trees were rare in Palestine, " is men tioned as a well-known and solitary landmark, and was probably the same spot as that called (Judg. xx. 33) Baal-Tamar, or the sanctuary of the palm" (Stanley, S. and P. 146). She was probably a woman of Ephraim, although, from the expression in Judg. v. 13, some sup pose her to have belonged to Issachar. Lapi- doth was probably her husband and not Barak, as some say. She was not so much a judge as one gifted with prophetic command (Judg. iv. 6, 14, v. 7), and by virtue of her inspira tion " a mother in Israel." Jabin's tyranny was peculiarly felt in the northern tribes, who were near his capital and under her jurisdiction, viz. Zebulon, Naphtali, and Issachar : hence, when she summoned Barak to the deliverance, it was on them that the brunt of the battle fell. Under her direction Barak encamped on the broad summit of Tabor. Deborah's propheoy was fMfilled (Judg. iv. 9), and the enemy's general perished among the "oaks of the wanderers (Zaanaim)," in the tent of the Bedouin KeMte's wife (Judg. iv. 21) in the northern mountains. Deborah's title of "prophetess" includes the notion of inspired poetry, as in Ex. xv. 20; and in this sense the glorious triumphal ode (Judg. v.) well vindicates her claim to the office. DEBTOR. [Loan.] DECAP'OLIS. TMs name occurs oMy three times m the Scriptures, Matt. iv. 25, Mark v. 20, and vii. 31. Immediately after the conquest of Syria by the Romans (b.c. 65) ten cities appear to have been rebuilt, partially colonised, and endowed with pecMiar privileges ; the country around them was hence called Decapolis. Pliny enumerates them as follows: Scythopolis, Hippos, Gadara, Pella, Philadelphia, Gerasa, Dion, Canatha, Damascus, and Raphana. All the cities of Decapolis, with the single exception of Scytho polis, lay on tbe east of the Jordan. It would appear, however, from Matt. iv. 25, and Mark vii. 31, that Decapolis was a general appellation for a large district ex tending along both sides of the Jordan. Pliny says it reached from Damascus on the north to Philadelphia on the south, and from Scythopolis on the west to Canatha on the east. TMs region, once so populous and prosperous, from which multitudes flocked to hear the Saviour and through which multi tudes followed His footsteps, is now almost without an inhabitant. DE'DAN. 1. ThenameofasonofRaamah, son of Cush (Gen. x. 7 ; 1 Chr. i. 9). — 2. A son of Jokshan, son of Keturah (Gen. xxv. 3 ; 1 Chr. i. 32). — The passages in the Bible in wMch Dedan is mentioned (besides the genea logies above referred to) are contained in the prophecies of Isaiah (xxi. 13), Jeremiah (xxv, 23, xlix. 8), and Ezekiel (xxv. 13, xxvii. 15, 20, xxxviii. 13), and are in every case ob scure. The probable inferences from these mentions of Dedan are — 1. That Dedan, son of Raamah, settled on the shores of the Per sian Gulf, and Ms descendants became caravan- merchants between that coast and Palestine. 2. That Jokshan, or a son of Jokshan, by in termarriage with the CusMte Dedan formed a tribe of the same name, which appears to have had its chief settlement in the borders of Idumaea, and perhaps to have led a pas toral life. DE'DANIM. Is. xxi. 13. [Dedan.] DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE, the fes tival instituted to commemorate the purging of the Temple and the rebMlding of the altar after Judas Maccabaeus had driven out the Syrians, b.c 164. It is named only once in the Canonical Scriptures, John x. 22. Its institution is recorded 1 Mace. iv. 52-59. It commenced on the 25th of CMsleu, the anni versary of the pollution of the Temple by Antiochus Epiphanes, b.c. 167. Like the great Mosaic feasts, it lasted eight days, but it did not require attendance at Jerusalem, DEER 129 DEMETRIUS It was an occasion of much festivity. The writer of 2 Mace, tells us that it was cele brated in nearly the same manner as the Feast of Tabernacles, with the carrying of branches of trees, and with much singing (x. 6, 7). Josephus states that the festival was called "Lights." In the Temple at Jerusalem the "Hallel" was sung every day of the feast. DEER. [Fallow-Deer.] DEGREES, SONGS OF, a title given to ft./teen Psalms, from cxx. to exxxiv. inclusive. Four of them are attributed to David, one is ascribed to the pen of Solomon, and the other ten give no indication of their author. With respect to the term rendered in the A. V. " degrees," a great diversity of opinion pre vails, but the most probable opinion is that they were pilgrim songs, sung by the people as they went up to Jerusalem. , DE'HAVITES mentioned only once in Scripture (Ezr. iv. 9) among the colonists planted in Samaria after the completion of the Captivity of Israel. They are probably the Dai" or Dabi, mentioned by Herodotus (i. 125) among the nomadic tribes of Persia. DEL'ILAH, a woman who dwelt in the valley of Sorek, beloved by Samson (Judg. xvi. 4-18). There seems to be little doubt that she was a Philistine courtesan. [Samson.] DELUGE. [Noah.] DE'LUS, mentioned in 1 Mace. xv. 23, is the smallest of the islands called Cyclades in the Aegaean Sea. It was one of the chief seats of the worship of Apollo, and was cele brated as the birthplace of this god and of Ms Bister Artemis (Diana). DE'MAS, most probably a contraction from Demetrius, or perhaps from Demarchus, a companion of St. Paul (Philem. 24 ; Col. iv. 14) during his first imprisonment at Rome. At a later period (2 Tim. iv. 10) we find him mentioned as having deserted the apostle through love of this present world, and gone to Thessalonica. DEME'TRIUS, a maker of silver shrines of Artemis at Ephesus { Acts xix. 24). These were small models of the great temple of the Ephesian Artemis, with her statue, which it was customary, to carry on journeys, and place on houses, as charms. DEME'TRIUS I., surnamed Soter, " The Saviour," king of Syria, was the son of Seleucus Philopator, and grandson of Antio- chua the Great. While still a boy he was BeDt by his father as a hostage to Rome (b.c. 175) in exchange for Ms uncle Antiochus Epiphanes. From his position he was unable to offer any opposition to the usurpation of the Syrian throne by Antiochus IV. ; but on the death n' ''hat monarch (b.c. 164) he claimed his liberty and the recognition of his clniin by the Roman senate in preference to that of his cousin Antiochus V. His petition was re fused, he left Italy secretly, and landed with a small force at Tripolis in Phoenicia (2 Mace. xiv. 1 ; 1 Mace. vii. 1). The Syrians soon declared in his favour (b.c. 162), and' An tiochus and his protector LysiaB were put to death (1 Mace. vii. 2, 3 ; 2 Mace. xiv. 2-). Hib campaigns against the Jews were unsuc cessful. In b.c. 152, Alexander Balas was brought forward, with the consent of the Roman senate, as a claimant to the throne. The rivals met in a decisive engagement (b.c. 150), and Demetrius, after displaying the greatest personal bravery, was defeated and slain (1 Mace. x. 48-50). Tetrodrachm (Attic talent) of Demetrius L DEME'TRIUS II., "The Victorious " (Ni- cator), was the elder son of Demetrius Soter. He was sent by Ms father, together with his brother Antiochus, with a large treasure, to Cnidus, when Alexander Balas laid claim to the throne of Syria. When he was grown up he made a descent on Syria (b.c 148), and was received with general favour (1 Mace. x. 67 ff.). His campaigns against Jonathan and the Jews are described in 1 Mace, x., xi. In b.c 138, Demetrius was taken prisoner by Arsaces VI. (Mithridates), whose dominions he had invaded (1 Mace. xiv. 1-3). Mithridates treated his captive honourably, and gave him his daughter in marriage. When Antiochus Sidetes, who had gained possession of the Syrian throne invaded Parthia, Phraates employed Demetrius to effect a diversion. In this Demetrius suc- Tetrjdrachni (Attic talent) of Demetrius II K DEMON 130 DENARIUS ceeded, and when Antiochus fell in tattle, he again took possession of the Syrian crown (b.c. 128). Notlong afterwards a pretender, supported by Ptol. Physcon, appeared in the field against Mm, and after suffering a defeat he was assassinated, according to some by Ms wife, while attempting to escape by Bea. DEMON. Its usage in classical Greek is various. In Homer, where the gods are but supernatural men, it is used interchangeably with "god ;" afterwards in Hesiod, when the idea of the gods had become more exalted and less familiar, the "demons" are spoken of as intermediate beings, the messengers of the gods to men. In the Gospels generally, in James ii. 19, and in Rev. xvi. 14, the demons are spoken of as spiritual beings, at enmity with God, and having power to afflict man, not only with disease, but, as is marked vy the frequent epithet "unclean," with spiritual pollution also. They " believe " the power of God " and tremble " (James ii. 19) ; they recognise the Lord as the Son of God (Matt. viii. 29; Luke iv. 41), and acknowledge the power of His name, used in exorcism, in the place of the name of Jehovah, by His appointed messengers (Acts xix. 15) ; and look forward in terror to the judgment to come (Matt. viii. 29). The description is precisely that of a nature akin to the angelic in knowledge and powers, but with t^he em phatic addition of the idea of positive and active wickedness. DEMONIACS. This word is frequently used in the N. T., and applied to persons suffering under the possession of a demon or cil spirit, such possession generally showing * self visibly in bodily disease or mental derangement. It has been maintained by many persons that our Lord and the Evan gelists, in referring to demoMacal possession, spoke tnly in accommodation to the general belief of the Jews, without any assertion as to its truth or its falsity. It is concluded that, sinee the symptoms of the affliction were frequently those of bodily disease (as dumbness, Matt. ix. 82 ; blindness, Matt. xii. 22 ; epilepsy, Mark ix. 17-27), or those seen in cases of ordinal y insanity (as in Matt. viii. 28 ; Mark y. 1-5), and since also the phrase " to have a devil " is constantly used in connexion with, and as apparently equiva lent to, " to be mad" (see John vii. 20, viii. 48, x. 20, and perhaps Matt. xi. 18 ; Luke vii. 33), the demoMacs were merely persons suffering under unusual diseases of body and mind. But demoniacs are frequently distin guished from those afflicted with bodily sick ness (see Mark i. 32, xvi. 17, 18; Luke vi. 17, 18), even, it would seem, from the epilep tic (Matt. iv. 24) ; the same outward signs are sometimes referred to possession, sometimes merely to disease (comp. Matt. iv. 24, with xvii. 15 ; Matt. xii. 22, with Mark vii. 32, &c.) ; the demons are represented as speak ing in their own persons with superhuman knowledge, and acknowledging our Lord to be, not as the Jews generally called him, son of David, but Son of God (Matt. viii. 29 ; Mark i. 24, v. 7; Luke iv, 41, &c). All these tMngs speak of a personal power of evil. Nor does our Lord speak of demons as per sonal spirits of evil to the multitude alone, but in His secret conversations with His disciples, declaring the means and conditions by wMch power over them could be exercised (Matt. xvii. 21). Twice also He distinctly con nects demoMacal possession with the power of the evil one ; once in Luke x. 18, to the seventy disciples, where He speaks of his power and theirs over demoniacs as a " fall of Satan," and again in Matt. xii. 25-30, when He was accused of casting out demons through Beelzebub, and, instead of giving any hint that the possessed were not really under any direct and personal power of evil, He uses an argument, as to the division of Satan against Mmself, which, if possession be unreal, becomes inconclusive and almost insincere. Lastly, the single fact recorded of the entrance of the demons at Gadara (Mark v. 10-14) into the herd of swine, and the effect which that entrance caused, is suffi cient to overthrow the notion that our Lord and the Evangelists do not assert or hnply any objective reality of possession. We are led, therefore, to the ordinary and literal interpretation of these passages, that there are evil spirits, subjects of the Evil One, who, in the days of the Lord Himself and His Apostles especially, were permitted by God to exercise a direct influence over the souls and bodies of certain men. This influence is clearly distinguished from the ordinary power of corruption and temptation wielded by Satan through the permission of God. The dis- tinguisMng feature of possession is the com plete or incomplete loss of the sufferer's reason or power of will ; his actions, Ma words, and almost his thoughts are mastered by the evil Bpiiit (Mark i. 24, v. 7 ; Aots xix. 15), till his personality seems to be destroyed, or, if not destroyed, so overborne as to produce the consciousness of a twofold will within Mm, like that sometimes felt in a dream. DENA'RIUS, A. V. "penny " (Matt. xviiL 28, xx. 2, 9, 13, xxii. 19 ; Mark vi. 87, xii. 15, xiv. 5; Luke vii. 41, x. 35, xx. 24; John vi. 7, xii, 5 ; Rev. vi. 6), a Roman silver coin, in the time of Our Saviour and the Apostles. It took its name from us DEPUTY 131 DEUTERONOMY being first equal to ten " asses," a number afterwards increased to sixteen. It was the principal silver coin of the Roman common wealth. From the parable of the labourers in the vineyard it would seem that a denarius was then the ordinary pay for a day's labour (Matt. xx. 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 18). Denarius of Tiberius. DEPUTY. The uniform rendering in the A. V. of the Greek word which signifies "proconsul" (Acts xiii. 7, 8, 12, xix. 38). The English word is curious in itself, and to a certain extent appropriate, having been applied formerly to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. DER'BE (Acts xiv. 20, 21, xvi. 1, xx. 4). The exact position of this town has not yet been ascertained, but its general situation is undoubted. It was in the eastern part of the great upland plain of Lycaonia, which stretches from Iconium eastwards along the north side of the chain of Taurus. It must have been somewhere near the place where the pass called the Cilician Gates opened a way from the low plain of Cilieia to the table-land of the interior ; and probably it was a stage upon the great road which passed this way. DESERT, a word which is sparingly em ployed in the A. V. to translate four Hebrew terms, of which three are essentially different in signification. A " desert," in the sense which is ordinarily attached to the word, is a vast, burning, sandy plain, alike destitute of trees and of water. Here, it is simply necessary to show that the words rendered in the A. V. by " desert," when used in the historical books, denoted defiMte localities ; ind that those localities do not answer to the lommon conception of a " desert." — 1. Aha- bae. This word means that very depressed and enclosed region — the deepest and the hottest chasm in the world — the sunken valley north and south of the Dead Sea, but more particularly the former. [Ababah.] Asabah in the sense of the Jordan Valley is translated by the word " desert " only in Ez. xlvii. 8. In a more general sense of waste, deserted country — a meaning easily suggested by the idea of excessive heat contained in the root—" Desert," as the rendering of Arabah, occurs in the prophets and poetical books ; as Is. xxxv. 1, 6, xl. 3, xii. 19, li. 3 ; Jer. ii. 6, v. 6, xvii. 6, 1. 12 ; but this general sense is never found in the historical books. — 2. Midbar. TMs word, which our transla tors have most frequently rendered by "desert," is accurately the "pasture ground." It is most frequently used for thoBe tracts of waste land which lie beyond the cMtivated ground in the immediate neighbourhood of the towns and villages of Palestine, and which are a very familiar feature to the traveller in that country. In the poetical books " desert " is found as the translation of Midbar in Deut. xxxii. 10 ; Job xxiv. 5 ; Is. xxi. 1 ; Jer. xxv. 24. — 3. Charbah, appears to have the force of dryness, and thence of desolation. It does not occur in any historical passages. It iB rendered " desert " in Ps. cii. 6 ; Is. xlviii. 21 ; Ezek. xiii. 4. The term commonly employed for it in the A. V. is "waste places" or "desola tion." — 4. JeshImon with the definite article, apparently denotes the waste tracts on both sides of the Dead Sea. In all these cases it is treated as a proper name in the A. V. Without the article it occurs in a few pas sages of poetry ; in the following of which it is rendered "desert." Ps. lxxxviii. 40 ; cvi. 14 ; Is. xliii. 19, 20. DEUTERONOMY, which means " the re petition of the law," consists chiefly of three discourses delivered by Moses shortly before his death. Subjoined to these discourses are the Song of Moses, the Blessing of Moses, and the story of Ms death. — I. The first dis course (i. 1 — iv. 40). After a brief historical introduction, the speaker recapitulates the chief events of the last 40 years in the wilderness, and especially those events which had the most immediate bearing on the entry of the people into the promised land. To this discourse is appended a brief notice of the severing of the three cities of refuge on the east side of the Jordan (iv. 41-43). — II. The second discourse is introduced like the first by an explanation of the circumstances under which it was delivered (iv. 44-49>. It extends from chap. v. 1 — xxvi. 19, and contains a recapitulation, with some modifi cations and additions, of the Law already given on Mount Sinai. — III. In the third discourse (xxvii. 1 — xxx. 20), the Elders of Israel are associated with Moses. The people are commanded to set up stones upon Mount Ebal, and on them to write " all the words of this law." Then follow the several curses to be pronounced by the Levites on Ebal (xxvii. 14-26), and the blessings on Gerizim (xxviii. 1-14). — IV, The delivery of the Law as written by Moses (for its still further preservation) to the custody of the K 2 DEVIL 132 DIAMOND Levitea, and a charge to the people to hear it read once every seven years (xxxi.) : the Song of Moses spoken in the ears of the people (xxxi. 30-xxxii. 44) : and the bless ing of the twelve tribes (xxxiii.). — V. The Book closeB (xxxiv.) with an account of the death of Moses, which is first announced to Mm in xxxii. 48-52. — It has been maintained by many modern critics that Deuteronomy is of later origin than the other four books of the Pentateuch ; but the book bears witness to its own authorship (xxxi. 19), and is expressly cited in the N. T. as the work of Moses (Matt. xix. 7,8 ; Mark x. 3 ; Acts iii. 22, vii. 37). The last chapter, contain ing an account of the death of Moses, was of course added by a later hand, and perhaps formed originally the beginning of the book of Joshua. [Pentateuch.] DEVIL. The name describes Satan as slandering God to man, and man to God. The former work is, of course, a part of his great work of temptation to evil ; and is not only exemplified but illustrated as to its general nature and tendency by the narrative of Gen. iii. The effect is to stir up the spirit of freedom in man to seek a fancied in dependence ; and it is but a slight step further to hnpute falsehood or cruelty to God. The other work, the slandering or accusing man before God is, as it must necessarily be, unintelligible to us. The essence of this accusation is the imputation of selfish motives (Job i. 9, 10), and its refu tation is placed in the self-sacrifice of those " who loved not their own lives unto death." [Satan ; Demon.] DEW. This in the summer ia bo copious in Palestine that it supplies to some extent the absence of rain (Ecclus. xviii. 16, xliii. 22), and becomes important to the agricul turist. As a proof of this copiousness the well-known sign of Gideon (Judg- vi. 37, 39, 40) may be adduced. Thus it is coupled in the divine blessing with rain, or mentioned as a prime source of fertility (Gen. xxvii. 28 ; Deut. xxxiii. 13 ; Zech. viii. 12), and its withdrawal is attributed to a curse (2 Sam. i. 21 ; 1 K. xvii. 1 ; Hag. i. 10). It becomes a leading object in prophetic ima gery by reason of its penetrating moisture without the apparent effort of rain (Deut. xxxii. 2; Job xxix. 19; Ps. cxxxiii. 3; Rrov. xix. 12 ; Is. xxvi. 19 ; Hos. xiv. 5 ; Mic. v. 7) ; while its speedy evanescence typifies the transient goodness of the hypo crite (Hos. vi. 4, xiii. 3). DIADEM. What the "diadem" of the Jews was we know not. That of other na tions of antiquity was a fillet of silk, two inches broad* bound round the head and tied behind, the invention of which is attribntod to Liber. Its colour was generally white ; sometimes, however, it was of blue, like that of Darius ; and it was sown with pearls or other gems (Zech. ix. 16), and enriched with gold (Rev. ix. 7). It was pecMiarly the mark of Oriental sovereigns (1 Mace. xiii. 32). A crown was used hy the kings of Israel, even in battle (2 Sam. i. 10) ; but in all probability this was not the state crown (2 Sam. xii. 30), although Used in the coronation of Joash (2 K. xi. 12). In Esth. i. 11, ii. 17, we have ccther for the turban worn by the Persian king, queen, or other eminent persons to whom it was conceded as a special favour (viii. 15). The diadem of the king differed from that of others in hav ing an erect triangular peak. The words in Ez. xxiii. 15 mean long and flowing turbans of gorgeous colours. Obverse of Tetradrachm of Tigrancs, king of Svrift, DIAL. The word ma'&Wth is the same as that rendered " steps " in A. V. (Ex. xx. 26 ; 1 K. x. 19), and " degrees " in A. V. (2 K. xx. 9, 10, 11 ; Is. xxxviii. 8), where, to give a consistent rendering, we should read with the margin the " degrees " rather than the " dial " of Ahaz. In the absence of any materials for determining the shape and structure of the solar instrument, wMch certainly appears intended, the best course is to follow the most strictly natural meaning of the words, and to consider that the ma'&ldth were really stairs, and that the shadow (perhaps of some column or obelisk on the top) fell on a greater or smaller number of them according as the sun was low or high. The terrace of a palace might easily be thus ornamented. DIAMOND (Heb. yah&lSm), a precious stone, the third in the second row on the breastplate of the High-priest (Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11), and mentioned by Ezekiel (xxviii. 13) among the precious stones of the king of Tyre. Some suppose yah&lom to be the " emerald." Respecting shdmirf which is translated " diamond " in Jer. xvii. 1, see under Auamant. DIANA 133 DIONYSIUS THE AREOPAGITE DIAN'A. This Latin word, properly deT noting a Roman divinity, is the representative of the Greek Artemis, the tutelary goddess of the Ephesians, who plays so important a part in the narrative of Acts xix. The Ephesian Diana, was, however, regarded as invested with very different attributes, and is rather to be identified with Astarte and other female divinities of the East. The coin below will give some notion of the image of the true Ephesian Diana, which was grotesque and archaic in character. The head wore a mural crown, each hand held a bar of metal, and the lower part ended in a rude block covered with figures of animals and mystic inscriptions. TMs idol was regarded as an object of peculiar sanctity, and was believed to have fallen down from heaven (Acts xix. 35). The cry of the mob (Acts xix. 28), " Great is Diana of the Ephesians !" and the strong expression in ver. 27, "whom all Asia and the world worshippeth," may be abundantly illustrated from a variety of sources. The term " great " was evidently a title of honour recogMsed as belonging to the Ephesian goddess. We find it in in scriptions. Greek imperial copper coin of Ephesus and Smyrna. DIB'LATH (accurately Diblah), a place named only in Ez. vi. 14, as if situated at one of the extremities of the land of Israel, is perhaps only another form of Riblah. DI'BON. 1. A town on the east side of Jor dan, in the rich pastoral country, which was taken possession of and rebuilt by the children of Gad (Num. xxxii. 3, 34). From this cir cumstance it possibly received the name of Dibon-Gad (Numb, xxxiii. 45, 46). Its first mention is in Num. xxi. 30, and from this it appears to have belonged originally to the Moabites. We find Dibon counted to Reuben in the lists of Joshua (xiii. 9, 17). In the time of Isaiah and Jeremiah, however, it was again in possession of Moab (Is. xv. 2 ; Jer. xlviii. 18, 22, comp. 24). In the same denunciations of Isaiah it appears, probably, under the name of Dimon. In modern times the name Dhiban has been dis covered as attached to extensive ruins on the Roman road, about three miles north of the Arnon (Wady Modjeb). — 2. One of the towns which were re-inhabited by the men of Judah after the return from captivity (Neh. xi. 25), identical with Dimonah. DI'BON-GAD. [Dibon.] DIDRACHMON. [Money ; Shekel.] DID'YMUS, that is, the Twin, a surname of the Apostle Thomas (John xi. 16, xx. 24, xxi. 2). [Thomas.] DIK'LAH (Gen. x. 27 ; 1 Chr. i. 21), a son of Joktan, whose settlements, in common with those of the other sons of Joktan, must he looked for in Arabia. The name in Hebrew sigmfies " a palm-tree," hence it is thought that Diklah is a part of Arabia con taining many pabn-trees. DI'MONAH, a city in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 22), perhaps the 6ame as Dibon in Neh. xi. 25. DI'NAH, the daughter of Jacob by Leah (Gen. xxx. 21). She accompanied her father from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and, having ventured among the inhabitants, was violated by Shechem the son of Hamor, the chieftain of the territory in which her father had settled (Gen. xxxiv.). Shechem proposed to make the usual reparation by paying a sum to the father and marrying her (Gen. xxxiv. 12). But in tMs case the suitor was an alien, and the crown of the offence con sisted in its having been committed by an alien against the favoured people of God ; he had "wrought folly in Israel" (xxxiv. 7). The proposals of Hamor, who acted as his deputy, were framed on the recogMtion of the hitherto complete separation of the two peoples ; he proposed the fusion of the two by the establishment of the rights of inter marriage and commerce. The sons of Jacob, bent upon revenge, availed themselves of the eagerness, which Shechem showed, to effect their purpose ; they demanded, as a condi tion of the proposed union, the circumcision of the Shechemites. They therefore assented ; and on the third day, when the pain and fever resulting from the operation were at the highest, Simeon and Levi, own brothers to Dinah, attacked them unexpectedly, slew all the males and plundered their city. DI'NAITES (Ezr. iv. 9), the name of some of the Cuthaean colonists who were placed in the cities of Samaria after the captivity of the ten tribes. DIN'HABAH (Gen. xxxvi. 32 ; I Chr. i. 43), the capital city, and probably the birth place, of Bela, son of Beor, king of Edom. DIONYS'IUS THE AREOPAGITE (Acta xvii. 34), an eminent Athenian, converted to Christianity by the preaching of St. Paul. He is said to have been first bishop of Athens. The writings which were once attributed to DIONYSUS 134 DIVINATION him are now confessed to be the production of some neo-Platonists of the 6th century. DIONY'SUS (2 Mace. xiv. 33 ; S Mace. ii. 29), also called Bacchus, the god of wine. His worship was greatly modified by the incorporation of Eastern elements, and assumed the twofold form of wild orgies and mystic rites To the Jew, Dionysus would necessarily appear as the embodiment of paganism in its most material shape, sanc tioning the most tumultuous passions and the worst excesses. DIOSCORIN'THIUS. [Months.] DIOT^REPHES, a Christian mentioned in 3 John 9, but of whom nothing is known. DISCIPLE. [Schools.] DISPERSION, THE JEWS OF THE, or Bimply The Dispersion, was the general title applied to those Jews who remained settled in foreign countries after the return from the Babylonian exile, and during the period of the second Temple. The Disper sion, as a distinct element influencing the entire character of tbe Jews, dates from the Babylonian exile. Outwardly and inwardly, by its effects both on the Gentiles and on the people of Israel, the Dispersion appears to have been tbe clearest providential prepara tion for the spread of Christianity. At the t beginning of the Christian era the Dispersion was divided into three great sections, the BabyloMan, the Syrian, the Egyptian. Pre cedence was yielded to the first. From Babylon the Jews spread throughout Persia, Media, and Parthia. The Greek conquests in Asia extended the limits of the Dispersion. Seleucus Nicator transplanted large bodies of Jewish colonists from Babylonia to the capitals of his western provinces. His policy was followed by Ms successor Antiochus the Great ; and the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes only served to push forward the Jewish emigration to the remoter districts of his empire. Large settlements of Jews were established in Cyprus, in the islands of the Aegaean, and on the western coast of Asia Minor. The Jews of the Syrian provinces gradually formed a closer connexion with their new homes, and together with the Greek language adopted in many respects Greek ideas. This Hellenizing tendency, however, found its most free development at Alexandria. The Jewish settlements esta blished there by Alexander and Ptolemy I. became the source of the African dispersion, which spread over the north coast of Africa, and perhaps inland to Abyssinia. At Cyrene and Berenice (Tripoli) the Jewish inhabitants formed a considerable portion of the popula tion. The Jewish settlements in Rome were consequent upon the occupation of Jerusalem by Pompey, b.c 63. The captives and emigrants whom he brought with him were located in the trans-Tiberine quarter. In the reign of Claudius the Jews became objects of suspicion from their immense numbers ; and the internal disputes led to their banishment from the city (Acts xviii. 2). This expulsion, if general, can only have been temporary, for in a few years the Jews at Rome were numerous (Acts xxviii. 17 ff.). The influence of the Dispersion on the rapid promulgation of Christianity can scarcely be overrated. The course of the apostolic preaching followed in a regular progress the line of Jewish settlements. The mixed assembly from which the first converts were gathered on the day of Pente cost represented each division of the Disper sion (Acts ii. 9-11; (1) Parthians .... Mesopotamia; (2) Judaea (i.e. Syria). . . . Pamphylia ; (3) Egypt . . . Greece ; (4) Romans . . . ), and these converts naturally prepared the way for the apostles in the interval which preceded the beginning of the separate apostolic missions. St. James and St. Peter wrote to the Jews of the Dispersion (Jam. i. 1 ; 1 Pet. i. 1). DIVINATION has been universal in all ages, and all nations alike civilized and savage. Numerous forms of divination are mentioned, such as divination by rods (Hos. iv. 12) ; divination by cups (Gen. xliv. 5) ; consultation of Teraphim (Zech. x. 2 ; Ez. xxi. 21 ; 1 Sam. xv. 23) [Teraphim] ; divination by the liver (Ez. xxi, 21) ; divi nation by dreams (Deut. xiii. 2, 3 ; Judg. vii. 13; Jer. xxiii. 32), &c. Moses forbade every species of divination because a prying into the future clouds the mind with super stition, and because it would have been an incentive to idolatry : indeed the frequent denunciations of the sin in the prophets tend to prove that these forbidden arts presented peculiar temptations to apostate Israel. But God supplied his people with substitutes foi divination, which would have rendered it superfluous, and left them in no doubt as to his will in circumstances of danger, had they continued faithful. It was only when they were unfaithful that the revelation was withdrawn (1 Sam. xxviii. 6 ; 2 Sam. ii. 1 ; v. 23, &c). Superstition not unfrequently goes hand in hand with scepticism, and hence, amid the general infidelity prevalent through the Roman empire at our Lord's coming, imposture was rampant ; as a glance at the pages of Tacitus will suffice to prove. Hence the lucrative trades of such men as Simon Magus (Acts viii. 9), Bar-jesus (Acts viii. 6, 8), the slave with the spirit of Python (Acts xvi. 16), the vagabond Jews, exorcists DIVORCE 135 DOTHAN (Luke xi. 19 ; Acts xix. 13), and others (2 Tim. iii. 13; Rev. xix. 20, &c), as well as the notorious dealers in magical books at Ephesus (Acts xix. 19). DIVORCE. The law regulating this sub ject is found Deut. xxiv. 1-4, and the cases in which .the right of a husband to divorce his wife was lost, are Btated ib. xxii. 19, 29. The ground of divorce is a point on which the Jewish doctors of the period of the N. T. widely differed ; the school of Shammai seeming to limit it to a moral delinquency in the woman, whilst that of Hillel extended it to trifling causes, e. g., if the wife burnt the . food she was cooking for her husband. The Pharisees wished perhaps to embroil our Saviour with these rival schools by their question (Matt. xix. 3) ; by His answer to wMch, as well as by His previous maxim (v. 31), he declares that but for their hardened state of heart, such questions would have no place. Yet from the distinction made, " but I say unto you," v. 31, 32, it seems to follow, that he regarded all the lesser causes than " fornication " as standing on too weak ground, and declined the question of how to interpret the words of Moses. DI'ZAHAB, a place in the Arabian Desert, mentioned Deut. i, 1, is identified with Dahab, a cape on the W. shore of the Gulf of Akabah. DOD'AT, an Ahohite who commanded the course of the 2nd month (1 Chr. xxvii. 4). It is probable that he is the same as Dodo, 2. DO'DANIM, Gen. x. 4 ; 1 CM. i. 7 (in some copies and in marg. of A. V. 1 Chr. i. 7, Rodanim), a family or race descended from Javan, the son of Japhet (Gen. x. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 7). The weight of authority is in favour of the former name. DodaMm is regarded as identical with the Dardani, who were found in historical times in Illyricum and Troy. DO'DO. 1. A man of Bethlehem, father of Elhanan, who was one of David's thirty captains (2 Sam. xxiii. 24 ; I Chr. xi. 26). He is a different person from — 2. Dodo the Ahohite, father of Eleazar, the 2nd of the three mighty men who were over the thirty (2 Sam. xxiii. 9; 1 Chr. xi. 12). He, or Mb son — in which case we must suppose the words "Eleazar son of" to have escaped from the text — probably had the command of the second monthly course (1 Chr. xxvii. 4). In the latter passage the name is Dodai. DO'EG, an Idumaean, chief of Saul's herd- men. He was at Nob when Ahimelech gave David the sword of Goliath, and not only gave information to Saul, but when others declined the office, himself executed the king's order to destroy the prieBts of Nob, with their families, to the number of 85 persons, together with all their property (1 Sam. xxi. 7, xxii. 9, 18, 22 ; Ps. Iii.). DOG, an animal frequently mentioned in Scripture. It was used by the Hebrews as a watch for their houses (Is. lvi. 10), and fci guarding their flocks (Job xxx. 1). Then also as now, troops of hungry and semi-wild dogs used to wander about the fields and streets of the cities, devouring dead bodies and other offal (1 K. xiv. 11, xvi. 4, xxi. 19, 23, xxii. 88, 2 K. ix. 10, 36 ; Jer. xv. 3, Ps. lix. 6, 14), and thuB became such objects of dislike that fierce and cruel enemies are poetically styled dogs in Ps. xxii. 16, 20. Moreover the dog being an unclean animal (Is. lxvi. 3), the terms, dog, dead dog, dog's head were used as terms of reproach, or of humility in speaking of one's self (1 Sam. xxiv. 14 ; 2 Sam. iii. 8, ix. 8, xvi. 9 ; 2 K. viii. 13). Stanley mentions that he saw on the very site of Jezreel the descendants of the dogs that devoured Jezebel, prowling on the mounds without the walls for offal and carrion tMown out to them to consume. DOORS. [Gates.] DOPH'KAH, a place mentioned Num. xxxiii. 12, as a station in the Desert where the Israelites encamped ; see Wilderness. DOR (Josh. xvii. 11; 1 K. iv. 11 ; 1 Mace. xv. 11), an ancient royal city of the CanaaMtes (Josh. xii. 23), whose ruler was an ally of Jabin king of Hazor against Joshua (Josh. xi. 1, 2). It was probably the most southern settlement . of the Phoenicians on tbe coast of Syria. It appears to have been witMn the territory of the tribe of Asher, though allotted to Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 11 ; Judg. i. 27). The original inhabitants were never expelled ; but during the prosperous reigns of David and Solomon they were made tributary (Judg. i. 27, 28), and the latter monarch stationed at Dor one of his twelvo purveyors (1 K. iv. 11). Jerome places it on the coast, " in the ninth mile from Caesarea, on the way to Ptolemais." Just at the point indicated is the small village of Tantura, probably an Arab corruption of Dora, con sisting of about thirty houses, wholly con structed of ancient materials. DO'RA. 1 Mace. xv. 11, 13, 25. [Don.] DOR'CAS. [Tabitha.] DO 'THAIM. [Dothan.] DO 'THAN, a place first mentioned (Gen. xxxvii. 17) in connexion with the history of Joseph, and apparently as in the neighbour hood of Shechem. It next appears as the residence of Elisha (2 K. vi. 13). Later still we encounter it under the name of Dothaim, as a landmark in the account of DOVE 136 DRESS Holofernes's campaign against Bethulia (Jud. Iv, 6, vii. 3, 18, viii. 3). It was known to Eusebius, who places it 12 miles to the N. of Sebaste (Samaria) ; and here it has been dis covered in our own times, still bearing its ancient name ummpaired. DOVE (Heb. Ydndh). The first mention of this bird occurs in Gen. viii. The dove's rapidity of flight is alluded to in Ps. Iv. 6 ; the beauty of its plumage in Ps. Ixviii. 13 ; its dwelling in the rocks and valleys in Jer. xlviii. 28, and Ez. vii. 16 ; its mournful voice in Is. xxxviii. 14, lix. 11 ; Nah. ii. 7 ; its harmlessness in Matt. x. 16 ; its sim plicity in Hos. vii. 11, and its amativeness in Cant. i. 15, ii. 14. Doves are kept in a domesticated state in many parts of the East. In Persia pigeon-houses are erected at a distance from the dwellings, for the purpose of collecting the dung as manure. There is probably an allusion to such a custom in Is. Ix. 8. DOVE'S DUNG. Various explanations have been given of the passage in 2 K. vi. 25, which describes the famine of Samaria to have been so excessive, that " an ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver." Bochart has laboured to show that it denotes a species of cicer, " chick-pea," which he says the Arabs call usndn, and sometimes improperly " dove's or sparrow's dung." It can scarcely be believed that even in the worst horrors of a siege a substance so vile as is implied by the literal rendering should have been used for food. DOWRY. [Marriage.] DRACHM (2 Mace. iv. 19, x. 20, xii. 43 ; Luke xv. 8, 9), a Greek silver coin, varying in weight on account of the use of different talents. In Luke (A. V. "piece of silver") denarii seem to be intended. [Money; Silver, piece op.] DRAGON. The translators of the A. V., apparently following the Vulgate, have ren dered by the same word " dragon " the two Hebrew words Tan and Tannin, which appear to be quite distinct in meaning. — I. The former is used, always in the plural, in Job xxx. 29 ; Is. xxxiv. 13, xliii. 20 ; in Is. xiii. 22 ; in Jer. x. 22, xlix. 33 ; in Ps. xliv. 19 ; and in Jer. ix. 11, xiv. 6, li. 37 ; Mic. i. 8. It is always applied to some creatures inhabiting the desert, and we Bhould conclude from this that it refers rather to some wild beast than to a serpent. The Syriac renders it by a word which, according to Pococke, means a " jackal." — II. The word tannin seems to refer to any great monster, whethT of the land or the sea, being indeed more usually applied to some kind of serpent or reptile, but not ex clusively restricted to that sense. When we examine special passages we find the word used in Gen. i. 21, of the great sea-monsters, the representatives of the inhabitants of the deep. On the other hand, in Ex. vii. 9, 10, 12, Deut. xxxii. 33, Ps. xci. 13, it refers to land-serpents of a powerful and deadly kind. In the N. T. it is only found in the Apoca lypse (Rev. xii. 3, 4, 7, 9, 16, 17, &c), as applied metaphorically to " the old serpent, called the Devil, and Satan," the description of the " dragon " being dictated by the sym bolical meaning of the Miage rather than by any reference to any actually existing crea ture. The reason of this scriptural symbol is to be sought not oMy in the union of gigantic power with craft and malignity, of which the serpent is the natural emblem, but in the record of the serpent's agency in the temptation (Gen. iii.). DRAM. [Daric] DREAMS. The Scripture declares, that the influence of the Spirit of God upon the soul extends to its sleepmg as well as its waking thoughts. But, in accordance with the principle enunciated by St. Paul in 1 Cor. xiv. 15, dreams, in which the understanding is asleep, are placed below the visions of prophecy, in which the understanding plays its part. It is true that the book of Job, standing as it does on the basis of " natura religion," dwells on dreams and "visions in deep sleep " as the chosen method of God's revelation of Himself to man (see Job iv. 13, vii. 14, xxxiii. 15). But in Num. xii. 6 ; Deut. xiii. 1, 3, 5 ; Jer. xxvii. 9 ; Joel ii. 28, &c, dreamers of dreams, whether true or false, are placed below " prophets," and even below " diviners ;" and similarly in the climax of 1 Sam. xxviii. 6, we read that " Jehovah answered Saul not, neither by dreams, nor by Urim [by symbol], nor by prophets." Under the Christian dispensa tion, while we read frequently of trances and visions, dreams are never referred to as vehicles of divine revelation. In exact ac cordance with this principle are the actual records of the dreams sent by God. The greater number of such dreams were granted, for prediction or for warning, to those who were aliens to the Jewish covenant. And, where dreams are recorded as means of God's revelation to Ms chosen servants, they are almost always referred to the periods of their earliest and most imperfect knowledge of Him. DRESS. This subject includes the follow ing particulars:— 1. Materials. 2. Colour and decoration. 3. Name, form, and mode of wearing the various articles. 4. Special DRESS 137 DRESS usages relating thereto. — 1. The earliest and simplest robe was made out of the leaves of a tree, portions of which were sewn together, so as to form an apron (Gen. iii. 7). After the fall, the skins of animals supplied a more durable material (Gen. iii. 21), which was adapted to a rude state of society, and is stated to have been used by various ancient nations. Skins were not wholly disused at later periods : the "mantle " worn by Elijah appears to have been the sMn of a sheep or some other animal with the wool left on. It was characteristic of a prophet's office from its mean appearance (Zech. xiii. 4 ; cf. Matt. vii. 15). Pelisses of sheepskin still form an ordinary article of dress in the East. The art of weaving hair was known to the Hebrews at an early period (Ex. xxvi. 7, xxxv. 6) ; the sackcloth used by mourners was of this material. John the Baptist's robe was of camel's hair (Matt. iii. 4). Wool, we may presume, was introduced at a very early period, the flocks of the pastoral families being kept partly for their wool (Gen. xxxviii. 12) : it was at all times largely employed, particularly for the outer garments (Lev. xiii. 47; Deut. xxii. 11; &c). It is probable that the acquaintance of the Hebrews with linen, and perhaps cotton, dateB from the period of the captivity in Egypt, when they were instructed in the manufacture (I Chr. iv. 21). After their return to Palestine we have frequent notices of linen. Silk was not introdueed until a very late period (Rev. xviii. 12). The use of mixed material, such as wool and flax, was forbidden (Lev. xix. 19 ; Deut. xxii. 11). — 2. Colour and decoration. The pre vailing colour of the Hebrew dress was the natural white of the materials employed, which might be brought to a high Btate of brilliancy by the art of the fuller (Mark ix. 3). It is uncertain when the art of dyeing became known to the Hebrews ; the dress worn by Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 3, 23) is variously taken to be either a " coat of divers colours," or a tunic furnished with sleeves and reaching down to the ankles. The latter is probably the correct sense. The notice of scarlet thread (Gen. xxxviii. 28) implies some acquaintance with dyemg. The Egyp tians had carried the art of weaving and embroidery to a high state of perfection, and from them the Hebrews learned various methods of producing decorated stuffs. The elements of ornamentation were — (1) weav ing with threads previously dyed (Ex. xxxv. 25) ; (2) tbe introduction of gold thread or wire (Ex. xxvii. 6 ff.) ; (3) the addition of figures. These devices may have been either woven into the stuff, or cut out of other stuff and afterwards attached by needlework : in the former case the pattern would appear only on one side, in the latter the pattern might be varied. Robes decoruted with gold (Ps. xiv. 13), and at a later period with silver thread (cf. Acts xii. 21), were worn by royal personages ; other kinds of em broidered robes were worn by the wealthy both of Tyre (Ez. xvi. 13) and Palestine (Judg. v. 30; Ps. xiv. 14). The art does not appear to have been maintained among the Hebrews : the Babylonians and other eastern nations (Josh. vii. 21 ; Ez. xxvii. 24), as well as the Egyptians (Ez. xxvii. 7), excelled in it. Nor does the art of dyeing appear to have been followed up in Pales tine : dyed robes were imported from foreign countries (Zeph. i. 8), particularly from Phoenicia, and were not much used on account of their expensiveness : purple (Prov. xxxi. 22; Luke xvi. 19) and scarlet (2 Sam. i. 24) were occasionally worn by the wealthy. The surrounding nations were more lavish in their use of them : the wealthy Tyrians (Ez. xxvii. 7), the Midian- itish kings (Judg. viii. 26), the Assyrian nobles (Ez. xxiii. 6), and Persian officers (Esth. viii. 15), are all represented in purple. — 3. Tlie names, forms, and mode of wearing the robes. It is difficult to give a satisfactory account of the various articles of dress men tioned in the Bible. The general character istics of Oriental dress have indeed preserved a remarkable uniformity in all ages : the modern Arab dresses much as the ancient Hebrew did ; there are the same flowing robes, the same distinction between the outer and inner garments, the former heavy and warm, the latter light, adapted to the rapid and excessive changes of temperature in those countries ; and there is the same dis tinction between the costume of the rich and the poor, consisting in the multiplication of robes of a finer texture and more ample di mensions. Hence the numerous illustrations of ancient costume, which "may be drawn from the usages of modern Orientals, supply ing in great measure the want of contempo raneous representations. The costume of the men and women was very similar ; there was sufficient difference, however, to mark the sex, and it was strictly forbidden to a womau to wear the appendageB such as the staff, signet-ring, and other ornaments, or according to Josephus, the weapons of a man ; as well as to a man to wear the outer robe of a woman (Deut. xxii. 5). We shall first describe the robes which were common to the two sexes, and then those which were peculiar to women. (1.) The c^tMneth w;ia the most essential article of dress. It was DRESS 133 DRESS a closely-fitting garment, resembling in form and use our shirt, though unfortunately translated coat in the A. V. The material of which it was made waB either wool, cotton, or linen. The primitive cHhoneth was with out sleeves and reached oMy to the knee. Another kind reached to the wrists and ankles. It was in either case kept close to the body by a girdle, and the fold formed by the overlapping of the robe served as an inner pocket. A person wearing the cStho- nt.th alone was described as naked, A. V. The annexed woodcut (fig. 1) represents the fie \.— An Egyptian. (Lane's Modern Egyptians.) simplest style of Oriental dress, a long loose shirt or cethdneth without a girdle, reaching nearly to the ankle. (2.) The sddtn appears to have been a wrapper of fine linen, which might be used in various ways, but especially as a night-shirt (Mark xiv. 51). (3.) The mffi, was an upper or second tunic, the dif ference being that it was longer than the first. Ab an article of ordinary dress it was worn by kings (1 Sam. xxiv. 4), prophets (1 Sam. xxviii. 14), nobles (Job i. 20), and youths (1 Sam. ii. 19). It may, however, be doubted whether the term is used in its specific sense in these passages, and not rather for any robe that chanced to be worn over the cUhdneth. Where two tumcs are mentioned (Luke iii. 11) as being worn at the same time, the second would be a mStl; travellers generally wore two, but the prac tice was forbidden to the disciples (Matt. x. 10; Luke ix. 3). The dress of the middle and upper classes in modern Egypt (fig. 2) Fig. 2. — Ad Egyptian of tho upper classes. (Lane.) illustrates the customs of the Hebrews. (4.) The ordinary outer garment consisted of a quadrangular piece of woollen cloth, probably resemblmg in shape a Scotch plaid. The size and texture would vary with the means of the wearer. The Hebrew terms referring to it are — simlah, sometimes put for clothes generally (Gen. xxxv. 2, xxxvii. 34 ; Ex. iii. 22, xxii. 9 ; Deut. x. 18 ; Is. iii. 7, iv. 1) ; beged, which is more usual in speaking of robes of a handsome and substantial cha racter (Gen. xxvii. 15, xii. 42 ; Ex. xxviii. 2; IK. xxii. 10 ; 2 Chr. xviii. 9 ; Is. lxiii. 1) ; cSstith, appropriate to passages where covering or protection is the prominent idea (Ex. xxii. 26 ; Job xxvi. 6, xxxi. 19) ; and lastly IZbtish, usual in poetry, but specially applied to a warrior's cloak (2 Sam. xx. 8), priests' vestments (2 K. x. 22), and royal apparel (Esth. vi. 11, viii. 15). Another term, mad, is specifically applied to a long cloak (Judg. iii. 16 ; 2 Sam. xx. 8), and to the priest's coat (Lev. vi. 10). The beged might be worn in various ways, either wrapped round the body, or worn over the shoulders, like a shawl, with the ends or "skirts" hanging down in front; or' it might be thrown over the head, so as to con ceal the face (2 Sam. xv. 30 ; Esth. vi. 12). The ends were skirted with a fringe and bound with a dark purple riband (Num. xv. DRESS 139 DRESS 38) : it was confined at the waist by a girdle, and the fold, formed by the overlapping of the robe, served as a pocket. — The dress of the women differed from that of the men in regard to the outer garment, the cUlioneth being worn equally by both sexes (Cant. v. 8). The names of their distinctive robes were as follow : — (1) mitpachath [veil, wimple, A. V.), a kind of shawl (Ruth iii. 15 ; Is. iii. 22) ; (2) ma'ataphah (mantle, A. V.), another kind of shawl (Is. iii. 22) ; (3) tsaiph (veil, A. V.), probably a light summer dress of handsome appearance and of ample dimensions ; (4) rddid (veil, A. V.), a similar robe (Is. iii. 23 ; Cant. v. 7) ; (5) pethtgi (stomacher, A. V.), a term of doubtful origin, but probably significant of a gay holiday dress (Is. iii. 24) j (6) gilyonim (Is. iii. 23), also a doubtful word, probably means, as in the A. V., glasses. The gar ments of females were terminated by an ample border of fringe (skirts, A. V.), which concealed the feet (Is. xlvii. 2 ; Jer. xiii. 22). Figs. 3 and 4 illustrate some of the peculiarities of female dress ; the former is an Egyptian woman in her walking dress ; the latter represents a dress, probably of great antiquity, still worn by the peasants in the south of Egypt. The references to Greek or Roman dress are few : the xAau.vs (2 Mace. xii. 35 ; Matt, xxvii. 28) was either the paludamentum, the military scarf of the Roman soldiery, or the Greek chlamys itself, which was introduced under the Emperors : fix. ft. — An Egyptian Woman. &ano.) Fig. 4.— A Woman of the southern province of Upper Egypt. (Lane.) it was especially worn by officers. The travelling cloak referred to by St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 13) is generally identified with the Roman paenula, of which it may be a corruption. It is, however, otherwise ex plained as a travelling-case for carrying clothes or books.— 4. Special usages relating to dress. The length of the dress rendered it inconvenient for active exercise; hence the outer garments were either left in the house by a person working close by (Matt. xxiv. 18) or were thrown oft* when the occa sion arose (Mark x. 50 ; John xiii. 4 ; Acts vii. 58), or, if this was not possible, as in the case of a person travelling, they were girded up (1 It. xviii. 46 ; 2 K. iv. 29, ix. 1 ; 1 Pet. i. 13) ; on entering a house the upper garment was probably laid aside and re sumed on going out (Acts xii. 8). In a sitting posture, the garments concealed the feet : this was held to be an act of rever ence (Is. vi. 2). The number of suits possessed by the Hebrews was considerable : a single suit consisted of an under and upper garment. The presentation of a robe in many instances amounted to installation or investiture (Gen. xii. 42 j Esth. viii. 15; Is. xxii. 21) ; on the other hand, taking it away amounted to dismissal from office (2 Mace. iv. 38). The production of the best robe was a mark of special honour in a DRINK 140 DURA household (Luke xv. 22). The number of robes thus received or kept in store for presents was very large, and formed one of the main elements of wealth in the East (Job xxii. 16 ; Matt. vi. 19 ; James v. 2), so that to have clothing = to be wealthy and power ful (Is. iii. 6, 7). On grand occasions the entertainer offered becoming robes to his guests. The business of making clothes devolved upon women in a family (Prov. xxxi. 22 ; Acts ix. 39) ; little art was re quired in what we may term the tailoring department ; the garments came forth for tbe most part ready made from the loom, so that the weaver supplanted the tailor. DRINK, STRONG. The Hebrew term shecar, in its etymological sense, applies to any beverage that had intoxicating qualities. "We may infer from Cant. viii. 2 that the Hebrews were in the habit of expressing the juice of other fruits besides the grape for the purpose of making wine ; the pomegranate, which is there noticed, was probably one out of many fruits so used. With regard to the application of the term in later times we have the explicit statement of Jerome, as well as other sources of information, from which we may state that the following beverages were known to the Jews : — 1. Beer, which was largely consumed in Egypt under the name of zythus, and was thence introduced into Palestine. It was made of barley ; cer tain herbs, such as lupin and skirrett, were used as substitutes for hops. 2. Cider, which is noticed in the Mishna as apple-wine. 3. Honey-wine, of wbich there were two sorts, one, consisting of a mixture of wine, honey, and pepper : the other a decoction of the juice of the grape, termed dSbash (honey) by the Hebrews, and dibs by the modern Syrians. 4. Date-wine, which was also manufactured in Egypt. It was made by mashing the fruit in water in certain proportions. 5. Various ;>ther fruits and vegetables are enumerated by Pliny as supplying materials for factitious or home-made wine, such as figs, millet, the ca- rob fruit, &c. It is not improbable that the Hebrews applied raisins to this purpose in the simple manner followed by the Arabians, viz., by putting them in jars of water and burying them in the ground until fermenta tion takes place. DROMEDARY. [Camel.] DRUSIL'LA, daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 1, 19ff.) andCypros. She was at first betrothed to Antiochus Epiphanes, prince of Commagene, but was married to Azizus, king of Einesa. Soon after, Felix, procurator of Judaea, brought about her seduction by means of the Cyprian sorcerer Simon, and took her us his wife. In Acts xxiv. 24, we find her in company with Felix at Caesarea. Fehx had by Drusilla a son named Agrippa, who, together with his mother, perished in the eruption of Vesuvius under Titus. DULCIMER (Heb. Sumphoniah), a mu sical instrument, mentioned in Dan. iii. 5, 15, probably the bagpipe. The same instrument is still in use amongst peasants in the N.W. of Asia and in Southern Europe, where it is known by the similar name Sampogna or Zampogna. DU'MAH. 1. A son of Ishmael, moat probably the founder of the Ishmaelite tribe of Arabia, and thence the name of the prin cipal place, or district, inhabited by that tribe (Gen. xxv. 14; 1 Chr. i. SO ; Is. xxi. 11). — 2. A city in the mountainous district of Judah, near Hebron (Josh. xv. 52) repre sented by the ruins of a village called ed- Daumeh, 6 miles south-west of Hebron. DUNG. The uses of dung were twofold, as manure, and as fuel. The manure con sisted either of straw steeped in liquid ma nure (Is. xxv. 10), or the sweepings (Is. v. 25) of the streets and roads, which were care fully removed from about the houses and col lected in heaps outside the walls of the towns at fixed spots (hence the dung-gate at Jeru salem, Neh. ii. 13), and thence removed in due course to the fields. The mode of ap plying manure to trees was by digging holes about their roots and inserting it (Luke xiii. 8), as still practised in Southern Italy. In the case of sacrifices the dung was burnt out side the camp (Ex. xxix. 14 ; Lev. iv. 11, viii. 17 ; Num. xix. 5) : hence the extreme opprobrium of the threat in Mal. ii. 3. Par ticular directions were laid down in the law to enforce cleanliness with regard to human ordure (Deut. xxiii. 12 ff.) : it was the gross est insult to turn a man's house into a recep tacle for it (2 K. x. 27 ; Ezr. vi. 1 1 ; Dan. ii. 5, iii. 29, "dunghill" A. V.) ; public esta blishments of that nature are still found in the large towns of the East. — The difficulty of procuring fuel in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt has made dung in all ages valuable as a sub stitute : it was probably used for heating ovens and for baking cakes (Ez. iv. 12, 15), the equable heat, which it produced, adapt ing it peculiarly for the latter operation. Cow's and camel's dung is still used for a similar purpose by the Bedouins. DUNGEON. [Prison.] DU'RA, the plain where Nebucnadnezzar set up the golden image (Dan. iii. 1) has been BometiraeB identified with a tract a little be low Tekrit, on the left bank of the Tigris, where the name Dur is still found. M. Op- pert places the yXoin (or, as he calls it, tho " valley ") of Dura to the south-east of Baby- DUST 141 EARTH Ion in the vicinity s>l the mound of Dowair or Duair. DUST. [Mourning.] Ij^AGLE (Heb, nesher). The Hebrew word, J which occurs frequently in the O. T. may denote a particular species of the Fal- conidae, as in Lev. xi. 13; Deut. xiv. 12, where the nesher is distinguished from the ossifrage, osprey, and other raptatorial birds ; but the term is used also to express the griffon vulture (Vultur fulvus) in two or three passages. At least four distinct kinds of eagles have been observed in Palestine, viz. the golden eagle (Aquila Chrysaetos), the spotted eagle (A. naevia), the commonest species in the rocky districts, the imperial eagle (Aquila Heliaca), and the very common Circaetos gallicus, which preys on the nu merous reptilia of Palestine. The Heb. nesher may stand for any of these different species, though perhaps more particular reference to the golden and imperial eagles and the griffon vulture may be intended. The passage in Mic. i. 16, "Enlarge thy baldness as the eagle," may refer to the griffon vulture ( Vultur fulvus) , in which case the simile is peculiarly appropriate, for the whole head and neck of this bird are destitute of true feathers. The "eagles" of Matt. xxiv. 28, Luke xvii. 37, may include the Vultur fulvus and Neophro?i percnopterus ; though, as eagles frequently prey upon dead bodies, there is no Aquila Beliacu. necessity to restrict the Greek word to the Vulturidae. The figure of an eagle is now and has been long a favourite military ensign. The Persians so employed it ; a fact which illustrates the passage in Is. xlvi. 11. The same bird was similarly employed by the As syrians and the Romans. EARNEST (2 Cor. i. 22, v. 5 ; Eph. i. 14). The equivalent in the original is arrhabon (appaficov), a Graecised form of the Heb. 'erd- bdn, which was introduced by the Phoenicians into Greece, and also into Italy, where it re appears under the forms of arrhabo and arrha. The Hebrew word was used gene rally for pledge (Gen. xxxviii; 17), and in its cognate forms for surety (Prov. xvii. 18) and hostage (2 K. xiv. 14). The Greek derivative, however, acquired a more technical sense as signifying the deposit paid by the pnrchaser on entering into an agreement for the pur chase of anything. EARRINGS. The material of which ear rings were made was generally gold (Ex. xxxii. 2 ) , and their form circular. They were worn by women and by youth of both sexes (Ex. /. c). Egyptian EarringB. From Wilkinson. It has been inferred from the passage quoted, and from Judg. viii. 24, that they were not worn by men : these passages are, however, by no means conclusive. The earring appears to have been regarded with superstitious reve rence as an amulet. On this account they were surrendered along with the idols by Jacob's household (Gen. xxxv. 4). Chardin describes earrings, with talismanic figures and characters on them, as still existing in the East. Jewels were sometimes attached to the rings. The size of the earrings etill worn in eastern countries far exceeds what is usual among ourselves ; hence they formed a handsome present (Job xiii. 11), or offering to the service of God (Num. xxxi. 50). EARTH. The term is used in two widely different senses : (1 ) for the material of which the earth's surface is composed; (2) as the name of the planet on which man EARTHENWARE 142 EBAL dwells. The Hebrew language discriminates between theBe two by the use of separate termB, Adamah for the former, Erets for the latter. — I. Adamah is the earth in the sense of soil or ground, particularly as being sus ceptible of cultivation. The earth supplied the elementary substance of which man's body was formed, and the terms adam and adamah are brought into juxtaposition, implying an etymological connexion (Gen. ii. 7). — II. Erets is applied in a more or less extended sense : — 1. to the whole world (Gen. i. 1) ; 2. to land as opposed to sea (Gen. i. 10) ; 3. to a country (Gen. xxi. 32) ; 4. to a plot of ground (Gen. xxiii. 15) ; and 5. to the ground on which a man stands (Gen. xxxiii. 3). EARTHENWARE. [Pottery.] EARTHQUAKE. Earthquakes, more or less violent, are of frequent occurrence in Palestine, as might be expected from the numerous traces of volcanic agency visible in the features of that country. The recorded instances, however, are but few ; the most remarkable occurred in the reign of Uzziah (Am. i. 1 ; Zech. xiv. 5), which Josephus connected with the sacrilege and consequent punishment of that monarch (2 Chr. xxvi. 16 ff.). From Zech. xiv. 4 we are led to infer that a great convulsion took place at this time in the Mount of Olives, the moun tain being split so as to leave a valley be tween its Bummits. Josephus records some thing of the sort, but his account is by no means clear. We cannot but think that 'the two accounts have the same foundation, and that the Moant of Olives was really affected by the earthquake. An earthquake occurred at the time of our Saviour's crucifixion (Matt. xxvii. 51-54), which may be deemed mira culous rather from the conjunction of cir cumstances than from the nature of the phenomenon itself. Earthquakes are not unfrequently accompanied by fissures of the earth's surface ; instances of this are recorded in connexion with the destruction of Korah and his company (Num. xvi. 32), and at the time of our Lord's death (Matt. xxxvii. 51); the former may be paralleled by a similar occurrence at Oppido in Calabria a.d. 1783, where the earth opened to the ex tent of 500, and a depth of more than 200 feet. EAST. The Hebrew terms, descriptive of the east, differ in idea, and, to a certain ex tent, in application ; (1) kedem properly means that which is before or in front of a person, and was applied to the east from the custom of turning in that direction when de scribing the points of the compass, before, behind, the right and the left, representing respectively E„ W.( S., and N. (Job xxiii. 8, 9) ; (2) mizrach means the place of *>»*, sun's rising. Bearing in mind this etymo logical distinction, it is natural that kedem should be used when the four quarters of the world are described (as in Gen. xiii. 14, xxviii. 14 ; Job xxiii. 8, 9 ; Ez. xlvii. 18 ff.), and mizrach when the east is only distin-* guished from the west (Josh. xi. 3 ; Ps. 1. 1, cm. 12, cxiii. 3 ; Zech. viii. 7), or from some other one quarter (Dan. viii. 9, xi. 44 ; Am. viii. 12); exceptions to this usage occur in Ps. cvii. 3, and Is. xliii. 5 ; each, however, admitting of explanation. Again, kedem is used in a strictly geographical sense to de scribe a spot or country immediately before another in an easterly direction ; hence it occurs in such passages as Gen. ii. 8, iii. 24, xi. 2, xiii. 11, xxv. 6 ; and hence the sub sequent application of the term, as a proper name (Gen. xxv. 6, eastward, unto the land of Kedsm), to the lands lying immediately eastward of Palestine, viz. Arabia, Mesopo tamia and Babylonia; on the other hand mizrach is used of the far east with a less definite signification (Is. xii. 2, 25, xliii. 5, xlvi. 11). EASTER. The occurrence of this word in the A. V. of Acts xii. 4, is chiefly noticeable as an example of the want of consistency in the translators. In the earlier English ver sions Easter had been frequently used as the translation of pascha (irdo-xa). At the last revision Passover was substituted in all pas sages but this. [Passover.] E'BAL. 1. One of the sons of Shobal the son of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 23 ; 1 Chr. i. 40). — . 2. Obal the son of Joktan (1 Chr. 1. 22 ; comp. Gen. x. 28). E'BAL, MOUNT, a mount in the promised land, on which, according to the command of Moses, the Israelites were, after their en trance on the promised land, to "put" the curse which should fall upon them if they disobeyed the commandments of Jehovah. The blessing consequent on obedience was to be similarly localised on Mount Gerizim (Deut. xi. 26-29). Ebal and Gerizim are the mounts which form the sides of the fertile valley in which lies Nablus, the ancient She chem — Ebal on the north and Gerizim on the south. One of the most serious varia tions between the Hebrew text of the Penta teuch and the Samaritan text, is in reference to Ebal and Gerizim. In Deut. xxvii. 4, the Samaritan has Gerizim, while the Hebrew (as in A. V.) has Ebal, as the mount on which the altar to Jehovah, and the inscription of the law were to be erected. Upon this basis they ground the sanctity of Gerizim and the authenticity of the temple and holy place, which did exist and stid exist there. The EBED 143 ECCLESIASTES modern name of Ebal is Sitti Salamiyah, from a Mohammedan female saint, whose tomb is standing on the eastern part of the ridge, a little before the highest point is reached. E'BED (many MSS. have Eber), father of Gaal, who with his brethren assisted the men of Shechem in their revolt against Abimelech (Judg. ix. 26, 28, 30, 31, 35). E'BED-MEL'ECH, an Aethiopian eunuch in the service of king Zedekiah, through whose interference Jeremiah was released from prison(Jer. xxxviii. 7 ff., xxxix. 15 ff.). His name seems to be an official title—King's slave, i. e. minister. EB'EN-E'ZER (" the stone of help "), a stone set up by Samuel after a signal defeat of the Philistines, as a memorial of the " help" received on the occasion from Jehovah (1 Sam. vii. 12). Its position is carefully de fined as between Mizpeh and Shen. E'BER, son of Salah, and great-grandson of Shem(Gen. x. 24 ; 1 Chr. i. 19). For con fusion between Eber and Heber see Heber. EBI'ASAPH, a Kohathite Levite of the family of Korah, one of the forefathers of the prophet Samuel and of Heman the singer (1 Chr. vi. 23, 37). The same man is pro bably intended in ix. 19. The name appears also to be identical with Abiasaph, and in one passage (1 Chr. xxvi. 1) to be abbrevi ated to Asaph, Diospyros ebenum. EBONY (Heb. hobmm) occurs only in Ez. xxvii. 15, as one of the valuable commodities imported into Tyre by the men of Dedan. The best kind of ebony is yielded by the Diospyros ebenum, a tree which grows in Ceylon and Southern India. There is every reason for believing that the ebony afforded by the Diospyros ebenum was imported from India or Ceylon by Phoenician traders. ECBAT'ANA (Heb. AchmWid). It is doubtful whether the name of this place is really contained in the Hebrew Scriptures. Many of the best commentators understand the expression, in Ezr. vi. 2, differently, and translate it " in a coffer." In the apocryphal books Ecbatana is frequently mentioned (Tob. iii. 7, xiv. 12, 14; Jud. i. 1, 2 ; 2 Mace. ix. 3, &c). Two cities of the name of Ecbatana seem to have existed in ancient times, one the capital of Northern Media, the Media Atropat^ne' of Strabo ; the other the metro polis of the larger and more important pro vince known as Media Magna. The site of the former appears to be marked by the very curious ruinB at Takht-i-Suleiman (lat. 36° 28', long. 47° 9'); while that of the latter is occupied by Hamadan, which is one of the most important cities of modern Persia. There is generally some difficulty in determining, when Ecbatana is mentioned, whether the northern or the southern metropolis is in tended. Few writers are aware of the exist ence of the two cities, and they lie sufficiently near to one another for geographical notices in most cases to suit either site. The north ern city was the " seven-walled town " de scribed by Herodotus, and declared hy him to have been the capital of Cyrus (Herod, i. 98, 99, 153) ; and it was thus most probably there that the roll was found which proved to Darius that Cyrus had really made a decree allowing the Jews to rebuild their temple. The peculiar feature of the site of Takht-i- Suleiman is a conical hill rising to the height of about 1 50 feet above the plain, and covered both on its top and sides with massive ruinB of the most antique and primitive character. In the 2nd book of Maccabees (ix. 3, &c.) the Ecbatana mentioned is undoubtedly the south ern city, now represented both in name and site by Hamadan. This place, situated on the northern flank of the great mountain called formerly Orontes, and now Elwend, was per haps as ancient as the other, and is far better known in history. If not the Median capital of Cyrus, it was at any rate regarded from the time of Darius Hystaspis as the chief city of the Persian satrapy of Media, and as such it became the summer residence of the Persian kings from Darius downwards. The Ecbatana of the book of Tobit is thought by Sir H. Rawlinson to be the northern city. ECCLESIAS'TES. The title of this book is in Hebrew Koheleth, a feminine noun, sig nifying one who speaks publicly in an assembly, and hence rendered in the Septuagint "oyEccle- siastes, which is adopted in the English ver sion. Koheleth \b the name by which Solomon ECCLES1ASTICUS 144 EDOM speaks of himself throughout the book. " The words of the preacher (Heb. Koheleth} the son of David, king of Jerusalem " (i. 1). The apparent anomaly of the feminine termination indicates that the abstract noun has been transferred from the office to the person hold ing it. The Book is that which it professes to be — the confession of a man of wide expe rience looking back upon his past life and looking out upon the disorders and calami ties which surround him. The writer is a man who has sinned in giving way to selfish ness and sensuality, who has paid the penalty of that sin in satiety and weariness of life, but who has through all this been under the discipline of a divine education, and has learnt from it the lesson which God meant to teach him. It is tolerably clear that the recurring burden of " Vanity of vanities " and the teaching which recommends a life of calm enjoyment, mark, whenever they occur, a kind of halting-place in the succession of thoughts. ECCLESIAS'TICUS, one of the books of the Apocrypha, is the title given in the Latin Version to the book which is called in the Septuagint The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach. The word designates the character of the writing, as publicly used in the ser vices of the Church. The writer describes himself as Jesus (i. e. Jeshua) the son of Sirach, of Jerusalem (i. 27), but we know nothing of the author. The language in which the book was originally composed was Hebrew, i. e. perhaps the Aramean dialect ; and the Greek translation incorporated in the LXX. was made by the grandson of the author in Egypt "in the reign of Euergetes," perhaps Ptolemy VII. Physcon, who also bore the surname of Euergetes (b.c 170- 117). ECLIPSE OF THE SUN. No historical notice of an eclipse occurs in the Bible, but there are passages in the prophets which contain manifest allusion to this phenomenon (Am. viii. 9 ; Mic. iii. 6 ; Zech. xiv. 6 ; Joel ii. 10, 31, iii. 15). Some of these notices probably refer to eclipses that occurred about the time of the respective compositions : thus the date of Amos coincides with a total eclipse, which occurred Feb. 9, b.c 784, and was visible at Jerusalem shortly after noon ; that of Micah with the eclipse of June 5, b.c 716. A passing notice in Jer. xv. 9 coin cides in date with the eclipse of Sept. SO, b.c 610, so well known from Herodotus's ac count (i. 74, 103). The darkness that over spread the world at the crucifixion cannot with reason be attributed to an eclipse, as the moon was at the full at the time of the Passover. E'DAR, TOWER OF (accur. Eder), a place named only in Gen. xxxv. 21. According to Jerome it was 1000 paces from Bethlehem. E'DEN. 1. The first residence of man, called in the Septuagint Paradise. The latter is a word of Persian origin, and describes an extensive tract of pleasure land, somewhat like an English park ; and the use of it sug gests a wider view of man's first abode than a garden. The description of Eden is as followB : — "And the Lord God planted a garden in Eden eastward And a river goeth forth from Eden to water the garden ; and from thence it is divided and becomes four heads (or arms). The name of the first is Pison : that is it which compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where is the gold. And the gold of that land is good : there is the bdellium and the onyx stone. And the name of the second river is Gihon ; that is it which compasseth the whole land of Cush, And the name of the third river is Hiddekel ; that is it which floweth before Assyria. And the fourth river, that is Euphrates" (Gen. ii. 8-14). In the eastern portion then of the region of Eden was the garden planted. The Hiddekel is the Tigris ; but with regard to the Pison and Gihon, a great variety of opinion exists. Many ancient writers, as Josephus, identified the Pison with the Ganges, and the Gihon with the Nile. Others, guided by the position of the two known rivers, identify the two unknown ones with the Phasis and Araxes, which also have their sources in the highlands of Armenia. Others, again, have transferred the site to the sources of the Oxus and Jaxartes, and place it in Bactria ; others, again, in the valley of Cash mere. Such speculations may be multiplied ad infinitum, and have sometimes assumed the wildest character. — 2. One of the marts which supplied the luxury of Tyre with richly embroidered stuffs. It is associated with Haran, Sheba, and Asshur. In 2 K. xix. 12, and Is. xxxvii. 12, "the sons of Eden" are mentioned with Gozan, Haran, and Rezeph, as victims of the Assyrian greed of conquest. In the absence of positive evidence, pro bability seems to point to the N.W. of Meso potamia as the locality of Eden. — 3. Beth- Eden, "house of pleasure;" probably the name of a country residence of the kings of Damascus (Am. i. 5). E'DOM, IDUME'A, or IDUMAE'A. The name Edom was given to Esau, the first-bori. son of Isaac, and twin brother of Jacob, when he sold his birthright to the latter for a meal of lentil pottage. The peculiar colour of the pottage gave rise to the name Edom, which signifies "red" (Gen. xxv. 29-34). The country which the Lord subsequently gave EDOM 145 EDREI to Esau was hence called the " field of Edom" ^Gen. xxxii. 3), or "land of Edom" (Gen. xxxvi. 16; Num. xxxiii. 37), and his de scendants were called the Edomites. Probably its physical aspect may have had something to do with this. Edom was previously called Mount Seir (Gen. xxxii. 3, xxxvi. 8), from Seir the progenitor of the HoriteB (Gen. xiv. 6, xxxvi. 20-22). The name Seir was perhaps adopted on account of its being descriptive of the "rugged" character of the territory. The original inhabitants of the country were called Horites, from Hori, the grandson of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 22), because that name was descriptive of their habits as " Troglo dytes," or "dwellers in caves." Edom was wholly a mountainous country. It embraced the narrow mountainous tract (about 100 miles long by 20 broad) extending along the eastern side of the Arabah from the northern end of the gulf of Elath to near the southern end of the Dead Sea. It was separated from Moab on the N. by the " brook Zered" (Deut. ii. 13, 14, 18), probably the modern Wady- el-Ahsy. The ancient capital of Edom was Bozrah (Buseireh) near the northern border (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Is. xxxiv. 6, Ixiii. 1 ; Jer. xlix. 13, 22). But Sela (Petra) appears to have been the principal stronghold in the days of Amaziah (b.c 838; 2 K. xiv. 7): Elath and Eziongeber were the sea ports (2 Sam. viii. 14 ; 1 K. ix. 26).— Esau's bitter hatred to his brother Jacob for fraudulently obtaining his blessing appears to have been inherited by his latest posterity. The Edomites * peremptorily refused to permit the Israelites to pass through their land (Num. xx. 18-21). For a period of 400 years we hear no more of the Edomites. They were then attacked and defeated by Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 47). Some forty years later David overthrew their army in the "Valley of Salt," arid his general, Joab, following up the victory, destroyed nearly tbe whole male population (1 K. xi. 15, 16), and placed Jewish garrisons in all the strongholds of Edom (2 Sam. viii. 13, 14). In the reign of Jehoshaphat (b.c 914) the Edomites attempted to invade Israel in con junction with Ammon and Moab, but were miraculously destroyed in the valley of Bera- chah (2 Chr. xx. 22). A few years later they revolted against Jehoram, elected a king, and for half a century retained their independence (2 Chr. xxi. 8). They were then attacked by Amaziah, and Sela their great stronghold was captured (2 K. xiv. 7 ; 2 Chr. xxv. 11, 12). Yet the Israelites were never able again completely to subdue them (2 Chr. xxviii. 17). When Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem the Edomites joined him, and took an active part in the plunder of the city and Sm. D. B. slaughter of the Jews. Their cruelty at that time seems to be specially referred to in the 137th Psalm. It was on account of these acts of cruelty committed upon the Jews in the day of their calamity that the Edomites were so fearfully denounced by the later prophets (Is. xxxiv. 5-8, lxiii. 1-4; Jer. xlix. 17; Lam. iv. 21 ; Ez. xxv. 13, 14 ; Am. i. 11, 12 Obad. 10 sq.). On the conquest of Judah, the Edomites, probably in reward for their services during the war, were permitted to settle in southern Palestine, and the whole plateau between it and Egypt, which now usually bore the Greek name of Idumaea ; but they were about the same time driven out of Edom Proper by the Nabatheans-. For more than four centuries they continued to prosper. But during the warlike rule of the Maccabees they were again completely sub dued, and even forced to conform to Jewish laws and rites, and submit to the government of Jewish prefects. The Edomites were now incorporated with the Jewish nation, and the whole province was often termed by Greek and Roman writers Idumaea. Immediately before the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, 20,000 Idumaeans were admitted to the Holy City, which they filled with robbery and bloodshed. From this time the Edomites, as a separate people, disappear from the page of history. — Little is known of their religion; but that little shows them to have been ido laters (2 Chr. xxv. 14, 15, 20). Their habits were singular. The Horites, their predecessors in Mount Seir, were, as their name implies, troglodytes, or dwellers in caves ; and the Edomites seem to have adopted their dwellings as well as their country. Everywhere we meet with caves and grottoes hewn in the soft sandstone strata. Those at Petra are well known. The nature of the climate, the dryness of the soil, and their great size, render them healthy, pleasant, and commodious habitations, while their security made them specially suitable to a country exposed in every age to incessant attacks of robbers. ED'REI. 1. One of the two capital cities of Bashan (Num. xxi. 33 ; Deut. i. 4, iii. 10 ; Josh. xii. 4). In Scripture it is only men tioned in connexion with the victory gained, by the Israelites over the Amorites under Og their king, and the territory thus acquired. The ruins of this ancient city, still bearing the name Edr'a, stand on a rocky promontory which projects from the S.W. corner of the Lejah. The ruins are nearly three miles in circumference, and have a strange wild look, rising up in black shattered masses from the midst of a wilderness of black rocks. — 2. A town of northern Palestine, allotted to the tribe L EGLAH 146 EGYPT of Nanhtali, and situated near Kedesh (Josh. xix. 37). About two miles south of Kedesh is a conical rocky hill called Tell Khuraibeh. the "Tell of the ruin," which may be the site of Edrei. EG'LAH, one of David's wives during his reign in Hebron, and the mother of his son Ithream (2 Sam. iii. 5 ; 1 Chr. iii. 3). Ac cording to the ancient Hebrew tradition, she was Michal. EGLA'IM, a place named only in Is. xv. 8, probably the same as En-eglaim. EG'LON. 1. A king of the Moabites (Judg. iii. 12 ff.), who, aided by the Ammonites and the Amalekites, crossed the Jordan and took " the city of palm-trees." Here, according to Josephus, he built himself a palace, and continued for eighteen years to oppress the children of Israel, who paid him tribute. He was slain by Ehud. [Ehud.] — 2. A town of Judah in the low country (Josh. xv. 39). During the struggles of the conquest, Eglon was one of a confederacy of five towns, which under Jerusalem attempted resistance, by attacking Gibeon after the treaty of the latter with Israel (Josh. x.). The name sur vives in the modern Ajlan, a shapeless mass of ruins, about 10 miles from Eleutheropolis and 14 from Gaza, on the S. of the great maritime plain. EGYPT, a country occupying the north eastern angle of Africa. Its limits appear always to have been very nearly the same. In Ezekiel (xxix. 10, xxx. 6) the whole country is spoken of as extending from Migdol to Syene, which indicates the same limits to the east and the south as at pre sent. — Names. The common name of Egypt in the Bible is "Mizraim," or more fully " the land of Mizraim." In form Mizraim is a dual, and accordingly it is generally joined with a plural verb. When, therefore, in Gen. x. 6, Mizraim is mentioned as a son of Ham, we must not conclude that anything more is meant than that Egypt was colonized hy descendants of Ham. The dual number doubtless indicates the natural division of the country into an upper and a lower region. The singular Mazor also occurs, and some suppose that it indicates Lower Egypt, but there is no sure ground for this assertion. The Arabic name of Egypt, Mizr, signifies •'red mud." Egypt is also called in the Bible "the land of Ham" (Ps. cv. 23, 27 ; comp. lxxviii. 51), a name most probably referring to Ham the son of Noah ; and " Rahab," the proud or insolent : both these appear to be poetical appellations. The common ancient Egyptian name of the country is written in hieroglyphics KEM, which was perhaps pronounced Chcm. This name sig nifies, alike in the ancient language and in Coptic, " black," and may be supposed to have been given to the land on account of the blackness of its alluvial soil. We may reason ably conjecture that Kern is the Egyptian equivalent of Ham, and also of Mazor, these two words being similar or even the same in sense. Under the Pharaohs Egypt was divided into Upper and Lower, " the two regions." In subsequent times this double division ob tained. In the time of the Greeks and Romans Upper Egypt was divided into the Hepta- nomis and the Thebai's, making altogether three provinces, but the division of the whole country into two was even then the most usual. — General appearance, Climate, $c. The general appearance of the country cannot have greatly changed since the days of Moses. The Delta was always a vast level plain, al though of old more perfectly watered than now by the branches of the Nile and numerous canals, while the narrow valley of Upper Egypt must have suffered still less alteration. Anciently, however, the rushes must have been abundant ; whereas now they have almost disappeared, except in the lakes. The whole country is remarkable for its extreme fer tility, which especially strikes the beholder when the rich green of the fields is contrasted with the utterly bare yellow mountains or the sand-strewn rocky desert on either side. The climate is equable and healthy. Rain is not very unfrequent on the northern coast, but inland very rare. Cultivation nowhere de pends upon it. This absence of rain is men tioned in Deut. (xi. 10, 11) as rendering artificial irrigation necessary, unlike the case of Palestine, and in Zech. (xiv. 18) as peculiar to the country. Egypt has been visited in all ages by severe pestilences. Famines are fre quent, and one in tbe middle ages, in the time of the Fatimee Khaleefeh El-Mustansir- billah, seems to have been even more severe than that of Joseph. The inundation of the Nile fertilises and sustains the country, and makes the river its chief blessing. The Nile was on this account anciently worshipped. The rise begins in Egypt about the summer solstice, and the inundation commences about two months later. The greatest height is attained about or somewhat after the au tumnal equinox. The inundation lasts about three months.— Cultivation, Agriculture, #c. The ancient prosperity of Egypt is attested hy the Bible as well as by the numerous monuments of the country. As early as the age of the Great Pyramid it must have been densely populated. The contrast of the pre sent state of Egypt to its former prosperity is more to be ascribed to political than to physical causes. Egypt is naturally an agr*. EGYPT 147 EGYPT cultural country. As far back as the days of Abraham, we find that when the produce failed in Palestine, Egypt was the natural re source. In the time of Joseph it was evi dently the granary, at least during famines, of the nations around. The inundation, as taking the place of rain, has always rendered the system of agriculture peculiar ; and the artificial irrigation during the time of low Nile is necessarily on the same principle. . Vines were extensively cultivated. Of other fruit-trees, the date-palm was the most com mon and valuable. The gardens resembled the fields, being watered in the same manner by irrigation. On the tenure of land much iight is thrown by the history of Joseph. Before the famine each city and large village had its fields (Gen. xii. 48) ; but Joseph gained for Pharaoh all the land, except that of the priests, in exchange for food, and required for the right thus obtained a fifth of the produce, which became a law (xlvii. 20-26). — Reli gion. The basis of the religion was Nigritian fetishism, the lowest kind of nature-worship, differing in different parts of the country, and hence obviously indigenous. Upon this were engrafted, first, cosmic worship, mixed up with traces of primeval revelation, as in Babylonia ; and then, a system of personifica tions of moral and intellectual abstractions. There were three orders of gods — the eight great gods, the twelve lesser, and the Osirian group. There was no prominent hero-wor ship, although deceased kings and other in dividuals often received divine honours. The great doctrines of the immortality of the soul, man's responsibility, and future rewards and punishments, were taught. Among the rites, circumcision is the most remarkable : it is as old as the time of the ivth dynasty. The Israelites in Egypt appear during the op pression, for the most part, to have adopted the Egyptian religion (Josh. xxiv. 14 ; Ez. xx. 7, 8). The golden calf, or rather steer, was probably taken from the bull Apis, cer tainly from one of the sacred bulls. Rem- phan and Chiun were foreign divinities adopted into the Egyptian Pantheon. Ash toreth was worshipped at Memphis. Doubt less this worship was introduced by the Phoenician Shepherds. — Army. There are some notices of the Egyptian army in the O. T. They show, like the monuments, that its most important branch was the chariot-force. The Pharaoh of the Exodus led 600 chosen chariots besides his whole chariot-force in pursuit of the Israelites. The warriors fighting in chariots are probably the "horsemen" men tioned in the relation of this event and else where, for in Egyptian they are caMed the *' horse" or "cavalry." We have no subse quent indication in the Bible of the constitu tion of an Egyptian army until the time of the xxiind dynasty, when we find that Shi- shak's invading force was partly composed of foreigners ; whether mercenaries or allies, cannot as yet be positively determined, al though the monuments make it most probable that they were of the former character. The army of Necho, defeated at Carchemish, seems to have been similarly composed, although it probably contained Greek mercenaries, who soon afterwards became the most important foreign element in the Egyptian forces. — Domestic Life. The sculptures and paintings of the tombs give us a very full insight into tha domestic life of the ancient Egyptians. What most strikes us in their manners is the high position occupied hy women, and the entiie absence of the harem system of seclusion. Marriage appears to have been universal, at least with the richer class ; and if polygamy were tolerated it was rarely practised. There were no castes, although great classes were very distinct. The occupations of the higher class were the superintendence of their fields and gardens ; their diversions, the pursuit of game in the deserts, or on the river, and fishing. The tending of cattle was left to the most despised of the lower class. The Egyptian feasts, and the dances, music, and feats which accompanied them, for the diversion of the guests, as well as the common games, were probably introduced among the Hebrews in the most luxurious days of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The account of the noon tide dinner of Joseph (Gen. xliii. 16, 31-34) agrees with the representations of the monu ments. The funeral ceremonies were far more important than any events of the Egyp- • tian life as the tomb was regarded as the only true home. — Magicians. We find frequent reference in the Bible to the magicians of Egypt (Gen. xii. 8; Ex. vii. 11, &c). The monuments do not recognise any such art, and we must conclude that magic was secretlj practised, not because it was thought to bo unlawful, but in order to give it importance. — Industrial Arts. The industrial arts held an important place in the occupations of the Egyptians. The workers in fine flax and the weavers of white linen are mentioned in a manner that shows they were among the chief contributors to the riches of the country (Is. xix. 9). The fine linen of Egypt found its way'to Palestine (Prov. vii. 16). Pottery was a great branch of the native manufac tures, and appears to have furnished employ ment to the Hebrews during the bondage (Ps. lxxxi. 6, lxviii. 13 ; comp. Ex. i. 14). — Festivals. The religious festivals were nume rous, and some of them were, in the dayE of L 2 EGYPT 148 EGYPT Herodotus, kept with great merrymaking and license. The feast which the Israelites cele brated when Aaron had made the golden calf seems to have been very much of the same character. — History. The ancient history of Egypt may be divided into three portions : — the old monarchy, extending from the foun dation of the kingdom to the invasion of the Hyksos ; the middle, from the entrance to the expulsion of the Hyksos ; and the new, from the re-establishment of the native mo narchy by Amosis to the Persian conquest. — (I.) Tlie Old Monarchy. Memphis was the most ancient capital, the foundation of which is ascribed to Menee, the first mortal king of Egypt. The names of the kings, divided into thirty dynasties, are handed down in the lists of Manetho,* and are also known from the works which they executed. The most memorable epoch in the history of the Old Monarchy is that of the Pyramid kings, placed in Manetho's fourth dynasty. Their names ire found upon these monuments : the builder of the great pyramid is called Suphis by Manetho, Cheops by Herodotus, and Khufu or Shufu, in an inscription upon the pyramid. The erection of the second pyramid is attri buted by Herodotus and Diodorus to Cheph- ren ; and upon the neighbouring tombs has been read the name of Khafra, or Shafre, The builder of tbe third pyramid is named Mycerinus by Herodotus and Diodorus ; and in this very pyramid a coffin has been found bearing the name Menkura. The most power ful kings of the Old Monarchy were those of Manetho's twelfth dynasty : to this period are assigned the construction of the Lake of Moeris and the Labyrinth. — (2.) The Middle Mo narchy. Of this period we only know that a nomadic horde called Hyksos \ for several centuries occupied and made Egypt tributary ; that their capital was Memphis ; that in the Sethroite nome they constructed an immense earth-camp, which they called Abaris ; that at a certain period of their occupation two in dependent kingdoms were formed in Egypt, one in the Thebaid, which held intimate re lations with Ethiopia ; another at Xois, among the marshes of the Nile ; and that, finally, the Egyptians regained their independence, and expelled the Hyksos, who thereupon re tired into Palestine. The Hyksos form the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth dynasties. Manetho says they were Arabs, hut he calls She six kings of the fifteenth dynasty Phoe- • Manetho was an Egyptian priest who lived 'under lihu Ptolemies in the 3rd century B.C. and wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, in which he divided tho kings Into thirty dynasties. The work itself is lost, but tho Lists of dynasties have been preserved by the Christian writers, t This, their Egyptian name, Is derived by Manetho (xum Myk, a king1, and Sas, a shepherd. nicians. — (3.) The New Monarchy extends from the commencement of the eighteenth to the end of the thirtieth dynasty. The kingdom was consolidated by Amosis, who succeeded in expelling the Hyksos, and thus prepared the way for the foreign expeditions which hia successors carried on in Asia and Africa, ex tending from Mesopotamia in the former to Ethiopia in the latter continent. The glorious era of Egyptian history was under the nine teenth dynasty, when Sethi I., b.c 1322, and his grandson, Rameses the Great, b.c 1311, both of whom represent the Sesostris of the Greek historians, carried their arms over the whole of Western Asia and southwards into Soudan, and amassed vast treasures, which were expended on public works. Under the later kings of the nineteenth dynasty the power of Egypt faded : the twentieth and twenty-first dynasties achieved nothingworthy of record ; but with the twenty-second we enter upon a period that is interesting from its associations with Biblical history, the first of this dynasty, Sheshonk I. (Seconchis) b.c 990, being the Shishak who invaded Judaea in Rehoboam's reign and pillaged the Temple (1 Kings xiv. 25). Probably his successor, Osorkon I., is the Zerah of Scripture, de feated by Asa. Egypt makes no figure in Asiatic history during the xxiiird and xxivth dynasties : under the xxvth it regained, in part at least, its ancient importance. This was an Ethiopian line, the warlike sovereigns of which strove to the utmost to repel the onward stride of Assyria. So, whom we are disposed to identify with Shebek II. or Se- bichus, the second Ethiopian, made an alliance with Hosheathe last king of Israel. Tehrak or Tirhakah, the third of this house, advanced against Sennacherib in support of Hezekiah. After this, a native dynasty again occupied the throne, the xxvith, of Sa'ite kings. Psam- etek I. or Psammetichus I. (b.c. 664), who may be regarded as the head of this dynasty, warred in Palestine, and took Ashdod, Azotus, after a siege of twenty-nine years. Neku or Necho, the son of Psammetichus, continued the war in the East, and marched along the coast of Palestine to attack the king of As syria. At Megiddo Josiah encountered him (b.c 608-7), notwithstanding the remon strance of the Egyptian king, which is very illustrative of the policy of the Pharaohs in the east (2 Chr. xxxv. 21), no less than is his lenient conduct after the defeat and death of the king of Judah. The army of Necho was after a short space routed at Carchemish by Nebuchadnezzar, b.c 605-4 (Jer. xlvi. 2), The second successor of Necho, Apries, or Pha- raoh-Hophra, sent his' army into Palestine to the aid of Zedekiah ("Jer. xxxvii. .% 7, H)f EHUD 149 ELAM so that the siege of Jerusalem was raised for a time, and kindly received the fugitives from the captured city. He seems to have been afterwards attacked by Nebuchadnezzar in his own country. There is, however, no cer tain account of a complete subjugation of Egypt by the king of Babylon. Amasis, the successor of Apries, had a long and pros perous reign, and somewhat restored the weight of Egypt in the East. But the new power of Persia was to prove even more ter rible to his house than Babylon had been to the house of Psammetichus, and the son of Amasis had reigned but six months when Cambyses reduced the country to the con dition of a province of his empire b.c 525, — With respect to the difficult question of the period of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, the following remarks may suffice. The chronology of Egypt is now so far settled that the accession of the eighteenth dynasty may be regarded as fixed to within a few years of b.c. 1525. The era of the Exodus, in the system of Ussher, is b.c. 1491. The obvious conclusion agrees with the statement of Manetho, that Moses left Egypt under Amosis, the first king of the eighteenth dynasty. The same king, as we have already seen, ex pelled the Shepherd Kings ; and there is, in fact, no doubt that the great power of the eighteenth dynasty was connected with this expulsion. In this change of dynasty many writers see a natural explanation of the "new king who knew not Joseph." If this view is correct, Joseph would have come into Egypt under one of the later kings of the Shepherd dynasty. But, plausible as this theory is, the uncertainty in which Scriptural chronology is involved prevents us from coming to any definite conclusion. Lepsius and other emi nent Egyptologers place the arrival of the Israelites under the eighteenth dynasty, and the Exodus under the nineteenth, in the year 1314 b.c. He identifies the chief oppressor, from whom Moses fied, with the great king of the nineteenth dynasty, Rameses II., and the Pharaoh of the Exodus with his son and successor Menptah, or Phthahmen. Mr. Poole, however, takes an entirely opposite view, and places not only the arrival of the Israelites in Egypt, but also the Exodus, within the dynasties of the Shepherd kings. It seems impossible to come to any defi nite conclusion upon the subject. The diffi culty of a solution is still further increased by the uncertainty as to the length of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, whether it was 215 years, according to the Sep tuagint, or 430 years according to the Hebrew. E'HUD, son of Gera of the tribe of Ben jamin (Judg. iii. 15), the second Judge of the Israelites. In the Bible he is not called a Judge but a deliverer (J. c.) : so Othniel (Judg. iii. 9) and all the Judges (Neh. ix. 27). As a Benjamite he was specially chosen to destroy Eglon, who had established him self in Jericho, which was included in the boundaries of that tribe. He was very strong, and left-handed. [Eglon.] EK'RON, one of the five towns belonging to the lords of the Philistines, and the most northerly of the five (Josh. xiii. 3). Like the other Philistine cities its situation was in the lowlands. It fell to the lot of Judah (Josh. xv. 45, 46 ; Judg. i. 18), and indeed formed one of the landmarks on his north border. We afterwards, however, find it mentioned among the cities of Dan (Josh. xix. 43). But it mattered little to which tribe it nominally belonged, for before the monarchy it was again in full possession of the Philistines (1 Sam. v. 10). 'Aktr, the modern representative of Ekron, lies at about 5 miles S.W. of Ramleh. In the Apocrypha it appears as Accaron (1 Mace. x. 89, only). E'LAH. 1. The son and successor of Baasha, king of Israel (1 K. xvi. 8-10) ; his reign lasted for little more than a year (comp. ver. 8 with 10). He was killed, while drunk, by Zimri, in the house of his steward Arza, who was probably a confederate in the plot. — 2. Father of Hoshea, the last king of Israel (2 K. xv. 30, xvii. 1). ELAH, THE VALLEY OF (= Valley of the Terebinth), a valley in (not " by," as the A. V. has it) which the Israelites were encamped against the Philistines when David killed Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 19). It is once more mentioned in the same connexion (xxi. 9). It lay somewhere near Socoh of Judah and Azekah, and was nearer Ekron than any other Philistine town. So much may be gathered from the narrative of 1 Sam. xvii. E'LAM seems to have been originally the name of a man, the son of Shem (Gen. x. 22 ; 1 Chr. i. 17). Commonly, however, it is used as the appellation of a country (Gen. xiv. 1, 9 ; Is. xi. 11 ; xxi. 2 ; Jer. xxv. 25 ; xlix. 34-39 ; Ez. xxxii. 24 ; Dan. viii. 2). The Elam of Scripture appears to be the pro vince lying south of Assyria and east of Persia Proper, to which Herodotus gives the name of Cissia (iii. 91, v. 49, &c), and which is termed Susis or Susiana by the geo graphers. It appears from Gen. x. 22, that this country was originally peopled by de scendants of Shem, closely allied to tbe Ara maeans (Syrians) and the Assyrians ; and from Gen. xiv. 1-12, it is evident that by the time of Abraham a very important power bad ELATH 150 ELEAZAR been built up in the same region. It is plain that at this early time the predominant power in Lower Mesopotamia was Elam, which for a while held the place possessed earlier by Babylon (Gen. x. 10), and later by either Babylon or Assyria. E'LATH, E'LOTH, the name of a town of the land of Edom, commonly mentioned to gether with Ezion-fgeber, and situate at the head of the Arabian- Gulf, which was thence called the Elanitic Gulfv It first 'occurs in the account of the wanderings (Deut. ii. 8), and in later times must have come under the rule of David in his conquest of the land of Edom (2 Sam. viii. 14). We find the place named again in connexion with Solomon's navy (1 K. ix. 26; comp. 2 Chr. viii. 17). It was apparently included in the revolt of Edom against Joram recorded in 2 K. viii. 20 ; but it was taken by Azariah (xiv. 22). After this, however, " Rezin king of Syria recovered Elath, and drave out the Jews from Elath, and the Syrians came to Elath and dwelt there to this day " (xvi. 6). From this time the place is not mentioned until the Roman period, during which it became a frontier-town of the south, and the residence of a Christian bishop. The Arabic name is Eyleh. EL-BETH'EL, the name which Jacob is said to have bestowed on the place at which God appeared to him when he was flying from Esau (Gen. xxv. 7). EL'DAD and ME 'DAD, two of the 70 elders to whom was communicated the pro phetic power of Moses (Num. xi. 16, 26). Although their names were upon the list which Moses had drawn up (xi. 26), they did not repair with the rest of their brethren to the tabernacle, but continued to prophesy in the camp. Moses being requested by Joshua to forbid this, refused to do so, and expressed a wish that the gift of prophecy might be diffused throughout the people. ELDER. The term elder or old man, as the Hebrew literally imports, was one of ex tensive use, as an official title, among the Hebrews and the surrounding nations. It had reference to various offices (Gen. xxiv. 2, 1. 7 ; 2 Sam. xii. 17; Ez. xxvii. 9). As betokening a political office, it applied not only to the Hebrews, but also to the Egyp tians (Gen. 1. 7), the Moabites and Midianites (Num. xxii. 7). Wherever a patriarchal sys tem ii in foice, the office of tbe elder will be found, as the keystone of the social and poli tical fabric ; it is so at the present day among the Arabs, where the Sheikh (= the old man) is the highest authority in the tribe. The earliest notice of the elders acting in concert as a political body is at the time of the Exo dus. They were the representatives of the people, so much so that elders and people are occasionally used as equivalent terms (comp. Josh. xxiv. 1 with 2, 19, 21 ; 1 Sam. viii. 4 with 7, 10, 19). Their authority was unde fined, and extended to all matters concerning the public weal. When the tribes became settled the elders were distinguished by dif ferent titles according as they were acting as national representatives, as district governors over the several tribes (Deut. xxxi. 28 ; 2 Sam. xix. 11), or as local magistrates, in the provincial towns, whose duty it was to sit in the gate and administer justice (Deut. xix. 12 ; Ruth iv. 9, 11 ; 1 K. xxi. 8). Their number and influence may be inferred from 1 Sam. xxx. 26 ff. They retained their posi tion under all the political changes which the Jews underwent : under the Judges (Judg. ii. 7 ; 1 Sam. iv. 3) ; under the kings (2 Sam, xvii. 4) ; during the captivity (Jer. xxix. 1 ; Ez. viii. 1) ; subsequently to the return (Ezr. v. 5, vi. 7, 14, x. 8, 14) ; under the Maccabees, when they were described some times as the senate (1 Mace. xii. 6 ; 2 Mace. i. 10, iv. 44, xi. 27), sometimes by their or dinary title (1 Mace. vii. 33, xi. 23, xii. 35) ; and, lastly, at the commencement of the Christian era, when they are noticed as a distinct body from the Sanhedrim. St. Luke describes the whole order by the collective term irpeo-fivrfipiov (Luke xxii. 66 ; Acts xxii. 5). With respect to the elders in the Chris tian Church, see Bishop. ELE'ALEH, a place on the east of Jordan, taken possession of and rebuilt by the tribe of Reuben (Num. xxxii. 3, 37). By Isaiah and Jeremiah it is mentioned as a Moabite town (Is. xv. 4, xvi. 9 ; Jer. xlviii. 34). ELEA'ZAR, l. Third son of Aaron, by Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab. After the death of Nadab and Abihu without chil dren (Lev. x. 1 ; Num. iii. 4), Eleazar was appointed chief over the principal Levites (Num. iii. 32). With his brother Ithamar he ministered as a priest during their father's lifetime, and immediately before his death waa invested on Mount Hor with the sacred gar ments, as the successor of Aaron in the office of High-priest (Num. xx. 28). One of his first duties was in conjunction with Moses to superintend the census of the people (Num. xxvi. 3). After the conquest of Canaan by Joshua he took part in the distribution of the land (Josh. xiv. 1). The time of his death is not mentioned in Scripture. — 2. The son of Abinadab, of the hill of Kirjath-jcarim (1 Sam. vii. 1). — 3. The Bon of Dodo tho Ahohite, i. e. possibly a descendant of Ahoah of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. viii. 4) ; one of the three principal mighty men of David's army (2 Sam. xxiii. 9; 1 Chr. xi. 12). — 1. EL-ELOHE-ISRAEL 151 ELIJAH Surnamed Avaran (I Mace. ii. 5), the fourth son of Mattathias, who fell by a noble act of self-devotion in an engagement with Antio chus Eupator, b.c 164 (I Mace. vi. 43 ff.). In a former battle with Nicanor, Eleazar was appointed by Judas to read " the holy book " before the attack, and the watchword in the fight— " The help of God" — was his own name (2 Mace. viii. 23). EL-EL'OHE-IS'RAEL, the name bestowed by Jacob on the altar which he erected facing the city of Shechem (Gen. xxxiii. 19, 20). ELEPHANT. The word does not occur in the text of the canonical Scriptures of the A. V., but is found as the marginal reading to Behemoth, in Job xl. 15. "Elephants' teeth" is the marginal reading for " ivory " in 1 K. x. 22 ; 2 Chr. ix. 41. Elephants however are repeatedly mentioned in the 1st and 2nd books of Maccabees, as being used in warfare (1 Mace. vi.). ELEU'THERUS, a river of Syria men tioned in I Mace. xi. 7 ; xii. 30. It sepa rated Syria from Phoenicia, and formed the northern limit of Coele-syria. It is the mo dern Nahr-el-Kebir, " Great River." EfLI was descended from Aaron through Ithamar, the youngest of bis two surviving sons (Lev. x. 1, 2, 12 ; comp. 1 K. ii. 27 with 2 Sam. viii. 17 ; 1 Chr. xxiv. 3). As the history makes no mention of any high- priest of the line of Ithamar before Eli, he is generally supposed to have been the first of that line who held the office. From him, his Bons having died before him, it appears to have passed to his grandson, Ahitub (1 Sam. xiv. 3), and it certainly remained in his family till Abiathar, the grandson of Ahitub, was " thrust out from being priest unto the Lord " by Solomon for his share in Adonijah's rebellion (1 K. ii. 26, 27 ; i. 7), and the high- priesthood passed back again to the family of Eleazar in the person of Zadok (1 K. ii. 35). Its return to the elder branch was one part of the punishment which had been denounced against Eli during his lifetime, for his cul pable negligence (1 Sam. ii. 22-25) when his eons by their rapacity and licentiousness pro faned the priesthood, and brought the rites of religion into abhorrence among the people (1 Sam. ii. 27-36, with 1 K. ii. 27). Not withstanding this one great blemish, the cha racter of Eli is marked by eminent piety, as shown by his meek submission to the divine judgment (1 Sam. iii. 18), and his supreme re gard for the ark of God (iv. 18). In addition to the office of high- priest he held that of judge, being the immediate predecessor of his pupil Samuel (1 Sam. vii. 6, 15-17), the last of the judges. He died at the advanced age of 98 years (1 Sam. iv. 15), overcome by the dis astrous intelligence that the ark of God had been taken in battle by the Philistines, who had also slain his sons Hophni and Phinehas. ELI'AKIM. 1. Son of Hilkiah,; master of Hezekiah's household (" over the house," as Is. xxxvi. 3), 2 K. xviii. 18, 26, 37. He succeeded Shebna in this office, after he had been ejected from it as a punishment for his pride (Is. xxii. 15-20). Eliakiin was a good man, as appears by tb.e v title emphatically applied to him by God, " my servant Elia- kim" (Is. xxii. 20), and as was evinced by his conduct on the occasion of Sennacherib's in vasion (2 K. xviii. 37, xix. 1-5), and also in the discharge of the duties of his high station, in which he acted as a "father to the inha bitants of Jerusalem, and to the house of Judah" (Is. xxii. 21).— 2. The original name of Jehoiakim king of Judah (2 K. xxiii. 34 ; 2 Chr. xxxvi. 4). ELI'AS, the form in which the name of Elijah is given in the A. V. of the Apocrypha and N. Test. ELIE'ZER. 1. Abraham's chief servant, called by him " Eliezer of Damascus " (Gen. xv. 2). There is an apparent contradic tion in the A. V., for it does not appear how, if he was " of Damascus," he could be "born in Abraham's house" (ver. 3). But the phrase " son of my house," only im ports that he was one of Abraham's house hold, not that he was born in his house. It was, most likely, this same Eliezer who is de scribed in Gen. xxiv. 2. — 2. Second son of Moses and Zipporah, to whom his father gave this name, " because, said he, the God of my father was my help, that delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh " (Ex. xviii. 4 ; 1 Chr. xxiii. 15, 17). He remained with his mother and brother Gershom, in the care of Jethro his grandfather, when Moses returned to Egypt (Ex.iv. 18) she having been sent back to her father by Moses (Ex. xviii. 2), though she set off to accompany him, and went part of the way with him. ELI'HU, one of the interlocutors in the book of Job. [Job.] He is described as the " son of Barachel the Buzite," and thus ap parently referred to the family of Buz, the son of Nahor, and nephew of Abraham (Gen. xxii. 21). ELI'JAH has been well entitled "the grandest and the most romantic character that Israel ever produced." Certainly there is no personage in the 0. T. whoBe career is more vividly portrayed, or who exercises on us a more remarkable fascination. " Elijah the Tishbite of the inhabitants of Gilead," is lite rally all that is given us to know of his pa rentage and locality. To an Israelite of the tribes west of Jordan the title " Gileadite " ELIJAH 152 ELIJAH must have conveyed a similar impression, though in a far stronger degree, to that which the title " Celt " does to us. What the High lands were a century ago to the towns in the Lowlands of Scotland, that, and more than that, must Gilead have been to Samaria or Jerusalem. It is impossible rightly to esti mate his character without recollecting this fact. It is seen at every turn. Of his ap pearance as he " stood before " Ahab, with the suddenness of motion to this day cha racteristic of the Bedouins from his native hills, we can perhaps realise something from the touches, few, but strong, of the narra tive. His chief characteristic was his hair, long and thick, and hanging down his back ; which, if not betokeningthe immense strength of Samson, yet accompanied powers of endur ance no less remarkable. His ordinary cloth ing consisted of a girdle of skin round his loins, which he tightened when about to move quickly (* K. xviii. 46). But in addition to this he occasionally wore the " mantle," or cape, of sheepskin, which has supplied us with one of our most familiar figures of speech. In this mantle, in mo ments of emotion, he would hide his face (1 K. xix. 13), or when excited would roll it up as into a kind of staff. The solitary life in which these external peculiarities had been assumed had also nurtured that fierceness of zeal and that directness of address which so distinguished him. It was in the wild lone liness of the hills and ravines of Gilead that the knowledge of Jehovah, the living God of Israel, had been impressed on his mind, which was to form tbe subject of his mission to the idolatrous court and country of Israel. The northern kingdom had at this time forsaken almost entirely the faith in Jehovah. The worship of the calves had been a departure from Him ; but still it would appear that even in the presence of the calves Jehovah was acknowledged, and they were at any rate a national institution, not one imported from the idolatries of any of the surrounding countries. But the case was quite different when Ahab introduced the foreign religion of his wife's family, the worship of the Phoe nician Baal. It is as a witness against these two evils that Elijah comes forward. — 1. What we may call the first Act in his life embraces between three and four years — three years and six months for the duration of the drought, according to the statements of the New Testament (Luke iv. 25 ; James v. 17), and three or four months more for the journey to Horeb, and the return to Gilead (1 K. xvii. 1 — xix. 21). His intro duction is of the most startling description : he suddenly appears before Ahab, as with the unrestrained freedom of eastern manners he would have no difficulty in doing, and pro claims the vengeance of Jehovah for the apostasy of the king. What immediate action followed on this we are not told ; but it is plain that Elijah had to fly before some threat ened vengeance either of tbe king, or more probably of the queen (comp. xix. 2). Perhaps it was at this juncture that Jezebel " cut off the prophets of Jehovah "(IK. xviii. 4). He was directed to the brook Cherith. There in the hollow of the torrent-bed he remained, supported in the miraculous manner with which we are all familiar, till the failing of the brook obliged him to forsake it. His next refuge was at Zarephath, a Phoenician town lying between Tyre and Sidon, certainly the last place at which the enemy of Baal would be looked for. The widow woman in whose house he lived seems, however, to have been an Israelite, and no Baal-wor- Bhipper, if we may take her adjuration by " Jehovah thy God " as an indication. Here Elijah performed the miracles of prolonging the oil and the meal ; and restored the son of the widow to life after his apparent death. In this, or some other retreat, an interval of more than two years must have elapsed. The drought continued, and at last the full horrors of famine, caused by the failure of the crops, descended on Samaria. The king and his chief domestic officer divided between them the mournful duty of ascertaining that neither round the springs, which are so fre quent a feature of central Palestine, nor in the nooks and crannies of the most shaded torrent-beds, was there any of the herbage left, which in those countries is so certain an indication of the presence of moisture. It is the moment for the reappearance of the pro phet. He shows himself first to the minister. There, suddenly planted in his path, is the man whom he and his master have been seeking for more than three years. Before the sudden apparition of that wild figure, and that stern, unbroken countenance, Oba- diah could not but fall on his face. Elijah, however, soon calms his agitation — " As Je hovah of hosts liveth, before whom I stand, I will surely show myself to Ahab ;" and thus relieved of his fear that, as on a former occa sion, Elijah would disappear before he could return with the king, Obadiah departs to in form Ahab that the man they seek is there. Ahab arrived, Elijah makes his charge — " Thou hast forsaken Jehovah and followed the Baals." He then commands that all Is rael be collected to Mount Carmel with the four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal, and the four hundred of Asherah (Ashtaroth), the latter being under the especial protection of ELIJAH 153 ELIJAH the queen. There are few more sublime stories in history than this. On the one hand the solitary servant of Jehovah, accom panied by his one attendant ; with Mb wild shaggy hair, his scanty garb and sheepskin cloak, but with calm dignity of demeanour and the minutest regularity of procedure, re pairing the ruined altar of Jehovah with ¦twelve stones — on the other hand the 850 prophets of Baal and Ashtaroth, doubtless in nil the splendour of their vestments (2 K. x. 22), with the wild din of their vain repe titions and the maddened fury of their dis appointed hopes, and the silent people sur rounding a.l. The conclusion of the long day need only be glanced at. The fire of Jehovah consuming both sacrifice and altar— the pro phets of Baal killed, it would seem by Eli jah's own hand (xviii. 40) — the king, with an apathy almost unintelligible, eating and drinking in the very midst of the carnage of his own adherents— the rising storm — the ride across the plain to Jezreel, a distance of at least 16 miles ; the prophet, with true Arab endurance, running before the chariot, but also with true Arab instinct stopping short of the city, and going no further than the " entrance of Jezreel." So far the triumph had been complete ; but the spirit of Jezebel was not to be so easily overcome, and her first act is a vow of vengeance against the author of this destruction, Elijah takes refuge in flight. The danger was great, and the refuge must be distant. The first stage on the journey was Beersheba. Here Elijah halted. His servant he left in the town ; while he himself set out alone into the wilderness. His spirit is quite broken, and he wanders forth over the dreary sweeps of those rocky hills wishing for death. But God, who had brought His servant into this difficulty, provided him with the means of escaping from it. The prophet was wakened from his dream of despondency beneath the solitary bush of the wilderness, was fed with the bread and the water which to this day are all a Bedouin's requirements, and went for ward, in the strength of that food, a journey of forty days to the mount of God, even to Horeb. Here, in the cave, one of the nume rous cavernB in those awful mountains, he remained for certainly one night. In the morning came the *' word of Jehovah " — the question, "What doest thou here, Elijah? " In answer to this invitation the Prophet opens his griefs. The reply comes in that ambiguous and indirect form in which it seems necessary that the deepest communica tions with the human mind should be couched, to be effectual. He is directed to leave the cavern and stand on the mountain in the open air, face to face with Jehovah. Then, aB before with Moses ( Ex. xxxiv. 6), " The Lord passed by," passed in all the terror of His most appalling manifestations ; and pene trating the dead silence which followed these, came the mysterious symbol — the " still small voice," and still as it was it spoke in louder accents to the wounded heart of Elijah than the roar and blaze which had preceded it. To him no less unmistakably than to Moses, centuries before, it was proclaimed that Jehovah was " merciful and gracious, long-suffering and abundant in goodness and truth." Elijah knew the call, and at once stepping forward and hiding his face in his mantle, stood waiting for the Divine com munication. Three commands were laid on him — three changes were to be made. Of these three commands the two first were re served for Elisha to accomplish, the last only was executed by Elijah himself. His first search was for Elisha. Apparently he soon found him ; we must conclude at his native place, Abel-meholah. Elisha was ploughing at the time, and Elijah " passed over to him " — possibly crossed the river — and cast his mantle, the well -known sheepskin cloak, upon him, as if, by that familiar action, claiming him for his son. A moment of hesitation, and then commenced that long period of service and intercourse which con tinued till Elijah's removal, and which after that time procured for Elisha one of the best titles to esteem and reverence — ".Elisha the son of Shaphat, who poured water on' the hands of Elijah." — 2. Ahab and Jezebel now probably believed that their threats had been effectual, and that they had seen the last of their tormentor. After the murder of Naboth, Ahab loses no time in entering on his new acquisition. But his triumph was a short one. Elijah had received an intimation from Jehovah of what was taking place, and rapidly as the accusation and death of Naboth had been hurried over, he was there to meet his ancient enemy on the very scene of his crime. And then follows the curse, in terms fearful to any Oriental — peculiarly terrible to a Jew — and most of all significant to a suc cessor of the apostate princes of the northern kingdom. The whole of Elijah's denuncia tion may possibly be recovered by putting together the words recalled by Jehu, 2 K. ix. 26, 36, 37, and those given in 1 K. xxi. 1&- 25. — 3. A space of three or four years now elapses (comp. 1 K. xxii. 1, 51; 2 K. i. 17) before we again catch a glimpse of Elijah, Ahaziah has met with a fatal accident, and is on his death-bed (2 K. i. 1, 2 ; 1 K. xxii. 51). In his extremity he sends to an oracle or shrine of Baal at the Philistine town ol ELIJAH 154 ELIPHAZ Ekron, to ascertain the issue of his illness. But the oracle is nearer at hand than the distant Ekron. An intimation is conveyed to the prophet, probably at that time inhabit ing one of the recesseB of Carmel, and, as on the former occasions, he suddenly appears on the path of the messengers, without preface or inquiry utters his message of death, and as rapidly disappears. But this check only roused the wrath of Ahaziah. A captain was despatched, with a party of fifty, to take Elijah prisoner. " And there came down fire from heaven and consumed him and his fifty." A second party was sent, only to meet the «ame fate. The altered tone of the leader of a third party brought Elijah down. But the king gained nothing. The message was de livered to his face in the same words as it had been to the messengers, and Elijah was allowed to go harmless. — 4. It must have been shortly after the death of Ahaziah that Elijah made- a communication with the southern kingdom. When Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat began " to walk in the ways of the kings of Israel," Elijah sent him a letter denouncing his evil doings, and pre- 4icting his death (2 Chr. xxi. 12-15). In its contents the letter bears a strong resemblance to the speeches of Elijah, while in the details of style it is very peculiar, and quite differ ent from the narrative in which it is em bedded. — 5. The closing transaction of Eli jah's life introduces us to a locality hereto fore unconnected with him. It was at Gil- gal — probably on the western edge of the hills of Ephraim — that the prophet received the divine intimation that his departure was at hand. He waB at the time with Elisha, who seems now to have become his constant companion, and whom he endeavours to per suade to remain behind while he goes on an errand of Jehovah. But Elisha will not so easily give up his master. They went to gether to Bethel. Again Elijah attempts to escape to Jericho, and again Elisha protests that he will not be separated from him. At Jericho he makes a final effort to avoid what they both so much dread. But Elisha is not to be conquered, and the two set off across the undulating plain of burning sand, to the distant river — Elijah in his mantle or cape of sheepskin, Elisha in ordinary clothes. Fifty men of the sons of the prophets ascend the abrupt heights behind tbe town to watch what happens in the distance. Talking as they go, the two reach the river, and stand on the shelving bank beside its swift brown current. Bui they are not to stop even here. It is as if the aged Gileadite cannot rest till he again sets foot on his own side of the river. He rolls up his mantle as into a staff, and with his old energy strikes the waters as Moses had done before him, — strikes them as if they were an enemy; and they are divided hither and thither, and they two go over on dry ground. " And it came to pass as they still went on and talked, that, behold, a chariot of fire and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder, and Elijah went up by the whirlwind into the skies." — And here ends all the direct information which is vouchsafed to us of the life and work of this great Prophet. How deep was the impression which he made on the mind of the nation may he judged of from the fixed belief which many centuries after prevailed that Elijah would again appear for the relief and restoration of his country. But on the other hand, the deep impression which Elijah had thus made on his nation only renders more remarkable the departure which the image conveyed by the later references to him evinces, from that so sharply presented in the records of his actual life. With the ex ception of the eulogiums contained in the catalogues of worthies in the book of Jesus the son of Sirach (xlviii.) and 1 Mace. ii. 58, and the passing allusion in Luke ix. 54, none of these later references allude to his works of destruction or of portent. They all set forth a very different side of his character to that brought out in the historical narrative. They speak of his being a man of like pas sions with ourselves (James v. 17) ; of his kindness to the widow of Sarepta (Luke iv. 25) ; of his " restoring all things " (Matt. xvii. 11) ; " turning the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the Just " (Mal. iv. 5, 6 ; Luke l. 17.). E'LIM (Ex. xv. 27 ; Num. xxxiii. 9), the second station where the Israelites encamped after crossing the Red Sea. It is distin guished as having had " twelve wells (rather * fountains ') of water, and threescore and ten palm-trees." ELIM'ELECH, a man of the tribe of Judah, and of tbe family of the Hezronites, who dwelt in Bethlehem-Ephratah in the days of the Judges, In consequence of a great dearth in the land he went with his wife Naomi, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chilion, to dwell in Moab, where he and his sons died without posterity (Ruth i. 2, 3, Sec). V EL'IPHAZ. 1. The son of Esau and Adah, and father of Teman (Gen. xxxvi. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 35, 36).— S. The chief of the "three friends " of Job. He is called " the Teman- ite ; " hence it is naturally inferred that he was a descendant of Teman. On him falls the main burden of the argument, that God'a ELISABETH 155, ELISHA retribution in this world is perfect and cer tain, and that consequently suffering must be a proof of previous sin (Jobiv., v., xv., xxii.). The great truth brought out by him is the unapproachable majesty and purity of God (iv. 12-21, xv. 12-16). [Job.] ELIS'ABETH, the wife of Zacharias and mother of John the Baptist. She was herself of the priestly family, and a relation (Luke i. 36) of the mother of our Lord. ELISE'US, the form in which the name Elisha appears in the A. V. of the Apocry pha and the N. T. (Ecclus. xlviii. 12 ; Luke iv. 27). ELI'SHA, son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah. The attendant and disciple of Elijah, and subsequently his successor as prophet of the kingdom of Israel. The earliest mention of his name is in the command to Elijah in the cave at Horeb (1 K. xix. 16, 17). But our first introduction to the future prophet is in the fields of his native place. Abel-meholah was probably in the valley of the Jordan. Elijah, on his way from Sinai to Damascus by the Jordan valley, lights on his successor en gaged in the labours of the field. To cross to Mm, to throw over his shoulders the rough mantle— a token at once of investiture with the prophet's office, and of adoption as a son — was to Elijah but the work of an instant, and the prophet strode on as if what he had done were nothing — " Go back again, for what have I done unto thee V* Elisha was not a man who, having put Ms hand to the plough, was likely to look back ; he delayed merely to giv£ the farewell kiss to his father and mother, and preside at a parting feast with his people, and then followed the great prophet on his northward road. Seven or eight years must have passed between the call of Elisha and the removal of his master, and during the whole of that time we hear nothing of him. But when that period had elapsed he reappears, to become the most prominent figure in the history of his country during the rest of his long life. In almost every respect Elisha presents the most com plete contrast to Elijah. The copious col lection of his sayings and doings which are preserved from the 3rd to the 9th chapter of the 2nd book of Kings, is full of testimonies to this contrast. Elijah was a true Bedouin child of the desert. If he enters a city it is only to deliver his message of fire and be gone. Elisha, on the other hand, is a civi lised man, an inhabitant of cities. And as with his manners so with Ms appearance. The touches of the narrative are very slight ; hut we can gather that his dress was the ordinary garment of an Israelite, the beged, probably similar in form to the long albeyeh of the modern Syrians (2 K. ii. 12), that his hair was worn trimmed behind, in contrast to the disordered locks of Elijah (ii, 23, as explained below), and that he used a walking- staff (iv. 29) of the kind ordinarily carried by grave or aged citizens (Zech. viii. 4). The call of Elisha seems to have taken place about four years before the death of Ahab. He died in the reign of Joash, the grandson of Jehu. This embraces a period of not less than 65 years, for certainly 55 of which he held the office of " prophet in Israel " (2 K. v. 8).— After the departure of Ms master, Elisha returned to dwell at Jericho (2 K. ii. 18). The town had been lately rebuilt (1 K. xvi. 34), and was the residence of a body of the " sons of the prophets " (2 K. ii. 5, 15). One of the springs of Jericho was noxious at the time of Elisha's visit. At the request of the men of Jericho he remedied this evil. He took salt in a new vessel, and cast it into the water at its source in the name of Jehovah. —2. We next meet with Elisha at Bethel, in the heart of the country, on his way from Jericho to Mount Carmel (2 K. ii. 23), His last visit had been made in company with Elijah on their road down to the Jordan (ii. 2). Here the boys of the town were clus tered, waiting, as they still wait at the entrance of the villages of Palestine, for the chance passer-by. In the short-trimmed locks of Elisha, how were they to recognise the successor of the prophet, with whose shaggy hair streaming over his shoulders they were all familiar 1 So with the license of the Eastern children they scoff at the new comer as he walks by—-" Go up, roundhead I go up, roundhead I " For once Elisha assumed the sternness of his master. He turned upon them and cursed them in the name of Jehovah, and we all know the catastrophe which fol lowed. — 3. Elisha extricates Jehoram king of Israel, and the kings of Judah and Edom, from their difficulty in the campaign against Moab, arising from want of water (iii, 4-27). This incident probably took place at the S.E. end of the Dead Sea. — 4. The widow of one of the sonB of the prophets is in debt, and her two sons are about to be taken from her and sold as slaves. She has no property but a pot of oil. This Elisha causes (in his absence, iv. 5) to multiply, until the widow has filled with it all the vessels which she could borrow, — 5. The next occurrence is at Shunem and Mount Carmel (iv. 8-37). The story divides itself into two parts, separated from each other by several years, (a.) Elisha, probably on his way between Carmel and the Jordan valley, calls accidentally at Shunem. Here he is hospitably entertained by a woman of substance, apparently at that time ignorant ELISHA 156 ELISHA of the character of her guest. There is no Decision here to quote the details of this charming narrative, (b.) An interval has elapsed of several years. The boy is now old enough to accompany his father to the corn-field, where the harvest is proceeding. The fierce rays of the morning sun are too powerful for him, and he is carried home to his mother only to die at noon. She says nothing of their loss to her husband, but depositing her child on the bed of the man of God, at once starts in quest of him to Mount Carmel. No explanation is needed to tell Elisha the exact state of the case. The heat of the season will allow of no delay in taking the necessary steps, and Gehazi is at once despatched to run back to Shunem with the utmost speed. He takes the prophet's walking-staff in his hand, which he is to lay on the face of the child. The mother and Elisha follow in haste. Before they reach the village the sun of that long, anxious, Bummer afternoon must have set. Gehazi meets them on the road, but he has no reassur ing report to give, the placing of the staff on the face of the dead boy had called forth no sign of life. Then Elisha enters the house, goes up to his own chamber, *' and he shut the door on them twain and prayed unto Jehovah." The child is restored to life. — 6. The scene now changes to Gilgal, apparently at a time when Elisha was residing there (iv. 38—41). The sons of the prophets are sitting round him. It is a time of famine. The food of the party must consist of any herbs that can be found. Tbe great caldron is put on at the command of Elisha, and one of the company brings his blanket full of such wild vegetables as he has collected, and empties it into the PQttage. But no sooner have they begun their meal than the taste betrays the presence of some noxious herb, and they cry out, " There is death in the pot, O man of God ! " In this case the cure was effected by meal which Elisha cast into the stew in the caldron. — 7. (iv. 42-44). This in all proba bility belongs to the same time, and also to the same place as the preceding. A man from Baal-shalisha brings the man of God a present of the first-fruits, which under the law (Num. xviii. 8, 12; Deut. xviii. 3, 4) were the perquisite of the ministers of the sanctuary. — 8. The simple records of these domestic incidents amongst the sons of the prophets are now interrupted by an occurrence of a more important character (v. 1-27). The chief captain of the army of Syria, to whom his country was indebted for some signal success, was afflicted with leprosy (v. 27). One of the members of his establish ment ;s an Israelite girl, kidnapped by the marauders of Syria in one of their forays over the border, and she brings into that Syrian household the fame of the name and skill of Elisha. The news is communicated by Naaman himself to the king. Benhadad had yet to learn the position and character of Elisha. He writes to the king of Israel a letter very characteristic of a military prince. With this letter, and with a present, and a full retinue of attendants (13, 15, 23), Naaman proceeds to Samaria, to the house of Elisha. Elisha still keeps in the background, and while Naaman stands at the doorway, con tents himself with sending out a messenger with the simple direction to bathe seven times in the Jordan. The independent behaviour of the prophet, and the simplicity of the pre scription, all combined to enrage Naaman. His slaves, however, knew how to deal with the quick but not ungenerous temper of their master, and the result is that he goes down to the Jordan and dips himself seven times, " and his flesh came again like the flesh of a little child, and he was clean." His first business after his cure is to thank Ms bene factor. He returns with his whole following, and this time he will not be denied the presence of Elisha ; but making his way in, and standing before him, he gratefully acknowledges the power of the God of Israel, and entreats him to accept the present which he has brought from Damascus. Elisha is firm, and refuses the offer, though repeated with the strongest adjuration. But Gehazi cannot allow such treasures thus to escape him. So be frames a story by which the generous Naaman is made to send back with him to Elisha's house a considerable present in money and clothes. He then went in and stood before his master as if nothing had happened. But the prophet was not to be so deceived. His heart had gone after his ser vant through the whole transaction, even to its minutest details, and he visits Gehazi with the tremendous punishment of the leprosy, from which he has just relieved Naaman. — 9. (vi. 1-7). We now return to the sons of the prophets ; but this time the scene appears to be changed, and is probably at Jericho, and during the residence of Elisha there. As one of them was cutting at a tree overhanging the stream, the iron of his axe flew off and sank into the water. His cry soon brought the man of God to his aid. The stream of the Jordan is deep up to the very bank, especially when the water is so low as to leave the wood dry, and is moreover so turbid that search would be useless. But the place at which the lost axe entered the water is shown to Elisha ; he breaks off a stick and casts it into the stream, and the ELISHA 157 ELISHAH iron appears on the surface, and is recovered by its possessor. — 10. (vi. 8-23). Elisha is now residing at Dothan, halfway on the road between Samaria and Jezreel. The incursions of the Syrian marauding bands (comp. v. 2) still continue. Their manoeu vres are not hid from the man of God, and by his warnings he saves the king " not once nor twice." A strong party with chariots is despatched to effect the capture of Elisha. They march by night, and before morning take up their station round the base of the eminence on which the ruins oi Dothan still Btand. Elisha's servant is the first to dis cover the danger. But Elisha remains un moved by his fears. He prays to Jehovah, and the whole of the Syrian warriors are struck blind. Then descending, he offers to lead them to the person and the place which they seek. He conducts them to Samaria. There, at the prayer of the prophet, their sight is restored, and they find themselves not in a retired country village, but in the midst of the capital of Israel, and in the pre sence of the king and his troops. After such a repulse it is not surprising that the marauding forays of the Syrian troops ceased. — 11. (vi. 24— vii. 2). But the king of Syria could not rest under such dishonour. He abandons his marauding system, and gathers a regular army, with which he lays siege to Samaria. The awful extremities to which the inhabitants of the place were driven need not here be recalled. — 12. (viii. 1-6). We now go back several years to an incident con nected with the lady of Shunem, at a period antecedent to the cure of Naaman and the transfer of his leprosy to Gehazi (v. 1, 27). Elisha had been made aware of a famine which Jehovah was about to bring upon the land for seven years ; and he had warned his friend the Shunammite thereof that she might provide for her safety. At the end of the seven years she returned to her native place, to find that during her absence her house with the field-land attached to it had been appropriated by some other person. To the king therefore the Shunammite had recourse And now occurred one of those rare coincidences which it is impossible not to ascribe to something more than mere chance. At the very moment of the en trance of the woman and her son the king was listening to a recital by Gehazi of " all the great things which Elisha had done." The woman was instantly recognised by Gehazi. From her own mouth the king hftars the repetition of the wonderful tale, and, whether from regard to Elisha, or Btruck by the extraordinary coincidence, orders her land to be restored with the value of all its produce during her absence. — 13. (viii. 7-15). Hitherto we have met with the prophet only in his own country. We now find Mm at Damascus. He is there to carry out the command given to Elijah on Horeb to anoint Hazael to be king over Syria. At the time of his arrival Benhadad was prostrate with his last illness. The king's first desire is naturally to ascertain his own fate ; and Hazael is commissioned to be the bearer of a present to the prophet, and to ask the question on the part of his master, "Shall I recover of this disease?" The reply, probably originally ambiguous, is doubly uncertain in the present doubtful state of the Hebrew text ; but the general conclusion was unmistakable :— " J ehovah hath showed me that he shall surely die." But this wa3 not all that had been revealed to the prophet. If Benhadad died, who would be king in his stead but the man who now stood before him t The prospect was one which drew forth the tears of the man of God. At Hazael's request Elisha confesses the reason of his tears. But the prospect is one which has no sorrow for Hazael. His only doubt is the possibility of such good fortune for one so mean. "But what is thy slave, dog that he is, that he should do this great thing 1 " To which Elisha replies, " Jehovah hath showed me that thou wilt he king over Syria." Returning to the king, Hazael tells him only half the dark saying of the man of God— " He told me that thou shouldest surely recover." But that was the last day of Ben- hadad's life.— 14. (ix. 1-10). Two of the injunctions laid on Elijah had now been carried out ; the third still remained. The time was come for the fulfilment of the curse upon Ahab by anointing Jehu king over Israel. Elisha's personal share in the trans action was confined to giving directions to one of the sons of the prophets. [Jehu.] — 15* Beyond this we have no record of Elisha's having taken any part in the revolution of Jehu, or the events which followed it. He does not again appear till we find him on his deathbed in Ms own house (xiii. 14-19).— 16. (xiii. 20-22). The power of the prophet, however, does not terminate with his death. Even in the tomb he restores the dead to Ufe. ELI'SHAH, the eldest son of Javan (Gen. x. 4). The residence of his descendants is described in Ez. xxvii. 7, as the "isles of Elishah," whence the Phoenicians obtained their purple and blue dyes. Some connect the race of Elishah with the Aeolians, others with Elis, and in a more extended sense Peloponnesus, or even Hellas. It appears ELISHAMA 158 EMBALMING correct to treat it as the designation of a race rather than of a locality. ELISH'AMA, son ofAmmihud, the "prince" or " captain " of tbe tribe of Ephraim in the Wilderness of Sinai (Num. i. 10, ii. 18, vii. 48. x. 22). From 1 Chr. vii. 26 we find that he was grandfather to tbe great Joshua. ELISHE'BA, the wife of Aaron (Ex. vi. 23). She was the daughter of Amminadab, and sister of Naashon the captain of the host of Judah (Num. ii. 3). ELISHU'A, one of David's sons, born after his settlement in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 15 ; 1 Chr. xiv.- 5). EL'KANAH. 1. Son, or rather grandson (see 1 Chr. vi. 22, 23 [7, 8]) of Korah, according to Ex. vi. 24. — 2. Another Ko- hathite Levite, was son of Jeroham, and father of Samuel the illustrious Judge and Prophet (1 Chr. vi. 27, 34). All that is known of him is contained in the above notices and in 1 Sam. i. 1, 4, 8, 19, 21, 23, and ii. 2, 20. EL'KOSH, the birthplace of the prophet Nahum, hence called "the Elkoshite," Nah. i. 1. Two widely differing Jewish traditions assign as widely different localities to this place. In the time of Jerome it was be lieved to exist in a small village of Galilee. Others assign it to Alkush, a village on the east bank of the Tigris, about two miles north of Mosul. The former is more in accordance with the internal evidence afforded by the prophecy, which gives no sign of having been written in Assyria. EL'LASAR, the city of Arioch (Gen. xiv. 1), seems to be the Hebrew representative of the old Chaldaean town called in the native dialect Larsa or Larancha. Larsa was a town of Lower Babylonia or Chaldaea, situated nearly halfway between Ur (Mug heir) and Erech (Warka), on the left bank of the Euphrates. It is now Senkereh. ELM, Hos. iv. 13. See Oak. EL'NATHAN, the maternal grandfather of Jehoiachin (2 K. xxiv. 8), is doubtless the same man with Elnathan the son of Achbor (Jer. xxvi. 22, xxxvi. 12, 25). E'LON. 1. A Hittite, whose daughter was one of Esau's wives (Gen. xxvi. 34, xxxvi. 2). — 2. The second of the three sons attributed to Zebulun (Gen. xlvi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. 26) ; and the founder of the family of the Elonites. — 3. Elon tbe Zebulonite, who judged Israel for ten years, and was buried in Aijalon in Zebulun (Judg. xii. 11, 12).— 4, One of the towns in the border of the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 43). ELOTH. [Elath.] EL'TOLAD, one of the cities in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 30) allotted to Simeon (Josh. xix. 4); and in possession of that tribe until the time of David (1 Chr. iv. 29). ELU'L, Neh. vi. 15; 1 Mace. xiv. 27. [Months.] EL'YMAS, the Arabic name of the Jew ish mngus or sorcerer Barjesus (Acts xiii. 6 ff.).EMBALMING, the process by which dead bodies are preserved from putrefaction and decay. It was most general among the Egyptians, and it is in connexion with this people that, the two instances wMch we meet with in the O. T. are mentioned (Gen. 1. 2, 26). Of the Egyptian method of em balming there remain two minute accounts, which have a general kind of agreement, though they differ in details. Herodotus (ii. 86-89) describes three modes, varying in completeness and expense, and practised by persons regularly trained to the profession who were initiated into the mysteries of the art by their ancestors. The embalmers first removed part of the brain through the nostrils, by means of a crooked iron, and destroyed the rest by injecting caustic drugs. An incision was then made along the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone, and the whole of the intestines removed. The cavity was rinsed out with palm-wine, and afterwards scoured with pounded perfumes. It was then filled with pure myrrh pounded, cassia, and other aromatics, except frankincense. This done, the body was sewn up and steeped in natron for seventy days. When the seventy days were accomplished, the embalmers washed the corpse and swathed it in bandages of linen, cut in strips and smeared with gum. They then gave it up to the relatives of the deceased, who provided KMluMlllllliMHIilllUfff/a in in iui un un i n i n 1 1 ii I hi mi in The mummy's head, seen at iu open panel ol the coffin. (WUkliuon.) «HO WO EMERALD 159 ENGEDI for it a wooden case, made in the shape of a man, in which the dead was placed, and deposited in an erect position against the wall of the sepulchral chamber. The second mode of embalming cost about 20 minae. In this case no incision was made in the body, nor were the intestines removed, but cedar-oil was injected into the stomach by the rectum. The oil was prevented from escaping, and the body was then steeped in natron for the appointed number of days. On the last day the oil was withdrawn, and carried off with it the stomach and intestines in a state of solution, while the flesh was consumed by the natron, and nothing was left but the skin and bones. The body in this state was returned to the relatives of the deceased. The third mode, which was adopted by the poorer classes, and cost but little, consisted in rinsing out the intestines with syrmaea, an infusion of senna and cassia, and steeping the body for the usual number of days in natrum. It does not appear that embalm ing, properly so called, was practised by the Hebrews. EMERALD, a precious stone, first in the second row on the breastplate of the high- priest (Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11), imported to Tyre from Syria (Ez. xxvii. 16), used as a seal or signet (Ecclus. xxxii. 6), as an orna ment of clothing and bedding (Ez. xxviii. 13 ; Jud. x. 21), and spoken of as one of the foundations of Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 19 ; Tob. xiii, 16). The rainbow round the throne is compared lo Emerald in Rev. iv. 3. EMERODS (Deut. xxviii. 27 ; 1 Sam. v. 6, 9, 12, vi. 4, 5, 11), probably hemorrhoidal tumours, or bleeding piles, are intended. These are very common in Syria at present, oriental habits of want of exercise and im proper food, producing derangement of the liver, constipation, &c, being such as to cause them. E'MIMS, a tribe or family of gigantic stature which originally inhabited the region along the eastern side of the Dead Sea. They were related to the Anakim, and were generally called by the same name ; but their conquerors the Moabites termed them Emim — that is "terrible men" (Deut. ii. 11) — most probably on account of their fierce aspect. EMMAN'UEL, Matt. i. 23. [Immanuel.] EMMA'US, the village to which the two disciples were going when our Lord appeared to them on the way, on the day of His resur rection (Luke xxiv. 13). Luke makes its distance from Jerusalem sixty stadia (A. V. ** threescore furlongs "), or about 7£ miles ; and Josephus mentions " a village called Emmaus " at the same distance. The site of Emmaus remains yet to be identified. EMMA'US, or NICOP'OLIS ( 1 Mace. iii. 40), a town in the plain of PMlistia, r* the foot of the mountains of Judah, 22 Rom*,u miles from Jerusalem, and 10 from Lydda. It was fortified hy Bacchides, the general *. .'"¦ - FRANKINCENSE 180 FULLER animal, under the name of Cams Syriacus, occurs in Lebanon. The Egyptian Yulpes Niloticus, and doubtless the common fox of our own country, are Palestine species. FRANKINCENSE, a vegetable resin, brit tle, glittering, and of a bitter taste, used for the purpose of sacrificial fumigation (Ex. xxx. 34-36). It is obtained by successive incisions in the bark of a tree called the arbor thuris, the first of which yields the purest and whitest kind; while the produce of the after incisions is spotted with yellow, and as it become* old loses its whiteness altogether. The Hebrews imported their frankincense from Arabia (Is. Ix. 6 ; Jer. vi. 20), and more particularly from Saba; but it is remarkable that at present the Arabian Libanum, or Olibanum, is of a very inferior kind, and that the finest frankincense im ported into Turkey comes through Arabia from the islands of the Indian Archipelago. There can be little doubt that the tree which produces the Indian frankincense is the Bos- wellia serrata of Roxburgh, or Boswellia thurifera of Colebrooke. It is still extremely uncertain what tree produces the Arabian Olibanum. FROG. The mention of this reptile in the O. T. is confined to the passage in Ex. viii. 2-7, &c, in which the plague of frogs is de scribed, and to Ps, lxxviii. 45, cv. 30. In the N. T. the word occurs once only in Rev. xvi. 13. There iB no question as to the ani mal meant. The only known species of frog which occurs at present in Egypt is the Rana esculenta, the edible frog of the continent. FRONTLETS, or PHYLACTERIES (Ex. xiii. 16 ; Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18 ; Matt, xxiii. 5). These "frontlets" or "phylacteries" were strips of parchment, on which were written four passages of Scripture (Ex. xiii. 2-10, 11-17 ; Deut. vi. 4-9, 13-23) in an ink pre pared for the purpose. They were then rolled up in a case of black calfskin, which was attached to a stiffer piece of leather, having a thong one finger broad, and one and a half cubits long. They were placed at the bend of tho left arm. Those worn on the forehead were written on four strips of parch ment, and put into four litle cells within a square case, on which the letter $ was written. The square had two thongs, on which Hebrew letters were inscribed. That phylacteries were used as amulets is certain, and was very natural. The expression "they make broad their phylacteries " (Matt, xxiii. 5) refers not so much to the phylactery itself, which seems to have been of a prescribed breadth, as to the case in which the parch ment was kept, which the Pharisees, among their other pretentious customs (Mark vii. 3, 4 ; Luke v. 33, &c), made as conspicuous as they could. It is said that the Pharisees wore them always, whereas the common people only used them at prayers. The modern Jews only wear them at morning prayers, and sometimes at noon. In our Lord's time they were worn by all Jews, ex cept the Karaites, women, and slaves. Boys, at the age of tMrteen years and a day, were bound to wear them. The Karaites explained Deut. vi. 8, Ex. xiii. 9, &c, as a figurative command to remember the law, as is certainly the case in similar passages (Prov. iii. 3, vi. 21, vii. 3 ; Cant. viii. 6, &c). It seems clear to us that the scope of these injunctions favours the Karaite interpretation. Frontlets or Phylacteries. FULLER. The trade of the fullers, so far as it is mentioned in Scripture, appears to have consisted chiefly in cleansing garments and wMtening them. The process of fulling or cleansing cloth consisted in treading or stamping on the garments with the feet or with bats in tubs of water, in wMch some alkaline substance answering the purpose of soap had been dissolved. The substances used for this purpose which are mentioned in Scripture are natrum (Prov. xxv. 2C ; Jer. ii. 22) and soap (Mal. iii. 2). Other sub stances also are mentioned as being employed in cleansing, wMch, together with alkali, seem to identify the Jewish with the Roman process, as urine and chalk. The process of wMtening garments was performed by rub bing into them chalk or earth of some kind. Creta Cimolia (Cimolite) was probably the earth most frequently used. The trade of the fullers, as causing offensive smells, and also as requiring space for drying clothes, FULLER'S FIELD, THE 181 GAD appears to have been carried On at Jerusalem outside the city. FULLER'S FIELD, THE, a spot near Jerusalem (2 K. xviii. 17; Is. vii. 3, xxxvi. 2) so close to the walls that a person speaking from there could be heard on them (2 K. xviii. 17, 26). One resort of the fullers of Jerusalem would seem to have been below the city on the south-east side. But Rab- shakeh and Ms "great host" must have come from the north ; and the Fuller's Field was therefore, to judge from this circum stance, on the table-land on the northern side of the city. FUNERALS. [Burial.] FURLONG. [Measures.] " FURNACE. Various kinds of furnaces are noticed in the Bible, such as a smelting or calcining furnace (Gen. xix. 28 ; Ex. ix. 8, 10, xix. 18), especially a lime-kiln (Is. xxxiii. 12 ; Am. ii. 1) ; a refimng furnace (Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21 ; Ez. xxii. 18 ff.) ; a large furnace built like a brick-kiln (Dan. iii. 22, 23). The Persians were in the habit of using the furnace as a means of inflicting capital punishment (Dan.7. c. ; Jer. xxix. 22 ; 2 Mace. vii. 5 ; Hos. vii. 7). /"HA'AL, son of Ebed, aided the Sheche- VT mites in their rebellion against Abi melech (Judg. ix.). GA'ASH. On the north side of " the hill of Gaash" was the city which was given to Joshua (Josh. xxiv. 30 ; Judg. ii. 9 ; comp. Josh. xix. 49, 50). It does not appear to have been recognized. GA'BA. The same name as Geba. It is found in the A. V. in Josh, xviii. 24 ; Ezr. ii. 26; Neh. vii. 30. GAB'BATHA, the Hebrew or Chaldee ap pellation of a place, also called " Pavement," where the judgment-seat or bema was planted, from his place on wMch Pilate delivered our Lord to death (Johnxix.13). The place was outside the praetorium, for Pilate brought Jesus forth from thence to it. It is sug gested that Gabbatha is a mere translation of " pavement." It is more probably from an ancient root signifying height or roundness. In tMs case Gabbatha designated the ele vated Bema; and the "pavement" was pos sibly some mosaic or tesselated work, either forming the bema itself, or the flooring of the court immediately round it. GA'BRIEL. The word, which is not in itself distinctive, but merely a description of the angelic office, is used as a proper name or title in Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21, and in Luke i. 19, 26. In the ordinary traditions, Jewish and Christian, Gabriel is spoken of as one of the archangels. In Scripture he is set forth only as the representative of the angelic nature in its miMstration of comfort and sympathy to man. GAD, Jacob's seventh son, the first-born of Zilpah, Leah's maid, and whole-brother to Asher (Gen. xxx. 11-13, xlvi. 16, 18). The word means either "fortune" or "troop;" hence Leah said at his birth — " a troop (of children) cometh " (Gen. xxx. ii. ; comp. xlix. 19). Of the childhood and life of the patriarch Gad nothing is preserved. At the time of the descent into Egypt seven sons are ascribed to him. The alliance between the tribes of Reuben and Gad was doubtless in duced by the similarity of their pursuits. Of .all the sons of Jacob these two tribes alone returned to the land which their forefathers had left five hundred years before, with their occupations unchanged. At the halt on the east of Jordan we find them coming forward to Moses with the representation that they " have cattle " — " a great multitude of cattle," and the land where they now are is a " place for cattle." They did not, however, attempt to evade taking their proper share of the difficulties of subduing the land of Canaan, and after that taBk had been effected they were dismissed by Joshua " to their tents," to their " wives, their little ones, and their cattle," which they had left behind them in Gilead. The country allotted to Gad appears, speaking roughly, to have lain chiefly about the centre of the land east of Jordan. The south of that district — from the Arnon (Wady Mojeb), about halfway down the Dead Sea, to Heshbon, nearly due east of Jerusalem — was occupied by Reuben, and at or about Heshbon the possessions of Gad com menced. They embraced half Gilead, as the oldest record specially states (Deut. iii. 12), or half the land of the children of Ammon (Josh. xiii. 25), probably the mountainous district which is intersected by the torrent Jabbok, including, as its most northern town, the ancient sanctuary of Mahanaim. On the east the furthest landmark given is " Aroer, that faces Rabbah," the present Amman (Josh. xiii. 25). West was the Jordan (27). Such was the territory allotted to the Gadites, but there is no doubt that they soon extended themselves beyond these limits. The official records of the reign of Jotham of Judah (1 Chr. v. 11, 16) show them to have been at that time established over the whole of Gilead, and in possession of Bashan as far as Salcah, and very far both to the north and the east of the border given them originally, while the Manassites were pushed still further northwards to Mount Hermon (1 Chr. v. 23). The character of the tribe is throughout GAD 182 GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE strongly marked — fierce and warlike — "strong men of might, men of war for the battle, that could handle shield and buckler, their faces the faces of lions, and like roes upon the mountains for swiftness." Gad was carried into captivity by Tiglath-Pileser (1 Chr. v. 26), and in the time of Jeremiah the cities of the tribe 6eem to have been inhabited by the Ammonites. GAD, "the Beer," or "the king's seer," *. e. David's (1 Chr. xxix. 29 ; 2 Chr. xxix. 25 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 11 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 9), was a " prophet" who appears to have joined David when in the hold (1 Sam. xxii. 5). He re appears in connexion with the punishment infiicted for the numbering of the people (2 Sam. xxiv. 11-19 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 9-19). He wrote a book of the Acts of David (1 Chr. xxix. 29), and also assisted in the arrange ments for the musical service of the " house of God" (2 Chr. xxix. 25). GAD. Properly "the Gad," with the article. In the A. V. of Is. lxv. 1 1 the clause " that prepare a table for that troop " has in the margin instead of the last word the proper name " Gad," wMch evidently denotes some idol worshipped by the Jews in Babylon, though it is impossible positively to iden tify it. GAD'ARA, a strong city situated near the river Hieromax, east of the Sea of Galilee, over against Scythopolis and Tiberias, and sixteen Roman miles distant from each of those places. Josephus calls it the capital of Peraea. A large district was attached to it. Gadara itself is not mentioned in the Bible, but it is evidently identical with the "country of the Gadarenes," or GergeseneB (Matt. viii. 28; Mark v. 1; Luke viii. 26, 37). The ruins of this city, now called Um Keis, are about two miles in circumference. Gadara deriveB its greatest interest from having been the scene of our Lord's miracle in healing the demoniacs (Matt. viii. 28-34 ; Mark v. 1-21 ; Luke viii. 26-40). The whole circumstances or the narrative are strikingly illustrated by the features of the country. Another thing is worthy of notice. The most interesting remains of Gadara are its tombs, which dot the cliffs for a considerable distance round the city. Gadara was captured by Vespasian on the first outbreak of the war with the Jews ; all its inhabitants massacred ; and the town itself, with the surrounding villages, reduced to ashes. GAI'US. [John, Second and Thibd Epistles of.] GAL'AAD, the Greek form of the word Gilead. GALA'TI i, is literally the " Gallia" of the East* The Galatians were in their origin a stream of that great Keltic torrent which poured into Greece in the third century before the Christian era. Some of these invaders moved on into Thrace, and appeared on the shores of the Hellespont and Bosporus, when Nicomedes I., king of Bithynia, being then engaged in a civil war, invited them across to help him. At the end of the Republic, Galatia appears as a dependent kingdom ; at the beginning of the Empire as a province (a.d. 26). The Roman province of Galatia may be roughly described as the central region of the peninsula of Asia Minor, with the pro vinces of Asia on the west, Cappadocia on the east, Pamphtlia and Cilicia on the south, and Bithynia and Pontus on tbe north. These Eastern Gauls preserved much of their ancient character, and sometMng of their ancient language. The prevailing speech, however, of the district was Greek. The inscriptions found at Ancyra are Greek, and St. Paul wrote Ms Epistle in Greek. It is difficult at first sight to determine in what sense the word Galatia is used by the writers of tho N. T., or whether always in the same sense. In the Acts of the Apostles the journeys of St. Paul through the district are mentioned in very general terms. On all ac counts it seemB most probable that Galatia is used by St. Luke as an ethnographical term, and not for the Roman province of that name. GALATIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, was written by the Apostle St. Paul not long after his journey through Galatia and Phrygia (Acts xviii. 23), and probably in the early portion of his two years' and a half stay at Ephesus, which terminated with the Pente cost of a.d. 57 or 58. The Epistle appears to have been called forth by the machinations of Judaizing teachers, who, shortly before the date of its composition, had endeavoured to seduce the churches of this province into a recognition of circumcision (v. 2, 11, 12, vi. 12, sq.), and had openly sought to de preciate the apostolic claims of St. Pau. (comp. i. 1, 11). The scope and contents of the Epistle are thus — (1) apologetic (i., ii.) and polemical (iii. iv.) ; and (2) hortatory and practical (v., vi.) : the positions and de monstrations of the former portion being used with great power and persuasiveness in the exhortations of the latter. Two historical questions require a brief notice: — 1. The number of visits made by St. Paul to the churches of Galatia previous to his writing the Epistle. These seem certainly to have been two. The Apostle founded the churches of Galatia in the visit recorded Acts xvi. 6, during his second missionary journey, about a.d. 51, and revisited them at the period and ¦i'ii.:i.,-:: m i'i1 St ! s 1 1' r JHBMlJ- OWTi" ; . V« GALBANUM 183 GALL on the occasion mentioned ! Acts xviii. 23, when he went through the country of Galatia and Phrygia. On this occasion it would seem probable that he found the leaven of Judaism beginning to work in the churches of Galatia. 2. Closely allied with the preceding question is that of the date, and the place from which the Epistle was written. It was probably written about the 6ame -time as the Epistle to the Romans at Corinth, during the three months that the Apostle stayed there (Acts xx. 2, 3), apparently the winter of a.d. 57 or 58. GALBANUM, one of the perfumes em ployed in the preparation of the sacred incense (Ex. xxx. 34). The galbanum of commerce is brought chiefly from India and the Levant. It is a resinous gum of a brownish yellow colour, and strong, disagreeable smell, usually met with in masses, but sometimes found in yellowish tear -like drops. But, though galbanum itself is well known, the plant which yields it has not been exactly deter mined. GAL'EED, the name given by Jacob to the heap which he and Laban mnde on Mount Gilead in witness of the coven? it then entered into between them (Gen. xxxi. 47, 48 ; comp. 23, 25). GAL'ILEE. . This name, wMch in the Roman age was applied to a large province, seems to have been originally confined to a little "circuit" of country round Kedesh- Naphtali, in which were situated the twenty towns given by Solomon to Hiram, king of Tyre, as payment for Ms work in conveying timber from Lebanon to Jerusalem (Josh. xx. 7 ; 1 K. ix. 11). They were then, or subsequently, occupied by strangers, and for this reason Isaiah gives to the district the name "Galilee of the Gentiles" (Is. ix. 1). It is probable that the strangers increased in number, and became during the captivity the great body of the inhabitants; extending themselves also over the surrounding country, they gave to their new territories the old name, until at length Galilee became one of the largest provinces of Palestine. In the time of our Lord all Palestine was. divided into three provinces, Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee (Acts ix. 31 ; Luke xvii. 11 ; Joseph. B. J. iii. 3). The latter included the whole northern section of the country, including the ancient territories of Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, and Naphtali. On the west it was bounded by the territory of Ptolemais, which probably included the whole plain of Akka to the foot of Carmel. The southern border ran along the base of Carmel and of the hills of Samaria to Mount Gilboa, and then descended the valley of Jezreel by Scythonolis to the Jordan. The river . Jordan, the Sea of Galilee, and the upper Jordan to the fountain at Dan, formed the eastern border ; and the northern ran from Dan westward across the mountain ridge till it touched the territory of the Phoenicians. Galilee was divided into two sections, "Lower" and "Upper." Lower Galilee included the great plain of Esdraelon with its offshoots, which run down to the Jordan and the Lake of Tiberias ; and the whole of the hill-country adjoining it on tho north to the foot of the mountain-range. It was thus one of the richest and most beautiful sections of Palestine. The chief towns of Lower Galilee were Tiberias, Tarichaea, a.t the southern end of the Sea of Galilee, and Sepphoris. The towns most celebrated in N. T. history are Nazareth, Cana, and Tiberias (Luke i. 26 ; John ii. 1, vi. 1). Upper Galilee embraced the whole mountain-range lying between the upper Jordan and Phoenicia. To this region the name "Galilee of the Gentiles" is given in the O. and N. T. (Is. ix. 1 ; Matt. iv. 15). The town of Caper naum, on the north shore of the lake, was in upper Galilee. Galilee was the scene of the greater part of our Lord's private life and public acts. His early years were spent at Nazareth ; and when He entered on His great work He made Capernaum His home (Matt. iv. 13. ix. 1). It is a remarkable fact that the first three Gospels are chiefly taken up with our Lord's ministrations in this pro vince, wMle the Gospel of John dwells more upon those in Judaea. The nature of our Lord's parables and illustrations was greatly influenced by the peculiar features and pro ducts of the country. The Apostles were all either Galileans by birth or residence (Acts i. 11). After the destruction of Jerusalem, Galilee became the chief seat of Jewish schools of learning, and the residence of their most celebrated Rabbins. GALILEE, SEA OF. [Gennesareth.] GALL, the representative in the A. V. of the Hebrew words m&rSr&h, or m&rdr&h, and rdsh. 1. Me'rivdh or mtirordh denotes ety- mologically " that which iB bitter ;" see Job xiii. 26, "thou writest bitter things against me." Hence the term is applied to the "bile" or "gall" from its intense bitterness (Job xvi. 13, xx. 25) ; it is also used of the "poison" of berpents (Job j;k. 14), which the ancients erroneously believed was their gall. 2. Rdsh, generally translated "gall" by the A. V. is in Hos. x. 4 rendered " hem lock :" in Deut. xxxii. 33, and Job xx. 16, rdsh denotes the "poison" or "venom "of serpents. From Deut. xxix. 18, and Lam. iii. 19, compared with Hos. x. 4, it is evident that the Heb. term denotes some hitter, and GALLEY 184 GAMES perhaps poisonoiu plant. Other writers have supposed, and with some reason (from Deut. xxxii. 32), that some berry-bearing plant must be intended. Gesenius understands "poppies." The capsules of the Papaveraceae may well give the name of rdsh (" head ") to the plant in question, just as we speak of poppy heads. The various species of this family spring up quickly in corn-fields, and the juice is extremely bitter. A steeped solu tion of poppy heads may be " the water of gall" of Jer. viii. 14. The passages in the Gospels wMch relate the circumstance of the Roman soldiers offering our Lord, just before Ms crucifixion, "vinegar mingled with gall," according to St. Matthew (xxvii. 34), and. "wine mingled with myrrh," according to St. Mark's account (xv. 23), reqMre Borne consideration. " Matthew, in his usual way," as Hengstenberg remarks, " desig nates the drink theologically ; always keeping his eye on the prophecies of the O. T., he speaks of gall and vinegar for the purpose of rendering the fulfilment of the Psalms more manifest. Mark again (xv. 23), according to his way, looks rather at the outward quality of the drink." "Gall" is not to be under stood in any other Bense than as expressing the bitter nature of the draught. Notwith standing the almost concurrent opinion of ancient and modern commentators that the "wine mingled with myrrh" was offered to our Lord as an anodyne, we cannot readily come to the same conclusion. Had the sol diers intended a mitigation of suffering, they would doubtless have offered a draught drugged with some substance having narcotic properties. The drink in question was pro bably a mere ordinary beverage of the Romans. GALLEY. [Ship.] GAL'LIO. JuMus Annaeus Gallio, the Roman pro-consul of Achaia when St. Paul was at Corinth, a.d. 53, under the Emperor Claudius (Acts xviii. 12). He was brother to Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the philosopher. Jerome in the Chronicle of Eusebius says that he committed suicide in the year 65 a.d. GAMA'LIEL. 1. Son of Pedahzur ; prince or captain of the tribe of Manasseh at the census at Sinai (Num. i. 10, ii. 20, vii. 54, 59), and at starting on the march through the wilderness (x. 23). — 2. A Pharisee and celebrated doctor of the law, who gave prudent worldly advice in the Sanhedrim re specting the treatment of the followers of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts v. 34 ff.). We learn from Acts xxii. 3 that he was the preceptor of St. Paul. He is generally identified with the very celebrated Jewish doctor Gamaliel. This Gamaliel was son of Rabbi Simeon, and grand son of the celebrated Hillel ; he was president of the Sanhedrim under Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, and is reported to have died eighteen years before the destruction of Jeru salem. GAMES. Among the Greeks the rage for theatrical exhibitions was such that every city of any size possessed its theatre and stadium. At Ephesus an annual contest was held in honour of Diana. It is probable that St. Paul was present when these games were proceeding. A direct reference to the ex hibitions that took place on such occasions is made in 1 Cor. xv. 32. St. Paul's Epistles abound with allusions to the Greek conteBtB, borrowed probably from the Isthmian games, at which he may well have been present during his first visit to Corinth. These con tests (2 Tim. iv. 7 ; 1 Tim. vi. 12) were divided into two classes, the pancratium, con sisting of boxing and wrestling, and the pentathlon, consisting of leaping, running, quoiting, hurling the spear, and wrestling. The competitors (1 Cor. ix. 25 ; 2 Tim. ii. 5) reqMred a long and severe course of previous training (1 Tim. iv. 8), during wMch a par ticular diet was enforced (1 Cor. ix. 25, 27). In the Olympic contests these preparatory ex ercises extended over a period of ten months, during the last of which they were conducted under the supervision of appointed officers. The contests took place in the presence of a- vast multitude of spectators (Heb. xii. 1), the competitors being the spectacle (1 Cor. iv. 9 ;- Heb. x. 33). The games were opened by the proclamation of a herald (1 Cor. ix. 27), whose office it was to give out the name and country of each candidate, and especially to announce tbe name of the victor before the assembled multitude. The judge was selected for his spotless integrity (2 Tim. iv. 8) : hie office was to decide any disputes (Col- iii. 15) and to give the prize (1 Cor. ix. 24 ; Phil, iii. 14), consisting of a crown (2 Tim. ii. 5, iv. 8) of leaves of wild olive at the Olympic games, and of pine, or at one period, ivy, at the Isthmian games. St. Paul alludes to two only out of the five contests, boxing and running, most frequently to the latter. In boxing (cf. 1 Cor. ix. 26) the hands and arms were bound with the cestus, a band of leather studded with nails. The foot-race (2 Tim. iv. 7) was run in the stadium (1 Cor. ix. 24), an oblong area, open at one end and rounded in a semicircular form at the other, along the sides of which were the raised tiers of seats on which the spectators sat. The judge was stationed by the goal (Phil. M. 14), which was clearly visible from one end of the sta dium to the other. GARDEN 185 GATE GARDEN. Gardens in- the East, as the Hebrew word indicates, are inclosures, on the outskirts of towns, planted with various trees and shrubs. From the allusions in the Bible we learn that they were surrounded by hedges of thorn (Is. v. 5), or walls of stone (Prov. xxiv, 31). For further protection lodges (Ib. i. 8; Lam.ii. 6) or watchtowers (Mark xii. 1) were built in them, in which sat the keeper (Job xxvii. 18) to drive away the wild beasts and robbers, as is the case to this day. The gardens of the Hebrews were planted with flowers and aromatic shrnbs (Cant. vi. 2, iv. 16), besides olives, fig-trees, nuts, or walnuts (Cant. vi. 11), pomegranates, and others for domestic use (Ex. xxiii. 11; Jer. xxix. 5 ; Am. ix. 14). Gardens of herbs, or kitchen-gardens, are mentioned in Deut. xi. 10, and 1 K. xxi. 2. Cucumbers were grown in them (Is. i. 8 ; Bar. vi. 70), and probably also melons, leeks, omons, and garlick, which are spoken of (Num. xi. 5) as the productions of a neighbouring country. The. rose-garden in Jerusalem, said to have been situated westward of the temple mount, is remarkable as having been one of the few gardens which, from the time of the prophets, existed within the city walls. But of all the gardens of Palestine none is pos sessed of associations more sacred and im perishable than the garden of Gethsemane, beside the oil-presses on the slopes of Olivet. In a climate like that of Palestine the neigh bourhood of water was an important consi deration in selecting the site of a garden. To the old Hebrew poets " a well-watered gar den," or " a tree planted by the waters," was an emblem of luxuriant fertility and ma terial prosperity (Is. Iviii. 1 1 ; Jer. xvii. 8, xxxi. 12). From a neighbouring stream or cistern were supplied the channels or con- dMts, by which the gardens were intersected, and the water was thus conveyed to all parts (Ps. i. 3 ; Eccl. ii. 6-; Ecclus. xxiv. 30). It is matter of doubt what is the exact meaning of the expression "to water with the foot" in Deut. xi. 10. — The Hebrews made use of gardens as places of burial (John xix. 41). Manasseh and his son Amon were buried in the garden of their palace, the garden of Uzza (2 K. xxi. 18, 26). — The retirement of gardens rendered them favourite places for devotion (Matt. xxvi. 36 ; John xviii. 1 ; cf. Gen. xxiv. 63). In the degenerate times of the monarchy they were selected as the scenes of idolatrous worship (Is. i. 29, lxv. 3, lxvi. 17) and images of the idols were probably erected in them. — The traditional gardens and pools of Solomon, supposed to be alluded to in Eccl. ii. 5, €, are shewn in the Wady Jfrtaa (i. e. Hortus), about an hour and a quarter to the south of Bethlehem. The " king's garden," mentioned in 2 K. xxv. 4; Neh. iii. 15; Jer. xxxix. 4, Iii. 7, was near the pool of Siloam, at the mouth of the Tyropoeon, north of Bir Eyub, and was formed by the meeting of the valleys of Jehoshaphat and Ben Hinnom. GARLICK (Num. xi. 5), is the Allium Sa tivum of Linnaeus, which abounds in Egypt. GARMENT. [Dress.] GATE. The gates and gateways of eastern cities anciently held, and still hold, an im portant part, not only in the defence but in the publio economy of the place. They are thus sometimes taken as representing the city itself (Gen. xxii. 17, xxiv. 60; Deut. xii. 12 ; Judg. v. 8-; Ruth iv. 10 ; Ps. Ixxxvii. 2, exxii. 2), Among the special purposes for which they were used may be mentioned— 1. As places of public resort (Gen. xix. 1, xxiii. 10, xxxiv. 20, 24; 1 Sam. iv. 18, &c.]. 2. Places for public deliberation, adminis tration of justice, or of audience for kiDgs- and rulers, or ambassadors (Deut. xvi. 18, xxi. 19, xxv. 7 ; Josh. xx. 4 ; Judg. ix. 35, &c). 3. Public markets (2 K. vii. 1). In heathen towns the open spaces near the gates- appear to have been sometimes used as places- for sacrifice (Acts xiv. 1 3 ; comp. 2 K. xxiii. 8). Regarded' therefore as positions of great importance the gates of cities were carefully guarded and closed at nightfall (Deut. iii. 5 ; Josh. ii. 5, 7 ; Judg. ix. 40, 44). They con tained chambers over tho gateway (2 Sam. xviii. 24). The doors themselveB of the larger gates mentioned, in Scripture were two-leaved, plated with metal, closed with locks and fast ened with metal bars (Deut. iii. 5 ; Ps. cvii. 16; Is. xiv. 1, 2). Gates not defended by iron were of course liable to be set on fire by an enemy (Judg.ix. 52). The gateways of royal palaces and even of private houses- were often richly ornamented. Sentences from the Law were inscribed on and above the gates (Deut. vi. 9 ; Is. liv. 12 ; Rev. xxi. 21). The gates of Solomon's Temple were very mas sive and costly, being overlaid with gold and carvings (1 K. vi. 84, 35; 2 K. xviii. 16). Those of the Holy Place were of olive-wood, two-leaved, and overlaid with gold ; those of the temple of fir (1 K. vi. 3L, 32, 34; Ez. xii; 23, 24). The figurative gates of pearl and precious stones (Is. liv. 12 ; Rev. xxi. 21) may be regarded as having their types in the massive stone doors which are found in some of the ancient houses in Syria. These are of single slabs several, inches thick, Bometimes 10 feet Mgh, and turn on stone pivots above. The parts of the doorway were the threshold (Judg. xix. 27) ; the side-postB, the lintel (Ex. xii. 7). In the Temple, Le- GATH 186 GEBA vites, and in houses of the wealthier classes, and in palaces, persons were especiaUy ap pointed to keep the door (Jer. xxxv. 4 ; 2 K. xii. 9, xxv. 18, &c). GATH, one of the five royal cities of the Philistines (Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. vi. 17) ; and the native place of the giant Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 4, 23). It probably stood upon the con spicuous hill now called Tell-es-Sdfieh, upon the side of the plain of Philistia, at the foot of the mountains of Judah; 10 miles E. of Ashdod, and about the same distance S. by E. of Ekron. It is irregular in form, and about 200 ft. high, Gath occupied a strong position (2 Chr. xi. 8) on the border of Judah and Philistia (1 Sam. xxi. 10; 1 Chr. xviii. 1) ; and from its strength and resouroes forming the key of both countries, it was the scene of frequent struggles, and was often captured and recaptured (2 Chr. xi. 8, xxvi. 6 ; 2 K. xii. 17 ; Am. vi. 2). The ravages of war to which Gath was exposed appear to have destroyed it at a comparatively early period, as it is not mentioned among the other royal cities by the later prophets (Zeph. ii. 4 ; Zech. ix. 5, 6). It is familiar to the Bible student as the scene of one of the most romantic incidents in the life of king David (1 Sam. xxi. 10-15). GATH-HE'PHER, or GIT'TAH-HE'PHER, a town on the border of the territory of Zebu lun, not far from Japbia, now Ydfa (Josh. xix. 12, 13), celebrated as the native place of the prophet Jonah (2 K. xiv. 25). El-Mesh- had, a village 2 miles E. of Sefdrieh, is the ancient Gath-hepher. GATH-RIM'MON. 1, A city given out of the tribe of Dan to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 24 ; 1 Chr. vi, 69), situated on the plain of Philistia, apparently not far from Joppa (Josh. xix. 45). — 2. A town of the half tribe of Manasseh we6t of the Jordan, assigned to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 25). The reading Gath-rimmon is probably an error of the transcribers. GA'ZA (properly Azzah), one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is remark able for its continuous existence and import ance from the very earliest times. The secret of this unbroken history is to be found in the situation of Gaza. It is the last town in the S.W. of Palestine, on the frontier to wards Egypt. The same peculiarity of situ ation has made Gaza important in a military sense. Its name means " the strong ;" and this was well elucidated in its siege by Alex ander the Great, which lasted five monthB, In Gen. x. 19 it appears, even before the call of Abraham, as a " border " city of the Ca naanites. In the conquest of Joshua the territory of Gaza is mentioned as one which be was not able to subdue (Josh. x. 41, xi. 22, xiii. 3). It was assigned to the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 47), and that tribe did ob tain possession of it (Judg. i. 18) ; but they did not hold it long ; for soon afterwards we find it in the hands of the Philistines (Judg. iii. 3, xiii. 1, xvi. 1, 21) ; indeed it seems to have been their capital ; and apparently con tinued through the times of Samuel, Saul, and David to be a Philistine city (1 Sam. vi. 17, xiv. 52, xxxi. 1 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 15). Solomon became master of "Azzah" (1 K. iv. 24), But in after times the same trouble with tha Philistines recurred (2 Chr. xxi. 16, xxvi. 6, xxviii. 18). The passage where Gaza is mentioned in the N. T. (Acts viii. 26) is full of interest. It is the account of the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch on his return from Jerusalem to Egypt. The words "which is desert" have given rise to much discussion* The probability is, that they refer to the road, and are used by the angel to inform Philip, who was then in Samaria, on what route he would find the eunuch. Besides the ordinary road from Jerusalem by Ramleh to Gaza, there was another, more favourable for carriages (Acts viii. 28), further to the south through Hebron, and thence through a district com paratively without towns and much exposed to the incursions of people from the desert. The modern Ghuzzeh is situated partly on an oblong Mil of moderate height, and partly on the lower ground. The climate of the place is almost tropical, but it has deep wells of excellent water. There are a few palm-trees in the town, and its fruit- orchards are very productive. But the chief feature of the neighbourhood is the wide-spread olive-grove to the N. and N.E. GAZ'ARA, a place frequently mentioned in the wars of the Maccabees, and of great importance in the operations of both parties (1 Mace. ix. 52, xiii. 53, xiv. 7, 83, 34, 36, xv. 28, xvi. 1 ; 2 Mace. x. 32-36). There is every reason to believe that Gazara was the same place as the more ancient Gezer or Gazer. GA'ZER, 2 Sam. v. 25 ; 1 Chr. xiv. 16. [Gezer..] GE'BA, a city of Benjamin, with "sub urbs," allotted to the priests (Josh. xxi. 17 ; 1 Chr. vi. 60). It is named amongst the first group of the Benjamite towns ; apparently those lying near to and along the north boundary (Josh, xviii. 24). Here the name is given as Gaba. During tbe wars of the earlier part of the reign of Saul, Geba was held as a garrison by the Philistines (1 Sam. xiii. 3), but they were ejected by Jonathan. Later in the same campaign we find it re ferred to to define the position of the two GEBAL 187 GENEALOGY rocks which stood in the ravine below the garrison of Michmash, in terms which fix Geba on the south and Michmash on the north of the ravine (1 Sam. xiv. 5 ; the A. V. has here Gibeah). Exactly in accordance with this is the position of the modern village of Jeba, which stands picturesquely on the top of its Bteep terraced hill, on the very edge of the great Wady Suweinit, looking north wards to the opposite village, which also re tains its old name of Mukhmas. GE'BAL, a proper name, occurring in Ps. Ixxxiii. 7, in connexion with Edom and Moab, Ammon and Amalek, the Philistines and the inhabitants of Tyre. The contexts both of the psalm and of the historical records will justify our assuming the Gebal of the Psalms to be one and the same city with the Gebal of Ezekiel (xxvii. 9), a maritime town of Phoenicia. From the fact that its inhabit ants are written " Giblians " in the Vulg., and " Biblians" in the LXX., we may infer their identity with the Giblites, spoken of in con nexion with Lebanon by Joshua (xiii. 5), and that of their city with the "Biblus" (or Byblus) of profane literature. It is called Jebail by the Arabs, thus reviving the old Biblical name. GEDALI'AH, son of Ahikam (Jeremiah's protector, Jer. xxvi. 24), and grandson of Shaphan the secretary of king Josiah. After the destruction of the Temple, b.c 588, Ne buchadnezzar departed from Judaea, leaving Gedaliah with a Chaldean guard (Jer. xl. 5) at Mizpah, to govern the vine-dressers and husbandmen (Jer. Iii. 16) who were exempted from captivity. Jeremiah joined Gedaliah ; and Mizpah became the resort of Jews from various quarters (Jer. xl. 6, 11). He was murdered by Ishmael two months after Mb appointment. GE'DER. The king of Geder was one of the 31 kings who were overcome by Joshua on the west of the Jordan (Josh. xii. 13). It is possible that it may be the same place as .the Geder named in 1 Ch . iv. 39. GED'EROTH, a town In the low country of Judah (Josh. xv. 41 ; I Chr. xxviii. 18). GEDO'R, a town in ,he mountainous part of Judah (Josh. xv. 58), a few miles north of Hebron. Robinson discovered a Jedur halfway between Bethlehem and Hebron, about two miles west of the road. GEHA'ZI, the servant or boy of Elisha. He was sent as the prophet's messenger on two occasions to the good Shunammite (2 K. iv.) ; obtained fraudulently money and garments from Naaman, was miraculously smitten with incurable leprosy, and was dis missed from the prophet's service (2 K, v.). Later in the history he is mentioned as being engaged in relating to King Joram all the great tilings which Elisha had done (2 K. viii.). GEHEN'NA. [Hinnom.] GEMARI'AH. 1. Son of Shaphan tbe scribe, and father of Michaiah. He was one of the nobles of Judah, and had a chamber in the house of the Lord, from wMch Baruch read Jeremiah's alarming prophecy in the ears of all the people, b.c 606 (Jer. xxxvi.). — 3. Son of Hilkiah, was made the bearer of Jeremiah's letter to the captive Jews (Jer. xxix.). GEMS. [Stones, Precious.] GENEALOGY. In Hebrew the term for genealogy or pedigree is " the book of the generations ;" and because the oldest his tories were usually drawn up on a genea logical basis, the expression often extended to the whole history, as is the case with the Gospel of St. Matthew, where " the book of the generation of Jesus Christ " includes the whole history contained in that Gospel. The promise of the land of Canaan to the seed of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob successively, and the separation of the Israelites from the Gentile world ; the expectation of Messiah as to spring from the tribe of Judah ; the ex clusively hereditary priesthood of Aaron with its dignity and emoluments ; the long suc cession of kings in the line of David ; and the whole division and occupation of the land upon genealogical principles by the tribes, families, and houses of fathers, gave a deeper importance to the science of genealogy among the Jews than perhaps any other nation. With Jacob, the founder of the nation, the system of reckoning by genealogies was much further developed. In Gen. xxxv. 22-26, we have a formal account of the sons of Jacob, the patriarchs of the nation, repeated in Ex, i. 1-5. In Gen. xlvi. we have an exact gene alogical census of the house of Israel at the time of Jacob's going down to Egypt. When the Israelites were in the wilderness of Sinai, their number was taken by Divine command " after their families, by the house of their fathers." According to these genealogical di visions they pitched their tents, and marched, and offered their gifts and offerings, chose spies, and the whole land of Canaan was par celled out amongst them. When David esta blished the temple services on the footing which continued till the time of Christ, he divided the priests and Levites into courses and companies, each under the family chief. When Hezekiah reopened the temple, and restored the temple services which had fallen into disuse, he reckoned the whole nation by genealogies. When Zerubbabel brought back the captivity from Babylon, one of his first GENEALOGY 188 GENESIS cares seems to have been to take a census of those that returned, and to settle them ac cording to their genealogies. Passing on to the time of the birth of Christ, we have a striking incidental proof of the continuance of the Jewish genealogical economy in the fact that when Augustus ordered the census of the empire to be taken, the Jews in the province of Syria immediately went each one to his own eity. Another proof is the exist ence of our Lord's genealogy in two> forms as given by St. Matthew and St. Luke. The mention of Zaeharias, as " of the course of Abia," of Elizabeth, as " of the daughters of Aaron," and of Anna the daughter of Pha- nuel, as " of the tribe of Aser," are further indications of the same thing. From all this it is abundantly manifest that the Jewish genealogical records continued to be kept till near the destruction of Jerusalem. But there can be little doubt that the registers of the Jewish tribes and families perished at the destruction of Jerusalem, and not before. It remains to be said that just notions of the nature of the Jewish genealogical records are of great importance with a view to the right interpretation of Scripture. Let it only be remembered that these records have respect to political and territorial divisions, as much as to strictly genealogical descent, and it will at once be seen how erroneous a conclusion it may be, that all who are called " sons " of such or such a patriarch, or chief father, must necessarily be his very children. If any one family or house became extinct, some other would succeed to its place, called after its own chief father. Hence of course a census of any tribe drawn up at a later pe riod, would exhibit different divisions from one drawn up at an earlier. The same prin ciple must be borne in mind in interpreting any particular genealogy. Again, when a pedigree was abbreviated, it would naturally specify Buch generations as would indicate from what chief houses the person descended. But then as regards the chronological use of the Scripture genealogies, it follows from the above view that great caution is necessary in using them as measures of time, though they are invaluable for this purpose whenever we can be sure that they are complete. The Jewish genealogies have two forms, one giv ing the generations in a descending, the other in an ascending scale. Examples of the de scending form maybe seen in Ruth iv. 18-22, or 1 Chr. iii. Of the ascending 1 Chr. vi. S3-43 (A. V.) ; Ezr. vii. 1-5. Females are named in genealogies when there is anything remarkable about them, or when any right or property is transmitted through them. See Gen. xi. 29, xxii. 2-3, xxv. 1-4, xxxv. 22-26 ; Ex. vi. 23 ; Num. xxvi. 83 ; 1 Chr. ii. 4, 19, 50, 35, &c. GENEALOGY OF JESUS CHRIST. The New Testament gives us the genealogy of but one person, that of our Saviour. The follow ing propositions will explain the true con struction of these genealogies : — 1. They are both the genealogies of Joseph i. e. of Jesus Christ, as the reputed and legal son of Jo seph and Mary. 2. The genealogy of St. Matthew is Joseph's genealogy as lega. suc cessor to the throne of David. St. Luke's is Joseph's private genealogy, exhibiting Ms real birth, as David's son, and thus showing why he was heir to Solomon's crown. The simple principle that one evangelist exMbits that genealogy wihich contained the successive heirs to David's and Solomon's throne, while the other exMbits the paternal stem of Mm who was the heir, explains all the anomalies of the two pedigrees, their agreements as well as their discrepancies, and the circumstance of there being two at all. 3. Mary, the mother of Jesus, was in all probability the daughter of Jacob, and first cousin to Joseph her husband. GENERATION. In the long-lived Patri archal age a generation seems to have been computed at 100 years (Gen. xv. 16 ; comp. 13, and Ex. xii. 40) ; but subsequently tbe reckoning was the same which has been adopted by other civilised nations, viz., from thirty to forty years (Job xiii. 16). For generation in the sense of a definite period of time, see Gen. xv. 16 ; Deut. xxiii. 8, 4, 8, &c. As an indefinite period of time : — for time past, see Deut. xxxii. 7 ; Is. Iviii. 12; for time/«(wre, see Ps. xiv. 17, lxxii. 5, &c. Generation is also used to signify the men of an age, or time, as contemporaries (Gen. vi. 9 ; 'Is. liii. 8) ; posterity, especially in legal formulae (Lev. iii. 17, &e.) ; fathers, or an cestors (Ps. xlix. 19). GENES'ARETH. [Gennesaret.] GEN'ESIS, the first book of the Law or Pentateuch, so called from its title in the Sep tuagint, that is, Creation. Respecting its inte grity and author, see Pen™ teuch. The book of Genesis (with the first chapters of Exodus) describes the steps which led to the establish ment of the Theocracy. It is a part of the writer's plan to tell us what the Divine pre paration of the world was, in order to show, first, the significance of the call of Abraham, and next, the true nature of the Jewish theo cracy. He begins with tlie creation of the world, because the God who created the world and the God who revealed Himself to the fathers is the same God. The book of Genesis has thus a character at once special and universal, it embraces the woi'ld; it iii VJSi *& - -«* -.*?f SEA OF GENNESARET OR GALILEE. To face p. 189. GENESIS 189 GENTILES speaks of God as the God of the whole human race. But as the introduction to Jewish his tory, it makes the universal interest subor dinate to the national. Five principal persons are the pillars, so to speak, on which the whole superstructure rests : Adam, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. — I. Adam. The oreation of the world, and the earliest history of mankind (ch. i.-iii.). As yet no divergence of the different families of man. — II. Noah. The Mstory of Adam's descendants to the death of Noah (iv.-ix.). Here we have (1) the line of Cain branching off while the his tory follows the fortunes of Seth, whose de scendants are (2) traced in genealogical suc cession, and in an unbroken line as far as Noah, and (3) the history of Noah himself (vi.-ix.), continued to his death. — III. Abra ham. Noah's posterity till the death of Abra ham (x.-xxv. 18). Here we have (1) the peopling of the whole earth by the descend ants of Noah's three sons (xi. 1-9). The his tory of two of these is then dropped, and (-2) the line of Shem only pursued (xi. 10-32) as far as Terah and Abraham, where the genea logical table breaks off. (3) Abraham is now the prominent figure (xii.-xxv. 18). But as Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran (xi. 27), some notices respecting their families are added. Lot's migration with Abraham into the land of Canaan is mentioned, as well as the fact that he was the father of Moab and Ammon (xix. 37, 38), nations whose later history was intimately connected with that of the posterity of Abraham. Nahor remained in Mesopotamia, but his family is briefly enu merated (xxii. 20-24), chiefly no doubt for Rebekah's sake, who was afterwards the wife of Isaac. Of Abraham's own children, there branches off first the line by Ishmael (xxi. 9, &c), and next the children by Keturah ; and the genealogical notices of these two branches of Ms posterity are apparently brought together (xxv. 1-6, and xxv. 12-18), in order that, being here severally dismissed at the end of Abraham's life, the main stream of the narrative may flow in the channel of Isaac's fortunes. — IV. Isaac. Isaac's life (xxv. 19-xxxv, 29), a life *u itself retiring and uneventful. But in h. sons the final separation takes place, leaving Jhe field clear for the great story of the chosen seed. Even when Nahor's family comes on the scene, as it does in ch. xxix., we hear only so much of it as is necessary to throw light on Jacob's history. — V. Jacob. The history of Jacob and Joseph (xxxvi. 1). Here, after Isaac's death, we have (1) the genealogy of Esau (xxxvi.), who then drops out of the narrative, in order that (2) tbe history of the Patriarchs may be carried on without intermission to the death of Joseph (xxxvii.-l.). — it will be seen that a specific plan is preserved through out. The main purpose is never forgotten. God's relation to Israel holds the first place in the writer's mind. It is tMs which it is his object to convey. The history of that chosen seed, who were the heirs of the pro mise and the guardians of the Divine oracles, is the only history which interprets man's relation to God. By its light all others shine, and may be read when the time shall come. Meanwhile, as the different families drop off here and there from the principal stock, their course is briefly indicated. Beyond all doubt, then, we may trace in the book of Genesis a systematic plan. GENNES'ARET, SEA OF, called in the O.T. "the Sea of Chinnereth," or " Cin- neroth" (Num. xxxiv. 11; Josh. xii. 3), from a town of that name which stood on or near its shore (Josh. xix. 35). At its north western angle was a beautiful and fertile plain called " Gennesaret " (Matt. xiv. 34 ; Mark vi. 53), from which the name of the lake was taken. The lake is also called in the N.T. " the sea of Galilee," from the pro vince of Galilee which bordered on its western side (Matt. iv. 18 ; Mark vii. 31 ; John vi. 1) ; and "the sea of Tiberias," from the celebrated city (John vi. 1). Its modern name is Bahr Tuhariyeh. Most of our Lord's public life was spent in the environs of the Sea of Gennesaret. This region was then the most densely peopled in all Palestine. No less than nine cities stood on the very shores of the lake. The sea of Gennesaret is of an oval shape, about thirteen geographical miles long, and six broad. The river Jordan enters it at its northern end, and passes out at its southern end. In fact the bed of tho lake is just a lower section of the great Jordan valley. Its most remarkable feature is its deep depression, being no less than 700 feet below the level of the ocean. The scenery is bleak and monotonous. The great depression makes the climate of the shores almost tropical. This is very sensibly felt by the traveller in going down from the plains of Galilee. In summer the heat is intense, and even in early spring the air has some thing of an Egyptian balminess. The water of the lake is sweet, cool, and transparent ; and as the beach is everywhere pebbly it has a beautiful sparkling look. It abounds in fish now as in ancient times. GENTILES. In the O. T. the Heb. gcyim signified the nations, the surrounding nations, foreigners as opposed to Israel (Neh. v. 8), and was used with an invidious meaning. In the N. T. it is used as equivalent to Greek. But the A. V. is not consistent in its transla- GERA 190 GERSHON tion of the word Hellen, sometimes rendering it by "Greek" (Acts xiv. 1, xvii. 4 ; Rom. i. 16, x. 12), sometimes by " Gentile " (Rom. ii. 9, 10, iii. 9 ; 1 Cor. x. 32). The latter use of the word seems to have arisen from the almost uMversal adoption of the Greek language. GE'RA, one of the " sons," t. e. descend ants, of Benjamin, enumerated in Gen. xlvi. 21, as already living at the time of Jacob's migration into Egypt. He was son of Bela (1 Chr. viii. 3). The textof this last passage Is very corrupt ; and the different Geras there named seem to reduce themselves into one — the same as the son of Bela. Gera, who is named (Judg. iii. 15) as the ancestor of Ehud, and in 2 Sam. xvi. 5, as the ancestor of Shimei who cursed David, is probably also the same person. GERAH. [Weights and Measures.] GE'RAR, a very ancient city south of Gaza. It occurs chiefly in Genesis (x. 19, xx. 1, xxvi. 16) ; also incidentally in 2 Chr. xiv. 13, 14. It must have trenched on the "south" or "south country" of later Palestine. From a comparison of xxi. 32 with xxvi. 23, 26, Beersheba would seem to be just on the verge of this territory, and perhaps to be its limit towards the N.E. GER'GESENES. [Gadara.] GER'IZIM. On the position of Mount Gerizim, see Ebal. It is an important question whether Gerizim was the mountain on which Abraham was directed to offer his son Isaac (Gen. xxii. 2, and sq.). First, then, let it be observed that it is not the mountain, but the district which is there called Moriah, and that antecedently to the occurrence which took place "upon one of the mountains " in its vicinity — a consideration which of itself would naturally point to the locality, already known to Abraham, as the plain or plains of Moreh, wthe land of vision," "the Mgh land ;" and therefore consistently " the land of adora tion," or " religious worship," as it is vari ously explained. That all these interpreta tions are incomparably more applicable to the natural features of Gerizim and its neigh bourhood, than to the hillock (in comparison) upon which Solomon built his temple, none can for a moment doubt who have seen both. [Moriah.] The Samaritans, therefore, through whom the tradition of the true site of Gerizim has been preserved, are probably not wrong when they point out still — as they nave done from time immemorial — Gerizim as the hill upon which Abraham's " faith was made perfect." Another tradition of the Samaritans is far less trustworthy: viz., that Mount Gerizim was the spot where Melchise- dech met Abraham — though there certainly was a Salem or Shalem in that neighbourhood (Gen. xxxiii. 18). Lastly, the altar which Jacob built was not on Gerizim, as the Samaritans contend, though probably about its base, at the head of the plain between it and Ebal, " in the parcel of a field " which that patriarch purchased from the cMldrenof Hamor, and where he spread his tent (Gen. xxxiii. 18-20). Here was likewise his well (John iv. 6), and the tomb of Ms son Joseph (Josh. xxiv. 82), both of which are still shown. — We now enter upon the second phase in the history of Gerizim. According to Josephus, a marriage contracted between Manasseh, brother of Jaddus, the then high- priest, and the daughter of Sanballat the Cuthaean (comp. 2 K. xvii. 24), having created a great stir amongst the Jews, Who had been strictly forbidden to contract alien marriages (Ezr. ix. 2 ; Neh. xiii. 23), Sanballat, in order to reconcile his son-in-law to tMs unpopular affinity, obtained leave from Alexander the Great to build a temple upon Mount Gerizim, and to inaugurate a rival priesthood and altar there to those of Jerusalem. " Samaria thenceforth," says Prideaux, " became the common refuge and asylum of the refractory Jews." Gerizim is likewise still to the Samaritans what Jerusalem is to the Jews, and Mecca to the Mahometans. GER'SHOM. 1. The first-born son of Moses and Zipporah (Ex. ii. 22, xviii. 3). The name is explained in these passages as = " a stranger there," in allusion to Moses* being a foreigner in Midian — " For he said, I have been a stranger (Ger) in a foreign land." Its true meamng, taking it as a Hebrew word, is " expulsion." The circum cision of Gershom is probably related in Ex, iv. 25. — 2. The form under which the name Gershon — the eldest son of Levi — is given in several passages of Chronicles, viz., 1 Chr. vi. 16, 17, 20, 43, C2, 71, xv. 7. GERSHON, the eldest of the three sons of Levi, born before the descent of Jacob's family into Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 11 ; Ex. vi. 16). But, though the eldest born, the families of Gershon were outstripped in fame by their younger brethren of Kobath, from whom sprang Moses and the priestly line of Aaron. At the census in the wilderness of Sinai the whole number of the males of the sons of Gershon was 7500 (Num. iii. 2 2), midway between the Kohathites and the MerariteB. The sons of Gershon (tho Gershomtes) had charge of the fabrics of the Tabernacle — the coverings,curtains, hangings, and cords (Num. iii. 25, 26, iv. 25, 26) ; for the transport of these they had two covered wagons and four oxen (vii. 3, 7). In the encampment their station was behind the Tabernacle, on the west side (Num. iii. 23', GESHUR 191 GIBEAH In the apportionment of the Levitical cities thirteen fell to the lot of the Gershonites. These were in the northern tribes — two in Manasseh beyond Jordan, four in Issachar, four in Asher, and three in Naphtali. GE'SHUR, a little principality in the north-eastern corner cf Bashan, adjoining the province of Argob (Deut. iii. 14), and the kingdom of Aram (Syria in the A. V. ; 2 Sam. xv. 8; comp. 1 Chr. i. 23). It is highly probable that Geshur was a section of the wild and rugged region now called el-Lejah. [Argob.] GESH'URI and GESH'URITES. 1. The inhabitants of Geshur (Deut. iii. 14 ; Josh. xii. 5, xiii. 11). — 2. An aneient tribe which dwelt in the desert between Arabia and Philistia (Josh. xiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. xxvii. 8). GETHSEM'ANE, a Bmall "farm" (A. V. "place;" Matt. xxvi. 36 ; Mark xiv. 32), situated across the brook Kedron (John xviii. 1), probably at the foot of Mount Olivet (Luke xxii. 39), to the N.W., and about £ or £ of a mile English from the walls of Jerusa lem. There was a "garden," or rather orchard, attached to it, to wMch the olive, fig, and pomegranate doubtless invited resort by their hospitable shade. And we know from the Evangelists Luke (xxii. 39) and John (xviii. 2) that our Lord ofttimes resorted thither with Ms disciples. But Gethsemane has not come down to us as a scene of mirth ; it was the scene of the Agony of the Son of God on the evening preceding His Passion. A modern garden, in which are eight vener able olive-trees, and a grotto to the north, detached from it, and in closer connexion with the Church of the Sepulchre of the Virgin, are pointed out as the true Gethsemane. Against the contemporary antiquity of the olive-trees, it has been urged that Titus cut down all the trees round about Jerusalem. The probability would seem to be that they were planted by Christian hands to mark the spot : unless, like the sacred olive of the Acropolis, they may have reproduced them selves. GEZ'ER, an ancient city of Canaan, whose king, Horam, or Elam, coming to the assist ance of Lachish, was killed with all his people by Joshua (Josh. x. 33, xii. 12). It formed one of the landmarks on the south boundary of Ephraim, between the lower Beth-horon and the Mediterranean (xvi. 3), tho western limit of the tribe (1 Chr. vii. 28). It was allotted with its suburbs to the Kohathite Levites (Josh. xxi. 21 ; 1 Chr. vi. 67) ; but the original inhabitants were not dispossessed (Judg. i. 29) ; and even down to tho reign of Solomon the Canaanites were still dwelling there, and paying tribute to Israel (1 K. ix. 16). Ewald takes Gezer and Geshur to be the same. In one place Gob is given as identical with Gezer (1 Chr. xx. 4 ; comp. 2 Sam. xxi. 18.) GIANTS. 1. They are first spoken of in Gen. vi. 4, under the name Nephilim. We ara told in Gen. vi. 1-4 that " there were NepMlim in the earth," and that afterwards the "sons of God " mingling with the beautiful " daugh ters of men " produced a race of violent and insolent Gibborim (A. V. "mighty men"). But who were the parents of these giants? who are " the sons of God " 1 They were most probably the pious Sethites, though the prevalent opiMon both in the Jewish and early Christian Church is that (hey were angels. It was probably tMs ancient view which gave rise to the spurious Book of Enoch, and the notion quoted from it by St. Jude (6), and alluded to by St. Peter (2 Pet. ii. 4). 2. The Rephaim, a name which frequently occurs. The earliest mention of them is the record of their defeat by Chedorlaomer and some allied kings at Ashteroth Karnaim (Gen. xiv. 5), Extirpated, however, from the east of Pales tine, they long found a home in the west (2 Sam. xxi. 18, sq. ; 1 Chr. xx. 4). It is pro bable that they had possessed districts west of the Jordan in early times, since the " Valley of Rephaim" (2 Sam. v. 18 ; 1 Chr. xi. 15 ; Is. xvii. 5), a rich valley S.W. of Jerusalem, derived its name from them. They were probably an aboriginal people of which the Emim, Anakim, and Zuzim were branches. GIB'BETHON, a town allotted to the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 44), and afterwards given with its " suburbs" to the Kohathite Levites (xxi. 23). GIB'EAH, a word employed in the Bible to denote a " hill." Like most words of this kind it gave its name to several towns and places in Palestine, which would doubtless be generally on or near a hill. They are — 1. Gibeah, a city in the mountain-district of Judah, named with Maon and the southern Carmel (Josh. xv. 57 ; and crmp. 1 Chr. ii. 49, &c). — 2. Gibeath, is enumerated among the last group of the towns of Benjamin, next to Jerusalem (Josh, xviii. 28). It is generally taken to be the place which after wards became so notorious as " Gibeah-of- Benjamin " or " of-Saul." But tMs was five or six mil s north of Jerusalem. The name being in the " construct state " — Gibeath and not Gibeah — may it not belong to the follow ing name Kirjath, and denote the hill ad joining that town 1 — 3. The place in which the Ark remained from the time of its return by the PMlistines till its removal by David (2 Sam. vi. 3, 4 ; comp, 1 Sam. vii. 1, 2). — 4. Gibeah-of-Benjamin, first appears in tho GIBEON 192 GLER-EAGLE tragical story of the Levite and Ms concubine (Judg. xix., xx.). It was then a "city," with the usual open street or square (Judg. xix. 15, 17, 20), and containing 700 "chosen men" (xx. 15), probably the same whose ¦skill as slingers is preserved in the next verse. In many particulars Gibeah agrees very closely with Tuleil-el-Ful, a conspicuous eminence just four miles north of Jerusalem, to the right of the road. We next meet with Gibeah-of-Benjamin during the Philistine wars of Saul and Jonathan (1 Sam. xiii., xiv.). It now bears its full title. As " Gibeah-of- Benjamin" this place is referred to in 2 Sam. xxiii. 29 (comp. 1 Chr. xi. 31), and as " Gibeah " it is mentioned by Hosea (v. 8, lx. 9, x. 9), but it does not again appear in the history. It is, however, almost without doubt identical with — 5. Gibeah-of-Saul. This is not mentioned as Saul's city till after Ms anointing (1 Sam. x. 26), when he is said to have gone "home" to Gibeah. In the subsequent narrative the town bears its full name (xi. 4). — 6. Gibeah-in-the-Field, named only in Judg. xx. 31, as the place to which one of the "highways" led from Gibeah-of-Benjamin. It is probably the same as Geba. The "meadows of Gaba" (A. V. Gibeah; Judg. xx. 33) have no con nexion with the " field," the Hebrew words being entirely different. GIB'EON, one of the four cities of the Hivites, the inhabitants of which made a league with Joshua (ix. 3-15), and thus escaped the fate of Jericho and Ai (comp. xi. 19). Gibeon lay witMn the territory of Benjamin (xviii. 25), andwithits " suburbs" was allotted to the priests (xxi. 17), of whom it became afterwards a principal station. It retains its ancient name almost intact, El-Jib. Its distance from Jerusalem by the main road is aB nearly as possible 6| miles ; but there is a more direct Toad reducing it to 5 miles. GIB'EONITES, THE, the people of Gibeon and perhaps also of the three cities associated with Gibeon (Josh. ix. 17) — Hivites ; and who on the discovery of the stratagem by wMch they had obtained the protection of the Israel ites, were condemned to be perpetual bondmen, hewers of wood and drawers of water for the congregation, and for the house of God and al tar of Jehovah (Josh. ix. 23, 27). Saul ap pears to have broken this covenant, and in a fit of enthusiasm or patriotism to have killed some and devised a general massacre of the rest (2 Sam. xxi. 1, 2, 5). TMs was expiated many years after by giving up seven men of Saul's descendants to the Gibeonites, who hung them or crucified them "before Jehovah" — as a kind of sacrifice — in Gibeah, Saul's own GIB'LITES, THE. [Gebal.] GID'EON, a Manassite, youngest son of Joash of the Abiezrites, an undistingMshed family who lived at Ophrah, a town probably on the west of Jordan (Judg. vi. 15). He was the fifth recorded Judge of Israel, and for many reasonsthe greatest of them all. When we first hear of him he was grown up and had sons (Judg. vi. 11, viii. 20), and from the apostrophe of the angel (vi. 12) we may conclude that he had already distinguished himself in war against the roving bands of nomadic robbers who had oppressed Israel for seven years, and whose countless multi tudes (compared to locusts from their terrible devastations, vi. 5) annually destroyed all the produce of Canaan, except such as could be concealed in mountain-fastnesses (vi. 2). It was probably during this disastrous period that the emigration of Elimelech took place (Ruth i. 1, 2). When the angel appeared, Gideon was threshing wheat with a flail in the winepress, to conceal it from the preda tory tyrants. His call to be a deliverer, and Ms destruction of Baal's altar, are related in Judg. vi. After this begins the second act of Gideon's life. Clothed by the Spirit of God (Judg. vi. 34 ; comp. 1 Chr. xii. 18 ; Luke xxiv. 49), he blew a trumpet, and was joined by Zebulun, Naphtali, and even the reluctant Asher. Strengthened by a double sign from God, he reduced his army of 32,000 by the usual proclamation (Deut. xx. 8 ; comp. 1 Mace. iii. 56). By a second test at "the spring of trembling " he again reduced the number of his followers to 300 (Judg. vii. 5, sq.). The midnight attack upon the Midian ites, their panic, and the rout and slaughter that followed, are told in Judg. vii. Tho memory of tMs splendid deliverance took deep root in the national traditions (1 Sam. xii. 11 ; Ps. lxxxiii. 11 ; Is. ix. 4, x. 26 ; Heb. xi. 82). After this there was a peace of 40 years, and we see Gideon in peaceful posses sion of his well-earned honours, and surround ed by the dignity of a numerous household (viii. 29-31). It is not improbable that, like Saul, he had owed a part of Ms popularity to his princely appearance (Judg. viii. 18). In this tMrd stage of his life occur alike his most noble and his most questionable acts, viz., the refusal of the monarchy on theocra tic grounds, and the irregular consecration of a jewelled ephod formed out of the rich spoils of Midian which proved to the Israelites a temp tation to idolatry, although it was doubtless intended for use in the worship of Jehovah. GIER-EAGLE, an unclean bird mentioned in Lev. xi. 18 and Deut. xiv. 17. There is no reason to doubt that the rdchdm of the Heb. Scriptures is identical in reality as in GIHON 193 GILGAL name with the raeham of the Arabs, viz., the Egyptian vulture. Egyptian Vulture. GI'HON. 1. The second river of Paradise (Gen. ii. 13). [Eden]. — 2. A, place near Jerusalem, memorable as the scene of the anointing and proclamation of Solomon as king (1 K. i. 33, 88, 45). GILALAI', one of the priests* sons at the consecration of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 36). GILBO'A, a mountain range on the eastern side of the plain of Esdraelon, rising over the city of Jezreel (comp. 1 Sam. xxviii. 4 with xxix. 1). It is only mentioned in Scripture in connexion with one event in Israelitish history, the defeat and death of Saul and Jonathan by the Philistines (1 Sam. xxxi. 1 ; 2 Sam. i. 6, xxi. 12 ; 1 Chr. x. 1, 8). Of the identity of Gilboa with the ridge which stretcHes eastward, from the ruins of Jezreel, no doubt can be entertained. The village is now called Jelb&u. GIL'EAD. 1. A mountainous region bounded on the west by the Jordan, on the north hy Bashan, on the east by the Arabian plateau, and on the south by Moab and Am mon (Gen. xxxi. 21; Deut. iii. 12-17). It is sometimes called "Mount Gilead "(Gen. xxxi. 25), sbmetimes " the land of Gilead" (Num. xxxii. 1) ; and sometimes simply ** Gilead" (Ps. Ix. 7 ; Gen. xxxvii. 25) ; but a comparison of the several passages shows that they all mean the same thing. The name Gilead, as is usual in Palestine, describes the physical aspect of the country. It signi fies " a hard rocky region." The statements in Gen. xxxi. 48, are not opposed to this etymology. The old name of the district Sat. D. B. was Gilead, but by a slight change in the pronunciation, the radical letters being re tained, the meaning was made beautifully applicable to the " heap of stones " Jacob and Laban had built up — " the heap of witness." Those acquainted with the modern Arabs and their literature will see how intensely such a play upon the word would be appreciated by them. The mountains of Gilead have a real elevation of from two to three thousand feet ; but their apparent elevation on the western side is much greater, owing to the depression of the Jordan valley, which averages about 1000 feet. Their outline is singularly uni form, resembling a massive wall running along the horizon. The name Galaad occurs several times in the history of the Maccabees (1 Mace. v. 9, sq.).— 3. Possibly the name of a mountain west of the Jordan, near Jezreel (Judg. vii. 3). We are inclined, however, to think that the true reading in this place should be Gilboa. — 3. Son of Machir, grand son of Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 29, 30). — 4:. The father of Jephthah (Judg. xi. 1, 2). GIL'EADITES, THE (Judg. xii. 4, 5; Num. xxvi. 29 ; Judg. x. 3), a branch of the tribe of Manasseh, descended from Gilead. There appears to have been an old standing feud between them and the Ephraimites, who taunted them with being deserters. GIL'GAL. 1. The site of the first camp of the Israelites on the west of the Jordan, the place at which they passed the first night after crossing the river, and where the twelve stones were set up which had been taken from the bed of the stream (Josh. iv. 19, 20, comp. 3) ; where also they kept their first passover in the land of Canaan (v. 10). It was in the " end of the east of Jericho " (A.V. " in the east border of Jericho ") ap parently on a hillock or rising ground (v. 3, comp. 9) in the Arboth-Jericho (A. V. " the plains "), that is, the hot depressed district of the Ghor which lay between the town and the Jordan (v. 10). We again encounter Gilgal in the time of Saul, when it seems to have exchanged its military associations for those of sanctity. We again have a glimpse of it, some sixty years later, in the Mstory of David's return to Jerusalem (2 Sam. xix.). Its site is uncertain.— But, 2. it was certaiMy a distinct place from the Gilgal which is con nected with the last scene in the life of Elijah, and with one of Elisha's miracles (2 K. ii.). The mention of Baal-shalisha (iv. 42) gives a clue to its situation, when taken with the notice of Eusebius, that that flace was fifteen miles from Diospolis (Lydda) towards the north. In that very position stand now the ruins bearing the name of Jiljilieh, i. e. Gil gal. — 3. The "king of the nations of O GILOH 194 GOAT Gilgal," or rather perhaps the "king of Goim-at-Gilgal," is mentioned in the cata logue of the chiefs overthrown by Joshua (Josh. xii. 23). — 4. A Gilgal is spoken of in Josh. xv. 7, in describing the north border of Judah. GI'LOH, a town in the mountainous part 3f Judah, named in the first group, with Debir and Eshtemoh (Josh. xv. 51) ; it was the native place of the famous Ahithophel (2 Sam. xv. 12). GIRDLE, an essential article of dress in the East, and worn both by men and women. The common girdle was made of leather (2 K. i. 8 ; Matt. iii. 4), like that worn by the Bedouins of the present day. A finer girdle was made of linen (Jer. xiii. 1 ; Ez. xvi. 10), embroidered with silk, and sometimes with gold and silver thread (Dan. x. 5 ; Rev. i. 13, xv. 6), and frequently studded with gold and precious stones or pearls. The manu facture of these girdles formed part of the employment of women (Prov. xxxi. 24). The girdle was fastened by a clasp of gold or silver, or tied in a knot so that the ends hung down in front, as in the figures on the ruins of Persepolis. It was worn by men about the loins (Is. v. 27, xi. 5). The girdle of women waB generally looser than that of the men, and was worn about the hips, except when they were actively engaged (Prov. xxxi. 17). The military girdle was worn about the waist; the sword or dagger was suspended from it (Judg. iii. 16 ; 2 Sam. xx. 8 ; Ps. xiv. 3). Hence girding up the loins denotes preparation for battle or for active exertion. In times of mourning, girdles of sackcloth were worn as marks of humiliation and sorrow (Is. iii. 24, xxii. 12). In conse quence of the costly materials of which girdles were made, they were frequently given as presents (1 Sam. xviii. 4 ; 2 Sam. xviii. 11). They were used as pockets, as among the Arabs still, and as purses, one end of the girdle being folded back for the purpose (Matt. x. 9 ; Mark vi. 8). The girdle worn by the priests about the close-fitting tunic (Ex. xxviii. 89, xxxix. 29), is described by Josephus as made of linen so fine of texture as to look like the slough of a snake, and embroidered with flowers of scarlet, purple, blue, and fine linen. It was about four fingers broad, and was wrapped several times round the priest's body, the ends hanging down to the feet. The " curious girdle " (Ex. xxviii. 8) was made of the same mate rials and colours as the ephod, that is of *' gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen." Josephus describes it as sewn to the breastplate. After passing once round it was tied in front upon the seam, the ends hang ng down. GIR'GASHITES, THE, one of the nations who were in possession of Canaan before the entrance thither of the children of Israel (Gen. x. 16, xv. 21; Deut. vii. I ; Josh. iii. 10, xxiv. 11 ; 1 Chr. i. 14 ; Neh. ix. 8). GITTA'IM. [Gittites.] GIT'TITES, the 600 men who followed David from Gath, under Ittai the Gittite (2 Sam. xv. 18, 19), and who probably acted as a kind of body-guard. Obed-edom "tbe Gittite " may have been so named from the town of Gittaim in Benjamin (2 Sam. iv. 3 ; Neh. xi. 33), or from Gath-rimmon. GIT'TITH, a musical instrument, by some supposed to have been used by the people of Gafch ; and by others to have been employed at the festivities of the vintage (Ps. viii., lxxxi., lxxxiv.). GLASS. The Heb. word occurs only in Job xxviii. 17, where in A. V., it is rendered " crystal." In spite of the absence of Bpecific allusion to glass iu the sacred writings, the Hebrews must have been aware of the inven tion. From paintings representing the pro cess of glass-blowing which have been dis covered at Beni-Hassan, and in tombs at other places, we know that the invention ia at least as remote as the age of Osirtasen the first (perhaps a contemporary of Joseph), 3500 years ago. Fragments too of wine- vases as old as the Exodus have been dis covered in Egypt. The art was also known to the ancient Assyrians. In the N. T. glass is alluded to as an emblem of brightness (Rev. iv. 6, xv. 2, xxi. 18). GLEANING. The gleaning of fruit trees, as well as of cornfields, was reserved for tbe poor. [Corner.] GLEDE, the old name for the common kite (milvus ater) occurs only in Deut. xiv, 13 among the unclean birds of prey. GNAT, mentioned only in the proverbial expression used by our Saviour in , Matt. xxiii. 24. GOAD (Judg. iii. 31 ; 1 Sam. xiii. 21). But the Hebrew word in the latter passage probably means the point of the ploughshare . The former word does probably refer to the goad, the long handle of wMch might be used as a formidable weapon. The instrument, as still used in the countries of southern Europe and western Asia, consists of a rod about eight feet long, brought to a sharp point and sometimes cased with iron at the head. GOAT. There appear to be two or three varieties of the common goat (Hircus aega- grus) at present bred in Palestine and Syria, but whether they are identical with those which were reared by the ancient Hebrews it is not possible to say. The most marked varieties are the Syrian goat (Capra Mam- GOAT, SCAPE 195 GOD brica, Linn.), and the Angora goat (Capra Angorensis, Linn.), with fine long hair. As to the "wild goats" (1 Sam. xxiv. 2 ; Job xxxix. 1, and Ps. civ. 18) it is not at all im- utobable tha; some species of ibex is denoted. Long-eared Syrian goat. GOAT, SCAPE. [Atonement, Day of.] GOB, a place mentioned only in 2 Sam. xxi. 18, 19, as the scene of two encounters between David's warriors and the PMlistines. In the parallel account in 1 Chr. xx. 4, the name is given as Gezer. GOD. Throughout the Hebrew Scriptures two chief names are used for the one true divine Being — Elohim, commonly translated God in our Version, and Jehovah, translated Lord. Elohim is the plural of Eloah (in Arabic Allah), a form which occurs only in poetry and a few passages of later Hebrew (Neh. ix. 17 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 15). It is also formed with the pronominal suffixes, as Eloi, my God, with the dependent genitive, and with an epithet, in which case it is often used In the short form, El (a word signifying strength), as in El-Shaddai, God Almighty, the name by which God was specially known to the patriarchs (Gen. xvii. 1, xxviii. 3 ; Ex. vi. 3). The etymology is uncertain, but it is generally agreed that the primary idea is that of strength, power to effect ; and that it properly describes God in that cha racter in which He is exhibited to 'all men in His works, as the creator, bus siner, and su preme governor of the world. Hence it is used to denote any being believed in and worshipped as God ; but in the sense of a heathen deity, or a divine being spoken of indefinitely, the singular is most often used, and the plural is employed, with the strict idea of number, for the collective objects of polytheistic worship, the gods, the gods of the heathen. It is also used for any being that strikes an observer as god-like (Sam. xxviii. 13), and for kings, judges, and others en dowed with authority from God (Psalm lxxxii. 1, 6, viii. 6, xcvii. 7, &o. ; Ex. xxi. 6, xxii. 7, 8). The short form El is used for a hero, or mighty man, as Nebuchadnezzar (Ezek. xxxi. 11), a sense derived at once from the meaning of strength. The plural form of Elohim has given rise to much discussion. The fanciful idea, that it referred to the Trinity of Persons in the Godhead, hardly finds now a supporter among scholars. It is either what grammarians call the plural of majesty, or it denotes the fulness of divine strength, the sum of the powers displayed by God. Jehovah denotes specifically the one true God, whose people the Jews were, and who made them the guardians of His truth. The name is never applied to a false god, nor to any other being, except One, the Angel-Jehovah, who is thereby marked as one with God, and who appears again in the New Covenant as " God manifested in the flesh." Thus much is clear ; but all else is beset with difficulties. At a time too early to be traced, the Jews abstained from pro nouncing the name, for fear of its irreverent use. The custom is said to have been founded on a strained interpretation of Lev. xxiv. 16 ; and the phrase there used, " The Name " (Shema), is substituted by the Rabbis for the unutterable word. They also call it " the name of four letters" (jT)Pl*)> "the great and terrible name," " the peculiar name," " the separate name." In reading the Scrip tures, they substituted for it the word Adonai (Lord), from the translation of which by Kvptos in the LXX., followed by the Vulgate, wMch uses Dominus, we have got the Lord of our Version. Our translators have, how ever, used Jehovah in four passages (Ex. vi. 3 ; Psalm lxxxiii. 18 ; Is, xii. 2, xxvi. 4), and in the compounds, Jehovah-Jireh, Jeho- vah-Nissi, and Jehovah-Shalom (Jehovah shall see, Jehovah ia my Banner, Jehovah is Peace, Gen. xxii. 14 ; Ex. xvii. 15 ; Judges vi. 24) ; while the similar phrases Jehovah-Tsidkenu and Jehovah-Shammah are translated, " the Lord our righteousness," and " the Lord is there " (Jer, xxiii. 6, xxxiii. 16 ; Ezek. xlviii. 35). In one passage the abbreviated form Jah is retained (Psalm lxviii. 4). The O 2 GOG 196 GOLIATH substitution of the word Lord is most un happy ; for, wMle it in no way represents the meaning of the sacred name, the mind has constantly to guard against a confusion with its lower uses, and, above all, the direct personal bearing of the name on the reve lation of God through the whole course of Jewish history is kept injuriously out of sight. The key to the meaning of the name is unquestionably given in God's revelation of Himself to Moses by the phrase " I am that I am," in connexion with the state ment, that He was now first revealed by his name Jehovah (Ex. iii. 14, vi. 3). Without entering here upon questions of Hebrew philology, we must be content to take as established the etymological con nexion of the name Jehovah with the He brew substantive verb, with the inference that it expresses the essential, eternal, un changeable Being of Jehovah. But more, it is not the expression only, or chiefly, of an absolute truth : it is a practical revelation of God, in His essential, unchangeable relation to His chosen people, the basis of His Cove nant. This is both implied in the occasion on which it is revealed to Moses, and in the fifteenth verse of Ex. iii. And here we find the solution of a difficulty raised by Ex. vi. 3, as if it meant that the name Jehovah had not been known to the patriarchs. There is abundant evidence to the contrary. As early as the time of Seth, " men began to call on the name of Jehovah" (Gen. iv. 25). The name is used by the patriarchs them selves (Gen. xviii. 14 ; xxiv. 40 ; xxvi. 28 ; xxviii. 21). It is the basis of titles, like Jehovah-Jireh, and of proper names, like Moriah and Jochebed. Indeed, the same reasoning would prove that the patriarchs did not know God as Elohim, but exclu sively as El-Shaddai. But, in fact, the word name is used here, as elsewhere, for the attributes of God. He was about, for the first time, fully to reveal that aspect of His character which the name implied. GOG. [Magog.] GO'LAN, a city of Bashan (Deut. iv. 43) allotted out of the half tribe of Manasseh to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 27), and one of the three cities of refuge east of the Jordan (xx. 8), Its very site is now unknown. It gave its name to the province of Gaulanitis, which is frequently mentioned by Josephus. It lay east of Galilee, and north of Gadaritis [Gadara]. The Jordan from the Sea of Galilee to its fountains at Dan and Caesarea- Philippi, formed its western boundary. It corresponds to the modern province of Jauldn (which in the Arabic form of the Hebrew Golan). The greater part of Gaulanitis is a flat and fertile table-land, well watered, and clothed with luxuriant grass. GOLD, the most valuable of metals, from its colour, lustre, weight, ductility, and other useful properties. Hence it is used as ah emblem of purity (Job xxiii. 10) and no bility (Lam. iv. 1). Gold was known from the very earliest times (Gen. ii. 11). It was at first cMefly used for ornaments, &c. (Gen. xxiv. 22). Coined money was not known to the ancients till a comparatively late period ; and on the Egyptian tombs gold is repre sented as being weighed in rings for com mercial purposes. (Comp. Gen. xliii. 21.) Gold was extremely abundant in ancient times (1 Chr. xxii. 14 ; 2 Chr. i. 15, ix. 9 ; Nah. ii. 9 ; Dan. iii. 1) ; but this did not depreciate its value, because of the enormous quantities consumed by the wealthy in fur niture, &c. (1 K. vi. 22, x. passim; Cant. iii. 9, 10 ; Esth. i. 6 ; Jer. x. 9). The chief countries mentioned as producing gold are Arabia, Sheba, and Ophir (1 K. ix. 28, x. 1 ; Job xxviii. 16). Other gold-bearing coun tries were Uphaz (Jer. x. 9 ; Dan. x. 5) and Parvaim (2 Chr. iii. 6). Metallurgic pro cesses are mentioned in Ps. lxvi. 10 ; Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21 ; and in Is. xlvi. 6, the trade of goldsmith (cf. Judg. xvii. 4) is alluded to in connexion with the overlaying of idols with gold-leaf. GOL'GOTHA, the Hebrew name of the spot at which our Lord was crucified (Matt. xxvii. 33; Mark xv. 22; John xix. 17), By these three Evangelists it is interpreted to mean the " place of a skull." St. Luke's words are really aa follows — " the place which is called *a skull*" — not, as in the other Gospels, " of a skull," thus employing the Greek term exactly as they do the Hebrew one. Two explanations of the name are given : (1) that it was a spot where ex ecutions ordinarily took place, and therefore abounded in skulls. Or (2) it may come from the look or form of the spot itself, bald, round, and skull-like, and therefore a mound or Mllock, in accordance with the common phrase — for wMch there is no direct autho rity — "Mount Calvary." WMchever of these is the correct explanation, Golgotha seems to have been a known spot. GOLI'ATH, a famous giant of Gath, who " morning and evening for forty days " de- fled the armies of Israel (1 Sam. xvii.). Ho was possibly descended from the old Rephaim [Giant*], of whom a scattered remnant took refuge with the Philistines after their dis persion by the Ammonites (Deut. ii. 20, 21 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 22). His height was "six cubits and a span," which, taking the cubit at 21 inches, would make him 10! feet Mgh. GOMER 197 GOSPELS But the LXX. and Josephus read "four cubits and a span." The scene of his combat with David was the Valley of the Terebinth, between Shochoh and Azekah, probably among the western passes of Benjamin, al though a confused modern tradition has given the name of Ain Jahlood (spring of Goliath) to the spring of Harod (Judg. vii. 1 ) . In 2 Sam. xxi. 19, we find that another Goliath of Gath was slain by Elhanan, also a Bethlehemite. GO'MER, the eldest son of Japheth, and the father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and To garmah (Gen. x. 2, 3). His name is sub sequently noticed but once (Ez. xxxviii. 6) as an ally or subject of the Scythian king Geg. He is generally recognised as the pro genitor of the early Cimmerians, of the latter Cimbri and the other branches of the Celtic family, and of the modern Gael and Cymry, the latter preserving, with very slight devi ation, the original name. GOMOR'RAH, in the N. T. written GO- MOR'RHA, o-o of the five "cities of the plain," or { vale of Siddim," that under their respective kings joined battle therewith Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2-8) and his allies, by whom they were discomfited till Abraham came to the rescue. Four out of the five were afterwards destroyed by the Lord with fire from heaven (Gen. xix. 23-29). One of them only, Zoar or Bela, whieh was its ori ginal name, was spared at the request of Lot, in order that he might take refuge there. Of these Gomorrah seems to have been only second to Sodom in importance, as well as in the wickedness that led to their overthrow. What that atrocity was may he gathered from Gen. xix. 4-8. Their geograpMcal position is discussed under Sodom. GOPHER WOOD, only once in Gen. vi. 14. Two principal conjectures have been pro posed : — 1. That the " trees of Gopher" are any trees of the resinous kind, such as pine, fir, &c. 2. That Gopher is cypress. GO'SHEN, the name of a part of Egypt where the Israelites dwelt for the whole period of their sojourn in that country. It is usually called the "land of Goshen," hut also Goshen simply. It appears to have borne another name, "the land of Rameses" (Gen. xlvii. 11), unless this be the name of a district of Goshen. It was between Joseph's residence at the time and the frontier of Palestine, and apparently the extreme pro vince towards that frontier (Gen. xlvi. 29). The results of an examination of Biblical evidence are that the land of Goshen lay between the eastern part of the ancient Delta and the western border of Palestine, that it was scarcely a part of Egypt Proper, was inhabited by other foreigners besides the Israelites ; that it was a pasture-land, espe cially suited to a shepherd-people, and suffi cient for the Israelites, who there prospered, and were separate from the main body of the Egyptians. These indications seem to indicate the WddA-t-Tumeylat, the valley along which anciently flowed the canal of the Red Sea. GOSPELS. The name Gospel (from god and spell, Angl. Sax, good message or news, wMch is a translation of the Greek evayye\iov) is applied to the four inspired histories of the life and teaching of Christ contained in the New Testament, of which separate ac counts are given in their place. They were all composed during the latter half of the first century : those of St. Matthew and St. Mark some years before the destruction of Jerusalem ; that of St. Luke probably about a.d. 64 ; and that of St. John towards the close of the century. Before the end of the second century, there is abundant evi dence that the four Gospels, as one collection, were generally used and accepted. As a matter of literary history, nothing can be better established than the gemiineness of the GospelB. On comparing these four books one with another, a peculiar difficulty claims attention, which has had much to do with the controversy as to their genuineness. In the fourth Gospel the narrative coincides with that of the other three in a few pas sages only. Putting aside the account of the Passion, there are oMy three facts which John relates in common with the other Evan gelists. Two of these are, the feeding of the five thousand, and the storm on the Sea of Galilee (ch. vi.). The tMrd is the anointing of His feet by Mary. Whilst the others pre sent the life of Jesus in Galilee, John follows him into Judaea ; nor shoMd we know, but for him, that our Lord had journeyed to Jerusalem at the prescribed feasts. The re ceived explanation is the only satisfactory one, namely, that John, writing last, at the close of the first century, had seen the other Gospels, and purposely abstained from writing anew what they had sufficiently recorded. — In the other three Gospels there is a great amount of agreement. If we suppose the history that they contain to be divided into sections, in 42 of these all the three narra tives coincide, 12 more are given by Matthew and Mark only, 5 by Mark and Luke only, and 14 by Matthew and Luke. To these must be added 5 peculiar to Matthew, 2 to Mark, and 9 to Luke ; and the enumeration is complete. But this applies only to general coincidence as to the facts narrated : the GOSPELS 398 GOZAN amount of verbal coincidence, that is, the passages either verbally the same, or coin ciding in the use of many of the same words, Ss much smaller. Various theories have been proposed to account for this phenomenon. (1). The first and most obvious suggestion would be, that the narrators made use of each other's work. Accordingly many have endeavoured to ascertain which Gospel is to be regarded as the first ; which is copied from the first ; and which is tbe last, and copied from the other two. But the theory in its crude form is in itself most improb able ; and the wonder is that so much time and learning have been devoted to it. It ..ssumes that an Evangelist has taken up the work of Ms predecessor, and, without sub stantial alteration, has made a few changes in form, a few additions and retrenchments, and has then allowed the whole to go forth under his name. (2). The supposition of a common original from which the three Gos pels were drawn, each with more or less modification, woMd naturally occur to those who rejected the notion that the Evangelists had copied from each other. But if all the Evangelists had agreed to draw from a common original, it must have been widely if not universally accepted in the Church ; and yet there is no record of its existence. If the work was of high authority, it would have been preserved, or at least mentioned ; if of lower authority, it could not have be come the basis of three canonical Gospels. (3). There is another supposition to account for these facts. It is probable that none of the Gospels was written until many years after the day of Pentecost on which the Holy Spirit descended on the assembled disciples. From that day commenced at Jerusalem the work of preaching the Gospel and converting the world. Now their preaching must have been, from the nature of the case, in great part Mstorical ; it must have been based upon an account of the life and acts of Jesus of Nazareth. Nor is there anything unna tural in the supposition that the Apostles intentionally uttered their witness in the same order, and even, for the most part, in the same form of words. It is supposed, then, that the portions of the three Gospels which harmonise most exactly owe their agreement to the fact that the apostolic preaching had already clothed itself in a set tled or usual form of words, to which the writers inclined to conform without feeling bound to do so ; and the differences which occur, often in the closest proximity to the harmonies, arise from the feeling of indepen dence with which each wrote what he had seen and heiird, or, in the case of Mark and Luke, what apostolic witnesses had told him. GOURD. 1. Kikdydn only in Jon. iv. 6-10. The plant, which iB intended by this word, and which afforded shade to the prophet Jonah before Nineveh, is the Ricinus com munis, or castor -oil plant, which, formerly a native of Asia, is now naturalised in America, Africa, and the south of Europe. This plant varies considerably in size, being in India a tree, but in England seldom attaimng a greater height than three or four feet. The leaves are large and palmate, with serrated lobes, and would form an excellent shelter for the sun-stricken prophet. The seeds contain the oil so well known under the name of " castor-oil," which has for ages been in Mgh Castor-oil plant. repute as a medicine. 2. With regard to the "wild gourds" (pakku'dth) of 2 K. iv. 39, which one of "the sons of the prophets" gathered ignorantly, supposing them to be good for food, there can be no doubt that it is a species of the gourd tribe (Cucurbitaceae), which contains some plants of a very bitter and dangerous character. As several kinds of Cucurbitaceae, such as melons, pumpkins, &c, are favourite articles of refreshing food amongst the Orientals, we can easily under* stand the cause of the mistake. GO'ZAN seems in the A. V. of 1 Chr. v. 28, GRAPE 199 GROVE to be the name of a river ; but in Kings (2 K. xvii. 6, and xviii. 11) it is evidently applied not to a river but a country. Gozan was the tract to wMch the Israelites were carried away captive by Pul, Tiglath-Pileser, and Shalmaneser, or possibly Sargon. It is probably identical with the Gauzanitis of Ptolemy, and may be regarded as represented by the Mygdonia of other writers. It was the xract watered by the Habor, the modern Khabour, the great Mesopotamian affluent of the Euphrates. GRAPE. [Vine.] GRASS. This is the ordinary rendering of the Hebrew word chdtsir (1 K. xviii. 5 ; Job xl. 5, Ps. civ. 14 ; Is. xv. 6). As the herbage rapidly fades under the parching heat of the sun of Palestine, it has afforded to the sacred writers an image of the fleeting nature of human fortunes (Job viii. 12 ; Ps. xxxvii. 2), and also of the brevity of human life (Is. xl. 6, 7 ; Ps. xc. 5). GRASSHOPPER. [Locust.] GRAVE. [Burial.] GREECE, GREEKS, GRECIANS. The histories of, Greece and Palestine are little connected with each other. In Gen. x. 2-5 Moses mentions the descendants of Javan as peopling the isles of the Gentiles ; and when the Hebrews came into contact with the Iomans of Asia Minor, and recognized them as the long-lost islanders of the western migration, it was natural that they should mark the similarity of sound between Javan and lones. Accordingly the O. T. word which is Grecia, in A. V. Greece, Greeks, &c, is in Hebrew Javan (Joel iii. 6 ; Dan. viii. 21) : the Hebrew, however, is sometimes retained (Is. lxvi. 19 ; Ez. xxvii. 13). The Greeks and Hebrews met for the first time in the slave-market. The medium of communica tion seems to have been the Tyrian slave- merchants. About b.c 800 Joel speaks of the Tyrians as selling the children of Judah to the Grecians (Joel iii. 6) ; and in Ez. xxvii. 13 the Greeks are mentioned as barter ing their brazen vessels for slaves. Pro phetical notice of Greece occurs in Dan. viii. 21, &c, where the history of Alexander and Ms successors is rapidly sketched. Zecbariah (ix. 13) foretells the triumphs of the Mac cabees against the Graeco-Syrian empire. while Isaiah looks forward to the conversion of the Greeks, amongst other Gentiles, through the instrumentality of Jewish missionaries (lxvi. 19). Di 1 Mace. xii. 5-23 we have an account of an embassy and letter sent by the Lacedaemonians to the Jews. The most re markable feature in the transaction is the claim wMch the Lacedaemonians prefer to Kindred with the Jews, and wMch Areus pro fesses to establish by reference to a book. The name of the country, Greece, occurs once in N. T. (Acts xx. 2), as opposed to Mace donia. [Gentiles.] GREYHOUND. The translation in the text of the A. V. (Prov. xxx. 31) of the Hebrew words zarzir mothnayin, i. e. " one girt about the loins." Various are the opinions as to what animal "comely in going " is here intended. Some think " a leopard," others " an eagle," or " a man girt with armour," or " a zebra," or " a war-horse girt with trappings." But perhaps the word means " a wrestler," when girt about the loins for a contest. GRINDING. [Mill.] GROVE. A word used in the A. V., with two exceptions, to translate the mysterious Hebrew term Asherah, wMch is not a grove, but probably an idol or image of some kind. [Asherah.] It is also probable that there was a connexion between this symbol or image, whatever it was, and the sacred sym bolic tree, the representation of which occurs so frequently on Assyrian sculptures, and is figured below. — 2. The two exceptions noticed Sacred Symbolic Tree of the Assyrians. above are Gen. xxi. 33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6 (margin). In the religions of the ancient heathen world groves play a prominent part. In the old times altars only were erected to the gods. It was thought wrong to shut up the gods within walls, and hence trees were the first temples ; and from the earliest times groves are mentioned in connexion with re ligious worsMp (Gen. xii. 6, 7, xiii. 18; Deut. xi. 30 ; A. V. " plain *M. The groves were generally found connected with temples, and often had the right of affording an asylum. Some have supposed that even tho Jewish Temple had an enclosure planted with palm ana cedar (Ps. xcii. 12, 13) and olive HABAKKUK 200 HAGAR (Ps. Iii. 8), as the mosque wMch stands on its site now has. This is more than doubtful ; but we know that a celebrated oak stood by the sanctuary at Shechem (Josh. xxiv. 26 ; Judg. ix. 6). There are in Scripture many memorable trees : e. g. Allon-bachuth (Gen. xxxv. 8), the tamarisk in Gibeah (1 Sam. xxii. 6), the terebinth in Shechem (Jos. xxiv. 26) under which the law was set up, the palm-tree of Deborah (Judg. iv. 5), the tere binth of enchantments (Judg. ix. 37), the terebintii of wanderers (Judg. iv. 11), and others (1 Sam. xiv. 2, x. 3, sometimes " plain" in A. V.). TMs observation of par ticular trees was among the heathen extended to a regular worship of them. HAB'AKKUK, the eighth in order of the minor prophets. Of the facts of the prophet's life we have no certain information. He probably delivered his prophecy about the 12th or 13th year of Josiah (b.c 630 or 629). The prophet commences by announcing his office and important mission (i. 1). He be wails the corruption and social disorganisa tion by which he is surrounded, and cries to Jehovah for help (i. 2-4). Next follows the reply of the Deity, threatening swift ven geance (i. 5-11). The prophet, transferring himself to the near future foreshadowed in the divine threatenings, sees the rapacity and boastful impiety of the Chaldean hosts, but, confident that God has only employed them as the instruments of correction, assumes (ii. 1) an attitude of hopeful expectancy, and waits to see the issue. He receives the divine command to write in an enduring form the vision of God's retributive justice, as revealed to Mb prophetic eye (ii. 2, 3). The doom of the Chaldeans is first foretold in general terms (ii. 4-6), and the announcement is fol lowed by a series of denunciations pronounced upon them by the nations who had suffered from their oppression (ii. 6-20). The stro- phical arrangement of these "woes" is a remarkable feature of the prophecy. The whole concludes with the magnificent Psalm in chap, iii., a composition unrivalled for boldness of conception, sublimity of thought, and majesty of diction. HABERGEON, a coat of mail covering the *eck and bre«at. [Arms, p. 45.] HA'BOR, the "river of Gozan" (2 K. xvii. 6, and xviii. 11), is identified beyond all reasonable doubt with the famous affluent of the Euphrates, Aborrhas and Chaboras by ancient writers, and now Khabour. HA'DAD, originally the indigenous appella tion of the Sun among the Syrians, and thence transferred to the king, as the highest of earthly authorities. The title appears to have been an official one, like Pharaoh. It is found occasionally in the altered form Hadar (Gen. xxv. 15, xxxvi. 39, compared with 1 Chr. i. 30, 50). — 1. Son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15 ; 1 Chr. i. 30).— 2. A king of Edom who gained an important victory over the Midianites on the field of Moab (Gen. xxxvi. 35 ; 1 Chr. i. 46).— 3. Also a king of Edom, with Pau for his capital (1 Chr. i. 50). —4. A member of the royal house of Edom (1 K. xi. 14 ff.). In his childhood he escaped the massacre under Joab, in which his father appears to have perished, and fled with a band of followers into Egypt. Pharaok, the predecessor of Solomon's father-in-law, treated him kindly, and gave Mm Ms sister-inylaw in marriage. After David's death Hadad re solved to attempt the recovery of his do minion : Pharaoh in vain discouraged Mm, and upon this he left Egypt and returned to his own country. HADADE'ZER (2 Sam. viii. 3-1? ; 1 K. xi. 23). [Hadarezer.] HA'DAR. [Hadad.] HADARE'ZER, son of Rehob (2 Sam. viii. 3), the king of the Aramite state of Zobah, who was defeated by David, and defeated with great loss both of chariots, horses, and men (1 Chr. xviii. 3, 4). After the first re pulse of the Ammonites and their Syrian allies by Joab, Hadarezer sent his army to the assistance of his kindred the people of Maachah, Rehob, and Ishtob (1 Chr. xix. 16 ; 2 Sam. x. 15, comp. 8). Underthe command of Shophaoh, or Shobach, the captain of the host, they crossed the Euphrates, joined the other Syrians, and encamped at a place called Helam. David himself came from Jerusalem to take the command of the Israelite army. As on the former occasion, the rout was complete. HAD'ASHAH, one of the towns of Judah, in the maritime low country (Josh. xv. 37 only), probably the Adas a of the Maccabaean history - HADAS'SAH, probably the earlier name of Esther (Esth. ii. 7). HAD'ORAM, the form assumed in Chro nicles by the name of the intendant of taxes under David, Solomon, and Rehoboam (2 Chr. x. 18). In Kings the name is given in the longer form of Adoniram, but in Samuel (2 Sam. xx. 24) as Adoram. HA'GAR, an Egyptian woman, the band maid, or slave, of Sarah (Gen. xvi. 1), whom the latter gave as a concubine to Abraham, after he had dwelt ten years in the land of Canaan and had no children by Sarah (xvi. 2 and 3). That she was a bondwoman is stated both in the O. T. and in the N. T., in HAGARENES 201 HAIR the latter as part of her typical character. It is recorded that " when she saw that she had conceived, her mistress was despised in h'3T eyes " (4), and Sarah, with the anger, we may suppose, of a free woman, rather than of a wife, reproached Abraham for the results of her own act. Hagar fled, turning her steps towards her native land through the great wilderness traversed by tbe Egyptian road. By the fountain in the way to Shur, the angel of the Lord found her, charged her to return and submit herself under the handB of her mistress, and delivered the remarkable prophecy respecting her unborn child, re corded in ver. 10-12. On her return, she gave birth to Ishmael, and Abraham was then eighty-six years old. Mention is not again made of Hagar in the Mstory of Abra ham until the feast at the weaMng of Isaac, when "Sarah saw the Bon of Hagar the Egyptian, which she had born unto Abra ham, mocking ;" and in exact sequence with the first flight of Hagar, we now read of her expulsion. The verisimilitude, oriental exact ness, and simple beauty of this story are in ternal evidences attesting its truth, apart from all other evidence. The name of Hagar occurs elsewhere only when she takes a wife to Ishmael (xxi. 21) ; and in the genealogy (xxv. 12). St. Paul refers to her as the type of the old covenant, likening her to Mount Sinai, the Mount of the Law (Gal. iv. 22 seqq.). HA'GARENES, HA'GARITES, a people dwelling to the east of Palestine, with whom the tribe of Reuben made war in the time of Saul (I Chr. v. 10, 18-20). The same people, as confederate against Israel, are mentioned in Ps. lxxxiii. 6. It is generally believed that they were named after Hagar, and that the important town and district of Hejer, on the borders of the Persian Gulf, represents them. HAG'GAI, the tenth in order of the Minor Prophets, and first of those who prophesied after the Captivity. With regard to his tribe and parentage both history and tradition are alike silent ; hut it is more than probable that he was one of the exiles who returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua. The rebuilding of the temple, wMch was commenced in the reign of Cyrus (b.c. 535), was suspended during the reigns of Ms successors, Cambyses and Pseudo-Smerdis, in consequence of the determined hostility of the Samaritans. On the accession of Darius Hystaspis (b.c 521), the prophets Haggai and Zechariah urged the renewal of the undertaking, and obtained the permission and assistance of the king (Ezr. v. 1, vi. 14). According to tradition, Haggai was born in Babylon, was a young man when he came to Jerusalem, and. was buried with honour near the sepulchres of the priests. The names of Haggai and Zecha. riah are associated in the LXX. in the titles of Ps. 137, 145-148; in the Vulgate in those of Ps. Ill, 145 ; and in the Peshito Syriac in those of Ps. 125, 126, 145, 146, 147, 148. It may be that tradition assigned to these prophets the arrangement of the above-men tioned psalms for use in the temple service. The style of Haggai is generally tame and prosaic, though at times it rises to the dignity of severe invective, when the prophet rebukes his countrymen for their selfish indolence and neglect of God's house. But the brevity of the prophecies is so great, and the poverty of expression wMch characterises them so strik ing, as to give rise to a conjecture, not with out reason, that in their present form they are but the outline or summary of the ori ginal discourses. They were delivered in the second year of Darius Hystaspis (b.c 520), at intervals from the 1st day of the 6th month to the 24th day of the 9th month in the same year. HAG'GITH, one of David's wives, the mother of AdoMjah (2 Sam. iii. 4 ; 1 K. i. 5, 11, ii. 13; 1 Chr. iii. 2). HAIR. The Hebrews were fully alive to the importance of the hair as an element of personal beauty, whether as seen in the " curled locks, black as a raven," of youth (Cant. v. 11), or in the "crown of glory" that encircled the head of old age (Prov. xvi. 31). Long hair was admired in the case of young men ; it is especially noticed in the description of Absalom's person (2 Sam. xiv. 26). The care requisite to keep the hair in order in Buch cases must have been very great, and hence the practice of wearing long hair was unusual, and oMy resorted to as an act of religious observance. In times of affliction the hair was altogether out off (Is. iii. 17, 24, xv. 2 ; Jer. vii. 29). Tearing the hair (Ezr. ix. 3) and letting it go dis hevelled, were similar tokens of grief. The usual and favourite colour of the hair was black (Cant. v. 11), as is indicated in the comparisons to a "flock of goats" and the "tents of Kedar" (Cant. iv. 1, i. 5) : a similar hue is probably intended by the purple of Cant. vii. 5. The approach of age was marked by a sprinkling (Hos. vii. 9) of gray hairs, which soon overspread the whole head (Gen. xiii. 38, xliv. 29; 1 K. ii. 6, 0 ; Prov. xvi. 31, xx. 29). PurewMte hair was deemed characteristic of the Divine Majesty (Dan. vii. 9; Rev. i. 14). The cMef beauty of the hair consisted in curls, whether of a natural or artificial character. With regard to the mode of dressing the hair, we have no very precise information ; the terms used are HALAH 202 HAMMATH of a general character, as of Jezebel (2 K. ix. 30), of Judith (x. 3). The terms used in the N. T. (1 Tim. ii. 9 ; 1 Pet. iii. 3) are also of a general character. The arrangement of Samson's hair into seven locks, or more pro perly braids (Judg. xvi. 13, 19) involves the practice of plaiting, which was also familiar to the Egyptians and Greeks. The locks were probably kept in their place by a fillet as in Egypt. The Hebrews, like other na tions of antiquity, anointed the hair profusely with ointments, wMch were generally com pounded of various aromatic ingredients (Ruth iii. 3 ; 2 Sam. xiv. 2 ; Ps. xxiii. 5, xiv. 7, xcii. 10 ; Eccl. ix. 8 ; Is. iii. 24) ; more especially on occasion of festivities or hospitality (Matt. vi. 17, xxvi. 7 ; Luke vii. 46). It appears to have been the custom of the Jews in our Saviour's time to swear by the hair (Matt. v. 36), much as the Egyptian women still swear by the side-lock, and the men by their beards. HA'LAH is probably a different place from the Calah of Gen. x. 11. It may be identi fied with the Chalcitis of Ptolemy. HALL, used of the court of the high- priest's house (Luke xxii. 55). In Matt. xxvii. 2', and Mark xv. 16, "hall" is syno nymous with " praetorium," whioh in John xviii. 28 is in A. V. "judgment-hall." HALLELUJAH. [Alleluia.] HAM. 1. The name of one of the three sons of Noah, apparently the second in age. It probably signifies "warm " or " hot." This meaning is confirmed by that of the Egyptian word Kem (Egypt), the Egyptian equivalent of Ham, which signifies " black," probably implying warmth as well as black ness. Of the history of Ham nothing is re lated except his irreverence to his father, and the curse which that patriarch pro nounced. The sons of Ham are stated to have been " Cush and Mizraim and Phut and Canaan" (Gen. x. 6; comp. 1 Chr. i. 8). The name of Ham alone, of the three sons of Noah, is known to have been given to a country. Egypt is recognized as the " land of Ham" in the Bible (Ps. lxxviii. 51, cv. 23, cvi, 22). The other settlements of the sons of Ham are discussed under their respective names. An inquiry into the history of the Hamite nations presents considerable diffi culties, since it cannot be determined in the cases of the most important of those com monly held to be Hamite that they were purely of that stock. It is certain that the three most illustrious Hamite nations — the Cushites, the Phoenicians, and the Egyptians — were greatly mixed with foreign peoples. There are some common characteristics, however, which appear to connect the dif ferent branches of the Hamite family, and to distinguish them from the children of Japheth and Shem. Their architecture has a solid grandeur that we look for in vam elsewhere. — 2. According to the present text (Gen. xiv. 5), Chedorlaomer and his allies smote the Zuzim in a place ca'ied Ham. If, as seems likely, the Zuzim be the same as the Zarazummim, Ham must be placed in what was afterwards the Ammonite territory. Hence it has been conjectured, that Ham is but another form of the name of the chief stronghold of the children of .Ammon, Rab bah, now Am-nmn. HA'MAN, the chief miMster or vizier of king Ahasuerus (Esth. iii. 1). After the failure of Mb attempt to cut off all the Jews in the Persian empire, he was hanged on the gallows which he had erected for Mordecai. The Targum and Josephus interpret the de scription of him — the Agagite — as signifying that he was of Amalekitish descent. HA'MATH, the principal city of Upper Syria, was situated in the valley of the Orontes, wMch it commanded from the low screen of hills which forms the watershed between the Orontes and the Litany — the " entrance of Hamath," as it is called in Scripture (Num. xxxiv. 8 ; Josh. xiii. 5, &c.) — to the defile of Daphne below Antioch. The HamatMtes were a Hamitic race, and are included among the descendants of Ca naan (Gen. x. 18). We must regard them as closely akin to the Hittites on whom they bordered, and with whom they were generally in alliance. Nothing appears of the power of Hamath, until the time of David (2 Sam. viii. 10). Hamath seems clearly to have been included in the dominions of Solomon (1 K. iv. 21-4). The "store-cities," which Solomon "built in Hamath" (2 Chr. viii. 4), were perhaps staples for trade. In the As syrian inscriptions of the time of Ahab (b.c 900) Hamath appears as a separate power, in alliance with the Syrians of Damascus, the Hittites, and the Phoenicians. About three- quarters of a century later Jeroboam tho second "recovered Hamath" (2 K. xiv. 28). Soon afterwards the Assyrians took it (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13, &c), and from this time it ceased to be a place of much importance. Antiochus EpiphaneB changed its name to Epiphaneia. The natives, however, called it Hamath, even in St. Jerome's time, and its present name, Hamah, is but slightly altered from the ancient form. HAM'MATH, one of the fortified cities in the territory allotted to Naphtali (Josh. xix. 35). It was near Tiberias, one mile distant, and had its name, Chammath, "tot baths," because it contained those of Tiberias. In HAMMEDATHA 203 HANDICRAFT the list of Levitical cities given out of Naph tali (Josh. xxi. 32) the name of tMs place seems to be given as Hammoth-Dor. HAMMEDA'THA, father of the infamous Haman (EBth. iii. 1, 10, viii. 5, ix. 24). HAM'MOTH-DOR. [Hammath.] HAM'ONAH, the name of a city men tioned in Ezekiel (xxxix. 16). HA'MOR, a Hivite, who at the time of the entrance of Jacob on Palestine was prince of the land and city of Shechem (Gen. xxxiii. 19, xxxiv. 2, 4, 6, 8, 13, 18, 20, 24, 26). [Dinah.] HAN'AMEEL, son of Shallum, and cousin of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxii. 7, 8, 9, 12 ; and comp. 44). HAN'ANEEL, THE TOWER OF, a tower which formed part of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 1, xii. 39). From these two pas sages, particularly from the former, it might almost be inferred that Hananeel was but another name for the Tower of Meah : at any rate they were close together, and stood between the sheep-gate and the fish-gate. TMs tower is further mentioned in Jer. xxxi. 38. The remaining passage in which it is named (Zech. xiv. 10) also connects this tower with the " corner-gate," wMch lay on the other side of the sheep-gate. HANANl'AH. 1. Son of Azur, a Benja mite of Gibeon and a false prophet in the reign of Zedekiah king of Judah. In the 4th year of his reign, b.c 595, Hananiah with stood Jeremiah the prophet, and publicly prophesied in the temple that within two years Jeconiah and all his fellow-captives, with the vessels of the Lord's house which Nebuchadnezzar had taken away to Babylon, should he brought back to Jerusalem (Jer. xxviii.) : an indication that treacherous ne gotiations were already secretly opened with Pharaoh - Hophra. Hananiah corroborated his prophecy by taking from off the neck of Jeremiah the yoke which he wore by Divine command (Jer. xxvii.) in token of the sub jection of Judaea and the neighbouring coun tries to the Babylonian empire, and breaking it. But Jeremiah was bid to go and tell Hananiah that for the wooden yokes which he had broken he should make yokes of iron, so firm was the dominion of Babylon destined to be for seventy years. The prophet Jere miah added this rebuke and prediction of Hananiah's death, the fulfilment of which closes the history of this false prophet. — 2. The Hebrew name of Shadrach. He was of the house of David, according to Jewish tra dition (Dan. i. 3, 6, 7, 11, 19; ii, 17).— 3. Son of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iii. 19), from whom jurist derived his descent. He is the same ftrsun who is by St. Luke called Joanna. The identity of the two names Hananiah and Joanna is apparent immediately we compare them in Hebrew. HANDICRAFT. (Acts xviii. 3, xix. 25 ; Rev. xviii. 22). In the present article brief notices only can be given of such handicraft trades as are mentioned in Scripture. 1. The preparation of iron for use either in war, in agriculture, or for domestic purposes, was doubtless one of the earliest applications of labour ; and, together with iron, working in brass, or rather copper alloyed with tin, bronze, is mentioned in the same passage as practised in antediluvian times (Gen. iv. 22). In the construction of the Tabernacle, copper, but no iron, appears to have been used, though the use of iron was at the same period well known to the Jews, both from their own use of it and from their Egyptian education, whilst the Canaanite inhabitants of Palestine and Syria were in full possession of its use both for warlike and domestic purposes (Ex. xx. 25, xxv. 3, xxvii. 19; Num. xxxv. 16; Deut. iii. 11, iv. 20, viii. 9; Josh. viii. 31, xvii. 16, 18). After the establishment of the Jews in Canaan, the occupation of a smith became recognised as a distinct employment (1 Sam. xiii. 19). The smith's work and its results are often mentioned in Scripture (2 Sam. xii. 31 ; 1 K. vi. 7 ; 2 Chr. xxvi. 14; Is. xliv. 12, liv. 16). The worker in gold and silver must have found employment both among the Hebrews and the neighbour ing nations in very early times, as appears from the ornaments sent by Abraham to Re- bekah (Gen. xxiv. 2i,, 53, xxxv. 4, xxxviii. 18 ; Deut. vii. 25). 2. The work of the carpenter is often mentioned in Scripture (Gen. vi. 14; Ex. xxxvii.; Is. xliv. 13). In the palace built by David for himself the workmen employed were chiefly Phoenicians sent by Hiram (2 Sam. v. 1] ; 1 Chr. xiv. 1), as most probably were those, or at least the principal of those who were employed by Solomon in his works (1 K. v. 6). But in the repairs of the Temple, executed under Joash Mng of Judah, and also in the re building under Zerubbabel, no mention is made of foreign workmen, though in the latter case the timber is expressly said to have been brought by sea to Joppa by Zidc- nians (2 K. xii. 11 ; 2 Chr. xxiv. 12 ; Ezra iii. 7). That the Jewish carpenters must have been able to carve with some skill is evident from Is. xii. 7, xliv. 13. In N. T. the occupation of a carpenter is mentioned in connexion with Joseph the husband of the Virgin Mary, and ascribed to our Lord him self hy way of reproach (Mark vi. 8 ; Matt. xiii. 55). 3. The masons employed by David and Solomon, at least the cMef of them, were HANDICRAFT 204 HARE Phoenicians (1 K. v. 18 ; Ez. xxvii. 9). The large Btones used in Solomon's Temple are said by Josephus to have been fitted together exactly without either mortar or cramps, but the foundation stones to have been fastened with lead. For ordinary building, mortar was used ; sometimes, perhaps, bitumen, as was the case at Babylon (Gen. xi. 3). The lime, clay, and straw of which mortar is generally composed in the East, reqmre to be very carefully mixed and united so as to resist wet. The wall " daubed with untem- pered mortar" of Ezekiel (xiii. 10) was per haps a sort of cob-wall of mud or clay with out lime, which would give way under heavy rain. The use of whitewash on tombs is remarked by our Lord (Matt, xxiii. 27). Houses infected with leprosy were required by tbe Law to be re-plastered (Lev. xiv. 40- 45). 4. Akin to the craft of the carpenter is that of ship and boat-building, which must have been exercised to some extent for the fishing-vessels on the lake of Gennesaret (Matt. viii. 23, ix. 1 ; John xxi. 3, 8). So lomon built, at Ezion-Geber, sMps for his foreign trade, which were manned by Phoeni cian crews, an experiment which Jehoshaphat endeavoured in vain to renew (1 K. ix. 26, 27, xxii. 48 ; 2 Chr. xx. 36, 37). 5. The perfumes used in the religious services, and in later times in the funeral rites of monarchs, imply knowledge and practice in the art of the " apothecaries," who appear to have formed a guild or association (Ex. xxx. 25, 35 ; Neh. iii. 8 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 14 ; EccL vii. 1, x. 1; Ecclus. xxxviii. 8). 6. The arts of spinMng and weaving both wool and linen were carried on in early times, as they are still usually among the Bedouins, by women. One of the excellences attributed to the good house-wife is her skill and industry in these arts (Ex. xxxv. 25, 26 ; Lev. xix. 19 ; Deut. xxii. 11 ; 2 K. xxiii. 7 ; Ez. xvi. 16 ; Prov. xxxi. 13, 24), The loom, with its beam (1 Sam. xvii. 7), pin (Judg. xvi. 14), and shuttle (Job vii. 6), was, perhaps, introduced later, but as early as David's time (1 Sam. xvii. 7). Together with weaving we read also of embroidery, in which gold and silver threads were interwoven with the body of tbe stuff, sometimes in figure patterns, or with precious stones set in the needle-work (Ex. xxvi. 1, xxviii. 4, xxxix. 6-18). 7. Besides these arts, those of dyeing and of dressing cloth were practised in Palestine, and those also of tanning and dressing leather (Josh. ii. 15-18; 2 K. i. 8 ; Matt. iii. 4; Acts ix. 43). Shoemakers, barbers, and tailors are mentioned in the Mishna (Pesach. iv. 6) ; the barber, or his occupation, by Ezekiel (v. I ; Lev, xiv. 8 ; Num. vi. 5) and the tailor, plasterers, glaziers, and glass vessels, painters, and goldworkers are men tioned in the Mishna (Chel. viii. 9, xxix. 3, 4, xxx. 1). Tent-makers are noticed in the Acts (xviii. 3), and frequent allusion is made to the trade of the potters. 8. BakerB are noticed in Scripture (Jer. xxxvii. 21; Hos. vii. 4) ; and the well-known valley Tyro- poeon probably derived its name from the occupation of the cheese-makers, its inhabi tants. Butchers, not Jewish, are spoken of 1 Cor. x. 25. HAN 'N AH, one of the wives of Elkanah, and mother of Samuel (1 Sam. i. ii.). A hymn of thanksgiving for the birth of her son is in the highest order of prophetic poetry ; its resemblance to that of the Virgin Mary (comp. 1 Sam. ii. 1-10 with Luke i. 46-55 ; see also Ps. cxiii.) has been noticed by the commentators. More recent critics have, however, assigned its authorship to David. HA'NOCH. 1. The third in order of the children of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4). — 3. Eldest son of Reuben (Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Ex. vi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. 5 ; 1 Chr. v. 3), and founder of the family of the Hanochites (Num. xxvi. 5). HA'NUN, son of NahaBh (2 Sam. x. 1, 2 ; 1 Chr. xix. 1, 2), king of Ammon, who dis honoured the ambassadors of David (2 Sam. x. 4), and involved the AmmoMtes in a dis astrous war (2 Sam. xii. 31 ; 1 Chr. xix. 6). HA'RAN. 1. The third son of Terah, and therefore youngest brother of Abram (Gen. xi. 26). Three cMldren are ascribed to him — Lot (27, 31), and two daughters, viz., Mil- eah, who married her uncle Nahor (29), and Iscah (29). Haran was born in Ur of the Chaldees, and he died there while Ms father was still living (28). — 2. Haran or Charran (Acts vii. 2, 4), name of the place whither Abraham migrated with his family from Ur of the Chaldees, and where the descendants of his brother Nahor established themselves (comp. Gen. xxiv. 10, with xxvii. 43). It is said to be in Mesopotamia (Gen. xxiv. 10), or more definitely, in Padan-Aram (xxv. 20), the cultivated district at the foot of the Mils, a name well applying to the beautiful stretch of country wMch lieB below Mount Masius between the Kfiabour ana the Euphrates. Here, about midway in this district, is a small village still called Harrdn. It was celebrated among the Romans under the name of Charrae, as the scene of the defeat of Crassus. HARE (Heb. arnebeth) occurs only in Lev. xi, 6 and Deut. xiv. 7, amongst the aMmals disallowed as food by the Mosaic law. The hare is at tMs day called arneb by the Arabs HARETH, THE FOREST OF 205 HAZAEL in Palestine and Syria. It was erroneously fhought by the ancient Jews to have chewed sb*s cud. They were no doubt misled, as in , he case of the shdphdn (Hyrax) by the habit these animals have of moving the jaw about. HA'RETH, THE FOREST OF, in which David took refuge, after, at the instigation of the prophet Gad, he had quitted the " hold " or fastness of the cave of Adullam (1 Sam. xxii. 5). HA'ROD, THE WELL OF, a spring by which Gideon and his great army encamped on the morning of the day which ended in the rout of the MidiaMtes (Judg. vii. 1), and Where the trial of the people by their mode of drinking apparently took place. The Ain J alud is very suitable to the circumstances, as being at present the largest spring in the neighbourhood. HARO'SHETH "OF THE GENTILES," so called from the mixed races that inhabited it, a city in the north of the land of Canaan, supposed to have 6tood on the west coast of the lake Merom, from which the Jordan is sues forth in one unbroken stream. It was the residence of Sisera, captain of Jabin, king of Canaan (Judg. iv. 2), and it was the point to which the victorious Israelites under Barak pursued the discomfited host and cha riots of the second potentate of that name (Judg. iv. 16). HARP (Heb. kinndr). The kinndr was the national instrument of the Hebrews, and was well known throughout Asia. Moses as signs its invention to tie antediluvian period (Gen. iv. 21). Josephus records that the kinndr had ten strings, and that it was played on with the plectrum ; but this is in contradiction to what is set forth in the 1st book of Samuel (xvi. 23, xviii. 10), that David played on the kinndr with his hand. Probably there was a smaller and a larger kinndr, and these may have been played in different ways (1 Sam. x. 5). HARROW. The word so rendered 2 Sam. xii. 31, 1 Chr. xx. 3, is probably a threshing- machine. The verb rendered " to harrow " (Is. xxviii. 24 ; Job xxxix. 10 ; Hos. x. 11), expresses apparently the breaking of the clods, and is so far analogous to our harrow ing, but whether done by any such machine as we call " a harrow," is very doubtful. HART. The hart is reckoned among the clean animals (Deut. xii. 15, xiv. 5, xv. 22), and seems, from the passages quoted, as well as from 1 K. iv. 23, to have been commonly killed for food. The Heb. masc. noun ayydl denotes, there can be no doubt, some Bpecies of Cervidae (deer tribe), either the Dama vulgaris, fallow-deer, or the Cervus Bar- barus, the Barbary deer. HARVEST. [Agriculture.] HAU'RAN, a province of Palestine twice mentioned by Ezekiel (xlvii. 16, 18). There can be little doubt that it is identical with the well-known Greek province of Auranitis, and the modern Haurdn. HAV'ILAH. 1. A son of Cush (Gen. x. 7) ; and 2. a son of Joktan (x. 29). Various theories have been advanced respecting these obscure peoples. It appears to be most probable that both Btocks settled in the same country, and there intermarried ; thus re ceiving one name, and forming one race, with a common descent. The Cushite people of this name formed the westernmost colony of Cush along the south of Arabia. HAV'ILAH (Gen. ii. 11). [Eden.] HA'VOTH-JA'IR, certain villages on the east of Jordan, in Gilead or Bashan, which were taken by Jair the son of Manasseh, and called after his name (Num. xxxii. 41 ; Deut. iii. 14). In the records of Manasseh in Josh. xiii. 30, and 1 Chr. ii. 23, the Havoth-jair are reckoned with other districts as making up sixty "cities" (comp. 1 K. iv. 13). There is apparently some confusion in those different statements as to what the sixty cities really consisted of. No less doubtful is the number of the Havoth-jair. In 1 Chr. ii. 22 they are specified as twenty-three, but in Judg. x. 4, as thirty. HAWK, the translation of the Hebrew ndts (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15 ; Job xxxix. 26). The word is doubtless generic, as ap pears from the expression in Deut. and Lev. " after his kind," and includes various species of the Falconidae. With respect to the passage in Job (I. c), wMch appears to allude to the migratory habits of hawks, it is curious to observe that of the ten or twelve lesser raptors of Palestine, nearly all are summer migrants. The kestrel remains all the year, but the others are all migrants from the south. HA'ZAEL, a king of Damascus, who reigned from about b.c 886 to b.c 840. He appears to have been previously a person in a high position at the court of Benhadad, and was sent by Ms master to Elisha, to in quire if he would recover from the malady under wMch he was suffering. Elisha's answer led to the murder of Benhadad by his ambitious servant, who forthwith mounted the throne (2 K. viii. 7-15). He waB soon engaged in hostilities with Ahaziah king of Judah, and Jehoram Mng of Israel, for the possession of the city of Ramoth-Gilead (ibid. viii. 28). Towards the close of the reign of Jehu, Hazael led the Syrians against the Israelites (about b.c 860), whom he " smote in all their coasts " (2 K. x. 32), thus accoin- HAZAR-ADDAR 206 HEBREW plishing the prophecy of Elisha (ibid. viii. 12). At the close of his life, having taken Gath (ibid. xii. 17 ; comp. Am. vi. 2), be pro ceeded to attack Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxiv. 24), and was about to assault the city, when Joash bribed him to retire (2 K. xii. 18). Hazael appears to have died about the year b.c. 840 (ibid. xiii. 24), having reigned 46 years. HA'ZAR-AD'DAR, &c. [Hazer,] HAZARMA'VETH, the third, in order, of the sons of Joktan (Gen. x. 26). The name is preserved in the Arabic Hadramawt and Hadrumdwt, the appellation of a province and an ancient people of Southern Arabia. Its capital is Satham, a very ancient city, and its chief ports are Mirbat, Zafari, and Kisheem, from whence a great trade was carried on, in ancient times, with India and Africa. HAZEL. The Hebrew term luz occurs only in Gen. xxx. 37. Authorities are di vided between the hazel and the almond tree, as representing the luz. The latter iB most probably correct. HA'ZER, topographically, seems generally employed for the " villages " of people in a roving and unsettled life, the semi-permanent collections of dwellings which are described by travellers among the modern Arabs to consist of rough stone walls covered with the tent-clothe As a proper name it appears in the A. V. : — 1. In the plural, Hazerim, and Hazeroth, for which see below. 2. In the Blightly different form of Hazor. 3. In composition with other words. — 1. Hazar- adbar, a place named as one of the land marks on the southern boundary of the land promised to Israel (Num. xxxiv. 4 ; Adar, Josh. xv. 3). — 2. Hazar-enan, the place at which the northern boundary of the land promised to the cMldren of Israel was to terminate (Num. xxxiv. 9, 10 ; comp. Ez. xlvii. 17, xlviii. 1). — 3. Hazar-gaddah, one of the towns in the southern district of Judah (Josh. xv. 27), named between Moladah and Heshmon. — 4. Hazar-shttal, a town in the southern district of Judah, lying between Hazar-gaddah and Beersheba (Josh. xv. 28, xix. 3; 1 Chr. iv. 28). — 5. Hazar-susah, one of the " cities " allotted to Simeon in the extreme south of the territory of Judah (Josh. xix. 5). HA'ZERIM. The Avims, or more accu rately the Avvim, are said to have lived " in the villages (A.V. "Hazerim") as far as Gaza" (Deut. ii. 23) before their expulsion by the Caphtorim, HA'ZEROTH (Num. xi. 35, xii. 16, xxxiii. 17 ; Deut. i. 1), a station of the Israelites in the desert, and perhaps recognizable in the Arabic Hudhera. HA'ZEZON-TA'MAR, and HA'ZAZON- TA'MAR, the ancient name of Engedi (Gen. xiv. 7). The name occurs in the records of the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xx. 2). HA'ZOR. 1. A fortified city, which on the occupation of the country was allotted to Naphtali (JobM xix. 36). Its position was apparently between Ramah and Kedesh (ibid, xii. 19), on the high ground overlooking the Lake of Merom. There is no reason for supposing it a different place from that of which Jabin was king (Josh. xi. 1 ; Judg. iv. 2, 17 ; 1 Sam. xii. 9). It was the prin cipal city of the whole of North Palestine (Josh. xi. 10). It was fortified by Solomon (1 K. iv. 15), and its inhabitants were car ried captive by Tiglath-Pileser (2 K. xv. 29). The most probable site of Hazor is Tell Khuraibeh.- -2. One of the "cities "of Judah in the extreme south, named next in order to Kedesh (Josh. xv. 23).— 3. Hazor- Hadattah, = " new Hazor," another of the southern towns of Judah (Josh. xv. 25). HEATHEN. [Gentiles.] HEAVEN. There are four Hebrew words thus rendered in the 0. T., which we may briefly notice. 1. Rdki'a (A. V. firma ment). [Firmament.] — 2. Shdmayim. This is the word used in the expression "tbe heaven and the earth," or "the upper and lower regions " (Gen.-i. 1). — S. Mdrdm, used for heaven in Ps. xviii. 16; Jer. xxv. 80; Is. xxiv. 18. Properly speaking it means a mountain, as in Ps. cii. 19 ; Ez. xvii. 23. — 4. Shechdkim, "expanses," with reference to the extent of heaven (Deut. xxxiii. 26 ; Job xxxv. 5). St. Paul's expression " third heaven" (2 Cor. xii. 2) has led to much con jecture. GrotiuB said that the Jews divided the heaven into three parts, viz., 1. the air or atmosphere, where clouds gather ; 2. the fir mament, in which the sun, moon, and stars are fixed ; 3. the upper heaven, the abode of God and his angels. HE'BER. 1. Grandson of the patriarch Asher (Gen. xlvi. 17 ; 1 Chr. vii. 31 ; Num. xxvi. 45), from whom came the Heberites (Num. xxvi. 45). — 2. The patriarch Eber (Luke iii. 85). [Eber.] HE'BREW. This word first occurs as given to Abram by the Canaanites (Gen. xiv. 13) because he had crossed the Euphrates. The name is also derived from 'e*ber, " be yond, on the other side," but this is essen tially the same with the preceding explana tion, since both imply that Abraham and his posterity were called Hebrews in order to express a distinction between the races E. and W. of the Euphrates. It would therefore appear that Hebrew was a cis-Euphratian word applied to trans- Euphratian immigrants. KV iC;! .'. HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO 1HE 207 HEBRON The terra Israelite was used by the Jews of themselves among themselves, the term He brew was the name by which they were known to foreigners. The latter was ac cepted by the Jews in their external rela tions ; and after the general substitution of the word Jew, it still found a place in that marked and special feature of national con tradistinction, the language. All the Books of the Old Testament are written in the He brew language, with the exception of the following passages — Dan. ii. 4-vii. ; Ez. iv. 8-vi. 18, and vii. 12-26; Jer. x. 11— which are in Chaldee. Both Hebrew and Chaldee are sister dialects of a great family of lan guages, to which the name of Semitic is usually given, from the real or supposed de scent of the people speaking them from the patriarch Shem. The dialects of this Semitic family may be divided into three main branches: — 1. The Northern or Aramaean, to wMch the Chaldee and Syriac belong. 2. The Southern, of wMch the Arabic is the most important, and which also includes the Ethi opic. 3. The Central, which comprises the Hebrew and -the dialects spoken by the other inhabitants of Palestine, such as the Canaan ites and PhoeMcians. HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE. There has been a wide difference of opinion respect ing the authorship of this Epistle. The super scription, the ordinary source of information, is wanting ; but there is no reason to doubt that at first, everywhere, except in North Africa, St. Paul was regarded as the author. Clement of Alexandria ascribed to St. Luke the translation of the Epistle into Greek from a Hebrew original of St. Paul. Origen believed that the thoughts were St. Paul's, the language and composition St. Luke's or Clement's of Rome. Tertullian names Bar nabas as the reputed author according to the North African tradition. Luther's conjecture that Apollos was the author has been adopted bymany. — The Epistle was probably addressed to the Jews in Jerusalem and Palestine. The argument of the Epistle is such as could be used with most effect to a church consisting exclusively of Jews by birth, personally fami liar with and attached to the Temple-service. It was evidently written before the destruc tion of Jerusalem in a.d. 70, The whole argument, and specially the passages viii. 4 and sq., ix. 6 and sq., and xiii. 10 and sq., imply that the Temple was standing, and that its usual course of Divine service was carried on without interruption. The date which best agrees with the traditionary ac count of the authorship and destination of the Epistle is a.d. 63, about the end of St. Paul's imprisonment at Rcme, or a year after Albinus succeeded Festus as Procurator. — We have already seen that Clement of Alexandria stated that the Epistlo was written by St. Paul in Hebrew, and translated by St. Luke into Greek. But nothing is said to lead us to regard it as a tradition, rawer than a conjecture suggested by the style of the Epistle. In favour of a Greek original we may observe (1.) the purity and easy flow of the Greek; (2.) the use of Greek words which could not be adequately expressed in Hebrew without long periphrase ; (3.) the use of paronomasia ; and (4.) the use of the Septuagint in quotations and references. — With respect to the scope of the Epistle, it should be recollected that, while the nume rous Christian churches scattered throughout Judaea (Acts ix. 81 ; Gal. i. 22) were con tinually exposed to persecution from the Jews (1 Thess. ii. 14), there was in Jerusalem one additional weapon in the hands of the pre dominant oppressors of the Christians. The magnificent national Temple might be shut against the Hebrew Christian ; and even if this affliction were not often laid upon him, yet there was a secret burden which he bore within him, the knowledge that the end of all the beauty and awfulness of /Zion was rapidly approaching. What could take the place of the Temple, and that which was behind the veil, and the Levitical sacrifices, and the Holy City, when they should cease to exist 1 What compensation could Chris tianity offer him for the loss which was pressing the Hebrew Christian more and more ? The writer of tMs Epistle meets the Hebrew Christians on their own ground. His answer is — " Your new faith gives you Christ, and, in Christ, all you seek, all your fathers sought. In Christ the son of God you have an all-sufficient Mediator, nearer than angels to the Father, eminent above Moses as a benefactor, more sympathising and more pre vailing than the High-priest as an intercessor : His sabbath awaits you in heaven ; to His covenant the old was intended to be subser vient ; His atonement is the eternal reality of which sacrifices are but the passing shadow ; His city heavenly, not made with hands. Having Him, believe in Him with all your heart, with a faith in the unseen future, strong as that of the saints of old, patient under present, and prepared for coming woe, full of energy, and hope, and holiness, and love." Such was the teacMng of the Epistle to the Hebrews. HE'BRON. 1. The third son of Kohath, who was the second son of Levi ; the younger brother of Amram, father of Moses and Aaron (Ex. vi. 18 ; Num. iii. 19 ; 1 Chr. vi. 2, 18, xxii. 12). The immediate children of Hebron HEIFER 208 HELL are not mentioned by name (comp. Ex. vi. 21, 22), but he was the founder of a family of Hebronites (Num. iii. 27, xxvi. 58 ; 1 Chr. xxvi. 23, 30, 31) or Bene-Hebron (1 Chr. xv. 9, xxiii. 19).— 2. A city of Judah (Josh. xv. 54) ; situated among the mountains (Josh. xx. 7), 20 Roman miles south of Jerusalem, and the same distance north of Beersheba. Hebron is one of the most ancient cities in the world still existing ; and in this respect it is the rival of Damascus. It was built, says a sacred writer, " seven years before Zoan in Egypt" (Num. xiii. 22) ; and was a well-known town when Abraham entered Canaan 3780 years ago (Gen. xiii. 18). Its original name was Kirjath-Arba (Judg. i. 10), " the city of Arba ; " so called from Arba, the father of Anak, and progenitor of the giant Anakim (Josh. xxi. 11, xv. 13, 14). The cMef interest of this city arises from its having been the scene of some of the most striMng events in the lives of the patriarchs. Sarah died at Hebron ; and Abraham then bought from Ephron the Hittite the field and cave of Machpelah, to serve as a family tomb (Gen. xxiii. 2-20). The cave is still there ; and the massive walls of the Haram or mosque, within which it lies, form the most remarkable object in the whole city. Abraham is called by Mahommedans eUKhulU, " the Friend," i. e. of God, and this is the modern name of Hebron. Hebron now con tains about 5000 inhabitants, of whom some 50 families are Jews. It is picturesquely situated in a narrow valley, surrounded by rocky Mils. The valley runs from north to south ; and the main quarter of the town, surmounted by the lofty walls of the venerable Haram, lies partly on the eastern slope (Gen. xxxvii. 14 ; comp. xxiii. 19). About a mile from the town, up the valley, is one of the largest oak-trees in Palestine. This, say some, is the very tree beneath which Abra ham pitched Ms tent, and it still bears the name of the patriarch. HEIFER. The Hebrew language has no expression that exactly corresponds to our heifer ; for both eglah and parah are applied to cows that have calved (1 Sam. vi. 7-12 ; Job xxi. 10; Is. vii. 21). The heifer or young cow was nGt commonly used for ploughing, but oMy for treading out the corn (Hos. x. 11 ; but see Judg. xiv. 18), when it ran about without any headstall (Deut. xxv. 4) ; hence the expression an " unbroken heifer " (Hos. iv. 16; A.V. "back sliding"), to which Israel is compared. HEL'BON, a place mentioned only in Eze kiel xxvii. Geographers have hitherto re presented Helbon as identical with the city of Aleppo, jailed Haleb by the Arabs ; but there are strong reasons against this, and the ancient city must be identified with a village within a few miles of Damascus, still bearing the ancient name Helbon, and stil) celebrated as producing the finest grapes in the country. HE'LI, the father of Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary (Luke iii. 23) ; main tained by Lord A. Hervey, the latest investi gator of the genealogy of Christ, to have been the real brother of Jacob the father of the Virgin herself. HELL. This is the word generally and unfortunately used by our translators to render the Hebrew Sheol. It would perhapB have been better to retain the Hebrew word Sheol, or else render it always by "the grave" or "the pit." It is deep (Job xi. 8) and dark (Job xi. 21, 22), in the centre of the earth (Num. xvi. 30 ; Deut. xxxii. 22), having within it depths on depths (Prov. ix. 18), and fastened with gates (Is. xxxviii. 10) and bars (Job xvii. 16). In this cavernous realm are the souls of dead men, the Rephaim and ill-spirits (Pb. lxxxvi. 13, lxxxix. 48; Prov. xxiii. 14; Ez. xxxi. 17, xxxii. 21). It is clear that in many passages of the 0. T. Sheol can only mean " the grave," and is so rendered in the A. V. (see, for example, Gen. xxxvii. 35, xiii. 38 ; 1 Sam. ii. 6; Job xiv. 13). In other passages, however, it seem? to involve a notion of punishment, and ia therefore rendered in the A. V. by the word " Hell." But in many cases this translation misleads the reader. It is obvious, for in stance, that Job xi. 8 ; Ps. cxxxix. 8 ; Am. ix. 2 (where " hell" is used as the antithesis of "heaven"), merely illustrate the Jewish notions of the locality of Sheol in the bowels of the earth. In the N. T. the word Hades, like Sheol, sometimes means merely " the grave" (Rev. xx. 13 ; Acts ii. 81 ; 1 Cor. xv. 55), or in general "the unseen world," It is in tMs sense that the creeds say of our Lord " He went down into hell," meaning the state of tbe dead in general, without any restriction of happiness or misery, a doctrine certainly, though only virtually, expressed in Scripture (Eph. iv. 9 ; Acts ii. 25-31), Elsewhere in the N. T. HadeB is used of a place of torment (Luke xvi. 23 ; 2 Pet. ii. 4 ; Matt. xi. 23, &c). Consequently it has been the prevalent, almost the universal, notion that Hades is an intermediate state between death and resurrection, divided into two parts, one the abode of the blessed and the other of the lost. In holding this view, main reliance is placed on the parable of Divee and Lazarus ; but it is impossible to ground the proof of an important theological doctrine on a passage which confessedly abounds in HELLENIST 209 HEROD Jewish metaphors. The word most frequently used in the N. T. for the place of future punishment is Gehenna or Gehenna of fire. [Gehenna and Hinnom.] HEL'LENIST. In one of the earliest no tices of the first Christian Church at Jeru salem (Acts vi. 1), two distinct parties are recognised among its members, "Hebrews" and "Hellenists" (Grecians), who appear to stand towards one another in some degree in a relation of jealous rivalry (comp. Acts ix. 29). The name, according to its deriva tion, marks a clasB distinguished by peculiar habits, and not by descent. Thus the Hel lenists as a body included not only the prose lytes of Greek (or foreign) parentage, but also those Jews who, by settling in foreign countries, had adopted the prevalent form of the current Greek civilisation, and with it the use of the common Greek dialect. HELMET. [Arms.] HEM OF GARMENT. The importance which the later Jews, especially the Pharisees (Matt, xxiii. 5), attached to the hem or fringe of their garments was founded upon the re gulation in Num. xv. 38, 39, wMch gave a symbolical meaning to it. HE'MAN, son of Joel, and grandson of Samuel the prophet, a Kohathite. He is called " the singer," rather, the musician (1 Chr. vi. 33), and was the first of the three Levites to whom was committed the vocal and instrumental music of the temple -service in the Teign of David (1 Chr. xv. 16-22), Asaph and Ethan, or rather, according to xxv. 1, 3, Jeduthan, being his colleagues. A further account of Heman is given 1 Chr. xxv., where he is called (ver. 5) "the Mng's seer in the matters of God." Whether or no this Heman is the person to whom the 88th Psalm is ascribed is doubtful. He is there called " the Ezrahite;" and the 89th Psalm is ascribed to "Ethan the Ezrahite." HEMLOCK. The Hebrew rdsh is rendered " hemlock" in two passages (Hos. x. 4 ; Am. vi. 12), but elsewhere "gall." [Gall.] HEN. The hen is nowhere noticed in the Bible except in Matt, xxiii. 3 7 ; Luke xiii. 34. That a bird so common in Palestine should receive such slight notice, is certainly singular. HE'NA seems to have been one of the chief cities of a monarcMcal state which the Assy rian kings had reduced shortly before the time of Sennacherib (2 K. xix. 13 ; Is. xxxvii. 13). At no great distance from Sippara (now Mosaib), is an ancient town called Ana or Anah, which may be the same as Hena. HER'MAS, the name of a Christian resi dent at Rome to whom St. Paul sends greeting in his Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 14). Ire- Sir. D. B. naeus, Tertuliian, and Origen agree in attri buting to him the work called the Shepherd . which is supposed to have been written in the pontificate of Clement I. ; while others affirm it to have been the work of a namesake in the following age. It existed for a long time only in a Latin version, but the first part in Greek is to be found at the end of the Codex Sinaiticus. It was never received into the canon ; but yet was generally cited with respect only second to that which was paid to the authoritative books of the N. T. HER'MES, a Christian mentioned in Rom. xvi. 14. According to tradition he was one of the Seventy disciples, and afterwards Bishop of Dalmatia. HERMOG'ENES, a person mentioned by St. Paul in the latest of all his Epistles (2 Tim. i. 15) when all in Asia bad turned away from him, and among their number " Phygellus and Hermogenes." HER'MON, a mountain on the north eastern border of Palestine (Deut. iii. 8 ; Josh. xii. 1), over against Lebanon (Josh. xi. 17), adjoining the plateau of Bashan (1 Chr. v. 23). It stands at the southern end, and is the culminating point of the anti-Libanua range ; it towers high above the ancient .border-city of Dan and the fountains of the Jordan, and is the most conspicuous and beautiful mountain in Palestine or Syria. The name Herman was doubtless suggested by its appearance—" a lofty prominent peak," visible from afar. The Sidonians called it Sirion, and the Amorites Shenir. It was also named Sion, "the elevated" (Deut. iv. 48). So now, at the present day, it is called Jebel esh-Sheikh, " the chief-mountain ; " and Jebel eth-Thelj, " snowy mountain." When the whole country is parched with the summer sun, white lines of snow streak the head of Hermon. This mountain was the great land mark of the Israelites. It was associated with their northern border almost as inti mately as the sea was with the western. Hermon has three summits, situated like the angles of a triangle, and about a quarter of a mile from each other. This may account for the expression in Ps. xiii. 7 (6), "I will re member thee from the land of the Jordan and the Hermons." In two passages of Scripture this mountain is called Baal-hermon (Judg. iii. 3 ; 1 Chr. v. 23), possibly because Baal was there worshipped. The height of Hermon has never been measured, though it has often been estimated. It may safely be reckoned at 10,000 feet. HER'OD. This family, though of Idumaean origin, and thus aliens by race, were Jews in faith. — I. Herod the Great was the second son of Antipater, an Idumaean, who HEROD 210 HEROD was appointed Procurator of Judaea by Julius Caesar, b.c 47, and Cypros, an Arabian of noble descent. At the time of his father's elevation, though only fifteen years old, he received the government of Galilee, and shortly afterwards that of Coele-Syria. When Antony came to Syria, b.c 41, he appointed Herod and his elder brother Phasael tetrarchs of Judaea. Herod was forced to abandon Judaea next year by an invasion of the Par- thians, who supported the claims of Antigonus, the representative of the Asmonaean dynasty, and fled to Rome (b.c. 40). At Rome he was well received by Antony and Octavian, and was appointed by the senate king of Judaea to the exclusion of the Hasmonaean line. In the course of a few years, by the help of the Romans, he took Jerusalem (b.c 37), and completely established his authority through out his dominions. After the battle of Actium he visited Octavian at Rhodes, and his noble bearing won for him the favour of the con queror, who confirmed him in the possession of the kingdom, b.c. 31, and in the next year increased it by the addition of several im portant cities, and afterwards gave him the province of Trachonitis and the district of Paneas. The remainder of the reign of Herod was undisturbed by external troubles, but his domestic life was embittered by an almost uninterrupted series of injuries and cruel acts of vengeance. The terrible acts of bloodshed which Herod perpetrated in Ms own family were accompanied by others among his sub jects equally terrible, from the number who fell victims to them. According to the well- known story, he ordered the nobles whom he had called to him in his last moments to be executed immediately after his decease, that so at least bis death might be attended by universal mourning. It was at the time of his fatal illness that he must have caused the slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem (Matt. ii. 16-18), and from the comparative insigMficance of the murder of a few young children in an unimportant village when con trasted with the deeds which he carried out or designed, it is not surprising that Josephus has passed it over in silence. In dealing with the religious feelings or prejudices of the Jews, Herod showed as great contempt for public opinion as in the execution of his personal vengeance. But while he alienated in this manner the affections of the Jews by his cruelty and disregard for the Law, he adorned Jerusalem with many splendid mo numents of Ms taste and magnificence. The Temple, which he rebuilt with scrupulous care, was the greatest of these works. The restoration was begun b.c 20, and the Temple Itself was completed in a year and a half. But fresh additions were cone+antly made in succeeding years, so that it was taid that the Temple was "built in forty and six years" (John ii. 20), a phrase which expresses the whole period from the commencement of Herod's work to the completion of the latest addition then made. — II. Herod Antipas was the son of Herod the Great by Malthace, a Samaritan. His father had originally des tined him as Ms successor in the kingdom, but by the last change of his will appointed him "tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea" (Matt. xiv. 1; Luke iii. 19, ix.7; Acts xiii. 1. Cf. Luke iii. 1). He first married a daughter of Aretas, "king of Arabia Petraea," but after some time he made overtures of mar riage to Herodias, the wife of his half-brother Herod-Philip, which she received favourably. Aretas, indignant at the insult offered to Mb daughter, found a pretext for invading the territory of Herod, and defeated him with great loss. This defeat, according to the famous passage in Josephus, was attributed by many to the murder of John the Baptist, which had been committed by Antipas shortly before, under the influence of Herodias (Matt. xiv. 4 ff. ; Mark vi. 17 ff . ; Luke iii. 19). At a later time the ambition of Herodias proved the cause of her husband's ruin. She urged him to go to Rome to gain- the title of king (cf. Mark vi. 14) ; but he was opposed at the court of Caligula by the emissaries of Agrippa, and condemned to perpetual banish ment at Lugdunum, a.d. 39. Herodias voluntarily shared his punishment, and he died in exile. Pilate took occasion from our Lord's residence in Galilee to send Him for examination (Luke xxiii. 6 ff.) to Herod Antipas, who came up to Jerusalem to cele brate the Passover. The city of Tiberias, which Antipas founded and named in honour of the emperor, was the most conspicuous monument of his long reign. — III. Herod Philip I. (Philip, Mark vi. 17) was the son of Herod the Great, and Mariamne, and must be carefully distinguished from the tetrarch Philip. He married Herodias, the sister of Agrippa I., by whom he had a daughter Salome. Herodias, however, left him, and made an infamous marriage with his half* brother Herod Antipas (Matt. xiv. 3 ; Mark' vi. 17 ; Luke iii. 19). He was excluded from all share in his father's possessions in consequence of his mother's treachery, and lived afterwards in a private station. — IV. Herod Philip II. was the son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra. Like Ms half-brothers Antipas and Archelaus, he was brought up at home. He received as his own govern ment Batanea, Tracbonitis, Auranitis (Gaul- onitis), and some parts about Jamnia with HEROD 211 HERON the title of tetrarch (Luke iii. 1). He built a new city on the site of Paneas, near the sources of the Jordan, which he called Caesarea (Matt. xvi. 13 ; Mark viii. 27), and raised Bethsaida to the rank of a city under the title of Julias, and died there a.d. 34. He married Salome, the daughter of Herod PMlip I. and Herodias. — V. Herod Agrippa I. was the son of Aristobuius and Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great. He was brought up at Rome with Claudius and Drusus, and after a life of various vicis situdes, was thrown into prison by Tiberius, where he remained till the accession of Caius (Caligula) a.d. 37. The new emperor gave him the governments formerly held by the tetrarchs PMlip and Lysanias, and bestowed on him the ensigns of royalty and other marks of favour (Acts xii. 1). On the banishment of Antipas, his dominions were added to. those already held by Agrippa. Afterwards Agrippa rendered important services to Claudius, and received from Mm in return (a.d. 41) the government of Judaea and Samaria. Unlike his 'predecessors, Agrippa was a strict observer of the Law, and he sought with Buccess the favour of the Jews. It is probable that it was with tMs view he put to death James the son of Zebedee, and further imprisoned Peter (Acts xii. 1 ff.). But his sudden death interrupted his ambitious projects. In the fourth year of his reign over the whole of Judaea (a.d. 44 ) Agrippa attended some games at Caesarea, held in honour of the Emperor. When he appeared in the theatre (Acts xii. 21) Ms flatterers saluted him as a god ; and sud denly he was seized with terrible pains, and being carried from the theatre to the palace died after five days' agony. — VI. Herod Agrippa II. was the son of Herod Agrippa I. and Cypros, a grand-niece of Herod the Great. At the time of the death of his father a.d. 44 he was at Rome. Not long after wards, however, the Emperor gave Mm (about a.d. 50) the kingdom of Chalcis, which had belonged to his uncle ; and then trans ferred him (a.d. 52) to the tetrarchies formerly held by Philip and Lysanias with the title of king (Acts xxv. 13). The rela tion in which he stood to Ms sister Berenice (Acts xxv. 13) was the cause of grave sus picion. In the last Roman war Agrippa took part with the Romans, and after the fall of Jerusalem retired with Berenice to Rome, where he died in the third year of Trajan (a.d. 100). The appearance of St. Paul before Agrippa (a.d. 60) offers several characteristic traits. The "pomp" with wMch the king came into the audience chamber (Acts xxv. 23) was accordant with his general bearing ; and the cold irony with which he met the impassioned words of the Apostle (Acts xxvi. 27, 28) suits the temper of one who was contented to take part in the destruction of his nation. HERO'DIANS. In the account which is given by St. Matthew (xxii. 15 ff.) and St. Mark (xii. 13 ff.) of the last efforts made by different sections of the Jews to obtain from our Lord Himself the materials for His ac cusation, a party under the name of Hero- dians is represented as acting jn concert with the Pharisees (Matt. xxii. 16; Mark xii. 13 ; comp. also iii. 6, viii. 15). There were probably many who saw in the power of the Herodian family the pledge of the preservation of their national existence in the face of Roman ambition. Two distinct classes might thus unite in supporting what was a domestic tyranny as contrasted with absolute dependence on Rome : those who saw in the Herods a protection against direct heathen rule, and those who were inclined to look with satisfaction upon such a compro mise between the ancient faith and heathen civilisation, as Herod the Great and his suc cessors had endeavoured to realise, aB the true and highest consummation of Jewish hopes. HERO'DIAS, daughter of Aristobuius, one of the sons of Mariamne and Herod the Great, and consequently sister of Agrippa I. She first married Herod Philip I. ; then she eloped from Mm to marry Herod Antipas, her step-uncle, who had been long married to, and was still living with, the daughter of Aeneas or Aretas, king of Arabia. The con sequences both of the crime, and of the re proof which it incurred, are well known. Aretas made war upon Herod for the injury done to his daughter, and routed, him with the loss of his whole army. The head of John the Baptist was granted to the request of Herodias (Matt. xiv. 8-11 ; Mark vi. 24- 28). According to Josephus the execution took place in a fortress called Machaerus, looking down upon the Dead Sea from the south. She accompanied Antipas into exile to Lugdunum. HERO'DION, a relative of St. Paul, to whom he sends his salutation amongst the Christians of the Roman Church (Rom. xvi. 11). HERON. The Hebrew andphah appears as the name of an unclean bird in Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18. It was probably a generic name for a well-known class of birds. The only point on which any two commentators seem to agree iB that it is not the heron. On etymological grounds, Gesenius considers the name applicable to some irritable bird, per haps the goose. P 2 HESHBON 212 HEZEKIAH HESH'BON, the capital city of Sihon king of the Amorites (Num. xxi. 26). It stood on the western border of the high plain (Mishor, Josh. xiii. 17), and on the boundary- line between the tribes of Reuben and Gad. The niins of Hesbdn, 20 miles east of the Jordan, on the parallel of the northern etd of the Dead Sea, mark the site, as they bear the name, of the ancient Heshbon. There are many cisterns among the ruins (comp. Cant. vii. 4). HESH'MON, a place named, with others, as lying in the extreme south of Judah (Josh. xv. 27). HETH, the forefather of the nation of the Hittites. In the genealogical tables of Gen. x. and 1 Chr. i., Heth is a son of Canaan. The Hittites were therefore a Hamite race, neither of the " country " nor the " kin dred " of Abraham and Isaac (Gen. xxiv. 3, 4, xxviii. 1, 2). HEZEKI'AH, twelfth king of Judah, son of the apostate Ahaz and Abi (or Abijah), ascended the throne at the age of 25, b.c 726. Hezekiah was one of the three most per fect kings of Judah (2 K. xviii. 5; Ecclus. xlix. 4). His first act was to purge, and repair, and reopen with splendid sacrifices and perfect ceremomal, the Temple which had been de spoiled and neglected during the careless and idolatrous reign of his father. This conse cration was accompanied by a revival of the theocratic spirit, so strict as not even to spare " the high places," which, although tolerated by many well-intentioned kings, had naturally been profaned by tbe worship of images and Asherahs (2 K. xviii. 4). A still more decisive act was the destruction of a brazen serpent, said to have been the one used by Moses in the miraculous healing of the Israelites (Num. xxi. 9), which had Decome an object of adoration. When the kingdom of Israel had fallen, Hezekiah ex tended Ms pious endeavours to Ephraim and Manasseh ; and by inviting the scattered in habitants to a peculiar Passover, kindled their indignation also against the idolatrous practices which still ¦ continued among them. This Passover was, from the necessities of the case, celebrated at an unusual, though not illegal (Num. ix. 10, 11) time; and by an excess of Levitical zeal it was continued for the unprecedented period of fourteen days (2 Chr. xxix., xxx., xxxi.). At the head of a repentant and united people, Hezekiah ventured to assume the aggres sive against the Philistines ; and in a series of victories not only rewon the cities which his father had lost (2 Chr. xxviii. 18), but even dispossessed them of their own cities, except Gaza (2 K. xviii. 8) and Gath. It was perhaps to the purposes of tbis war that he applied the money which would otherwise have been used to pay tbe tribute exacted by Shalmaneser, according to the agreement of Ahaz with Ms predecessor, Tiglath-Pileser. When, after the capture of Samaria, the king of Assyria applied for this impost, Hezekiah refused it, and in open rebellion omitted to send even the usual presents (2 K. xviii. 7). Instant war was averted by tbe heroic and long-continued resistance of the Tyrians under their king Eluloeus. This must have been a critical and intensely anxious period for Jerusalem ; and Hezekiah used every available means to strengthen his position, and render his capital impregnable (2 K. xx. 20; 2 Chr. xxxii. 3-5, 30; Is. xxii. 8-11, xxxiii. 18). According to a scheme of chro nology proposed by Dr. Hincks, Hezekiah's dangerous illness (2 K. xx. ; Is. xxxviii. ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 24) nearly synchronised with Sargon's futile invasion, in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah's reign, eleven years before Sennacherib's invasion. That it must have preceded the attack of Sennacherib is nearly obvious from tbe promise iD 2 K. xx. 6, as well as from modern discoveries. Hezekiah, whose kingdom was in a dangerous crisis, and who had at that time no heir (for Manasseh was not born till long afterwards, 2 K. xxi. 1), "turned his face to the wall and wept sore " at the threatened approach' of dissolution. God had compassion on his anguish, and heard his prayer. Isaiah had hardly left the palace when he was ordered to promise the king immediate recovery, and a fresh lease of life, ratifying the promise by a sign, and curing the boil by a plaster of figs. Various ambassadors came with letters' and gifts to congratulate Hezekiah on hi3 recovery (2 Chr. xxxii. 23), and among them an embassy from Merodach -Bala dan (or Berodach, 2 K. xx. 12), the viceroy of Babylon. The ostensible object of this mis sion was to compliment Hezekiah on his convalescence (2 K. xx. 12 ; Is. xxxix. 1) ; but its real purpose was to discover how far an alliance between the two powers was pos sible or desirable, for Merodach-Baladan, no less than Hezekiah, was in apprehension of. the Assyrians. Community of interest made HezeMah receive the overtures of Babylon with unconcealed gratification ; and, per haps, to enhance the opinion of Ms own importance as an ally, he displayed to the messengers the princely treasures which he and his predecessors had accumulated. If ostentation were his motive it received a terrible rebuke, and he was informed by; Isaiah that from the then tottering and.- subordinate province of Babylon, and not. HEZEKIAH 213 HIGH PLACES from the mighty Assyria, would come the ruin and captivity of Judah (Is. xxxix. 5). Sargon was succeeded (b.c. 702) by his son Sennacherib, whose two invasions occupy the greater part of the Scripture records con cerning the reign of Hezekiah. The first of these took place in the third year of Senna cherib (b.c. 702), and occupies only three verses (2 K. xviii. 13-16), though the route of the advancing Assyrians may he traced in Is. x. 5, xi. The main hope of the political faction was the alliance with Egypt, and they seem to have sought it by presents and private entreaties (Is. xxx. 6). The account given of this first invasion in the Annals of Sennacherib is that he attacked Hezekiah because the Ekronites had sent their king Padiya (or "Haddiya") as a prisoner to Jerusalem (cf. 2 K. xviii. 8) ; that he took forty-six cities (" all the fenced cities " in 2 K. xviii. 13 is apparently a general ex pression, cf. xix. 8) and 200,000 prisoners ; that he besieged Jerusalem with mounds (cf. 2 K. xix. 32) ; and although Hezekiah pro mised to pay 800 talents of silver (of which perhaps 300 only were ever paid) and 30 of gold (2 K. xviii. 14), yet not content with this he mulcted him of a part of his domi nions, and gave them to the kings of Ekron, Ashdod, and Gaza. In ahnost every par ticular this account agrees with the notice in Scripture. Hezekiah's bribe (or fine) brought a temporary release, for the Assyrians marched into Egypt, where, if Herodotus and Josephus are to be trusted, they advanced without resistance to Pelusium. In spite of this advantage, Sennacherib was forced to raise the siege of Pelusium by the advance of Tirhakah or Tarakos. Returning from his futile expedition, Sennacherib " dealt trea cherously " with Hezekiah (Is. xxxiii. 1) by attacking the stronghold of Lachish. This was the commencement of that second inva sion respecting which we have such full details in 2 K. xviii. 17 sq. ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 9 sq. ; Is. xxxvi. From Lachish Sennache rib sent against Jerusalem an army under two officers and his cupbearer the orator Rabshakeh, with a blasphemous and insult ing summons to surrender. Hezekiah's ministers were thrown into anguish and dismay, but the undaunted Isaiah hurled back threatening for threatening with un rivalled eloquence and force. Meanwhile Sennacherib, having taken Lachish, was besieging Libnah, when, alarmed by a " rumour " of Tirhakah's advance, he was forced to relinqMsh once more Ms imme diate designs, and content Mmself with a defiant letter to Hezektoh. The next event ef the campaign, about wMch we are in formed, is that the Jewish king with simple piety prayed to God with Sennacherib's letter outspread before him, and received a prophecy of immediate deliverance. Accordingly " that night the Angel of the Lord went out and smote in the camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men." There is no doubt that some secon dary cause was employed in the accomplish ment of this event. We are certainly " not to suppose," as Dr. Johnson observed, " that the angel went about with a sword in Ms hand stabbing them one by one, but that some powerful natural agent was employed." Josephus, followed by an immense majority of ancient and modern commentators, attri butes it to the Pestilence. Hezekiah only lived to enjoy for about one year more his well-earned peace and glory. He slept with his fathers after a reign of twenty-nine years, in the 56th year of Ms age (b.c 697). HEZ'ION, a king of Aram (Syria), father of Tabrimon, and grandfather of Benhadad I. He and his father are mentioned only in 1 K. xv. 1 8. He is probably identical with Rezon, the contemporary of Solomon, in 1 K. xi. 23 ; the two names being very similar in Hebrew, and still more so in the versions. HIDDEK'EL, one of the rivers of Eden, the river which " goeth eastward to Assyria"' (Gen. ii. 14), and which Daniel calls "the Great river" (Dan.x. 4), seems to have been rightly identified by the LXX. with the Ti gris. Dekel is clearly an equivalent of Digla or Diglath, a name borne by the Tigris in all ages. The name now in use among the in habitants of Mesopotamia is Dijleh. HI'EL, a native of Bethel, who rebuilt Jericho in the reign of Ahab (1 K. xvi. 34) ; and in whom was fulfilled the curse pro nounced by Joshua (Josh. v. i. 26). HIERAP'OLIS. This place is mentioned only once in Scripture (Col. iv. 13), with Colossae and Laodicea. Such association is just what we should expect ; for the three towns were all in the basin of the Maeander, and witMn a few miles of one another. HIGGAl'ON, a word wMch occurs three times in- the book of Psalms (ix. 17, xix. 15, xcii. 4). The word has two meanings, one of a general character implying thought, re flection, and another in Ps. ix. 17, and Ps. xcii. 4, of a techMcal nature, the precise meaning of which cannot at this distance of time be determined. HIGH PLACES. From the earliest times it was the custom among all nations to erect altars and places of worsMp on lofty and conspicuous spots. To this general custom we find constant allusion in the Bible (Is. lxv. 7 ; Jer. iii. C ; Ez. vi. 13, xviii. 6 ; Hos. iv. 13), and it is especially attributed to the HIGH PLACES 214 HIGH-PRIEST Moabites (Is. xv. .2, xvi. 12; Jer. xlviii. 35). Even Abraham built an altar to the Lord on a mountain near Bethel (xii. 7, 8 ; cf. xxii. 2-4, xxxi. 54), which shows that the practice was then as innocent as it was natural ; and although it afterwards became mingled with idolatrous observances (Num. xxiii. 3), it was in itself far less likely to be abused than the consecration of groves (Hos. iv. 13). It is, however, quite obvious that if every grove and eminence had been suffered to become a place for legitimate worship, especially in a country where they had al ready been defiled with the sins of poly theism, the utmost danger would have re sulted to the pure worship of the one true God. It was therefore implicitly forbidden by the law of Moses (Deut. xii. 11-14), which also gave the strictest injunction to destroy these monuments of Canaanitish idolatry (Lev. xxvi. 30 ; Num. xxxiii. 52 ; Deut. xxxiii. 29). The command was a prospective one, and was not to come into force until such time as the tribes were settled in the promised land. Thus we find that both Gideon and Manoah built altars on high places by Divine command (Judg. vi. 25, 26, xiii. 16-23), and it is quite clear from the tone of the book of Judges that the law on the subject was either totally for gotten or practically obsolete. It is more surprising to find this law absolutely ignored at a much later period, when there was no intelligible reason for its violation — as by Samuel at Mizpeh (1 Sam. vii. 10) and at Bethlehem (xvi. 5) ; by Saul at Gilgal (xiii. 9) and at Ajalon (? xiv. 35) ; by David (1 Chr. xxi. 26) ; by Elijah on Mount Carmel (I K. xviii. 30) ; and by other prophets (1 Sam. x. 5). The explanations which are .given are sufficiently unsatisfactory ; but it is at any rate certain that the worship in high places was organised and all but uni versal tiiroughout Judaea, not only during (1 K. iii. 2-4), but even after the time of Solomon. The convenience of them was obvious, because, as local centres of religious worship, they obviated the unpleasant and dangerous necessity of visiting Jerusalem for the celebration of the yearly feasts (2 K. xxiii. 9). Many of the pious kingB of Judah were either too weak or too ill-informed to repress the worship of Jehovah at these local sanctuaries, while they of course endeavoured to prevent it from being contaminated with polytheism. At last Hezekiah set himself in good earnest to the suppression of this pre valent corruption (2 K. xviii. 4, 22), both in Judah and Israel (2 Chr. xxxi. 1), although, so rapid was the growth of the evil, that even Mb sweeping reformation required to be finally consummated by Josiah (2 K xxiii.), and that too in Jerusalem and its immediate neighbourhood (2 Chr. xxiv. 3). After the time of Josiah we find no further mention of these Jehovistic high places. HIGH-PRIEST. I. Legally.— The first distinct separation of Aaron to the office of the priesthood, which previously belonged to the first-born, was that recorded Ex. xxviii. We find from the very first the following characteristic attributes of Aaron and the high-priests his successors, as distinguished from the other priests : — (1.) Aaron alone was anointed (Lev. viii. 12), whence one of the distinctive epithets of the high-priest was "the anointed priest" (Lev. iv. 3, 5, 16, xxi. 10 ; see Num. xxxv. 25). TMs appears also from Ex. xxix. 29, 30. The anointing of the 6ons of Aaron, i. e. the common priests, seems to have been confined to Bprinkling their garments with the anointing oil (Ex. xxix. 21, xxviii. 41, &c). The anointing of the high-priest is alluded to in Ps. cxxxiii. 2. — (2.) The Mgh-priest had a peculiar dress, which passed to his successor at his death. TMs dress consisted of eight parts, as the Rabbins constantly note, the breastplate, the ephod with its curious girdle^ the robe of the ephod, the mitre, the broidered coat or diaper tunic, and the girdle, the materials being gold, blue, red, crimson, and fine (white) linen (Ex. xxviii.). To the above are added, in ver. 42, the breeches or drawers (Lev. xvi. 4) of linen ; and to make up the number 8, some reckon the high- priest's mitre, or the plate separately from the bonnet ; while others reckon the curious girdle of the ephod separately from the ephod. Of these 8 articles of attire, 4— viz, the coat or tunic, the girdle, the breeches, and the bonnet or turban (migbd'dh) instead of the mitre (mitsnepheth) — belonged to the common priests. Taking the articles of the high-priest's dress in the order in wMch they are enumerated above, we have (a.) the breastplate, or, as it is further named (vers. 15, 29, 30), the breastplate of judgment, The breastplate was originally 2 spans long, and 1 Bpan broad, but when doubled it waf square, the shape in wMch it was wora On it were the 12 precious stones, set in 4 rows, 3 in a row, thus corresponding to the 12 tribes, and divided in the same manner as their camps were ; each stone having the name of one of the children of Israel en graved upon it. According to the LXX. and Josephus, and in accordance with the lan guage of Scripture, it was these stones which constituted the Urim and Thummim. [Urim and Thummim. ]—(&.) The ephod. This consisted of two parts, of which one covered HIGH-PRIEST 215 HIGH-PRIEST the back, and the other the front, i. e. the breast and upper part of the body. These were clasped together on the shoulder with two large onyx stones, each having engraved on it 6 of the names of the tribes of Israel. It was further uMted by a " curious girdle " of gold, blue, purple, scarlet, and fine twined linen round the waist [Ephod; Girdle].— (c.) The robe of the ephod. This was of inferior material to the ephod itself, being all of blue (ver. 31), wMch implied its being oMy of "woven work" (xxxix. 22). It was worn immediately under the ephod, and was longer than it. The blue robe had no sleeves, but only slits in the sides for the arms to come through. It had a hole for the head to pass through, with a border round it of woven work, to prevent its being rent. The skirt of this robe had a remark able trimming of pomegranates in blue, red, and crimson, with a bell of gold between each pomegranate alternately. The bells were to give a sound when the Mgh-priest went in and came out of the Holy Place. — (d.) The mitre or upper turban, with its gold plate, engraved with Holiness to the Lord, fastened to it by a ribbon of blue, (e.) The broidered coat was a tunic or long skirt of linen with a tessellated or diaper pattern, like the setting of a stone. The girdle, also of linen, was wound round the body several times from the breast downwards, and the ends hung down to.the ankles. The breeches or drawers, of linen, covered the loins and thighs ; and the bonnet was a turban of linen, partially covering the head, but not in the form of a cone like that of the high-priest when the mitre was added to it. These four last were common to all priests. — (3.) Aaron had peculiar functions. To ¦him alone it appertained, and he alone was permitted, to enter the Holy of Holies, which he did once a year, on the great day of atone ment, when he sprinkled the blood of the si^offering on the mercy-seat, and burnt incense within the veil (Lev. xvi.). — (4.) The high-priest had a peculiar place in the law of the manslayer, and his taking sanc tuary in the cities of refuge. The manslayer might not leave the city of refuge during the lifetime of the existing high-priest who was anointed with the holy oil (Num. xxxv. 25, 28). It was also forbidden to the Mgh- priest to follow a funeral, or rend Ms clothes for the dead, according to the precedent in Lev. x. 6. The Rabbins speak very fre quently of one second in dignity to the Mgh- priest, whom they call the Sagan, and who often acted in the high-priest's room. He is the same who in the O. T. is called " the second priest" (2 K. xxiii. 4, xxv. 18). Thos too it is explained of Annas and Caiaphas (Luke iii. 2), that Annas was Sagan. AnaMas is also thought by some to have been Sagan, acting for the Mgh-priest (Acts xxiii. 2 ) . — It does not appear by whose authority tho high-priests were appointed "to their office be fore there were kings of Israel. But as we find it invariably done by the civil power in later times, it is probable that, in the times preceding the monarchy, it was by the elders, or Sanhe drim. It should be added, that the usual age for entering upon the functions of the priesthood, according to 2 Chr. xxxi. 17, is considered to have been 20 years, though a priest or high-priest was not actually incapacitated if he had attained to puberty. Again, accord ing to Lev. xxi., no one that had a blemish could officiate at the altar. — II. Theologi cally. The theological view of the high- priesthood does not fall within the scope of this work. It must suffice therefore to indicate that such a view would embrace the consideration of the office, dress, functions, and ministrations of the high-priest, con sidered as typical of the priesthood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and as setting forth under shadowB the truths which are openly taught under the Gospel. TMs has been done to a great extent in the Epistle to the Hebrews. It would also embrace all the moral and spiritual teaching supposed to be intended by such symbols. — III. Historically. The history of the high-priests embraces a period of about 1370 years, and a succession of about 80 high-prieBts, beginning with Aaron, and ending with Phannias. They naturally arrange themselves into three groups — (a.) those before David ; (b.) those from David to the captivity ; (c.) those from the return of the Babylonish captivity till the cessation of the office at the destruction of Jerusalem. (a.) The high-priests of the first group who are distinctly made known to us as such are — 1. Aaron; 2. Eleazar; 3. Phinehas ; 4. Eli; 5. Ahitub (1 Chr. ix. 11 ; Neh. xi. 11 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 3); 6. Ahiah; 7. Ahimelech. Phinehas the son of Eli, and father of Ahitub, died before his father, and so was not Mgh- priest. Of the above, the three first suc ceeded in regular order, Nadab and Abihu, Aaron's eldest sons, having died in the wilderness (Lev. x.). But Eli, the 4xh, was of the line of Ithamar. What was the exact interval between the death of Phinehas and the accession of Eli, what led to the trans ference of the chief priesthood from the lint of Eleazar to that of Ithamar, we have no means of determining from Scripture. Jose phus asserts that the father of Bukki — whom he calls Joseph, and Abiezer, i. e. Abishua — was the last high-priest of Phinehas's line, before Zadok. If Abishua died, leaving a HIGH-PRIEST 210 HILKIAH Bon or grandson under age, Eli, as head of the line of Ithamar, might have become high- priest as a matter of course, or he might have been appointed by the elders. If Ahiah and AMmelech are not variations of the name of the same person, they must have been brothers, since both were sons of Ahitub. The high-priests then before David's reign may be set down as eight in number, of whom seven are said in Scripture to have been Mgh- priests, and one by Josephus alone. — (ft.) Passing to the second group, we begin with the unexplained circumstance of there being two priests in the reign of David, apparently of nearly equal authority, viz. Zadok and Abiathar (1 Chr. xv. 11; 2 Sam. vii. 17). It is not uMikely that after the death of AMmelech and the secession of Abiathar to David, Saul may have made Zadok priest, and that David may have avoided the diffi culty of deciding between the claims of his faithful friend Abiathar and Ms new and important ally Zadok by appointing them to a joint priesthood : the first place, with the Ephod and Urim and Thummim, remaining with Abiathar, who was in actual possession of them. The first considerable difficulty that meets us in the historical survey of the high-priests of the second group is to ascer tain who was high-priest at the dedication of Solomon's Temple. Josephus says that Zadok was, and the Seder Olam makes him the high-priest in the reign of Solomon ; but 1 K. iv. 2 distinctly asserts that Azariah the son of Zadok was priest under Solomon, and 1 Chr. vi. 10 tells us of Azariah, "he it is that executed the priest's office in the temple that Solomon built in Jerusalem," obviously meaning at its first completion. We can hardly therefore be wrong in saying that Azariah the son of Ahimaaz was the first Mgh-priest of Solomon's Temple, -The priests of this series ended with Seraiah, who was taken prisoner by Nebuzar-adan, and slain at Riblah by Nebuchadnezzar, together with Zephaniah the second priest oi Sagan, after the burning of the Temple and the plunder of all the sacred vessels (2 K. xx. 18). His son Jehozadak or Jo- sedech was at the same time carried away captive (1 Chr. vi. 15). The time occupied by these Mgh-priests was about 454 years, which gives an average of something more than twenty-five years to each Mgh-priest. It is remarkable that not a single instance is recorded after the time of David of an in- qMry by Urim and Thummim. The ministry of the prophets seems to have superseded that of the high-priests (see e. g. 2 Chr. xv., xviii., xx. 14, 15 ; 2 K. xix. 1, 2, xxii. 12- 14; Jer. xxi. 1, 2).— (c.) An interval of about fifty-two years elapsed between the high-priests of the second and third group, during which there was neither Temple, nor altar, nor ark, nor priest. Jehozadak, or Josedech, as it is written in Haggai (i. 1, 14, &c), who should have succeeded Seraiah, lived and died a captive at Babylon. The pontifical office revived in his son Jeshua, of whom such frequent mention is made in Ezra and Nehemiah, Haggai and Zechariah, 1 Esdr. and Ecclus. ; and he therefore stands at the head of this third and last series, honour ably distinguished for his zealous co-operation with Zerubbabel in rebuilding the Temple, and restoring the dilapidated' commonwealth of Israel. Under the Syrian domination the high-priesthood was brought to the lowest degradation by the apostasy and crimes of the last OMas or Menelaus, the son of Eleazar, and after a vacancy of seven years by the brief pontificate of Alcimus, his no less in famous successor. A new and glorious suc cession of high-priests arose in the Asmonean family, who united the dignity of civil rulers, and for a time of independent sovereigns, to that of the high-priesthood. The Asmonean family were priests of the course of Joiarib, the first of the twenty-four courses (1 Chr. xxiv. 7), whose return from captivity is re corded 1 Chr. ix. 10; Neh. xi. 10. They were probably of the house of Eleazar, though this cannot be affirmed with certainty. This Asmonean dynasty lasted from b.c 153, till the family was damaged by intestine divisions,. and then destroyed by Herod the Great. Aristobuius, the last Mgh-priest of his line, brother of Mariamne, was murdered by order of Herod, his brother-in-law, b.c. 35. There were no fewer than twenty-eight high-priesta from the reign of Herod to the destruction of the Temple by Titus, a period of 107 years. The N. T. introduces us to some of these later, and oft-changing high-priests, viz* Annas, Caiaphas, and Ananias. Theophilus, the son of Ananus, was- the high-priest from whom Saul received letters to the synagogue at Damascus (Acts ix. 1, 14). Phannias,. the last high-priest, was appointed by lot by the Zealots from the course of priests called by Josephus Eniachim (probably a corrupt- reading for Jachim). HILKI'AH. 1. Father of Eliakim (2 K. xviii. 37, Is. xxii. 20, xxxvi. 22). [Eli akim.] — 2. High-priest in the reign of Josiah (2 K. xxii. 4 sqq. ; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 9 sqq. ; 1 Esdr. i. 8). According to the genealogy in 1 Chr, vi. 13 he was son of Shallum, and from Ezr. vii. 1, apparently the ancestor ot Ezra the scribe. His high-priesthood was rendered particularly illustrious by the great reformation effected under it. by. king Josiah, HIN 217 HOBAB by the solemn Passover kept at Jerusalem in the 18th year of that king's reign, and above all by the discovery which he made of the book of the law of Moses in the temple. HIN. [Measures.] HIND, the female of the common stag or cervus elaphus. It is frequently noticed in the poetical parts of Scripture aa emblematic of activity (Gen. xlix. 21 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 34 ; Ps. xviii. 33 ; Hab.iii. 19), gentleness (Prov. v. 19), feminine modesty (Cant. ii. 7, iii. 5), earnest longing (Ps. xiii. 1), and maternal affection (Jer. xiv. 5). Its shyness and remoteness from the haunts of men are also alluded to (Job xxxix. 1), and its timidity, causing it to cast its young at the sound of thunder (Ps. xxix. 9). HIN'NOM, VALLEY OF, otherwise called "the valley of the son" or "children of Hinnom," a deep and narrow ravine, with steep, rocky sides to the S. and W. of Je rusalem, separating Mount Zion to the N. from the " Hill of Evil Counsel," and the sloping rocky plateau of the " plain of Re phaim" to the S. The earliest mention of the Valley of Hinnom is in Josh. xv. 8, xviii. 16, where the boundary-line between the tribes of Judah and Benjamin is described, as passing along the bed of the ravine. On the southern brow, overlooking the valley at its eastern extremity, Solomon erected high places for Molech (1 K. xi. 7), whose horrid rites were revived from time to time in the same vicinity by the later idolatrous kings. Ahaz and Manasseh made their children "pass through the fire" in this valley (2 K. xvi. 3 ; 2 Chr. xxviii. 3, xxxiii. 6), and the fiendish custom of infant sacrifice to the fire- gods seems to have been kept up in Tophet, at its S.E. extremity for a considerable period (Jer. vii. 31 ; 2 K. xxx. 10). To put an end to these abominations the place was polluted by Josiah, who rendered it ceremonially unclean by spreading over it human bones, and other corruptions (2 K. xxiii. 10, 13., 14; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 4, 5), from which time it appears to have become the common cesspool of the city, into which its sewage was conducted, to be carried off by the waters of the Kidron, as well as a lay stall, where all its solid filth was collected. From its ceremonial defilement, and from the detested and abominable fire of Molech, if not from the supposed everburning funeral piles, the later Jews applied the name of this valley G'e Hinnom, Gehenna, to denote the place of eternal torment. In tMs sense the word is used by our Lord (Matt. v. 29, x. 28, xxiii. 15 ; Mark ix. 43 ; Luke xii. 5). HIPPOPOT 'AM US. [Behemoth.] Hl'RAM, or HU'RAM. I.*ap6fliing of Tyre who sent workmen and materials te Jerusalem, first (2 Sam. v. 11, 1 Chr. xiv. 1) to build a palace for David whom he evei loved (1 K. v. 1), and again (1 K. v. 10, vii. 13, 2 Chr. 14, 16) to build the Temple for Solomon, with whom he had a treaty of peaoe and commerce (1 K. v. 11, 12). The con tempt with which he received Solomon's present of Cabul (1 K. ix. 12) does not appear to have caused any breach between the two kings. He admitted Solomon's ships, issuing from Joppa, to a share in the profitable trade of the Mediterranean (1 K. x. 22) ; and Jewish sailors, under the guidance of Tyrians, were taught to bring the gold of India (1 K. ix. 26) to Solomon'B two harbours on the Red Sea. — 2. Hiram was the name of a man of mixed race (1 K. vii. 13, 40), the principal architect and engineer sent by king Hiram to Solomon. HIT'TITES, THE, the nation descended from Cheth (A. V. "Heth"), the second son of Canaan. Abraham bought from the " Children of Heth," the field and the cave of Machpelah, belonging to Ephron the Hittite. They were then settled at the town which was afterwards, under its new name of Hebron, to become one of the most famous cities of Palestine, then bearing the name of Kirjath-arba (Gen. xxiii. 19, xxv. 9). When the Israelites entered the Promised Land, wo find the Hittites taking their part against the invader, in equal alliance with the other Canaanite tribes (Josh. ix. 1, xi. 3, &c). Henceforward the notices of the Hittites are very few and faint. We meet with two individuals, both attached to the person of David. (1.) " AMmelech the Hittite " (1 Sam. xxvi. 6). (2.) " Uriah, the Hittite," one of " tbe thirty " of David's body-guard; (2 Sam. xxiii. 39 ; 1 Chr. xi. 41). HI'VITES, THE. In the genealogical tables of Genesis, " the Hivite " is named as- one of the descendants — the sixth in order — of Gaaaan, the son of Ham (Gen. x. 17 ;. 1 Chr. i. 15). We first encounter the actual people of the Hivites at the time of Jacob's- return to Canaan. Shechem was then in> their possession, Hamor the Hivite being the "prince of the land" (Gen. xxxiv. 2). We next meet with the Hivites during the con quest of Canaan (Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19). The main body of the Hivites were at this time living on the northern confines of western Palestine — " under Hermon, in the land off Mizpeh " (Josh. xi. 3) — " in Mount Lebanon, from Mount Baal-Hermon tothe entering in of Hamath" (Judg. iii. 3, comp. 2 Sam. xxiv. 7). HO 'BAB. This name is found in two places only (Num. x. 29; Judg. iv. 11), and HOBAH 218 HORITES it seems doubtful whether it denotes the father-in-law or brother-in-law of Moses. (1.) In favour of the latter is the express statement that Hobab was " the son of Raguel" (Num. x. 29); Raguel or Ruel — the Hebrew word in both cases is the same < — being identified with Jethro, not only in Ex. ii. 18 (comp. iii. 1, &c), but also by Josephus. (2.) In favour of Hobab's identity with Jethro are the words of Judg. iv. 11, and the Mahometan traditions. But whether Hobab was the father-in-law of Moses or not, the notice of Mm m Num. x. 29-32, though brief, is full of point and interest. While Jethro is preserved to us as the wise and practised administrator, Hobab appears as the experienced Bedouin sheikh, to whom Moses looked for the material safety of his cumbrous caravan in the new and difficult ground before them. HO'BAH, the place to which Abraham pursued the kings who had pillaged Sodom (Gen. xiv. 15). It was situated "to the north of Damascus." HO'HAM, king of Hebron at the time of the conquest of Canaan (Josh. x. 3). HOLOFER'NES, or, more correctly, Olo- fernes, was, according to the book of Judith, a general of Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians (Jud. ii. 4), who was slain by the Jewish heroine Judith during the siege of Bethulia. HOMER. [Measures.] HONEY. The Hebrew debash, in the first place, applies to the product of the bee, to which, we exclusively give the name of honey. All travellers agree in describing Palestine as a land "flowing with milk and honey" (Ex. iii. 8) ; bees being abundant even in the remote parts of the wilderness, where they deposit their honey in the crevices of the rocks or in hollow trees. Jn some parts of northern Arabia the Mils are so well stocked with bees, that no sooner are hives placed than they are occupied. In the second place the term dgbash applies to a decoction of the juice of the grape, which is still called dibs, and which forms an article of commerce in the East ; it was this, and not ordinary bee-honey, which Jacob sent to Joseph (Gen. xliii. 11), and which the Tyrians purchased from Palestine (Ez. xxvii. 17). A third kind has been described by some writers as " vegetable" honey, by which is meant the exudations of certain trees and shrubs, such as the Tamarix mannifera, found in the peninsula of Sinai, or the stunted oaks of Luristan and Mesopotamia. The honey, wMch Jonathan ate in the wood (1 Sam. xiv. 25), and the "wild honey," which sup ported St. John (Matt. iii. 4), have becu referred to this species. But it was probably the honey of the wild bees. HOPH'NI and Phineas, the two sons of Eli, who fulfilled their hereditary sacerdotal duties at Shiloh. Their brutal rapacity and lust, which seemed to acquire fresh violence with their father's increasing years ( l Sam. ii. 22, 12-17), filled the people with disgust and indignation, and provoked the curse which was denounced against their father's house first by an unknown prophet (27-36), and then by Samuel (1 Sam. iii. 11-14). They were both cut off in one day in the flower of their age, and the ark which they had accompanied to battle against the Philis tines was lost on the same occasion (1 Sam. iv. 10, 11). HOR, MOUNT. 1. The mountain on which^Aaron died (Num. xx. 25, 27). The word Hor is probably an archaic form of Har, the usual Hebrew term for "moun tain." It was " on the boundary line " (Num. xx. 23) or "at the edge" (xxxiii. 37) of the land of Edom. It was the halting- place of the people next after Kadesh (xx. 22, xxxiii. 37), and they quitted it for Zal- monah (xxxiii. 41) in the road to the Red Sea (xxi. 4). It was during the encamp ment at Kadesh that Aaron was gathered to Ms fathers. It is situated on the eastern side of the great valley of the Arabah, the highest and most conspicuous of the whole range of the sandstone mountains of Edom, having close beneath it on its eastern side the mysterious city of Petra. The tradition has existed from the earliest date. It is now the Jebel Nebi-HarUn, " the mountain of the Prophet Aaron." Its height is 4800 feet above the Mediterranean, that is to say about 1700 feet above the town of Petra, 4000 above the level of the Arabah, and more than 6000 above the Dead Sea. The mountain is marked far and near by its double top, which rises like a huge castellated building from a lower base, and is surmounted by a circular dome of the tomb of Aaron, a distinct white spot on the dark red surface of the mountain. The chief interest of Mount Hor consists in the prospect from its summit — the last view of Aaron — that view which was to him what Pisgah was to his brother. — 2. A mountain, entirely distinct from the preceding, named in Num. xxxiv. 7, 8, only, as one of the marks of the northern boundary of the, land which the children of Israel were about to conquer. This "Mount Hor" is the great chain of Lebanon itself. HO'REB. [Sinai.] HO'RITES and HO'RIMS, the aboriginal inhabitants of Mount Seir (Gen. xiv. 6), and HORMAH 219 HOSEA probably allied to the Emims and Rephaims. The name Horite appears to have been derived from their habits as "cave-dwellers." Their excavated dwellings are still found in hundreds in the sandstone cliffs and moun tains of Edom, and especially in Petra. HOR'MAH, or Zephath (Judg. i. 17), was the chief town of a king of a Canaanitish tribe on the south of Palestine, which was reduced by Joshua, and became, a city of the territory of Judah (xv. 80 ; 1 Sam. xxx. 30), but apparently belonged to Simeon (1 Chr. iv. 30). HORN. The word " horn " is often used metaphorically to signify strength and honour. Of strength the horn of the unicorn was the most frequent representative (Deut. xxxiii. 17, &c), but not always; comp. 1 K. xxii. 1 1 , where probably horns of iron, worn defiantly and symbolically on the head, are intended. Among the Druses upon Mount Lebanon the married women wear silver horns on their heads. In the sense o f honour, the word horn stands for the abstract (my horn, Job xvi. 15 ; all the horns of Israel, Lam. ii. 3), and so for the supreme authority. It also stands for the concrete, whence it comes to mean king, kingdom (Dan. viii. 2, &c. ; Zech. i. 18). Out of either or both of these two last metaphors sprang the idea of representing gods with horns. >/?,y Heads of modem Asiatics ornamented with bonis. HORNET. In Scripture the hornet is referred to only as the means which Jehovah' employed for the extirpation of the Canaan ites (Ex. xxiii. 28 ; Deut. vii. 20 ; Josh. xxiv. 12 ; Wisd. xii. 8). Some commentators regard the word as used in its literal sense, but it more probably expresses under a vivid image the consternation with which Jehovah would inspire the enemies of the Israelites, as declared in Deut. ii. 25, Josh. ii. 11. HORONA'IM, a town of Moab, possibly a sanctuary, named with Zoar and Luhith (Is, xv. 5 ; Jer. xlviii. 3, 5, 34). HORSE. The most striking feature in the Biblical notices of the horse is the ex clusive application of it to warliko opera tions ; in no instance is that useful animal employed for the purposes of ordinary loco motion or agriculture, if we except Is. xxviii. 28, where we learn that horses (A. V. "horsemen") were employed in threshing, not, however, in that case put in the gears, but simply driven about wildly over the strewed grain. The animated description of the horse in Job xxxix. 19-25 applies solely to the war-horse. The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race, did not stand in need of the services of the horse, and for a long period after their settlement in Canaan they dispensed with it, partly in consequence of the hilly nature of the country, which only admitted of the use of chariots in oertain localities (Judg. i. 19), and partly in consequence of the prohibition in Deut. xvii. 16, which would be held to apply at all periods. David first established a force of cavalry and chariots after the defeat of Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii. 4). But the great supply of horses was subsequently effected by Solomon through his connexion with Egypt (1 K. iv. 26). The horses were not shod, and therefore hoofs as hard "as flint" (Is. v. 28) were regarded as a great merit. HORSELEACH (Heb. 'dlukdh) occurs once only, viz. Prov. xxx. 15. There is little doubt that 'dlukdh denotes some species of leech, or rather is the generic term for any bloodsucking annelid. HOSAN'NA ("Save, we pray"), the cry of the multitudes as they thronged in our Lord's triumphal procession into Jerusalem (Matt. xxi. 9, 15; Mar. xi. 9, 10; John xii. 13). The Psalm from which it was taken, the 118th, was one with which they were familiar from being accustomed to recite the 25th and 26th verses at the Feast of Tabernacles. On that occasion the Hallel, consisting of Psalms cxiii.- ex viii., was chanted by one of the priests, and at certain intervals the multitudes joined in the re sponses, waving their branches of willow and palm, and shouting as they waved them, Hallelujah, or. Hosanna, or " O Lord, J beseech thee, send now prosperity " (P.-* ex viii. 25). HOSE'A, son of Been, and first of the Minor Prophets. The title of the book gives for the beginning of Hosea's ministry the HOSHEA 220 HOSPITALITY reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, but limits this vague definition by reference to Jero boam II., king of Israel; it therefore yields a date not later than b.c 783. The pictures of social and political life which Hosea draws so forcibly are rather applicable to the inter regnum which followed the death of Jero boam (712-772), and to the reign of the succeeding kings. It seems almost certain that very few of his prophecies were written until after the death of Jeroboam (783), and probably the life, or rather the prophetic career of Hosea, extended from 784 to 725, a period of fifty-nine years. The prophecies of Hosea were delivered in the kingdom of Israel. It is easy to recognise two great divisions in the book : — (1.) chap. i. to iii. ; (2.) iv. to end. The subdivision of these several parts is a work of greater difficulty. (I.) The first division should probably be subdivided into three separate poems, each originating in a distinct aim, and each after its own fashion attempting to express the idolatry of Israel by imagery borrowed from the matrimonial relation. The first, and therefore the least elaborate of these, is con tained in chap, iii., the second in i. 2-11, the third in i. 2-9, and ii. 1-23. These three are progressively elaborate developments of the same reiterated idea. Chap. i. 2-9 is common to the second and third poem6, but not repeated with each severally. (2.) At tempts have been made to subdivide the second part of the book. These divisions are made either according to reigns of contem porary kings, or according to the subject- matter of the poem. The prophecies were probably collected by Hosea himself towards the end of Ms career. Hosea is referred to ¦in the following passages of the N. T. : — Matt. ix. 13, xii. 7, Hob. vi. 6 ; Luke xxiii. 30, Rev. vi. 16, Hos. x. 8 ; Matt. ii. 15, Hos. xi. 1 ; Rom. ix. 25, 26, 1 Pet. ii. 10, Hos. i. 10, ii. 23 ; 1 Cor. xv. 4, Hos. vi. 2 ; Heb. xiii. 15, Hos. xiv. 2. HOSHE'A, the nineteenth, last, and best king of Israel. He succeeded Pekah, whom he slew in a successful conspiracy, thereby fulfilling a prophecy of Isaiah (Is. vii. 16). It took place b.c 737, in the 20th year of Jotham (2 K. xv. 30), i. e. " in the 20th year after Jotham became sole king," for he only reigned 16 years (2 K. xv. 33). But there must have been an interregnum of at least eight years before Hoshea came to the throne, which was not till b.c 729>, in the 12th year of Ahaz (2 K. xvii. 1). It is expressly stated (2 K. xvii. 2) that HoBhea was not so sinful as his predecessors. In the tMrd year of his reign (b.c 726) Shalmaneser cruelly Homed the strong eaves of Beth-arbcl (Hos. 8. 14), and made Israel tributary (2 K. xvii. 3) for three years. At the end of this period, encouraged perhaps by the revolt of Hezekiah, Hoshea entered into a secret alliance with So, king of Egypt, to throw off the Assyrian yoke. The alliance did him no good ; it was revealed to the court of Nineveh by the Assyrian party in Ephraim, and Hoshea was immediately seized as a rebel lious vassal, shut up in prison, and apparently treated with the utmost indignity (Mic. v. 1). Of the subsequent . fortunes of Hoshea we know notMng. HOSHEA, the son of Nun, i.e., Joshua (Deut. xxxii. 44; and also in Num. xiii. 8, though there the A. V. has Oshea). HOSPITALITY. Hospitality was regarded by most nations of the ancient world as one of the chief virtues. Among the Arabs we find the best illustrations of* the old Bible narratives, and among them see traits that might beseem their ancestor Abraham. The laws respecting strangers (Lev. xix. 33, 34) and the poor (Lev. xxv. 14 seq. ; Deut. xv. 7), and concerning redemption (Lev. xxv. 23 seqq.), &c, are framed in accordance with the spirit of hospitality; and the strength of the national feeling regarding it is shown in the incidental mentions of its practice. In the Law, compassion to strangers is con stantly enforced by the words, " for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt " (Lev. xix. 34). And before the Law, Abraham's enter tainment of the angels (Gen. xviii. 1 seqq.), and Lot's (xix. 1), are in exact agreement with its preeepts, and with modern usage (comp. Ex. ii. 20 ; Judg. xiii. 15, xix 17, 20, 21). In the N. T. hospitality is yet more markedly enjoined; and in the more civilised state of society which then pre vailed, its exercise became more a social virtue than a necessity of patriarchal life. The good Samaritan stands for all ages as an example of Christian hospitality, embodying the command to love one's neighbour as him self. The neglect of Christ is symbolised by inhospitality to our neighbours (Matt. xxv. 43). The Apostles urged the church to " follow after hospitality " (Rom. xii. 13 ; cf. 1 Tim. v. 10) ; to remember Abraham's example (Heb. xiii. 2) ; to "use hospitality one to another without grudging" (1 Pet. iv. 9) ; wMle a bishop must be a " lover of hospitality" (Tit. i. 8, cf. 1 Tim. iii. 2). The practice of the early Christians was in accord with these precepts. They had all things in common, and their hospitality was a characteristic of their belief. Sueh having been the usage of Biblical times, it is in the next place important to remark how hospitality was shown. In the natoi* HOUR 221 HOUSE archal ages we may take Abraham's example as the most fitting, as we have of it the fullest account. "The account," says Mr. Lane, " of Abraham's -entertaining the three angels, related in the Bible, presents a perfect picture of the manner in which a modern Bedawee sheykh receives travellers arriving at his encampment. He immediately orders Ms wife or women to make bread, slaughters a sheep or some other animal, and dresses it in haste, and bringing milk and any other pro visions that he may have ready at hand, with the bread and the meat which he has dressed, sets them before his guests. If these be persons of high rank, he stands by them while they eat, as Abraham did in the case above alluded to. Most Bedawees will suffer almost any injury to themselves or their families rather than allow their guests to be ill-treated while under their protec tion." The Oriental respect for the covenant of bread and salt, or salt alone, certainly sprang from the high regard in which hospi tality was held. HOUR. The ancient Hebrews were pro bably unacquainted with the division of the natural day into 24 parts ; but they afterwards parcelled out the period between sunrise and sunset into a series of divisions distinguished by the sun's course. The early Jews appear to have divided the day into four parts (Neh. ix. 3), and the night into three watches (Judg. vii. 19), and even in the N. T. we find a trace of this division in Matt. xx. 1-5. The Greeks adopted the division of the day into 12 hours from the Babylonians. At what period the Jews became first acquainted with this way of reckoning time is unknown, but it is generally supposed that they too learnt it from the Babylonians during the captivity. In whatever way originated, it was* known to the Egyptians at a very early period. They had 12 hours of the day and of the night. There are two kinds of hours, viz. (1.) the astronomical or equinoctial hour, t. e., the 24th part of a civil day, and (2.) the natural hour, i. e., the 12th part of the natural day, or of the time between sunrise and sun set. These are the hours meant in the N. T. (John xi. 9, &c), and it must be remem bered that they perpetually vary in length, so as to he very different at different times of the year. For the purposes of prayer the old division of the day into 4 portions was continued in the Temple service, a,s we see from Acts ii. 15, iii. 1, x. 9. HOUSE. The houses of the rural poor in Egypt, as well as in most parts of Syria, Arabia, and Persia, are for the most part mere huts of mud, or sunburnt bricks. In some parts of Palestine and Arabia stone is used, and in certain districts caves in the rock are used as dwellings (Amos v. 11). The houses are usually of one story only, viz., t3ae ground floor, and often contain only one apartment. Sometimes a small court for the cattle is attached ; and in some cases the cattle are housed in the same building, or the people live on a raised platform, and the cattle round them on the ground (1 Sam. xxviii. 24). The windows are small aper tures high up in the walls, sometimes grated with wood. The roofs are commonly but not always flat, and are usually formed of a plaster of mud and straw laid upon boughs or rafters ; and upon the flat roofs, tents, or "booths" of boughs or rushes are often raised to be used as sleeping-places in summer. The difference between the poorest A Nestorian House, with stages ujton the roof for sleeping. (Layaid, H-iwtveh, i. 177.) ; houses and those of the class next above them is greater than between these and the houses of the first rank. The prevailing plan of Eastern houses of this class presents, as was the case in ancient Egypt, a front of wall, whose blank and mean appearance is usually relieved only by the door and a few latticed and projecting windows. Within this is a court or courts with apartments opening into them. Over the door is a pro jecting window with a lattice more or less elaborately wrought, which, except in times of public celebrations, is usually closed (2 K. ix. 30). An awning is sometimes drawn over the court, and the floor strewed with carpets on festive occasions. The stairs to HOUSE 222 HOUSE the upper apartments are in Syria usually in a corner of the court. Around part, if not the whole, of the court is a verandah, often nine or ten feet deep, over which, when there is more than one floor, runs a second gallery of like depth with a balustrade. Inner Court of House in Cairo. (Laue, Madera Egyptiuni.) Bearing in mind that the reception room is raised above the level of the court, we may, in explaining the circumstances of the miracle of the paralytic (Mark ii. 3 ; Luke v. 18), suppose, 1. either that our Lord was stand ing under the verandah, and the people in front in the court. The bearers of the sick man ascended the stairs to the roof of the house, and taking off a portion of the boarded covering of the verandah, or removing the awning, in the former case let down the bed through the verandah roof, or in the latter, down by way of the roof, and depo sited it before the Saviour. 2. Another ex planation presents itself in considering the room where the company were assembled as the "upper room," and the roof opened for the bed to be the true roof of the house. 3. And one still more simple is found in regarding the house as one of the rude dwell ings now to be seen near the Sea of Galilee, a mere room 10 or 12 feet high and as many or more square, with no opening except the door. The roof, used as a Bleeping-place, is reached by a ladder from the outside, and the bearers of the paralytic, unable to ap proach the door, would thus have ascended the roof, and having uncovered it, let Mm down into the room where our Lord was. When there is no second floor, but more than one court, the women's apartments, hareem, harem, or haram, are usually in the second court ; otherwise they form a separate building within the general enclosure, or are above on the first floor. When there is an upper story, the Ka'ah forms the most im portant apartment, and thus probably answers to the " upper room," which was often the "guest-chamber" (Luke xxii. 12; Acts i. 13, ix. 37, xx. 8). The windows of the upper rooms often project one or two feet, and form a kiosk or latticed chamber. Such may have been " the chamber in the wall " (2 K. iv. 10, 11). The "lattice" through which Ahaziah fell, perhaps belonged to an upper chamber of this kind (2 K. i. 2), as also the " third loft," from which Eutychus fell (Acts xx. 9 ; comp. Jer. xxii. 13). There are usually no special bedrooms in Eastern houses. The outer doors are closed with a wooden lock, but in some cases the apartments are divided from each other by curtains only. There are no chimneys, but fire is made when required with charcoal in a chafing-dish ; or a fire of wood might be kindled in the open court of the house (Luke xxii. 55). r Some houses in Cairo have an apartment, "open in front to the court, with two or more arches, and a railing ; and a pillar to support the wall above. It was in a chamber of this kind, probably one of the largest size to be found, in a palace, that our Lord was being arraigned before the High- priest, at the time when the denial of Him by St. Peter took place. He "turned and looked" on Peter as he stood by the fire in the court (Luke xxii. 56, 61 ; John xviii. 24), whilst He Mmself was in the " hall of Judgment." In no point do Oriental do mestic habits differ more from European than in the use of the roof. Its flat surface is made useful for various household pur poses, as drying corn, hanging up linen, and preparing figs and raisins. The roofs are used as places of recreation in the evening, and often as sleeping- places at night (2 Sam. xi. 2, xvi. 22 ; Dan. iv. 29 ; 1 Sam. ix. 25, 26; Job xxvii. 18; Prov. xxi. 9). They were also used as places for devotion, and even idolatrous worship (Jer. xxxii. 29, xix. 13 ; 2 K. xxiii. 12 ; Zeph. i. 5; Acts x. 9). At the time of the Feast of Tabernacles booths were erected by the Jews on the tops of their houses. Protection of the roof by parapets was enjoined by the law (Deut. xxii. 8). Special apartments were devoted in larger houses to winter and summer uses (Jar. HULDAH 223 HYSSOP xxxvi. 22 ; Am. iii. 15). The ivory house of Ahab was probably a palace largely orna mented with inlaid ivory. The circumstance of Samson's pulling down the house by means of the pillars, may be explained by the fact of the company being assembled on tiers of oalconies above each other, supported by central pillars on the basement ; when these were pulled down the whole of the upper floors' would fall also (Judg. xvi. 26). HUL'DAH, a prophetess, whose husband Shallum was keeper of the wardrobe in the time of king Josiah. It was to her that Josiah had recourse when Hilkiah found a book of the law, to procure an authoritative opinion on it (2K. xxii. 14 ; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 22). HUR. 1. A man who is mentioned with Moses and Aaron on the occasion of the battle with Amalek at Rephidim (Ex. xvii. 10), when with Aaron he stayed up the hands of Moses (12). He is mentioned again in xxiv. 14, as being, with Aaron, left in charge of the people by Moses during his ascent of Sinai. The Jewish tradition is that he was the husband of Miriam, and that he was identical with — 2. The grandfather of Bezaleel, the chief artificer of the taber nacle — " son of Huri, son of Hur — of the tribe of Judah" (Ex. xxxi, 2, xxxv. 30, xxxviii. 22). In the lists of the descendants of Judah in 1 Chr. the pedigree is more fully preserved. Hur there appears as one of the great family of Pharez. He was the son of Caleb bcn-Hezron, hy a second wife, Ephrath (ii. 19, 20; comp. 5, also iv. 1), the first fruit of the marriage (ii. 50, iv. 4), and the father, besides Uri (ver. 20), of three sons, who founded the towns of Kirjath-jearim, Bethlehem, and Beth-gader (51).— 3. The fourth of the five kings of Midian, who were slain with Balaam after the " matter of Peor " (Num. xxxi. 8). In a later mention of them (Josh. xiii. 21) they are called princes of Midian and dukes. HU'RAM. [Hiram.] HUSBAND. [Marriage.] HUSHA'I, an Archite, i.e., possibly an in habitant of a place called Erec (2 Sam. xv. 32 ff., xvi. 16 ff.). He is caUed the " friend " of David (2 Sam. xv. 37 ; comp. 1 Chr. xxvii; 33.) To him David confided the deli cate and dangerous part of a pretended ad herence to the cause of Absalom. He was probably the father of Baana (1 K. iv. 16). HU'SHAM, one of the early kings of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 34, 35 ; 1 Chr. i. 45, 46). HU'SHIM. In Gen. xlvi. 23, "the chil dren of Dan " are said to have been Hushim. The name is plural, as if of a tribe rather than an individual. In Num. xxvi. the name is changed to Shuiiabi. HUSKS. The word rendered in the A.V. "husks" (Luke xv. 16), describes really th* fruit of a particular kind of tree, viz. : the carob or Ceratonia siliqua of botanists. TMp tree is very commonly met with in Syria and Egypt ; it produces pods, shaped like a horn, varying in length from 6 to 10 inches, and about a finger's breadth, or rather more. HYMENAE'US, the name of a person occurring twice in the correspondence be tween St. Paul and Timothy ; the first time classed with Alexander (1 Tim. i. 20) ; and the second time classed with Philetus (2 Tim. ii. 17, 18). In the error with which he was charged, he stands as one of the earliest of the Gnostics. As regards the sentence passed upon Mm — it haB been asserted by some writers of eminence, that the " delivering to Satan" is a mere synonym for ecclesiastical excommunication. Such can hardly be the case. As the Apostles healed all manner of bodily infirmities, so they seem to have possessed and exercised the same power in inflicting them — a power far too perilous to be continued when the manifold exigen cies of the Apostolical age had passed away (Acts v. 5, 10, ix. 17, 40, xiii. 11). Even apart from actual intervention by the Apos tles, bodily visitations are spoken of in the case of those who approached the Lord's Supper unworthily (1 Cor. xi. 30). HYMN. Among the later Jews the word hymn was more or less vague in its appli cation, and capable of being used as occasion should arise. To Christians the Hymn has always been something different from the Psalm ; a different conception in thought, a different type in composition. There is some dispute about the hymn sung by our Lord and his Apostles on the occasion of the Last Supper ; but even supposing it to have been the Hallel, or Paschal Hymn, consisting of Pss. cxiii. -cxviii., it is obvious that the word hymn is in this case applied not to an indi vidual psalm, but to a number of psalms chanted successively, and- altogether forming a kind of devotional exercise which is not unaptly called a hymn. In the jail at PM- lippi, Paul and Silas "sang hymns" (A. V. " praises ") unto God, and so loud was their song that their fellow-prisoners heard them. This must have been what we mean by sing ing, anu not merely recitation. It was in fact a veritable singing of hymns. And it is remarkable that the noun hymn is only used in reference to the services of the Greeks, and in the same passages is clearly distin guished from the psalm (Eph. v. 19, Col, iii. 16), "psalms, and hymns, and spiritual HYSSOP. (Heb. ezdb.) The ezdb was IBHAR 224 IDOLATRY nsed to sprinkle the doorposts of the Israel ites in Egypt with the blood of the paschal lamb (Ex. xii. 22) ; it was employed in the purification of lepers and leprous houses (Lev. xiv. 4, 51), and in the sacrifice of the red heifer (Num. xix. 6). In consequence of its detergent qualities, or from its being associated with the purificatory services, the Psalmist makes use of the expression, " purge me with ezdb " (Ps. li. 7). It is described in ¦1 K. iv. 33 as growing on or near walls. Bochart decides in favour of marjoram, or some plant like it, and to this conclusion, it must be admitted, all ancient tradition points. But Dr. Royle, after a careful investigation of the subject, arrives at the conclusion that the hyssop is no other than the caper-plant, or capparis spinosa of Linnaeus. The Arabic name of this plant, asuf, by which it is sometimes, though not commonly, described, bears considerable resemblance to the Hebrew, I'BHAR, one of the sons of David (2 Sam. v. 15; 1 Chr. iii. 6, xiv. 5) born in Jerusalem. IB'LEAM, a city of Manasseh, with vil lages or towns dependent on it (Judg. i. 27). It appears to have been situated in the terri tory of either Issachar or Asher (Josh. xvii. 11). The ascent of Gur was "at Ibleam" (2 K. ix. 27), somewhere near the present Jenin, probably to the north of it. IB'ZAN, a native of Bethlehem of Zebulon, who judged Israel for seven years after Jephthah (Judg. xii. 8, 10). ICH'ABOD, the son of Phinehas, and grandson of Eli (I Sam. iv. 21). ICO'NIUM, the modern Konieh, was the capital of Lycaonia. It was on the great line of communication between Ephesus and the western coast of the peninsula on one side, and Tarsus, Antioch, and the Euphrates on the other. Iconium was a well chosen place for missionary operations (Acts xiv. 1, 3, 21, 22, xvi. 1, 2, xviii. 23). The Apos tle's first visit was on his first circuit, in company with Barnabas; and on this occa sion he approached it from Antioch in Pisidia, which lay to the west. ID'DO. 1. A seer whose " visions " against Jeroboam incidentally contained some of the acts of Solomon (2 Chr. ix. 29). He appears to have written a chronicle or story relating to the life and reign of Abijah (2 Chr. xiii. 22), and also a book "concerning genealo gies " in whioh the acts of Rehoboam were recorded (xii. 15). These books are lost, but they may have formed part of the foun dation of the existing books of Chronicles. — B. The grandfather of the prophet Zechariah (Zech. i. 1, 7), although in other place* Zechariah is called " the son of Iddo " (Ezr. v. 1; vi. 14). Iddo returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Neh. xii. 4). — S. The chief of those who assem bled at Casiphia, at the time of the second caravan fron< Babylon. He was one of the Nethinim (Ezr. viii. 17 ; comp. 20). IDOLATRY, strictly speaking, denotes the worship of deity in a visible form, whether the images to which homage is paid are symbolical representations of the true God, or of the false divinities which have been made the objects of worship in His stead. — I, History of Idolatry among the Jews. — The first undoubted allusion to idolatry or idolatrous customs in the Bible is in the account of Rachel's stealing her father's teraphim (Gen. xxxi. 19), a relic of the worship of other gods, whom the ancestors of the Israelites served " on the other side of the river, in old time" (Josh. xxiv. 2). These he consulted as oracles (Gen. xxx. 27, A. V. "learned by experience") though without entirely losing sight of the God of Abraham and the God of Nahor, to whom he appealed when occasion offered (Gen. xxxi. 53), while he was ready, in the pre sence of Jacob, to acknowledge the benefits conferred upon him by Jehovah (Gen. xxx. 27). Such, indeed, was the character of most of the idolatrous worship of the Israel ites. Like the Cuthean colonists in Samaria, who " feared Jehovah and served their own gods " (2 K. xvii. 33), they blended in a strange manner a theoretical belief in the true God with the external reverence which they were led to pay to the idols* of the nations by whom they were surrounded. During their long residence in Egypt, the country of symbolism, they defiled them selves with the idols of tbe land, and it was long before the taint was removed (Josh. xxiv. 14 ; Ez. xx. 7). To these gods Moses, as the herald of Jehovah, flung down the gauntlet of defiance, and the plagues of Egypt smote their symbols (Num. xxxiii. 4). Yet, with the memory of their deliverance fresh in their minds, their leader absent, the Israelites clamoured for some visible shape in which they might worship the God who had brought them out of Egypt (Ex. xxxii.). Aaron lent himself to the popular cry, and chose as the symbol of deity one with which they had long been familiar — the calf — em bodiment of Apis, and emblem of the pro ductive power of nature. For a while the erection of the tabernacle, and the establish ment of the worship which accompanied it, satisfied that craving for an outward sign; which the Israelites constantly exhibited £ IDOLATRY 225 IDOLATRY And for the remainder of their march through the desert, with the dwelling-place of Jehovah in their midst, they did not again degenerate into open apostasy. But it was only so long as their contact with the nations was of a hostile character that tMs seeming orthodoxy was maintained. During the lives of Joshua and the elders who outlived him, they kept true to their allegiance ; but the generation following, who knew not Jehovah, nor the workB he had done for Israel, swerved from the plain path of their fathers, and were caught in the toils of the foreigner (Judg. ii.). From this time forth their history becomes little more than a chronicle of the inevitable sequence of offence and punish ment (Judg. ii. 12, 14). By turns each conquering nation strove to establish the worsMp of its national god. Thus far idolatry is a national sin. The episode of Micah, in Judg. xvii. xviii. sheds a lurid light on the secret practices of individuals, who without formally renouncing Jehovah, though ceasing to recogMse Him as the theo cratic King (xvii. 6), linked with His wor ship the symbols of ancient idolatry. In later times the practice of secret idolatry was carried to greater lengths. Images were set up on the corn-floors, in the wine- vats, and behind the doors of private houses (Is. lvii. 8 ; Hos. ix. 1, 2) ; and to check tMs tendency the statute in Deut. xxvii. 15 was originally promulgated. Under Samuel's administration a fast was held, and purifi catory rites performed, to mark the public renunciation of idolatry (1 Sam. vii. 3-6). -But in the reign of Solomon all this was forgotten. Each of Ms many foreign wives brought with her the gods of her own nation ; and the gods of Ammon, Moab, and Zidon, were opeMy worshipped. Rehoboam, the son of an Ammonite mother, perpetuated the worst features of Solomon's idolatry (1 K. xiv. 22-24) ; and in Ms reign was made the great schism in the national religion : when Jeroboam, fresh from his recollec tions of the Apis worsMp of Egypt, erected golden calves at Bethel and at Dan, and by this crafty state-policy severed for ever the kingdoms of Judah and Israel (1 K. xii. 26-33). The successors of Jeroboam followed in his steps, till Ahab, who married a ZidoMan princess, at her instigation (1 K. xxi. 25) built a temple and altar to Baal, and revived all the abominations of the Amorites (1 K. xxi. 26). Compared with the worsMp of Baal, the worsMp of the calves was a vernal offence, probably because it was morally less detestable and also less anti-national (1 K. xii. 28 ; 2 K. x. 28-31). Henceforth Baal- worship became so completely identified with in. D. B. the northern kingdom that it is described as walking in the way or statutes of the kings of Israel (2 K. xvi. 3, xvii. 8), as dis tinguished from the sin of Jeroboam. The conquest of the ten tribes by Shalmaneser was for them the last scene of the drama of abominations wMch had been enacted un interruptedly for upwards of 250 years. The first act of Hezekiah on ascending the throne was the restoration and purification of the temple which had been dismantled and closed during the latter part of his father's life (2 Chr. xxviii. 24, xxix. 3). The icono clastic spirit was not confined to Judah and Benjamin, but spread throughout Ephraim and Manasseh (2 Chr. xxxi. 1), and to all external appearance idolatry was extirpated. But the reform extended little below the Burface (Is. xxix. 13). With the death of Josiah ended the last effort to revive among the people a purer ritual, if not a purer faith. The lamp of David, which had long shed but a struggling ray, flickered for a while and then went out in the darkness of Babylonian captivity. But foreign exile was powerless to eradicate the deep inbred tendency to idolatry. One of the first difficulties with wMch Ezra had to contend was the haste with which his countrymen took them foreign wives of the people of the land, and followed them in all their abominations (Ezr. ix.). The conquests of Alexander in Asia caused Greek influence to be extensively felt, and Greek idolatry to be first tolerated, and then practised, by the Jews (1 Mace. i. 43-50, 54). The attempt of Antiochus to establish this form of worship was vigorously resisted by Mattathias (1 Mace. ii. 23-26). The erection of synagogues has been assigned as a reason for the comparative purity of the Jewish worship after the captivity, while another cause has been discovered in the hatred for images acquired by the Jews in their inter course with the Persians. — II. Objects of Idolatry. — In the old religion of the Semitic races the deity, following human analogy, was conceived of as male and female : the one representing the active, the other the passive principle of nature ; the former the source of spiritual, tbe latter of physical life. The sun and moon were early selected as outward symbols of this all-pervading power, and the worsMp of the heaveMy bodies was not only the most ancient but the most pre valent system of idolatry. Taking its rise in the plains of Chaldea, it spread through Egypt, Greece, Scythia, and even Mexico and Ceylon (Comp. Deut. iv. 19, xvii. 3; Job xxxi. 26-28). It is probable that tho Israelites learnt their first lessons in sunn worsMp from the Egyptians, in whose ^ IDOLATRY 226 INCENSE ligious system that luminary, as Osiris, held a prominent place. The Phoenicians wor shipped him under the title of " Lord of heaven." As Molech or Milcom, the sun was worshipped by the Ammonites, and as Chemosh by the Moabites. The Hadad of the Syrians is the same deity. The Assyrian Bel or Belus, is another form of Baal. By the later Mngs of Judah, sacred horses and chariots were dedicated to the sun-god, as by the Persians (2 K. xxiii. 11). The moon, worshipped by the Phoenicians under the name of Astarte or Baaltis, the passive power of nature, as Baal was the active, and known to the Hebrews as Ashtaroth or Ashtoreth, the tutelary goddess of the Zidonians, appears early among the objects of Israelitish idolatry. In the later times of the monarchy, the planets, or the zodiacal signs, received, next to the sun and moon, their share of popular adora tion (2 K. xxiii. 5 ) . Beast- worship, as exemplified in the calves of Jeroboam, has already been alluded to. There is no actual proof that the Israelites ever joined in the service of Dagon, the fish-god of the PMlis tines, though Ahaziah sent stealthily to Baal zebub, the fly-god of Ekron (2 K. i.), and in later times the brazen serpent became the object of idolatrous homage (2 K. xviii. 4). Of pure hero-worship among the Semitic races we find no trace. The singular rever ence with which trees have been honoured is not without example in the history of the Hebrews. The terebinth at Mamre, beneath which Abraham built an altar (Gen. xii. 7, xiii. 18), and the memorial grove planted by him at Beersheba (Gen. xxi. 33), were in timately connected with patriarchal worship. Mountains and high places were chosen spots for offering sacrifice and incense to idols (1 K. xi. 7, xiv. 23) ; and the retirement of gardens and the thick shade of woods offered great attractions to their worsMppers (2 K. xvi. 4 ; Is. i. 29 ; Hos. iv. 13). The host of heaven was worshipped on the house-top (2 K. xxiii. 12 ; Jer. xix. 8, xxxii. 29 ; Zeph. i. 5). — III. Punishment of Idolatry. — If one main object of the Hebrew polity was to teach the unity of God, the extermination of idolatry was but a subordinate end. Je hovah, the God of the Israelites, was the civil head of the State. He was the theo cratic king of the people, who had delivered them from bondage, and to whom they had taken a willing oath of allegiance. Idolatry, therefore, to an Israelite was a Btate offence (1 Sam. xv. 23), a political crime of the gravest character, high treason against the majesty of his king. But it was much more than all this. While the idolatry of foreign nations is stigmatised merely as an abomina tion in the sight of God, which called for Mb vengeance, the sin of the Israelites is regarded as of more glaring enormity and greater moral guilt. In the figurative language of the prophets, the relation between Jehovah and his people is represented as a marriage bond (Is. liv. 5 ; Jer. iii. 14), and the wor ship of false gods with all its accompaniments (Lev. xx. 56) becomes then the greatest of social Wrongs (Hos. ii. ; Jer. iii., &c). The first and second commandments are directed against idolatry of every form. Individuals and commumties were equally amenable to the rigorous code. The individual offender was devoted to destruction (Ex. xxii. 20) ; Ms nearest relatives were not only bound to denounce him and deliver him up to pumsh- ment (Deut. xiii. 2-10), but their hands were to strike the first blow when, on the evidence of two witnesses at least, he was stoned (Deut. xvii. 2-5). To attempt to seduce others to false worsMp was a crime of equal enormity (Deut. xiii. 6-10). IDUME'A. [Edom.] I'JE-AB'ARIM, one of the later halting places of the children of Israel (Num. xxi. 11, xxxiii. 44). It was on the boundary — the S.E. boundary — of the territory of Moab ; in the waste uncultivated " wilderness " on its skirts (xxi. 11). I'JON, a town in the north of Palestine, belonging to the tribe of Naphtali. It was taken and plundered by the captains of Ben hadad (1 K. xv. 20 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 4), and a second time by Tiglath-pileser (2 K. xv. 29). It was situated a few miles N.W. of the site of Dan, in a fertile and beautiful little plain called Merj 'Ayiln. ILLYR'ICUM, an extensive district lying along the eastern coast of the Adriatic from the boundary of Italy on the north to Epirus on the south, and contiguous to Moesia and Macedonia on the east (Rom. xv. 19). IMMAN'UEL, that is, God with us, the symbolical name given by the prophet Isaiah to the child who was announced to Ahaz and the people of Judah, as the sign which God would give of their deliverance from their enemies (Is. vii. 14). It is applied by the Apostle Matthew to the Messiah, born of the Virgin (Matt. i. 23). It would therefore appear that the immediate reference of the prophet was to some contemporary occur rence, but that Ms words received their true and full accomplishment in the birth of the Messiah. INCENSE. The incense employed in the service of the tabernacle was compounded of the perfumes stacte, onycha, galbanum, and pure frankincense. All incense which was not made of these ingredients was forbidden INDIA 227 INN to be offered (Ex. xxx. 9). Aaron, as Mgh- priest, was originally appointed to offer incense, but in the daily service of the second temple the office devolved upon the inferior priests, from among whom one was chosen by lot (Luke i. 9), each morning and even ing. The times of offering incense were specified in the instructions first giv*en to Moses (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). The morning in cense was offered when the lamps were trimmed in the Holy place, and before the sacrifice, when the watchman set for the purpose announced the break of day. When the lamps were lighted " between the even ings," after the evening sacrifice and before the drink-offerings were offered, incense was again burnt on the golden altar, which " belonged to the oracle " (1 K. vi. 22), and Btood before the veil which separated the Holy place from the Holy of Holies, the throne of God (Rev. viii. 4). When the priest entered the Holy place with the incense, all the people were removed from the temple, and from between the porch and the altar (cf. Luke i. 10). Profound silence was observed among the congregation who were praying without (cf. Rev. viii. 1), and at a signal from the prefect the priest cast the incense on the fire, and bowing reverently towards the Holy of Holies retired slowly backwards, not pro longing his prayer that he might not alarm the congregation, or cause them to fear that he had been struck dead for offering un- wortMly (Lev. xvi. 13 ; Luke i. 21). On the day of atonement the service was dif ferent. The offering of incense has formed a part of the religious ceremonies of most ancient nations. It was an element in the idolatrous worship of the Israelites (Jer. xi. 12, 17, xlviii. 35 ; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 25). Look ing upon incense in connexion with the other ceremonial observances of the Mosaic ritual, it would rather seem to be symbolical, not of prayer itself, but of that wMch makes prayer acceptable, the intercession of Christ. In Rev. viii. 3, 4, the incense is spoken of aB something distinct from, though offered with, the prayers of all the saints (cf. Luke i. 10) ; and in Rev. v. 8 it is the golden vials, and not the odours or incense which are said to be the prayers of saints. INDIA. The name of India does not occur in the Bible before the book of Esther, where it is noticed as the limit of the territories of Ahasuerus in the east, as EtMopia was in the west (i. 1 ; viii. 9). The India of the book of Esther is not the peninsula of Hindostan, but the country surrounding the Indus, the Punjab and perhaps Scinde. In 1 Mace. viii. 8, India is reckoned among the countries which Eumenes, king of Pergamus, received out of the former possessions of Antiochus the Great. A more authentic notice of the country occurs in 1 Mace. xi. 37. But though the name of India occurs so seldom, the people and productions of that country must have been tolerably well known to the Jews. There is undoubted evidence that an active trade was carried on between India and Western Asia. The trade opened by Solomon with Ophir through the Red Se consisted chiefly of Indian articles. Th* connexion thus established with India led to the opinion that the Indians were included under the ethnological title of Cush (Gen. x. 6). INK, INKHORN. [Writing.] INN. The Hebrew word (mdldn) thus rendered literally signifies " a lodging-place for the night." Inns, in our sense of the term, were, as they still are, unknown in the East, where hospitality is religiously practised. The khans, or caravanserais, are the representatives of European inns, and these were established but gradually. It is doubtful whether there is any allusion to them in the Old Testament. The halting- place of a caravan was selected originally on account of its proximity to water or pasture, by which the travellers pitched their tents and passed the night. Such was undoubtedly the " inn" at which occurred the incident in the life of Moses, narrated in Ex. iv. 24 (Comp. Gen. xiii. 27). On the more fre quented routes, remote from towns (Jer. ix. 2), caravanserais were in course of time erected, of ten at the expense of the wealthy. The following description of one of those on the road from Bagdad to Babylon will suffice for all : — " It is a large and substantial square building, in the distance resembling a fortress, being surrounded with a lofty wall, and flanked by round towers to defend the inmates in case of attack. Passing through a strong gateway, the guest enters a large court, the sides of which are divided into numerous arched compartments, open in front, for the accommodation of separate parties and for the reception of goods. In the centre is a Bpacious raised platform, used for sleeping upon at night, or for the devo tions of the faithful during the day. Between the outer wall and the compartments are wide vaulted arcades, extending round the entire building, where the beasts of burden are placed. Upon the roof of the arcades is an excellent terrace, and over the gateway an elevated tower containing two rooms — one of wMch is open at the sides, permitting the occupants to enjoy every breath of air that passes across the heated plain. The terrace is tolerably clean ; but the court and Q 2 INSTANT 228 ISAAC stabling below are ankle-deep in chopped straw and filth." (Loftus, Chaldea, p. 13.) INSTANT, INSTANTLY, in the A. V., means urgent, urgently, or fervently, as will be seen from the following passages (Luke vii. 4, xxiii. 23 ; Acts xxvi. 7 ; Rom. xii. 12). In 2 Tim. iv. 2 we find " be instant in season and out of season." The literal sense is "stand ready" — "be alert" for whatever may happen. IRON is mentioned with brass as the earliest of known metals (Gen. iv. 22). As it is rarely found in its native state, but gener ally in combination with oxygen, the know ledge of the art of forging iron, wMch is attributed to Tubal Cain, argues an acquaint ance with the difficulties which attend the Bmelting of this metal. The natural wealth of the soil of Canaan is indicated by describ ing it as " a land whose stones are iron " (Deut. viii. 9). The book of Job contains passages which indicate that iron was a metal well known. Of the manner of pro curing it, we learn that " iron is taken from dust" (xxviii. 2). The "furnace of iron" (Deut. iv. 28; IK. viii. 51) is a figure which vividly expresses hard bondage, as represented by the severe labour which at tended the operation of smelting. Sheet- iron was used for cooking utensils (Ez. iv. 3 ; cf. Lev. vii. 9). That it was plentiful in the time of David appears from 1 Chr. xxii. 3. The market of Tyre was supplied with bright or polished iron by the merchants of Dan and Javan (Ez. xxvii. 19). The Chalybes of the Pontus were celebrated as workers in iron in very ancient times. The produce of their labour is supposed to be alluded to in Jer. xv. 12, as being of superior quality. IR'-SHEM'ESH, a city of the Danites (Josh. xix. 41), probably identical with Beth-shemesh, and if not identical, at least connected with Mount Herbs (Judg. i. 35). ISAAC, the son whom Sarah, in accordance with the Divine promise, bore to Abraham in the hundredth year of his age, at Gerar. In hU infancy he became the object of Ishmael's jealousy; and in Ms youth the victim, in intention, of Abraham's great sacrificial act of faith. When forty years old he married Rebekah his cousin, by whom, when he was sixty, he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. In his seventy-fifth year he and his brother Ishmael buried their father Abraham in the cave of Machpelah. From this abode by the well Lahai-roi, in the South Country, Isaac was driven by a famine to Gerar. Here Jehovah appeared to him and bade him dwell there and not go over into Egypt, and re newed to him the promises made to Abraham. Hert he subjected himself, like Abraham in the same place and under like circumstances (Gen. xx. 2), to a rebuke from Abimelech the Philistine king for an equivocation. Here he acqMred great wealth by Ms flockB ; but waB repeatedly dispossessed by the Philistines of the wells which he sank at convenient stations. At Beersheba Jeh ovah appeared to Mm by night and bfessed him, and he built an altar there : there, too, like Abraham, he received a visit from the PMlistine king Abimelech, with whom he made a covenant of peace. After the deceit by which Jacob acquired his father's blessing, Isaac sent his son to seek a wife in Padan-aram ; and all that we know of Mm during the last forty-three years of his life is that he saw that son, with a large and prosperous family, return to him at Hebron (xxxv. 27) before he died there at the age of 180 years. He was buried by his two sons in the cave of Mach pelah. In the N. T. reference is made to the offering of Isaac (Heb. xi. 17 ; and James ii. 21) and to Ms blessing his sons (Heb. xi. 20). As the child of the promise, and as the progenitor of the children of the promise, he is contrasted with Ishmael (Rom. ix. 7, 10; Gal. iv. 28; Heb. xi. 18). In our Lord's remarkable argument with the Sad- ducees, his history is carried beyond the point at which it is left in the O. T., and beyond the grave. Isaac, of whom it was said (Gen. xxxv. 29) that he was gathered to Ms people, is represented as still living to God (Luke xx. 38, &c.) ; and by the same Divine authority he is proclaimed as an acknowledged heir of future glory (Matt. viii. 11, &c). It has been asked what are the persecutions sustained by Isaac from Ishmael to wMch St. Paul refers (Gal. iv. 29) t RasM relates a Jewish tradition of Isaac suffering personal violence from Ishmael, a tradition which some think was adopted by St. Paul. In reference to the offering up of Isaac by Abraham, the primary doctrines taught are those of sacrifice and substitution, as the means appointed by God for taking away sin ; and, as co-ordinate with these, the need of the obedience of faith, on the part of man, to receive the benefit (Heb, xi. 17). A confusion is often made between Isaac and the victim actually offered. Isaac himself is generally viewed as a type of the Son of God, offered for the sins of men ; but Isaac, himself one of the sinful race for whom atonement was to be made, — Isaac, who did not actually suffer death, — .was no fit type of Him who "was slain, the just for the unjust." But the animal, not of the human race, which God provided and Abraham offered, was, in the whole history of sacrifice, the recogMsed ISAIAH 229 ISAIAH type of " the Lamb of God, that taketh away the sins of the world." Isaac is the type of humaMty itself, devoted to death for sin, and submitting to the sentence. ISAI'AH, the prophet, son of Amoz. The Hebrew name, our shortened form of wMch occurs with other persons [see Jesaiah, Jeshaiah], signifies Salvation of Jahu (a shortened form of Jehovah). He prophesied concerning Judah and Jerusalem in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah (Is. i. 1). Isaiah must have been an old man at the close of Hezekiah's reign. The ordinary chronology gives 758 b.c for the date of Jotham's accession, and 698 for that of Hezekiah's death. TMs gives us a period of sixty years. And since his ministry commenced before Uzziah's death (how long we know not), supposing Mm to have been no more than twenty years old when he began to prophesy, he would have been eighty or ninety at Manasseh's acces sion. Rabbinical tradition says that Isaiah was sawn asunder in a trunk of a tree by order of Manasseh, to which it is supposed that reference is made in Hebrews xi. 37. — I. Chs. i.-v. contain Isaiah's prophecies in the reigns of Uzziah and Jotham. — Ch. i. is very general in its contents. — Chs. ii.-iv. are one prophesying, — the leading thought of which is that the present prosperity of Judah shoMd be destroyed for her sins, to make room for the real glory of piety and virtue ; while ch. v. forms a distinct dis course, whose main purport is that Israel, God's vineyard, shall be brought to desola tion. — Ch. vi. describes an ecstatic vision that fell upon the prophet in the year of Uzziah's death. — Ch. vi., vii., delivered in the reign of Ahaz, when he was threatened by the forces of Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin, Mng of Syria. As a sign that Judah was not yet to perish, he announces the birth of the child Immanuel, who should "know to refuse the evil and choose the good,'' before the land of the two hostile kings should be left desolate. — Ch. viii.-ix. 7. As the Assyrian empire began more and more to threaten the Hebrew commonwealth with utter overthrow, the prediction of the Messiah, the Restorer of Israel, becomes more positive and clear. The king was bent upon an alliance with Assyria. This Isaiah stedfastly opposes. — Ch. ix. 8-x. 4, is a pro phecy delivered at this time against the kingdom of Israel (ix. 8-x. 4). — Ch. x. 5-xii. 6, is one of the most MgMy wrought passages in the whole book, and was pro bably one single prophecy. It stands wholly disconnected with the preceding in the cir- !su Distances which it presupposes ; and to what period to assign it, is not easy to de termine. — Ch. xiii.-xxiii., contain chiefly a collection of utterances, each of wMch is styled a " burden." (a.) The first (xiii. 1- xiv. 27) is against Babylon. The ode of triumph (xiv. 3-23), in this burden is among the most poetical passages in all literature. (b.) The short and pregnant "burden" against Philistia (xiv. 29-32), in the year that Ahaz died, was occasioned by the revolt of the PMlistines from Judah, and their successful inroad recorded in 2 Chr. xxviii. 18. (c.) The "burden of Moab" (xv. xvi.) is remarkable for the elegiac strain in which the prophet bewails the disasters of Moab, and for the dramatic character of xvi. 1-6. (d.) Ch. xvii. xviii. This prophecy is headed "the burden of Damascus;" and yet after ver. 3 the attention is withdrawn from Damascus and turned to Israel, and then to Ethiopia, (e.) In the "burden of Egypt" (xix.) the prophet prophesies the utter help lessness of Egypt under God's judgments, probably to counteract the tendency which led both Judah and Israel to look towards Egypt for succour against Assyria. (/.) In the midst of these " burdens " stands a passage which presents Isaiah in a new aspect, an aspect in which he appears in tMs instance only. The more emphatically to enforce the warning already conveyed in the " burden of Egypt," l6aiah was com manded to appear in the streets and temple of Jerusalem stripped of Mb sackcloth mantle, and wearing his vest only, with Ms feet also bare, (g.) In " the burden of the desert of the sea," a poetical designation of Babylonia (xxi. 1-10), the images in which the fall of Babylon is indicated are sketched with Aeschylean grandeur. (A.) " The burden of Dumah," and "of Arabia" (xxL 11-17), relate apparently to Bome Assyrian inva sion, (i.) In " the burden of the valley of vision" (xxii. 1-14) it is doubtless Jeru salem that is thus designated. The scene presented is that of Jerusalem during an invasion, (k.) The passage in xxii. 15-25 is singular in Isaiah as a prophesying against an individual. Shebna was one of the king's highest functionaries, and seems to have been leader of a party opposed to Jehovah (ver. 25). (I.) The last "burden" is against Tyre (xxiii.). Her utter destruction is not predicted by Isaiah as it afterwards was by Ezekiel. — Ch. xxiv.-xxvii., form one prophecy, essentially connected with the preceding ten "burdens" (xiii.-xxiii.), of wMch it is in effect a general summary. In xxv., after commemorating the destruction of all oppressors, the prophet gives us in vers. 6-9 a most glowing description of ISAIAH 230 ISH-BOSHETH Messianic blessings. In xxvi., vers. 12-18 describe the new, happy state of God's people as God's work wholly. In xxvii. 1, "Levia than the fleeing serpent, and Leviathan the twisting serpent, and the dragon in the sea," are perhaps Nineveh and Babylon — two phases of the same Asshur — and Egypt (comp. ver. 1 8) ; all, however, symbolizing adverse powers of evil. — Ch. xxiii.-xxxv. predicts the Assyrian invasion. The prophet protests against the policy of courting the help of Egypt against Assyria (xxx. 1-17, xxxi. 1-3). — Ch. xxxvii.-xxxix. At length the season so often, though no doubt ob scurely foretold, arrived. The Assyrian was near, with forces apparently irresistible. In the universal consternation which ensued, all the hope of the state centered upon Isaiah ; the highest functionaries of the state — Shebna too — wait upon him in the name of their sovereign. The short answer which Jehovah gave through Mm was, that the Assyrian king should hear intelligence which should send him back to his own land, there to perish. How the deliverance was to be effected, Isaiah was not commissioned to tell ; but the very next Mght (2 K. xix. 35) brought the appalling fulfilment. — II. The last 27 chapters form a separate prophecy, and are supposed by many critics to have been written in the time of the Babylonian captivity, and are therefore ascribed to a " later Isaiah." It is evident that the point of time and situation from which the prophet here speaks is that of the captivity in Babylon (comp. e.g., lxiv. 10, 11) ; but tMs may be adopted on a principle wMch appears to characterise "vision," viz., that the prophet sees the future as if present. This second part falls into three sections, each, as it happens, consisting of nine chapters ; the two first end with the refrain, " There is no peace, saith Jehovah (or "my God"), to the wicked;" and the third with the same thought amplified. (1.) The first section (xl.- xlviii.) has for its main topic the comfort ing assurance of the deliverance from Baby lon by Koresh (Cyrus) who is even named twice (xii. 2, 3, 25, xliv. 28, xiv. 1-4, 13, xlvi. 11, xlviii. 14, 15). It is characteristic of sacred prophecy in general that the •'vision" of a great deliverance leads the seer to glance at the great deliverance to come through Jesus Christ. This principle of association prevails in the second part taken as a whole ; but in the first section, taken apart, it appears as yet imperfectly. (2.) The second section (xlix.-rvii.) is dis tinguished from the first by several features. The person of Cyrus as well as Ms name, and the specification of Babylon, disappear alto gether. Return from exile is indeed spoken of repeatedly and at length (xlix. 9-26, li. 9- lii. 12, lv. 12, 13, Mi. 14) ; but in such general terms as admit of being applied to the spiritual and MessiaMc, as well as to the literal restoration. (3.) In the third section (lviii.-lxvi.), as Cyrus nowhere appears, so neither does " Jehovah's servant " occur so frequently to view as in the second. The only delineation of the latter iB in lxi. 1-3 and in lxiii. 1-6, 9. He no longer appears as suffering, but only as saving and avenging Zion. The section is mainly occupied with various practical exhortations founded upon the views of the future already set forth.-— In favour of the authenticity of the last 27 chapters the following reasons may be ad vanced, (a.) The unanimous testimony of Jewish and Christian tradition (comp. Ecclus. xlviii. 24) ; and the evidence of the N. T. quotations (Matt. iii. 3 ; Luke iv. 17 ; Acts viii. 28 ; Rom. x. 16, 20). (b.) The umty of design which connects these last 27 chapters with the preceding. The oneness of diction which pervades the whole book. The pecu liar elevation and grandeur of style, which characterize the second part as well as the first. The absence of any other name than Isaiah's claiming the authorsMp. Lastly, the MessiaMc predictions which mark its inspiration, and remove the chief ground of objection against its having been written by Isaiah. In point of style we can find no difficulty in recognising in the second part the presence of the same plastic geMus as we discover in the first. IS'CAH, daughter of Haran the brother of Abram, and sister of Milcah and of Lot (Gen. xi. 29). In the Jewish traditions she is identified with Sarai. ISCAR'IOT. [Judas Iscariot.] ISH'BAK, a son of Abraham and Keturah (Gen. xxv. 2 ; 1 Chr. i. 32), and the pro genitor of a tribe of northern Arabia. ISH'BI-BENO'B, son of Rapha, one of the race of Philistine giants, who attacked David in battle, but was slain by Abishai (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 17). ISH-BO'SHETH, the youngest of Saul's four sons, and his legitimate successor. His name appears (1 Chr. viii. 33, ix. 39) to have been originally Esh-baal, "the man of Baal." He was 35 years of age at the time of the battle of Gilboa, but for five years Abner was engaged in restoring the domi nion of the house of Saul over all Israel. Ishbosheth was then "40 years old when he began to reign over Israel, and reigned two years" (2 Sam. iii. 10). During these two years he reigned at Mahanaim, though only in name. The wars and negotiations with ISHMAEL 231 ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF David were entirely carried on by Abner (2 Sam. ii. 12, iii. 6, 12). The death of Abner deprived tho house of SaM of their last remaining support. When Ishbosheth heard of it, "Ms hands were feeble, and all the Israelites were troubled" (2 Sam. iv. 1). In this extremity of weakness he fell a victim, probably, to revenge for a crime of his father. Two Beerothites, Baana and Rechab, in remembrance, it has been con jectured, of Saul's slaughter of their Mns- men the Gibeonites, determined to take advantage of the helplessness of the royal house to destroy the only representative that was left, excepting the ehild Mephibosheth (2 Sam. iv. 4). After assassinating Ish bosheth, they took his head to David as a welcome present. They met with a stern reception. David rebuked them for the cold blooded murder of an innocent man, and ordered them to be executed. The head of Ishbosheth was carefully buried in the sepul chre of his great kinsman Abner, at the same place (2 Sam. iv. 9-12). ISH'MAEL, the son of Abraham by Hagar the Egyptian, Ms concubine ; born when Abraham was fourscore and six years old (Gen. xvi. 15, 16). Ishmael was the first born of his father. He was born in Abra ham's house, when he dwelt in the plain of Mamre ; and on the institution of the covenant of circumcision, was circumcised, he being then thirteen years old (xvii. 25). With the institution of the covenant, God renewed Ms promise respecting Ishmael. He does not again appear in the narrative until . the weaMng of Isaac. The latter was born when Abraham was a hundred years old (xxi. 5), and as the weaning, according to Eastern usage, probably took place when the child was between two and three years old, Ishmael Mmself must have been then between fifteen and sixteen years of age. At the great feast made in celebration of the weaning, " Sarah saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, which she had born unto Abraham, mock ing," and urged Abraham to cast out him and his mother. The patriarch, comforted by God's renewed promise that of Ishmael He would make a nation, sent them both away, and they departed and wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba. It is doubtful whether the wanderers halted by the well, or at once continued their way to the " wilder ness of Paran," where, we are told in the next verse to that just quoted, he dwelt, and where " Ms mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt" (Gen. xxi. 9-21). This wife of Ishmael was the mother of his twelve sons, and daughter. Of the later life of Ifihmael we know little. He was present with Isaac at the burial of Abraham. He died at the age of 137 years (xxv. 17, 18). The sons of Ishmael peopled the north and west of the Arabian pemnsula, and eventually formed the chief element of the Arab nation. Their language, which is generally acknow ledged to have been the Arabic commonly so called, has been adopted with insignificant exceptions throughout Arabia. The term Ishhaelite occurs on three occasions, Gen. xxxvii. 25, 27, 28, xxxix. 1 ; Judg. viii. 24 ; Ps. lxxxiii. 6.-2. The son of Netha- niah ; a perfect marvel of craft and villany, whose treachery forms one of the chief epi sodes of the history of the period immediately succeeding the first fall of Jerusalem. His exploits are related in Jer. xl. 7-xli. 15, with a short summary in 2 K. xxv. 23-25. His full description is " Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, the son of Elishama, of the seed royal" of Judah (Jer. xii. 1 ; 2 K. xxv. 25). During the siege of the city he had, like many others of Ms countrymen (Jer. xl. 11), fled across the Jordan, where he found a refuge at the court of Baalis, the then king of the Bene-Ammon. After the departure of the Chaldeans, Ishmael murdered Gedaliah and all Ms attendants, and succeeded in escaping to the Ammonites. ISH'TOB, apparently one of the small kingdoms or states which formed part of the general countryof Aram, named with Zobah, Rehob, and Maacah (2 Sam. x. 6, 8). It if- probable that the real signification is " tho men of Tob." IS'RAEL. 1. The name given (Gen. xxxii. 28) to Jacob after his wrestling with the Angel (Hos. xii. 4) at Peniel. Gesenius interprets Israel " soldier of God." — 2. It became the national name of the twelve tribes collectively. They are so called in Ex. iii. 16 and afterwards.— 3. It is used in a nar rower sense, excluding Judah, in 1 Sam. xi. 8; 2 Sam. xx. 1; 1 K. xii. 16. Thence forth it was assumed and accepted as the name of the Northern Kingdom. — 4>. After the Babylonian captivity, the returned exiles resumed the name Israel as the designation of their nation. The name Israel is also used to denote laymen, as distinguished from Priests, Levites, and other ministers (Ezr. vi. 16, ix. 1, x. 25 ; Neh. xi. 3, &c). ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF. 1. The pro phet Ahijah of Shiloh, who was commissioned in the latter days of Solomon to announce the division of the kingdom, left one tribe (Judah) to the house of David, and assigned ten to Jeroboam (1 K. xi. 85, 31). These were probably Joseph (= Ephraim and Ma nasseh), Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, Naphtali, Benjamin, Dan, Sinieor, Gad, and Reuben ; ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF 232 ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF Levi being intentionally omitted. Eventually the greater part of Benjamin, and probably the whole of Simeon and Dan, were included as if by common consent in the kingdom of Judah. With respect to the conquests of David, Moab appears to have been attached to the kingdom of Israel (2 K. iii. 4) ; so much of Syria as remained subject to Solomon (see 1 K. xi. 24) would probably be claimed by his successor in the northern kingdom ; and Ammon, though connected with Rehoboam as his mother's native land (2 CM. xii. 13), and though afterwards tributary to Judah (2 Chr. xxvii. 5), was at one time allied (2 Chr. xx. 1), we know not how closely or how early, with Moab. The sea-coast between Accho and Japho remained in the possession of Israel. — 2. The population of the Mngdom is not expressly stated; and in drawing any inference from the numbers of fight ing men, we must bear in mind that the numbers in the Hebrew text are strongly suspected to have been subjected to exten sive, perhaps systematic, corruption. Jero boam brought into the field an army of 800,000 men (2 Chr. xiii. 3). If in b.c. 957 there were actually under arms 800,000 men of that age in Israel, the whole popu lation may perhaps have amounted to at least three millions and a half.— 3. Shechem was the first capital of the new kingdom (1 K. xii. 25), venerable for its traditions, and beautiful in its situation. Subsequently Tirzah became the royal residence, if not the capital, of Jeroboam (1 K. xiv. 17) and of Ms successors (xv. 33, xvi. 8, 17, 23). Samaria, umting in itself the qualities of beauty and fertility, and a commanding posi tion, was chosen by Omri (1 K. xvi, 24), and remained the capital of the kingdom until it had given the last proof of its strength by sustaimng for three years the onset of the hosts of Assyria. Jezreel was probably oMy a royal residence of some of the Israelitish kings. — 4. The kingdom of Israel lasted 254 years, from b.c 975 to b.c 721, about two-thirds of the duration of its more compact neighbour Judah. The de tailed history of the kingdom will be found under the names of its Mneteen kings. A summary view may be taken in four periods : — (a.) b.c 975-929. Jeroboam had not suffi cient force of character in Mmself to make a lasting impression on his people. A king, but not a founder of a dynasty, he aimed at nothing beyond securing Ms present eleva tion. The army soon learned its power to dictate to the isolated monarch and disunited people. Baasha, in the midst of the army at 3ibbethon, slew the son and successor of Jeroboam ; Zimri, a captain of chariots, slew the son and successor of Baasha ; Omri, the captain of the host, was chosen to pumsh Zimri ; and after a civil war of four years he prevailed over TibM, the choice of half the people.— (6.) b.c 929-884. For forty-five years Israel was governed by the house of Omri. That sagacious king pitched on the strong hill of Samaria as the site of Ms capital. The princes of his house cultivated an alliance with the kings of Judah, which was cemented by the marriage of Jehoram and Athaliah. The adoption of Baal- worship led to a reaction in the nation, to the moral triumph of the prophets in the person of Elijah, and to the extinction of the house of Ahab in obedience to the bidding of Elisha. — (c.) b.c 884-772. Unparalleled triumphs, but deeper humiliation, awaited the kingdom of Israel under the dynasty of Jehu. Hazael, the ablest king of Damascus, reduced Jeho- ahaz to the condition of a vassal, and tri umphed for a time over both the disunited Hebrew kingdoms. Almost the first sign of the restoration of their strength was a war between them ; and Jehoash, the grandson of Jehu, entered Jerusalem as the conqueror of Amaziah. Jehoash also turned the tide of war against the Syrians ; and Jeroboam IL, the most powerful of all the kings of Israel, captured Damascus, and recovered the whole ancient frontier from Hamath to the Dead Sea. This short-lived greatness expired with the last king of Jehu's line.— (d.) b.c 772-721. Military violence, it woMd seem, broke off the hereditary succession after the obscure and probably convulsed reign of Zachariah. An unsuccessfM usurper, Shal- , lum, is followed by the cruel Menahem, who, being unable to make head against the first attack of Assyria under Pul, became the agent of that monarch for the oppressive taxation of his subjects. Yet Ms power at home was sufficient to insure for Ms son and successor Pekahiah a ten years' reign, cut short by a bold usurper, Pekah. Abandon ing the northern and transjordamc regions to the encroaching power of Assyria under Tiglath-Pileser, he was very near subjugat ing Judah, with the help of Damascus, now the coequal ally of Israel. But Assyria in terposing summarily put an end to the inde pendence of Damascus, and perhaps was the indirect cause of the assassination of the baffled Pekah. The irresolute Hoshea, the next and last usurper, became tributary to his invader, Shalmaneser, betrayed the Assy rian to the rival monarchy of Egypt, and was punished by the loss of his liberty, and by the capture, after a three years' siege, of his strong capital, Samaria. Some gleanings of the ten tribes yet remained in the land ISSACHAR 233 IVORY after so many years of religious decline, moral debasement, national degradation, anarchy, bloodshed, and deportation. Even these were gathered up by the conqueror and carried to Assyria, never again, as a dis tinct people, to occupy their portion of that goodly and pleasant land which their fore fathers won under Joshua from the heathen. IS'SACHAR, the ninth son of Jacob and the fifth of Leah ; the first born to Leah, after the interval which occurred in the births of her children (Gen. xxx. 17 ; comp. xxix. 35). At the descent into Egypt four sons are ascribed to Mm, who founded the four chief families of the tribe (Gen. xlvi. 13; Num. xxvi. 23, 25 ; 1 Chr. vii. 1). The number of the fighting men of Issachar, when taken in the census at Sinai, was 54,400. During the journey they seem to have steadily increased. The allotment of Issachar lay above that of Manasseh (Josh. xix. 17-23). In the words of Josephus, "it extended in length from Carmel to the Jor dan, in breadth to Mount Tabor." This territory was, as it still is, among the richest land in Palestine. Westward was the famous plain which derived its name from its fer tility. On the north is Tabor, which even under the burning sun of that climate is said to retain the glades and dells of an English wood. On the east, behind Jezreel, is the opening which conducts to the plain of the Jordan — to that Beth-shean which was pro verbially among the Rabbis the gate of Para dise for its frmtfulness. It is tins aspect of the territory of Issachar which appears to be alluded to in the Blessing of Jacob. ISSUE, RUNNING. (Lev. xv. 2, 3, xxii. 4 ; Num. v. 2 ; and Sam. iii. 29.) In Lev. xv. 3 a distinction is introduced, which merely means that the cessation of the actual flux does not constitute ceremoMal cleanness, but that the patient must bide the legal time, seven days (ver. 13), and perform the prescribed "purifications and sacrifice (ver. 14). IT'ALY. This word is used in the N.T. (Acts xviii. 2, xxvii. 1 ; Heb. xiii. 24) in the usual sense of the period, i. e. in its true geographical sense, as denoting the whole natural peMnsMa between the Alps and the Straits of Messina. ITALIAN BAND. [Army.] ITH'AMAR, the youngest son of Aaron . (Ex. vi. 23). After the deaths of Nadab and Abihu (Lev. x. 1), Eleazar and Ithamar were appointed to succeed to their places in the priestly office (Ex. xxviii. 1, 40, 43 ; Num. iii. 3, 4 ; 1 Chr. xxiv. 2). In the distri bution of services belonging to the Taber nacle, and its transport on the march of the Israelites, the Gerehomtes and the Merarites were placed under the superintendence of Ithamar (Ex. xxxviii. 21 ; Num. iv. 21-33). The high-priesthood passed into the family of Ithamar in the person of Eli, but for what reason we are not infoimed. ITTAI. 1. " Ittai the Gittite," ». e. the native of Gath, a PMlistine in the army of king David. He appears only during the revolution of Absalom. We first discern Mm on the morning of David's flight. Last in the procession came the 600 heroes who had formed David's band during his wander ings in Judah, and had been with him at Gath (2 Sam. xv. 18 ; comp. 1 Sam. xxiii. 13, xxvii. 2, xxx. 9, 10). Amongst these, apparently commanding them, was Ittai the Gittite (ver. 19). He caught the eye of the king, who at once addressed him and be sought him not to attach Mmself to a doubt ful cause, but to return "with Ms brethren" and abide with the king (19, 20). But Ittai is firm ; he is the king's slave, and wherever his master goes he will go. Accordingly he is allowed by David to proceed. When the army was numbered and organised by David at Mahanaim, Ittai again appears, now in command of a third part of the force (2 Sam. xviii. 2, 5, 12).— 2. Son of Ribai, from Gibeah of Benjamin; one of the thirty heroes of David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 29). ITURAE'A, a small province on the north western border of Palestine, lying along the base of Mount Hermon, only mentioned in Luke iii. 1. Jetur the son of Ishmael gave Ms name, like the rest of his bretMen, to the little province he colonised (Gen. xxv. 15, 16). Ituraea, with the adjoining provinces, fell into the hands of a chief called Zeno- dorus ; but about b.c. 20, they were taken from him by the Roman emperor, and given to Herod the Great, who bequeathed them to Ms son Philip (Luke iii. 1). It adjoined Trachonitis, and lay along the base of Li- banus between Tiberias and Damascus. At the place indicated is situated the modern province of Jedur, which is just the Arabic form of the Hebrew Jetur. I'VAH, or AVA, which is mentioned in Scripture twice (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13 ; comp. Is. xxxvii. 13) in connexion with Hena and Sepharvaim, and once (2 K. xvii. 24) in connexion with Babylon, and Cuthah, must be sought in Babylonia, and is probably identical with the modern Hit, on the Eu phrates. IVORY (Heh. shen in all passages, except 1 K. x. 22, and 2 CM. ix. 21, where shen- habbim is so rendered). The word she*n literally signifies the " tooth " cf any animal, and hence more especially denotes the sub- IZHAR 234 JACINTH stance of the projecting tusks of elephants. It is remarkable that no word in Biblical Hebrew denotes an elephant, unless the latter portion of the compound shenhabbim be supposed to have this meaning. Gesenius derives it from the Sanscrit ibhas, " an ele phant." The sMlled workmen of Hiram, king of Tyre, fasMoned the great ivory throne of Solomon, and overlaid it with pure gold (1 K. x. 18 ; 2 Chr. ix. 17). The ivory thus employed was supplied by the caravans of Dedan (Is. xxi. 13 ; Ez. xxvii. 15), or was brought with apes and peacocks by the navy of Tharshish (1 K. x. 22). The "ivory house " of Ahab (1 K. xxii. 39) was probably a palace, the walls of which were panelled with ivory, like the palace of Menelaus described by Homer (Odys. iv. 73). Beds inlaid or veneered with ivory were in use among the Hebrews (Am. vi. 4). IZ'HAR, son of Kohath, grandson of Levi, uncle of Aaron and Moses, and father of Korah (Ex. vi. 18, 21 ; Num. iii. 19, xvi. 1 ; 1 Chr. vi. 2, 18). Izhar was the head of the family of the Izharites or Izeharites (Num. iii. 27 ; 1 Chr. xxvi. 23, 29). JA'AZER, or JA'ZER, a town on the east of Jordan, in or near to Gilead (Num. xxxii. 1, 3; 1 Chr. xxvi. 31). We first hear of it in possession of the Amorites, and as taken by Israel after Heshbon, and on their way from thence to Bashan (Num; xxi. 32). It seems to have given its name to a district of dependent or " daughter " towns (Num. xxi. 32, A, V. "villages;" 1 Mace. v. 8), the " land of Jazer " (Num. xxxii. 1). JA'BAL, the son of Lamech and Adah (Gen. iv. 20) and brother of Jubal. He is described as the father of such as dwell in tents and have cattle. JAB'BOK, a stream which intersects the mountain -range of Gilead (comp. Josh. xii. 2, and 5), and falls into the Jordan about midway between the sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. It was anciently the border of the children of Ammon (Num. xxi. 24 ; Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16). It was on the south bank of the Jabbok the interview took place between Jacob and Esau (Gen. xxxii. 22) ; and this river afterwards became, towards its western part, the boundary between the kingdoms of Sihon and Og (Josh. xii. 2, 5). Its modern name is Wady Zurka. JA'BESH. 1. Father of Shallum, the 15th king of Israel (2 K. xv. 10, 13, 14).— B. Jabesh, or Jabesh Gilead, or Jabesh in the territory of Gilead. In its widest sense Gilead included the half tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr. xxvii. 21) as well as the tribes of Gad and Reuben (Num. xxxii. 1-42) east of the Jordan — and of the cities of Gilead, Jabesh was the cMef. It is first mentioned in Judg. xxi. 8-14. Being attacked subse quently by Nahash the Ammonite, it gave Saul an opportumty of displaying his prowess in its defence (1 Sam. xi. 1-15). Eusebius places it beyond the Jordan, 6 miles from Pella on the mountain - road to Gerasa ; where its name is probably preserved in the Wady Yabes. JA'BIN. 1. King of Hazor, who orga nised a confederacy of the northern princes against the Israelites (Josh. xi. 1-3). Joshua surprised the allied forces by the waters of Merom (ver. 7) and utterly routed them. During the ensuing wars, Joshua again attacked Jabin, and burnt Ms city (xi. 1-14). — S. A king of Hazor, whose general Sisera was defeated by Barak (Judg. iv. 3, 13). JAB'NEEL. 1. One of the points on the northern boundary of Judah, not qMte at the sea, though near it (Josh. xv. 11). There is no sign, however, of its ever having been occupied by Judah. Josephus attributes it to the DaMtes. There was a constant struggle going on between that tribe and the Philistines for the possession of all the places in the lowland plains, and it iB not surprising that the next time we meet with Jabneel it should be in the hands of the latter (2 Chr. xxvi. 6). Uzziah dispossessed them of it, and demolished its fortifications. Here it is in tbe shorter form of Jabneh. In its Greek garb, Iamnia, it is frequently men tioned in the Maccabees (I Mace. iv. 15, v. 58, x. 69, xv. 40 ; 2 Mace. xii. 9). At the time of the fall of Jerusalem, Jabneh was one of the most populous places of Judaea. The modern village of Yebna, more accu rately Ibna, stands about two miles from the sea on a slight eminence just south of the Nahr Rubin. — 2. One of the landmarks on the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 38) in Upper Galilee. JA'CHIN, one of the two pillars which were set up "in the porch" (1 K. vii. 21) or before the temple (2 Chr. iii. 17) of Solomon. [Boaz.] JACINTH, a precious stone, forming one of the foundations of the walls of the new Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 20). It seems to be identical with the Hebrew leshem (A. V. "ligure," Ex. xxviii. 19). The jacinth or hyacinth is a red variety of zircon, which is found in square prisms, of a wMte, grey, red, reddish-brown, yellow, or pale-green colour. The expression in Rev. ix. 17, " of jacinth," applied to the breast-plate, is descriptive simply of a hyacinthine, i. e., dark-purple colour. JACOB 235 JAHAZ JA'COB, the second son of Isaac and Rebekah. He was born with Esau, when Isaac was 59 and Abraham 159 years old, probably at the well Lahai-roi. His history is related in the latter half of the book of Genesis. He bought the birthright from his brother Esau ; and afterwards, at his mother's instigation, acquired the blessing intended for Esau, by practising a well- known deceit on Isaac. Hitherto the two sons shared the wanderings of Isaac in the South Country; but now Jacob, in Ms 78th year, was sent from the family home, to avoid his brother, and to seek a wife among Ms kindred in Padan-aram. As he passed through Bethel, God appeared to him. After the lapse of 2 1 years he returned from Padan- aram with two wiveB, two concubines, eleven sons, and a daughter, and large property. He escaped from the angry pursMt of Lahan, from a meeting with Esau, and from the ven geance of the CanaaMtes provoked by the murder of Shechem ; and in each of those three emergencies he was aided and strength ened hy the interposition of God, and in sign of the grace won by a night of wrestling with God his name was changed at Jabbok into Israel. Deborah and Rachel died before he reached Hebron ; and it was at Hebron, in the 122nd year of his age, that he and Esau buried their father Isaac. Joseph, the favourite son of Jacob, was sold into Egypt eleven years before the death of Isaac ; and Jacob had probably exceeded his 130th year when he went thither, being encouraged in a divine vision as he passed for the last time through Beersheba. He was presented to Pharaoh, and dwelt for seventeen years in Rameses and Goshen. After giving his solemn blessing to Ephraim and Manasseh, and his own sons one by one, and charging the ten to complete their reconciliation with Joseph, he died in his 147th year. His body was embahned, carried with great care and pomp into the land of Canaan, and depo sited with his fathers, and his wife Leah, in the cave of Machpelah. — The example of Jacob is quoted by the first and the last of the minor prophets. Hosea, in the latter days of the kingdom, seeks (xii. 3, 4, 12) to convert the descendants of Jacob from their state of alienation from God, by recalling to their memory the repeated acts of God's favour shown to their ancestor. And Ma- lachi (i. 2) strengthens the desponding hearts of the returned exiles by assuring them that the love which God bestowed upon Jacob was not withheld from them. Besides the fre quent mention of his name in conjunction with those of the other two Patriarchs, there are distinct references to events in the life of Jacob in four books of the N. T. In Rom. ix. 11-13, St. Paul adduces the Mstory of Jacob's birth to prove that the favour of God is independent of the order of natural de scent. In Heb. xii. 16, and xi. 21, the transfer of the birthright and Jacob's dying benediction are referred to. His vision at Bethel, and his possession of land at Shechem are cited in St. John i. 51, and iv. 5, 12. And St. Stephen, in his speech (Acts vii. 12, 16), mentions the famine which was the means of restoring Jacob to his lost son in Egypt, and the burial of the patriarch in Shechem. JADDU'A, son, and successor in the high- priesthood of Jonathan or Johanan. He is the last of the high-priests mentioned in the O. T., and probably altogether the latest name in the canon (Neh. xii. 11, 22). J A 'EL, the wife of Heber the KeMte. In the headlong rout which followed the defeat of the Canaanites by Barak, Sisera, abandon ing his chariot the more easily to avoid notice, fled unattended, and in an opposite direction from that taken by his army, to the tent of the Kenite chieftainess. He accepted Jael's invitation to enter, and she flung a mantle over him as he lay wearily on the floor. When thirst prevented sleep, and he asked for water, she brought him buttermilk in her choicest vessel, thus ratifying with the semblance of officious zeal the sacred bond of Eastern hospitality. At last, with a feeling of perfect security, the weary general resigned himself to the deep sleep of misery and fatigue. Then it was that Jael took in her left hand one of the great wooden pins wMch fastened down the cords of the tent, and in her right hand the mallet used to drive it into the ground, and with one ter rible blow dashed it through Sisera's temples deep into the earth (Judg. v. 27). She then waited to meet the pursuing Barak, and led him into her tent that she might in Ms pre sence claim the glory of the deed ! Many have supposed that by this act she fulfilled the saying of Deborah, that God woMd sell Sisera into the hand of a woman (Judg. iv. 9) ; and hence they have supposed that Jael was actuated by some divine and Mdden iu-= fluence. But the Bible gives no hint of such an inspiration, JAHAZ, also JAHA'ZA, JAHA'ZAH, and JAH'ZAH. Under these four forms are given in the A. V. the name of a place which in the Hebrew appears as Tahats and Yahtsah. At J ahaz the decisive battle was fought between the children of Israel and Sihon king of the Amorites (Num. xxi. 23 ; Deut. ii. 32 ; Judg. xi. 20). It was in the allotment of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 18). Like JAIR 236 JAMES many others relating lo the places East of the Dead Sea, the question of its site must await further research. JA'IR. 1. A man who on his father's side was descended from Judah, and on his mother's from Manasseh. During the con quest he took the whole of the tract of Argob (Deut. M. 14), and in addition pos sessed himself of some nomad villages in Gilead, which he called after his own name Hawoth-Jair (Num. xxxii. 41 ; 1 Chr. ii. 23). — 2. " Jair the Gileadite," who judged Israel for two-and-twenty years (Judg. x. 8-5). He had thirty sons who rode thirty asses, and possessed thirty cities in the land of Gilead, which, like those of their name sake, were called Hawoth-Jair. JAI'RUS, a ruler of a synagogue, probably in some town near the western shore of the sea of Galilee (Matt. ix. 18 ; Mark v. 22; Luke viii. 41). JA'KEH. [Proverbs.] JAM'BRES. [Jannes and Jambres.] JAMES. 1. James the Son op Zebedee, one of the Twelve Apostles. We first hear of him in a.d. 27, when Zehedee, a fisher man (Mark i. 20), was out on the Sea of Galilee with Ms two sons, James and John, and some boatmen. He was engaged in Ms customary occupation of fishing, and near Mm was another boat belonging to Simon and Andrew, with whom he and his sons were in partnership. Finding themselves unsuccessful, the occupants of both boats came ashore, and began to wash their nets. At this time the new Teacher appeared upon the beach. At His call they left all, and became, once and for ever, His disciples, hereafter to catch men. For a full year we lose sight of St. James. He is then, in the' spring of 28, called to the apostleship with Ms eleven brethren (Matt. x. 2 ; Mark iii. 14 ; Luke vi. 13 ; Acts i. 13). In the list of the Apostles given us by St. Mark, and in the book of Acts, his name occurs next to that of Simon Peter : in the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Luke it comes third. It is worthy of notice that with one exception (Luke ix. 28), the name of James is put before that of John, and that John is twice described as " the brother of James " (Mark v. 37 ; Matt. xvii. 1). TMs would appear to imply that at tMs time James, either from age or character, took a higher position than his brother. It would seem to have been at the time of the appointment of the twelve Apostles that ,the name of Boanerges was given to the sons of Zebedee. The " Sons of Thunder " had a burning and impetuous spirit, which twice exMbits itself in its unchastened form (Luke ix. 54 ; Mark x. 37). The first occasion on which this natural character manifests itself in St. James and his brother is at the commence ment of our Lord's last journey to Jerusalem in the year 30. He was passing through Samaria, and " sent messengers before his face " into a certain village, "to make ready for him" (Luke ix. 52), i.e. in all proba bility to announce him as the Messiah. The Samaritans, with their old jealousy strong upon them, refused to receive him ; and in their exasperation James and John entreated their Master to follow the example of Elijah, and call down fire to consume them. At the end of the same journey a similar spirit appears again (Mark x. 35). On the Mght before the Crucifixion he was present at the Agony in the Garden. On the day of the Ascension he is mentioned as persevering with the rest of the Apostles and disciples in prayer (ActB i. 13). Shortly before the day of the PaBsover, in the year 44, he was put to death by Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 1, 2). — 2. James the Son of Alphaeus, one of the Twelve Apostles. Matt. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ; Luke vi. 15 ; Acts i. 13. — 3. James the Brother of the Lord. Matt. xiii. 55 ; Mark vi. 3 ; Gal. i. 19. — 4. James the Son of Mart. Matt, xxvii. 56 ; Luke xxiv. 10. Also called the Less. Mark xv. 40. — 5. J*imes the Brother of Jude. Jude 1. — 6. James the Brother (3) of Jude. Luke vi. 16 ; Acts i. 13. — 7. James, Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, xxi. 18 ; 1 Cor. xv. 7 ; Gal. ii. 9, 12.— 8. James, the Servant of God and of our Lord Jesus Christ (James i. 1). St. Paul identifies for us Nos. 3. and 7. (see Gal. ii. 9 and 12 compared with i. 19). If we may translate 'Ioiifia? 'IaKdSjSov, Judas the brother, rather than the son of James, we may con clude that 5. and 6. are identical. We may identify 5. and 6. with 3., because we know that James the Lord's brother had a brother named Jude. We may identify 4. with 3., because we know James the son of Mary had a brother named Joses, and so also had James the Lord's brother. Thus there remain two only, JameB the son of Alphaeus (2), and James, the brother of the Lord (3). Can we, or can we not, identify them % This is one of the most difficult questions in the Gospel history. By comparing Matt, xxvii. 56 and Mark xv. 40, with John xix. 25, we find that the Virgin Mary had a sister named like herself, Mary, who was the wife of Clo- pas or Alphaeus (varieties of the same name), and who had two sons, James the Less and Joses. By referring to Matt. xiii. 55 and Mark vi. 3, we find that a James and a Joses, with two other brethren called Jude and Simon, and at least three sisters, were JAMES THE LESS 237 JANNES living with the Virgin Mary at Nazareth. By referring to Luke vi. 16 and Acts i. 13, we find that there were two brethren named James and Jude among the Apostles. It would certainly be natural to think that we had here but one family of four brothers and three or more sisters, the children of Clopas and Mary, nephews and nieces of the Virgin Mary. There are difficulties, however, in the way of this conclusion into which we cannot here enter ; but in reply to the objec tion that the four brethren in Matt. xiii. 55 are described as the brothers of Jesus, not as His cousins, it must be recollected that aSe\orch, and there some one, or, looking at all the accounts, probably se veral persons, asked him the question a second time, and he denied more strongly. About an hour after, when he had returned into the court, the same question was put to him a third time, with the same resMt. Then the cock crew ; and Jesus, who was within sight, probably in some open room communi- \ eating with the court, " turned and looked upon Peter. And Peter remembered the word of the Lord, how He had said unto Him, Before the cock crow, thou shalt deny Me thrice. And Peter went out and wept bitterly" (Matt. xxvi. 57, 58, 69-75; Mark xiv. 53, 54, 66-72 ; Luke xxii. 54-62 ; John | xviii. 13-18, 24-27). The first interrogatory to which our Lord was subject (John xviii. 19-24) was addressed to Him by Caiaphas, probably befoie the Sanhedrim had time to assemble. It was the questioning of an in quisitive person who had an important cri minal in his presence, rather than a formal examination. The Lord's refusal to answer JESUS CHRIST 263 JESUS CHRIST Is thus explained and justified. When the more regular proceedings begm He is ready to answer. A servant of the Mgh-priest, knowing that he should thereby please Ms master, smote the cheek of the Son of God with the palm of his hand. But tMs was only the beginning of horrors. At the dawn of day the Sanhedrim, summoned by the high- priest in the course of the Mght, assembled, and brought their band of false witnesses, whom they must have had ready before. These gave their testimony, but even before this unjust tribunal it could not stand ; it was so full of contradictions. At last two false witnesses came, and their testimony was very like the truth. Even these two fell into contradictions. The high-priest now with a solemn adjuration asks Him whether He is the Christ the Son of God. He answers that He is, and foretells His return in glory and power at the last day. This is enough for their purpose. They pronounce Him guilty of a crime for wMch death should be the punishment (John xviii. 19-24 ; Luke xxii. 63-71; Matt. xxvi. 59-68; Mark xiv. 55-65). Althou gh they had pronounced Jesus to be guilty of death, the Sanhedrim possessed no power to carry out such a sen tence. As soon as it was day they took Him to Pilate, the Roman procurator. The hall of judgment, or praetorium, was probably a part of the tower of Antonia near the Tem ple, where the Roman garrison was. Pilate hearing that Jesus was an offender under their law, was about to give them leave to treat him accordingly ; and tMs would have made it quite safe to execute him. From the first Jesus found favour in the eyes of Pilate, and He pronounced that he found no fault in Him. Not so easily were the Jews to be cheated of their prey. They heaped up accusations against Him as a disturber of the public peace (Luke xxiii. 5). Pilate was no match for their vehemence. Finding that Jesus was a Galilean, he sent Trim to Herod to be dealt with ; but Herod, after cruel mockery and persecution, sent Him back to Pilate. Now commenced the fearful struggle between the Roman procurator, a weak as well as oruel man, and the Jews. The well- known incidents of the second interview are soon recalled. After the examination by Herod, and the return of Jesus, Pilate pro posed to release Him, as it was usual on the feast-day to release a prisoner to the Jews out of grace. Pilate knew well that the priests and rMers would object to this ; but it was a covert appeal to the people. The multitude, persuaded by the priests, preferred another prisoner, called Barabbas. Now came the scourging, and the blows and insults of the soldiers, who, uttering truth when they were only reviling, crowned Hmo. and ad dressed TTim as King of the Jews. Accord ing to John, Pilate now made one more effort for His release. He still sought to release Jesus : but the last argument, which had been in the minds of both sides all along, was now opeMy applied to him : " If thou let this man go, thou art not Caesar's friend." This decided the question . He delivered Jesus to be crucified (Matt, xxvii. 15-30 ; Mark xv. 6-19; Luke xxiii. 17-25; John xviii. 39, 40, xix. 1-16). John mentions that tMs oc curred about the sixth hour, reckoning pro bably from midnight. In Mark the Jewish reckoning from six in the morning is fol lowed. One Person alone has been calm amidst the excitements of that night of hor rors. On Him is now laid the weight of His cross, or at least of the transverse beam of it ; and, with this pressing Him down, they proceed out of the city to Golgotha or Cal vary, a place the site of wMch is now uncer tain. As He began to droop, His persecu tors, unwilling to defile themselves with the accursed burthen, lay hold of Simon of Cyrene and compel him to carry the cross after Jesus. After offering Him wine and myrrh, they crucified Him between two tMeves. NotMng was wanting to His humiliation ; a thief bad been preferred before Him, and two thieves share His puMshment. Pilate set over Him in three languages the inscription, "Jesus, the King of the Jews." The chief-priests took exception to tMs that it did not de nounce Him as falsely calling Himself by that name, but Pilate refused to alter it. One of the two thieves underwent a change of heart even on the cross : he reviled at first (Matt.) ; and then, at the sight of the constancy of Jesus, repented (Luke) (Matt. xxvii. ; Mark xv. ; Luke xxiii. ; John xix.). In the depths of His bodily suffering, Jesus calmly commended to John (?), who stood near, the care of Mary Ms mother. " Be hold thy sonl behold thy mother." From the sixth hour to the ninth there was dark ness over the whole land. At the ninth hour (3 p.m.) Jesus uttered with a loud voice the opeMng words of the 22nd Psalm, all the inspired words of which referred to the suf fering Messiah. One of those present dipped a sponge in the common sour wine of the soldiers and put it on a reed to moisten the sufferer's lips. Again He cried with a loud voice, " It is flMshed " (John), " Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit " (Luke) ; and gave up the ghost (Matt, xxvii. 31-56 ; Mark xv. 20-41 ; Luke xxiii. 33-49 ; John xix. 17-30). On the death of Jesus the veil wMch covered the most Holy Place of the JESUS CHRIST 264 JETHRO Temple, the place of the more especial pre sence of Jehovah, was rent in twain. There was a great earthquake. Many who were Head rose from their graves, although they returned to the dust again after this great token of Christ's qMckening power had been given to many (Matt.). The Jews, very zea lous for the Sabbath in the midst of their murderous work, begged Pilate that He would put an end to the punishment by breaMng the legs of the criminals that they might be taken down and buried before the Sabbath, for wMch they were preparing (Deut. xxi. 23 ; Joseph. B. J. iv. 5, § 2). Those who were to execute tMs duty found that Jesus was dead and the thieves still living. The death of the Lord before the others was, no doubt, partly the consequence of the previous mental suffering which He had undergone, and partly because His will to die lessened the natural resistance of the frame to dissolution. Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the Council but a secret disciple of Jesus, came to Pilate to beg the body of Jesus, that he might bury it. Nicodemus assisted in this work of love, and they anointed the body and laid it m Joseph's new tomb (Matt, xxvii. 50-61 ; Mark xv. 37-47 ; Luke xxiii. 46-56 ; John xix. 30- 42). — Saturday the \6th of Nisan (April Sth).— The chief priests and Pharisees, with Pilate's permission, set a watch over the tomb, " lest His disciples come by night and steal Him away, and say unto the people He is risen from the dead." (Matt, xxvii. 62- 66).— Sunday the \1th of Nisan (April 9th). — The Sabbath ended at six on the evening of Nisan 16th. Early the next morning the resurrection of Jesus took place. The exact hour of the resurrection is not mentioned by any of the Evangelists. Of the great mystery itself, the resumption of life by Him who was truly dead, we see but little. The women, who had stood by the cross of Jesus, had pre pared spices on the evening before, perhaps to complete the embalming of our Lord'B body, already performed in haste by Joseph and Nicodemus. They came very early on the first day of the week to the Sepulchre. When they arrive they find the stone rolled away, and Jesus no longer in the SepMchre. He had risen from the dead. Mary Mag dalene at this point goes back m haste ; and at once, believing that the body has been removed by men, tells Peter and John that the Lord has been taken away. The other women, however, go into the Sepulchre, and they see an angel (Matt. Mark). The two angels, mentioned by St. Luke, are probably two separate appearances to different mem bers of the group ; for he alone mentions an indefinite number of women. They now leave the Sepulchre, and go in haste to make known the news to the Apostles. As they were going, " Jesus met them, saying, All hail." The eleven do not believe the account when they receive it. In the mean time Peter and John came to the SepMchre. They ran, in their eagerness, and John arrived first and looked in; Peter afterwards came up, and it is characteristic that the awe which had prevented the other disciple from going in appears to have been unfelt by Peter, who entered at once, and found the grave- clothes lying, but not Him who had worn them. TMs fact must have suggested that the removal was not the work of human hands. They then returned, wondering at what they had seen. Mary Magdalene, how ever, remained weeping at the tomb, and she too saw the two angels in the tomb, though Peter and John did not. They address her, and she answers, still, however, without any suspicion that the Lord is risen. As she turns away she sees Jesus, but in the tumult of her feelings does not even recognise Him at His first address. But He calls her by name, and then she joyfully recognises her Master. The third appearance of our Lord was to Peter (Luke, Paul) ; the fourth to the two disciples going to Emmaus in the eveMng (Mark, Luke) ; the fifth in the same evening to the eleven as they sat at meat (Mark, Luke, John). All of these occurred on the first day of the week, the very day of the Resurrection. Exactly a week after, He ap peared to the Apostles, and gave Thomas a convincing proof of His resurrection (John) ; this was the sixth appearance. The seventh was in Galilee, where seven of the Apostles were assembled, some of them probably about to return to their old trade of fisMng (John) . The eighth was to the eleven (Matt.), and probably to five hundred brethren assembled with them (PaM) on a mountain in Galilee. The ninth was to James (Paul) ; and the last to the Apostles at Jerusalem just before the Ascension (Acts). JETH'RO was priest or prince of Midian, both offices probably being combined in one person. Moses spent the forty years of his exile from Egypt with him, and married his daughter Zipporah. By the advice of Jethro, Moses appointed deputies to judge the con gregation and share the burden of govern ment with Mmself (Ex. xviii.). On account of his local knowledge he was entreated to remain with the Israelites throughout their journey to Canaan (Num. x. 31, 33). It is Baid in Ex. ii. 18 that the priest of Midian whose daughter Moses married was Reuel; afterwards at ch. iii. 1, he is called Jo thro, JEZBEEL. To face p. 265. JEW 265 JEZREEL as also in ch. xviii. : but in Num. x. 29 " Hobab the son of Raguel the Midianite " Is apparently called Moses* father-in-law (comp. Judg. iv. 11). Some commentators take Jethro and Reuel to be identical, and call Hobab the brother-in-law of Moses. JEW. This name was properly applied to a member of the kingdom of Judah after the separation of the ten tribes. The term first makes its appearance just before the captivity of the ten tribes (2 K. xvi. 6). After the Return the word received a larger applica tion. Partly from the predominance of the members of the old Mngdom of Judah among those who returned to Palestine, partly from the identification of Judah with the religious ideas and hopes of the people, all the mem bers of the new state were called Jews (Judaeans), and the name was extended to the remnants of the race scattered through out; the nations (Dan. iii. 8, 12 ; Ezr. iv. 12, 23, &c. ; Neh. i. 2, ii. 16, v. 1, &c. ; Esth. iii. 4 ff., &c). Under the name of " Judae ans," the people of Israel were known to classical writers (Tac. H. v. 2, &c). The force of the title " Jew " is seen particularly in the Gospel of St. John, who very rarely uses any other term to describe the opponents of our Lord. The name, indeed, appeared at the close of the apostle's life to be the true antithesis to ChristiaMty, as describing the limited and definite form of a national re ligion; but at an earlier stage of the progress of the faith, it was contrasted with Greek as implying an outward covenant with God (Rom. i. 16, ii. 9, 10; Col. iii. 11, &c), wMch was the correlative of Hellenist [Hel lenist], and marked a division of language subsisting witMn the entire body, and at the same time less expressive than Israelite, which brought out with especial clearness the privileges and hopes of the children of Jacob (2 Cor. xi. 22 ; John i. 47 ; 1 Mace. i. 43, 53, and often). JEWEL. [Precious Stones.] JEW'RY, the same word elsewhere ren dered Judah and Judaea. It occurs several times in the Apoc. and N. T., but once only in the O. T. (Dan. v. 13). Jewry comes to us through the Norman-French, and is of frequent occurrence in Old English. JEZ'EBEL, wife of Ahab, king of Israel, and mother of Athaliah, queen of Judah, and Ahaziah and Joram, kings of Israel. She was a Phoenician princess, daughter of " Ethbaal king of the Zidonians." In her hands her husband became a mere puppet (1 K. xxi. 25). The first effect of her in fluence was the immediate establishment of the Phoenician worship on a grand scale in the court of Ahab. At her cable were sup ported no less than 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 of Astarte (1 K. xvi. 31, 32, xviii. 19).- The prophets of Jehovah, who up to this time had found their chief refuge in the northern Mngdom, were attacked by her orders and put to the sword (1 K. xviii. 13 ; 2 K. ix. 7). When at last the people, at the instigation of Elijah, rose against her min isters, and slaughtered them at the foot of Carmel, and when Ahab was terrified into submission, she alone retained her presence of mind. The next instance of her power is still more characteristic and complete. When she found her husband cast down by his dis appointment at being thwarted by Naboth, she took the matter into her own hands, with a spirit which reminds us of Clytem- nestra or Lady Macbeth (1 K. xxi. 7). She wrote a warrant in Ahab's name, and sealed it with his seal. To her, and not to Ahab, was sent the announcement that the royal wishes were accomplished (1 K. xxi. 14), and she bade her husband go and take the vacant property ; and on her accordingly fell the prophet's curse, as well as on her hus band (1 K. xxi. 23). We hear no more of her for a long period. But she survived Ahab for 14 years, and still, as queen-mother (after the Oriental custom), was a great per sonage in the court of her sons, and, as such, became the special mark for the vengeance of Jehu. She was looking out from the window of the palace, which stood by the gate of the city, as Jehu approached. The new Mng looked up from Ms chariot. Two or three eunuchs of the royal harem showed their faces at the windows, and at his com mand dashed the ancient princess down from the chamber. She fell immediately in front of the conqueror's chariot. The merciless destroyer passed on ; and the last remains of life were trampled out by the horses' hcofs. The body was left in that open space called in modern Eastern language " the mounds," where offal is thrown from the city-walls. The dogs of Eastern cities, which prowl around these localities, and which the pre sent writer met on this very spot by the modern village which occupies the site of Jezreel, pounced upon this unexpected prey. JEZ'REEL. 1. A city situated in the plain of the same name between Gilboa and Little Hermon, now generally called Es- draelon. [Esdraelon.] It appears in Josh. xix. 18, but its historical importance, dates from the reign of Ahab, who chose it for Ms chief residence. The situation of the modern village of Zerin still remains to show the fitness of Ms choice. In the neighbourhood. or within the town probably, was a temple' and grove of Astarte, with an establishment JOAB 266 JOANNA of 400 priests supported by Jezebel (1 It. xvi. 33 ; 2 K. x. 11). The palace of ALab (1 K. xxi. 1, xviii. 46), probably contain ing Mb "ivory house" (1 K. xxii. 39), was on the eastern side of the city, forming part of the city wall (comp. 1 K. xxi. 1 ; 2 K. ix. 25, 30, 33). The seraglio, in wMch Jezebel lived, was on the city wall, and had a Mgh window facing eastward (2 K. ix. 30). Close by, if not forming part of tMs seraglio, was a watch-tower, on wMch a sentinel stood, to give notice of arrivals from the disturbed district beyond the Jordan (2 K. ix. 17). An ancient square tower which stands among the hovels of the modern village may be its representative. The gateway of the city on the east was also the gateway of the palace (2 K. ix. 34). Whether the vineyard of Naboth was here or at Samaria is a doubtfM question. Still in the same eastern direction are two springs, one 12 minutes from the town, the other 20 minutes. The latter pro bably both from its size and situation, was known as " the Spring of Jezreel " (mis translated A. V. " a fountain," 1 Sam. xxix. 1). With the fall of the house of Ahab the glory of Jezreel departed.— -2. A town in Judah, in the neighbourhood of the southern Carmel (Josh. xv. 56). Here David in his wanderings took AMnoam the Israelitess for Ms first wife (1 Sam. xxvii. 3, xxx. 5). JO'AB, the most remarkable of the three nephews of David, the children of Zeruiah, David's sister. Their father is unknown, but seems to have resided at BetMehem, and to have died before Ms sons, as we find men tion of his sepulchre at that place (2 Sam. ii. 32). Joab first appears after David's ac cession to the throne at Hebron. Abner slew in battle Asahel, the younger brother of Joab ; and when David afterwards received Abner into favour, Joab treacherously mur dered him. [Abner.] There was now no rival left in the way of Joab's advancement, and at the siege of Jebus he was appointed for his prowess commander-in-chief — " cap tain of the host " — the same office that Abner had held under Saul, the highest in the state after the king (1 Chr.xi. 6 ; 2 Sam. viii. 16). In this post he was content, and served the king with undeviating fidelity. In the wide range of wars which David undertook, Joab was the acting general. He was called by the almost regal title of "Lord" (2 Sam. xi. 11), "the prince of the king's army" (1 Chr. xxvii. 34). — 1. His great war was against the AmmoMtes which he conducted in person. It was divided into tMee cam paigns. At the siege of Rabbah, in the last campaign, the ark was sent with him, and the whole army was encamped in booths or huts round the beleaguered city (2 Sam. xi. 1, 11). Joab took the lower city on tho river, and then sent to urge David to come and take the citadel (2 Sam. xii. 26-28). — 2. The services of Joab to the king were not confined to these military acMevements. In the entangled relations which grew up in David's domestic life, he bore an important part, (a) The first occasion was the un happy correspondence wMch passed between him and the king during the Ammonite war respecting Uriah the Hittite (2 Sam. xi. 1- 25). (b) The next occasion on wMch it was displayed waB in his successful endeavour to reinstate Absalom in David's favour, after the murder of Amnon (2' Sam. xiv. 1-20). (c) The same keen sense of Ms master's interests ruled the conduct of Joab no less, when the relations of the father and son were reversed by the successfM revolt of Absalom. His former intimacy with the prince did not impair Ms fidelity to the Mng. He followed him beyond the Jordan, and in the final battle of Ephrahn assumed the responsibility of taMng the rebel prince's dangerous life in spite of David's injunction to spare him, and when no one else had courage to act so decisive a part (2 Sam. xviii. 2, 11-15). The Mng transferred the command to Amasa. (d) NotMng brings out more strongly the good and bad qualities of Joab than his conduct in this trying crisis of his history. With his own guard and the mighty men under Abishai he went out in pursuit of the remnants of the rebellion. In the heat of pursuit, he encountered Ms rival Amasa, more leisurely engaged in the same quest. At "the great stone" in Gibeon, the cousins met. Joab's sword was attached to his girdle ; by design or accident it protruded from the sheath ; Amasa rushed into the treacherous embrace, to which Joab invited him, holding fast his beard by his own right hand, whilst the unsheathed sword in his left hand plunged into Amasa's stomach ; a single blow from that practised arm, as in the case of Abner, sufficed to do its work. — 3. There is something mournful in the end of Joab. At the closo of Ms long life, his loyalty, so long unshaken, at last wavered. " Though he had not turned after Absalom he turned after Adonijah" (1 K. ii. 28). This probably filled up the measure of the king'B long cherished resentment. The re vival of the pretensions of Adonijah after David's death was sufficient to awaken the suspicions of Solomon. Joab fled to the sheUer of the altar at Gibeon, and was there slain by Benaiah. JOAN'NA, the name of a woman, occur ring twice in Luke (viii. 3, xxiv. 10), but JOASH 267 JOB evidently denoting the same person. In the first passage she is expressly stated to have been " wife of Chuza, steward of Herod," that is, Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee. JO'ASH, contr. from Jehoash. 1. Son of Ahaziah, king of Judah, and the only one of his children who escaped the murderous hand of Athaliah. After his father's sister Jehoshabeath, the wife of Jehoiada the high- priest, had stolen him from among the king's sons, he was hid for six years in the cham bers of the Temple. In the 7th year of his age and of Ms concealment, a successful re volution, conducted by Jehoiada, placed Mm on the throne of his ancestors, and freed the country from the tyranny and idolatries of Athaliah. For at least 23 years, while Je hoiada lived, this reign was very prosperous. But, after the death of Jehoiada, Joash fell into the hands of bad advisers, at whose sug gestion he revived the worsMp of Baal and Ashtaroth. When he was rebuked for this by Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, Joash caused him to be stoned to death in the very court of the Lord's house (Matt, xxiii. 35). The vengeance imprecated by the murdered high-priest was not long delayed. That very year, Hazael king of Syria came up against Jerusalem, and carried off a vast booty as the price of his departure. Joash had scarcely escaped tMs danger, when he fell into another and fatal one. Two of his servants, taking advantage of Ms severe ill ness, some think of a wound received in battle, conspired against him, and slew him in his bed in the fortress of Millo. Joash's reign lasted 40 years, from 878 to 838 b.c — 3. Son and successor of Jehoahaz on the throne of Israel from b.c 840 to 825, and for two full years a contemporary sovereign with the preceding (2 K. xiv. 1 ; comp. with xii. 1, xiii. 10). When he succeeded to the crown, the kingdom was in a deplorable state from the devastations of Hazael and Ben hadad, kings of Syria. On occasion of a friendly visit paid by Joash to Elisha on his deathbed, the prophet promised him deliver ance from the Syrian yoke in Aphek (IK. xx. 26-30). He then bid him smite upon the ground, and the Mng smote thrice and then stayed. The prophet rebuked him for staying, and limited to three Ms victories over Syria. Accordingly Joash did beat Benhadad three times on the field of battle, and recovered from him the cities which Hazael had taken from Jehoahaz. The other great military event of Joash's reign was his successful war with Amaziah Mng of Judah. The grounds of tMs war are given fMly in 2 Chr. xxv. The two armies met at Beth- ihemesh, that of Joash was victorious, put the army of Amaziah to the rout, took him prisoner, brought him to Jerusalem, broke down the wall of Jerusalem, and plundered the city. He died in the 15th year of Ama ziah king of Judah, and was succeeded by his son Jeroboam II.— 3. The father of Gideon, and a wealthy man among the Abiez rites (Judg. vi. 11, 29, 30, 31, vii. 14, viii. IS, 29, 32). JOB, the patriarch, the name of one of the books of the O. T. His residence in the land of Xfz, wMch took its name from a son of Aram (Gen. x. 23), or Nahor (Gen. xxii. 21), marks him as belonging to a branch of the Aramaean race, wMch had settled in the lower part of Mesopotamia (probably to the south or south-east of Palestine, in Idumaean Arabia), adjacent to the Sabaeans and Chaldaeans. The opinions of Job and his friends are thus peculiarly interesting as exMbiting an aspect of the patriarchal re ligion outside of the family of Abraham, and as yet uninfluenced by the legislation of Moses. The form of worsMp belongs essen tially to the early patriarchal type ; with little of ceremoMal ritual, without a separate priesthood, it is thoroughly domestic in form and spirit. Job is represented as a cMeftain of immense wealth and Mgh rank, blameless in all the relations of life. One question coMd be raised by envy ; may not the good ness which secures such direct and tangible rewards be a refined form of selfishness ? Satan, the accusing angel, suggests the doubt, " doth Job fear God for nought?" and asserts boldly that if those external blessings were withdrawn Job would cast off his allegiance — " he will curse thee to thy face." The problem is thus distinctly propounded which tMs book is intended to discuss and solve. Can goodness exist irrespective of reward 1 The accuser receives permission to make the trial. He destroys Job's property, then Ms children ; and afterwards, to leave no possible opening for a cavil, is allowed to inflict upon him the most terrible disease known in the East. Job's wife breaks down entirely under the trial. Job remains steadfast. He repels his wife's suggestion with the simple words, " What I shall we receive good at the hand of the Lord, and shall we not receive evil ? " " In all this Job did not sin with his lips." Tho question raised by Satan was thus an swered.— 2. Still it is clear that many pomts of deep interest would have been left in obscurity. Entire as was the submission of Job, he must have been inwardly perplexed by events to which he had no clue. An opportuMty for the discussion of the provi dential government of the world is afforded by the introduction of three men, repiesent- JOBAB 268 JOHN THE APOSTLE ing the wisdom and experience of the age, who came to condole with Job on hearing of his misfortunes. After a long discussion between Job and Ms three friends, Elihu, a young man, who had listened in indignant silence to the arguments of Ms elders (xxxii. 7), now addresses Mmself to both parties in the discussion, and specially to Job. He shows that they had accused Job upon false or insufficient grounds, and failed to convict Mm or to vindicate God's justice. Job again had assumed his entire innocence, and had arraigned that justice (xxxiii. 9, 11). Je hovah at length appears in the midst of a storm, and in language of incomparable grandeur He reproves and silences the mur murs of Job. He rebukes the opponents of Job, and vindicates the integrity of the patriarch. The restoration of Job's external prosperity, which is the result of God's per sonal manifestation, symbolizes the ultimate compensation of the righteous for all suffer ings undergone upon earth. — The date of the book is doubtful, and there have been many theories upon the subject. The language approaches far more nearly to the Arabic than any other Hebrew production. On the other hand, there are undoubtedly many Aramaic words, and grammatical forms, which some critics have regarded as a strong proof that the writer must have lived dur ing, or even after the captivity. TMs hypothesis is now universally given up as un tenable ; and it has been proved that these Aramaisms are such as characterise the antique and highly poetic style. It may be regarded as a settled point that the book was written long before the exile ; while there is absolutely nothing to prove a later date than the Pentateuch. This impression is borne out by the style. The total absence of any allusion, not only to the Mosaic Law, but to the events of the Exodus, the fame of which must have reached the country of Job, on any hypothesis respecting its locality, is a strong argument for the early age both of the patriarch and of the book. JO'BAB. 1. The last in order of the sons of Joktan (Gen. x. 29 ; 1 Chr. i. 23).— S. One of the " kings " of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 33, 34 ; 1 Chr. i. 44, 45). JOCHEB'ED, the wife and at the same time the aunt of Amram, and the mother of Moses and Aaron (Ex. ii. 1, vi. 20 ; Num. xxvi. 59). JO 'EL. 1. Eldest son of Samuel the pro phet (1 Sam. viii. 2 ; 1 Chr. vi. 33, xv. 17), and father of Heman the singer. — 2. The second of the twelve minor prophets, the son of Pethuel, probably prophesied in Judah in the reign of Uzziah. We find, what we should expect on the supposition of Joel being the first prophet to Judah, only a grand outline of the whole terrible scene which was to be depicted more and more in detail by subsequent prophets. The proxi mate event to which the prophecy related was a public calamity, then impending on Judah, of a twofold character : want of water, and a plague of locusts, continuing for several years. The prophet exhorts the people to turn to God with penitence, fastmg, and prayer; and then (he says) the plague shall cease, and the rain descend in its sea son, and the land yield her accustomed fruit. Nay, the time will be a most joyful one ; for God, by the outpouring of His Spirit, will extend the blessings of true religion to heathen lands. The prophecy is referred to in Acts ii. JOHN, the same name as Johanan, a. con traction of Jehohanan, " Jehovah'B gift." 1. The father of Mattathias, and grandfather of the Maccabaean family (1 Mace. ii. 1.). — 2. The eldest son of Mattathias surnamed Caddis, who was slain by " the children of Jambri" (1 Mace. ii. 2, ix. 36-38). — 3. The father of Eupolemus, one of the envoys whom Judas Maceabaeus sentto Rome (1 Mace. viii.. 1 7 ; 2 Mace. iv. 1 1 ) .—4. The son of Simon, the brother of Judas Maceabaeus (1 Mace. xiii. 53, xvi. 1). — 5. One of the high-priest's family, who, with Annas and Caiaphas, sat in judgment upon the Apostles Peter and John (Acts iv. 6). — 6. The Hebrew name of the Evangelist Mark (Acts xii. 12, 25, xiii. 5, 13, xv. 37). JOHN THE APOSTLE was the son of Zebedee, a fisherman on the Lake of Galilee, and of Salome, and brother of James, also an apostle. He was probably younger than Ms brother, whose name commonly precedes his (Matt. iv. 21, x. 3, xvii. 1, &c), younger than his friend Peter, possibly also than his Master. His call, and that of his brother, to be first disciples and then apostles of our Lord, are related under James. Peter and James and John come within the innermost circle of their Lord's friends. Peter iB throughout the leader of that band ; to John belongs the yet more memorable distinction of being the disciple whom Jesus loved. He hardly sustains the popular notion, fostered by the received types of Christian art, of a nature gentle, yielding, feminMe. The name Boanerges (Mark iii. 17) implies a vehemence, zeal, intensity, which gave to those who had it the might of Sons of Thunder. [James.] The three are with him when none else are, in the chamber of death (Mark v. 37), in the glory of the transfiguration (Matt. xvii. 1), when he forewarns them of the destruction JOHN THE APOSTLE 269 JOHN THE BAPTIST of the Holy City (Mark xiii. 3, Andrew, in this instance with them), in the agony of Gethsemane. When the betrayal is accom plished, Peter and John, after the first mo ment of confusion, follow afar off, while the others simply seek safety in a hasty flight (John xviii. 15). The personal acquaintance which existed between John and Caiaphas enabled him to gain access both for himself and Peter, but the latter remains in the porch, With the officers and servants, while John himself apparently is admitted to the council- chamber, and follows Jesus thence, even to the praetorium of the Roman Procurator (John xviii. 16, 19, 28). Thence he foUowed, accompanied probably by Ms own mother, Mary the mother of Jesus, and Mary Magda lene, to the place of crucifixion. The teacher who had been to him as a brother leaves to him a brother's duty. He is to be as a son to the mother who is left desolate (John xix. 26-27). The Sabbath that followed was spent, it would appear, in the same company. He receives Peter, in spite of Ms denial, on the old terms of friendsMp. It is to them that Mary Magdalene first runs with the tidings of the emptied sepulchre (John xx. 2) ; they are the first to go together to see what the strange words meant. Not without some bearing on their respective characters is the fact that John is the more impetuous, running on most eagerly to the rock-tomb ; Peter, the least restrained by awe, the first to enter in and look (John xx. 4-6). For at least eight days they continued in Jerusalem (John xx. 26). Then, in the interval between the re surrection and the ascension, we find them still together on the sea of Galilee (John xxi. 1). Here too there is a characteristic differ ence. John is the first to recognise in the dim form seen in the morning twilight the presence of his risen Lord ; Peter the first to plunge into the water and swim towards the shore where He stood calling to them (John xxi. 7). The last words of the Gospel reveal to us the deep affection which united the two friends. It is not enough for Peter to know his own future. That at once suggests the question, "And what shall this man do?" (John xxi. 21). The history of "the Acts shows the same union. They are of course together at the ascension and on the day of Pentecost. Together they enter the Temple as worshippers (Acts iii. 1) and protest against the threats of the Sanhedrim (iv. 13). The persecution wMch was pushed on by Saul of Tarsus did not drive him or any of the apostles from their post (viii. 1). The sharper though shorter persecution which followed under Herod Agrippa brought a great sorrow to him in the martyrdom of his brother (Acts xii. 2). His friend was driven to seek safety in flight. Fifteen years after St. Paul's first visit he was still at Jerusalem and helped to take part in the settlement of the great controversy between the Jewish and the Gentile Christians (Acts xv. 6). His subsequent Mstory we know only by tradi tion. There ean be no doubt that he removed from Jerusalem and settled at Ephesus, though at what time is uncertain. Tradition goes on to relate that in the persecution under Domitian he is taken to Rome, and there, by his boldness, though not by death, gains the crown of martyrdom. The boiling oil into which he is thrown has no power to hurt him. He is then sent to labour in the mines, and Patmos is the place of his exile. The accession of Nerva frees Mm from danger, and he returns to Ephesus. Heresies continue to show themselves, but he meets them with the strongest possible protest. The very time of his death lies within the region of conjecture rather than of history, and the dates that have been assigned for it range from a.d. 89 to a.d. 120. JOHN THE BAPTIST was of the priestly race by both parents, for his father Zacharias was himself a priest of the course of Abia, or Abijah (1 Chr. xxiv. 10), offering incense at the very time when a son was promised to him ; and Elizabeth was of the daughters of Aaron (Luke i. 5). His birth — a birth not according to the ordinary laws of nature, but through the miraculous interposition of almighty power — was foretold by an angel sent from God, and is related at length in the first chapter of the Gospel of St. Luke. The birth of John preceded by six months that of our Lord. John was ordained to be a Nazarite from Ms birth (Luke i. 15). Dwelling by himself in the wild and thinly peopled region westward of the Dead Sea, he prepared Mmself for the wonderful office to wMch he had been divinely called. The very appearance of the holy Baptist was of itself a lesson to his countrymen ; his dress was that of the eld prophets — a garment woven of camel's hair (2 K. i. 8), attached to the body by a leathern girdle. His food was such as the desert afforded — locusts (Lev. xi. 22) and wild honey (Ps. lxxxi. 16). And now the long secluded hermit came forth to the discharge of Ms office. His supernatural birth — his hard ascetic life — his reputation for extraordinary sanctity — and the generally prevailing expectation that some great one was about to appear — these causes, without the aid of miraculous power, for " John did no miracle" (John x. 41), were sufficient to attract to him a great multitude from " every quarter" (Matt. iii. 5). Brief and startling JOHN, GOSPEL OF 270 JOHN, EPISTLES OF was his first exhortation to them, " Repent ye for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." Many of every class pressed forward to confess their sins and to be baptised. The preparatory baptism of John was a visible sign to the people, and a distinct acknowledgment by them, that a hearty renunciation of sin and a real amendment of life were necessary for admission into the Mngdom of heaven, which the Baptist proclaimed to he at hand. But the fundamental distinction between John's baptism unto repentance, and that baptism accompanied with the gift of the Holy Spirit wMch our Lord afterwards ordained, is clearly marked by John himself (Matt. iii. 11, 12). Jesus Himself came from Galilee to Jordan to he baptised of John. [Jesus.] From incidental notices we learn that John and his disciples continued to baptise some time after our Lord entered upon bis ministry (see John iii. 23, iv. 1 ; Acts xix. 3). We gather also that John instructed his disciples in certain moral and religious duties, as fast ing (Matt. ix. 14; Luke v. 33) and prayer (Luke xi. 1). But shortly after he had given his testimony to the Messiah, John's public ministry was brought to a close. In daring disregard of the divine laws, Herod Antipas had taken to himself the wife of Ms brother Philip ; and when John reproved him for tMs, as well as for other sins (Luke iii. 19), Herod cast him into prison. The place of his confinement was the castle of Machaerus — a fortress on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. It was here that reports reached him of the miracles which our Lord was working in Judaea. Respecting the message which John sent to our Saviour, see Jesus, p. 257. Nothing but the death of the Baptist would satisfy the resentment of Herodias. A court festival was kept at Machaerus in honour of the king's birthday. After supper, the daughter of Herodias came in and danced before the company, and so charmed was the king by her grace that he promised with an oath to give her whatsoever she shoMd ask. Salome, prompted by her abandoned mother, demanded the head of John the Baptist. Herod gave instructions to an officer of his guard, who went and executed John in the prison, and his head was brought to feast the eyes of the adMteress whose sins he had de nounced. His death is supposed to have occurredjust before the tMrd passover, in the course of the Lord's ministry. JOHN, GOSPEL OF. No doubt has been entertained at any time in the Charch, either of the canonical authority of this Gospel, or of its being written by St. John. Ephesus and Patmos are the two places mentioned by early writers as the place where this Gospel was written ; and the weight of evidence 6eems to preponderate in favour of Ephesus. The Apostle's sojourn at Ephesus probably began after St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians was written, i. e, after a.d. 62. Eusebius specifies the fourteenth year of Domitian, i. e. a.d. 95, as the year of his baMsMnent to Patmos. Probably the date of the Gospel may lie about midway between these two, about a.d. 78. After the destruction of Jerusalem a.d. 69, Ephesus probably became the centre of the active life of Eastern Christendom. It contained a large church of faithful CMistians, a multitude of zealous Jews, an indigenous population devoted to the worship of a strange idol whose image was borrowed from the East, its name from the West. The Gospel was obviously addressed primarily to Christians, not to heathens. There can be little doubt that the main object of St. John, who wrote after the other Evan gelists, is to supplement their narratives, wMch were almost confined to our Lord's life in Galilee. [See further, Gospel.-]— The following is an abridgment of its contents : — A. Tlie Prologue i. 1-18. — B. The History, i. 19-xx. 29. a. Various events relating to our Lord's ministry, narrated in connexion with seven journeys, i. 19-xii. 50 : — 1. First journey, into Judaea and beginMng of His ministry, i. 19-ii. 12. 2. Second journey, at the Passover in the firstyear of His miMstry, ii. 13-iv. 3. TMrd journey, in the second year of His ministry, about the Passover, v. 4. Fourth journey, about the Passover, in the third year of His ministry, beyond Jordan, vi. 5. Fifth journey, six months before His death, begun at the Feast of Tabernacles, vii.- x. 21. 6. Sixth journey, about the Feast of Dedication, x. 22-42. 7. Seventh journey in Judaea towards Bethany, xi. 1-54. 8. Eighth journey, before His last Passover, xi. 55-xii. b. History of the death of Christ, xiii.-xx. 29. 1. Preparation for His Passion, xiii.-xvii. 2. The circumstances of His Passion and Death, xviii. xix. 3. His Resurrection, and the proofs of it, xx. 1-29.— C. The Conclusion, xx. 30-xxi. : — 1. Scope of the foregoing his tory, xx. 30, 31. 2. Confirmation of the authority of the Evangelist by additional historical facts, and by the testimony of the elders of the Cburch, xxi. 1-24. 3. Reason of the termination of the history, xxi. 25. JOHN, THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF. There can be no doubt that the Apostle John was the author of this Epistle. Like the Gospel it was probably written from Ephesus, and most likely at the close of the first century. It was primarily meant for the churches of Asia under St. John's in spection, to whom he had already orally JOHN, EPISTLES OF 271 JONAH delivered his doctrine (i. 3, ii. 7). In the introduction (i. 1-4) the Apostle states the purpose of Ms Epistle. It is to declare the Word of life to those whom he is addressing, in order that he and they might be united in true communion with each other, and with God the Father, and His Son Jesus Christ. The first part of the Epistle may be con sidered to end at ii. 28. The Apostle begins afresh with the doctrine of sonship or com munion at ii. 29, and returns to the same theme at iv. 7. His lesson throughout is, that the means of union with God are, on the part of Christ, His atoning blood (i. 7, ii. 2, iii. 5, iv. 10, 14, v. 6) and advocacy (ii. 1) — on the part of man, holiness (i. 6), obedience (ii. 3), purity (iii. 3), faith (iii. 23, iv. 3, v. 5), and above all love (ii. 7, iii. 14, iv. 7, v. 1). There are two doubtfiil passages in this Epistle, ii. 23, " but he that acknowledged the Son hath the Father also," and v. 7, " For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost, and these tMee are one." It would appear without doubt that they are not genuine. JOHN, THE SECOND AND THIRD EPISTLES OF. These two Epistles are placed by Eusebius in the class of " disputed " books, and he appears Mmself to be doubtful whether they were written by the Evange list, or by some other John. The evidence of antiquity in their favour is not very strong, but yet is considerable. In the 5th century they were almost uMversally received. The title and contents of the Epistles are strong arguments against a fabricator, whereas they would account for their non-universal re ception in early times. The Second Epistle is addressed e«\e«Tn Kvpiq. An individual woman who had children, and a sister and nieces, is clearly indicated. Whether her name is given, and if so, what it is, has been doubted. According to one interpretation she is " the Lady Electa," to another, " the elect Kyria," to a third, "the elect Lady." The English version is probably right, though here too we should have expected the article. The TMrd Epistle is addressed to Gaius or Caius. We have no reason for identifying him with Caius of Macedonia (Acts xix. 29), or with Caius of Derbe (Acts xx. 4), or with Caius of Corinth (Rom. xvi. 23 ; 1 Cor. i. 14), or with Caius Bishop of Ephesus, or with Caius Bishop of Thessalonica, or with Caius Bishop of Pergamos. He was probably a convert of St. John (Ep. iii. 4), and a layman of wealth and distinction (Ep. iii. 5) in some city neaT Ephesus. The object of St. John in writing the Second Epistle was to warn the lady to whom he wrote against abetting the teaching known as that of Basilides and his followers, by perhaps an undue kindness displayed by her towards the preachers of the false doc trine. The Third Epistle was written for the purpose of commending to the Mndness and hospitality of Caius some Christians whn were strangers in the place where he lived. It is probable that these Christians carried tMs letter with them to Caius as their in troduction. JOK'MEAM, a city of Ephraim, given with its suburbs to the Kohathite Levites (1 Chr. vi. 68). The situation of Jokmeam is to a certain extent indicated in 1 K. iv. 12, where it is named with places which we know to have been in the Jordan valley at the extreme east boundary of the tribe. JOK'NEAM, a city of the tribe of ZebMun, allotted with its suburbs to the Merarite Le vites (Josh. xxi. 34). Its modern site is Tell Kaimon, an eminence which stands just below the eastern termination of Carmel. JOK'SHAN, a son of Abraham and Ke turah (Gen. xxv. 2, 3 ; 1 Chr. i. 32), whose sons were Sheba and Dedan. JOK'TAN, son of Eber (Gen. x. 25 ; 1 Chr. i. 19), and the father of the Joktanite Arabs. Scholars are agreed in placing the settlements of Joktan in the south of the peninsula. The original limits are stated in the Bible, " their dwelling was from Mesha, as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount of the East " (Gen. x. 30). The ancestor of the great southern peoples was called Kahtan, who, say the Arabs, was the same as Joktan. JOK'THEEL. 1. A city in the low coun try of Judah (Josh. xv. 38), named next to Lachish. — 2. "God-subdued," the title given by Amaziah to the cliff (A.V. Selah) — the stronghold of the Edomites — after he had captured it from them (2 K. xiv. 7). The parallel narrative of 2 Chr. xxv, 11-13 sup plies fuller details. JO'NA, the father of the Apostle Peter (John i. 42), who is hence addressed as Simon Barjona (i. e. son of Jona) in Matt. xvi. 17 . JON'ADAB, son of SMmeah and nephew of David. He is described as "very subtil" (2 Sam. xiii. 3). His age naturally made him the friend of his cousin Amnon, heir to the throne (2 Sam. xiii. 3). He gave him the fatal advice for ensnaring Ms sister Tamar (5, 6). Again, when, in a later stage of the same tragedy, Amnon was murdered by Absalom, and the exaggerated report reached David that all the princes were slaughtered, Jonadab was already aware of the real state of the case (2 Sam. xiii. 32, 33). JO'NAH, the fifth of the Minor Prophets, according to the order of our Bible, was the son of Amittai, and a native of Gath- JONAS 272 JONATHAN hepher, a town of Lower Galilee in Zebulun (2 K. xiv. 25). He lived after the reign of Jehu, when the losses of Israel (2 K. x. 32) began ; and probably not till the latter part of the reign of Jeroboam II. The general opinion is that Jonah was the first of the prophets. The king of Nineveh at this time is supposed to have been Pul, who is placed B.C. 750. Our English Bible gives b.c 862. Having already, as it seems, prophesied to Israel, he was sent to Nineveh. The time was one of political revival in Israel ; but ere long the Assyrians were to be employed by God as a scourge upon them. The prophet shrank from a commission which he felt sure would result (iv. 2) in the sparing of a hostile city. He attempted therefore to escape to Tarshish. The Providence of God, however, watched over him, first in a storm, and then in his being swallowed by a large fish for the Bpace of three days and three nights. [On this subject see art. Whale.] After his deliverance, Jonah executed Ms commission ; and the Mng, " believing him to be a minister from the supreme deity of the nation," and having heard of his miraculous deliverance, ordered a general fast, and averted the threat ened judgment. But the prophet, not from personal, but national feelings, grudged the mercy shown to a heathen nation. He was therefore taught, by the significant lesson of the " gourd," whose growth and decay brought the truth at once home to him, that he was sent to testify by deed, as other pro phets would afterwards testify by word, the capacity of Gentiles for salvation, and the design of God to make them partakers of it. This was " the sign of the prophet Jonas " (Luke xi. 29, 30). But the resurrection of Christ itself was also shadowed forth in the history of the prophet (Matt. xii. 39, 41, xvi. 4). Tbe mission of Jonah was highly symbolical. The facts contained a concealed prophecy. The old tradition made the burial- place of Jonah to be Gathhepher : the modern tradition places it at Nebi-Yunus, opposite Mosul. JO'NAS. 1. The prophet Jonah (Matt. xii. 39, 40, 41, xvi. 4). 2. Father of Peter (John xxi. 15-17). [Jona.] JON'ATHAN, that is, "the gift of Jeho vah," the eldest son of king Saul. He was regarded m Ms father's lifetime as heir to the throne. Like SaM, he was a man of great strength and activity (2 Sam. i. 23). He was also famous for the peculiar martial exercises in wMch his tribe excelled — archery and slinging (1 Chr. xii. 2). His bow was to him what the spear was to his father : "the bmo of Jonathan turned not hack" (2 Sam. i. 22). It was always about him (1 Sam. xviii. 4, xx. 35). His life may be divided into two main parts. — 1. The war with the Philistines, commonly called, from its locality, " the war of Michmash " (1 Sam. xiii. 21). The Philistines were still in the general command of the country ; an officer was stationed at Geba, either the same as Jonathan's position or close to it. In a BUd- den act of youthful daring Jonathan slew this officer, and thus gave the signal for a general revolt. But it was a premature attempt. The Philistines poured in from the plain, and the tyranny became more deeply rooted than ever. From this oppres sion, as Jonathan by his former act had been the first to provoke it, so now he was the first to deliver Ms people. Without commu nicating his project to any one, except the young man, whom, like all the chiefs of that age, he retained as Ms armour-bearer, he sallied forth from Gibeah to attack the gar rison of the PMlistines stationed on the other side of the steep defile of Michmash (xiv. 1). A pamc seized the garrison, thence spread to the camp, and thence to the surrounding hordes of marauders ; an earthquake com bined with the terror of the moment. SaM and Ms little band had watched in astonish ment the wild retreat from the heights of Gibeah : he now joined in the pursuit. Jonathan had not heard of the rash curse (xiv. 24) which Saul invoked on any one who ate before the evening, and he tasted the honey which lay on the ground as they passed through the forest. Jephthah's dreadfid sac rifice would have been repeated ; but the people mterposed in behalf of the hero of that great day ; and Jonathan was saved (xiv. 24-46). — 2. But the chief interest of his career is derived from the friendship with David, wMch began on the day of David's return from the victory over the champion of Gath, and continued till his death. Their last meetmg was in the forest of Ziph, during Saul's pursuit of David (1 Sam. xxiii. 16-18). From this time forth we hear no more till the battle of Gilboa. In that battle he fell, with Ms two brothers and Ms father, and his corpse Bhared their fate (1 Sam. xxxi. 2, 8). His ashes were buried first at Jabesh- Gilead (ib. 13), but afterwards removed with those of his father to Zelah in Benjamin (2 Sam. xxi. 12). The news of his death oc casioned the celebrated elegy of David. He left a son, Mephibosheth. [Mephibosheth.] — 2. Son of Shimeah, brother of Jonadab, and nephew of David (2 Sam. xxi. 21 ; 1 CM. xx. 7). Like David, he engaged in a single combat, and slew a gigantic Philis tine of Gath (2 Sam. xxi. 21).— 3. The son of Abiathar, the Mgh-priest, is the last descend- JOPPA 273 JOSEPH ant of Eli, of whom we hear anything. He appears on the day of David's flight from Absalom (2 Sam. xv. 36, xvii. 15-21), and on the day of Solomon's inauguration (1 K. i. 42, 43). — 4. The son, or descendant, of Ger- shom the son of Moses (Judg. xviii. 30). [Micah.] — 5. Son of Joiada, and his successor in the high-priesthood (Neh. xii. 11, 22, 23). JOP'PA, or Japho, now Jaffa, a town on the S.W. coast of Palestine, in the portion of Dan (Josh. xix. 46). Having a harbour attached to it — though always, as still, a dangerous one — it became the port of Jerusa lem in the days of Solomon, and has been ever since. Here Jonah " took ship to flee from the presence of his Maker." Here, on the house-top of Simon the tanner, " by the seaside," St. Peter had Ms vision of tolerance (Acts xi. 5). The existing town contains about 4000 inhabitants. JO'RAM. [Jehoram.] JOR'DAN, the one river of Palestine, has a course of little more than 200 miles, from the roots of Anti-Lebanon to the head of the Dead Sea. It is the river of the "great plain" of Palestine — the "Descender" — if not "the river of God" in the book of Psalms, at least that of His chosen people throughout their history. There were fords over against Jericho, to which point the men of Jericho pursued the spies (Josh. ii. 7 ; comp. Judg. iii. 28). Higher up, perhaps over against Succoth, some way above where the little river Jabbok (Zerka) enters the Jordan, were the fords or passages of Beth- barah (probably the Bethabara of the Gospel), where Gideon lay in wait for the MidiaMtes (Judg. vii. 24), and where the men of Gilead slew the Ephraimites (xii. 6). These fords undoubtedly witnessed the first recorded passage of the Jordan in the O. T. (Gen. xxxii. 10). Jordan was next crossed, over against Jericho, by Joshua the son of Nun (Josh. iv. 12, 13). From their vicinity to Jerusalem the lower fords were much used ; David, it is probable, passed over them in one instance to fight the Syrians (2 Sam. x. 17) ; and subsequently when a fugitive him self, in his way to Mahanaim (xvii. 22) on the east bank. Thus there were two cus tomary places, at which the Jordan was ford- able ; and it must have been at one of these, if not at both, that baptism was afterwards administered by St. John, and by the dis ciples of our Lord. Where our Lord was baptised is not stated expressly ; but it was probably at the upper ford. These fords were rendered so much the more precious in those days from two circumstances. First, it does not appear that there were then any bridges thrown over, or boats regularly esta- Sm. D. B. blished on, the Jordan. And secordly, be cause " Jordan overflowed all his banks all the time of harvest" (Josh. iii. 15). The channel or bed of the river became brimful, bo that the level of the water and of the banks was then the same. The last feature which remains to be noticed in the Scriptural account of the Jordan is its frequent mention as a boundary : " over Jordan," " this," and " the other side," or " beyond Jordan," were expressions as familiar to the Israelites as " across the water," " this," and " the other side of the Channel," are to English ears. In one sense indeed, that is, in so far as it was the eastern boundary of the land of Canaan, it was the eastern boundary of the promised land (Num. xxxiv. 12). The Jordan rises from several sources near Panium (Bdnids), and passes through the lakes of Merom (Huleh) and Gennesaret. The two principal features in its course are its descent and its windings. From its fountain-heads to the Dead Sea, it rushes down one continuous inclined plane, only broken by a series of rapids or precipitous falls. Between the lake of Gennesaret and the Dead Sea there are 27 rapids ; the depression of the lake of Gennesaret below the level of the Mediter ranean is 653 feet; and that of the Dead Sea 1316 feet. Its sinuosity is not so re markable in the upper part of its course. The only tributaries to the Jordan below Gennesaret are the Yarmuk (Hieromax) and the Zerka (Jabbok). Not a single city ever crowned the banks of the Jordan. Still Bethshan and Jericho to the W., Gerasa, Pella, and Gadara to the E. of it, were hn- portant cities, and caused a good deal of traffic between the two opposite banks. The physical features of the Glwr, through which the Jordan flows, are treated of under Pales tine. JO'SEPH. 1. The elder of the two sons of Jacob by Rachel, is first mentioned when a youth, seventeen years old. Jacob seems then to have stayed at Hebron with the aged Isaac, while his sons kept his flocks. Joseph, we read, brought the evil report of his brethren to Ms father, and they hated him because his father loved him more than them, as the " son of Ms old age," and had shown his preference by making him a dress, wMch appears to have been a long tunic with sleeves, worn by youths and maidens of the richer class (Gen. xxxvii. 2). The hatred of Joseph's brethren was increased by his telling of a dream foreshowing that they would bow down to him, which was followed by another of the same import. They had gone to Shechem to feed the flock ; and Joseph was sent thither from the vale of T JOSEPH 274 JOSEPH Hebron by his father to bring him word of their welfare and that of the flock. They were not at Shechem, but were gone to Dothan, which appears to have been not far distant, pasturing their flock like the Arabs of the present day, wherever the wild country was unowned. On Joseph's approach, his brethren, except Reuben, resolved to kill him ; but Reuben saved him, persuading them to cast him into a dry pit, to the intent that he might restore him to his father. Accordingly, when Joseph was come, they stripped him of his tunic and cast him into the pit, " and they sat down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels." Judah suggested to Ms brethren to sell Joseph to the Ishmeel ites, and accordingly they took him out of the pit and Bold Mm " for twenty [shekels] of silver" (ver. 28). His brethren pretended to Jacob that Joseph had been Mlled by some wild beast, taking to him the tuMc stained with a kid's blood. The Midianites sold Joseph in Egypt to Potiphar, " an officer of Pharaoh, captain of the executioners, an Egyptian" (xxxix. 1; comp. xxxvii. 36). Joseph prospered in the house of the Egyptian, who, seeing that God blessed him, and pleased with his good service, "set him over his house, and all [that] he had he gave into his hand" (xxxix. 4, comp. 5). His master's wife, with the well-known profligacy of the Egyptian women, tempted Mm, and failing, charged Mm with the crime Bhe would have made him commit. Potiphar, incensed against Joseph, cast him into prison, where he remained for at least two years, and perhaps longer. In the prison, as in Potiphar's house, Joseph was found worthy of complete trust, and the keeper of the prison placed everything under his control. After a while, Pharaoh was incensed against two of his officers, " the chief of the cup bearers " and the " chief of the bakers," and cast them into the prison where Joseph was. Each dreamed a prophetic dream, which Joseph interpreted. " After two years," Joseph'B deliverance came. Pharaoh dreamed two prophetic dreamB. " He Btood by the river [the Nile]. And, behold, coming up out of the river seven kine [or ' heifers '], beautiful in appearance and fat-fleshed ; and they fed in the marsh-grass. And, behold, seven other kine coming up after them out of the river, evil in appearance, and lean- fleshed" (xii. 1-3). These, afterwards de scribed still more strongly, ate up the first seven, and yet, as is said in the second ac count, when they had eaten them remained as lean as before (xii. 1-4, 17-21). Then Pharaoh had a second dream, — "Behold, seven ears of corn coming up on one stalk, fat [or ' full,' ver. 22] and good. And, be hold, seven ears, thin and blasted with the east wind, sprouting forth after them " (ver. 5, 6). These, also described more strongly in the second account, devoured the first seven ears (ver. 5-7, 22-24). In the morn ing Pharaoh sent for the " scribes " and the " wise men," and they were unable to give him an interpretation. Then the chief of the cupbearers remembered Joseph, and told Pharaoh how a young Hebrew, " servant to the captain of the executioners," had inter preted his and his fellow-prisoner's dreams. " Then Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they made him hasten out of the prison : and he shaved [himself], and changed his raiment, and came unto Pharaoh" (ver. 14). The king then related his dreams, and Joseph, when he had disclaimed human wisdom, de clared to him that they were sent of God to forewarn Pharaoh. There was essentially but one dream. Both kine and ears sym bolized years. There were to be seven years of great plenty in Egypt, and after them seven years of consuming and " very heavy famine." On the interpretation it may be remarked, that the kine represented _the animal products, and the ears of corn the vegetable products, the most important object in each class representing the whole class. Having interpreted the dream, Joseph coun selled Pharaoh to choose a wise man and set him over the country, in order that he should take the fifth part of the produce of the seven years of plenty against the years of famine. To this high post the Mng appointed Joseph, made him not only governor of Egypt, but second only to the sovereign. He also " gave him to wife Asenath daughter of Poti pherah, priest [or ' prince '] of On." Joseph's first act was to go throughout all the land of Egypt. During the seven plenteous years there was a very abundant produce, and he gathered the fifth part, as he had advised Pharaoh, and laid it up. Before the year of famine Asenath bare Joseph two sons. When the seven good years had passed, the famine began (Gen. xii. 54-57). Famines are not very unfrequent in the history of Egypt. [Famine.] After the famine had lasted for a time, apparently two years, Joseph gathered up all the money that was found in the land of Egypt, and in the land of Canaan, for the corn which they bought : and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh's house (xlvii. 13, 14). When all the money of Egypt and Canaan was exhausted, barter became neces sary. Joseph then obtained all the cattle of Egypt, and in the next year, all the land, JOSEPH 275 JOSEPH except that of the priests, and apparently, as a consequence, tho Egyptians themselves. He demanded, however, only a fifth part of the produce as Pharaoh's right. Early in the time of famine, which prevailed equally in Canaan and Egypt, Jacob reproved Ms helpless sons and sent them to Egypt, where he knew there was corn to be bought. Ben jamin alone he kept with him. Joseph was now governor, an Egyptian in habits and speech. His brethren did not know him, grown from the boy they had sold into a man. Joseph remembered his dreams, and behaved to them as a stranger, using, as we afterwards learn, an interpreter, and spoke hard words to them, and accused them of being spies. In defending themselves they spoke of their household. The whole story of Joseph's treatment of his brethren is so graphically told in Gen. xlii.-xlv., and is so familiar that it is unnecessary here to repeat it. After the removal of his family into Egypt, Jacob and his house abode in the land of Goshen, Joseph still ruling the country. Here Jacob, when near his end, gave Joseph a portion above Ms brethren, doubtless including the "parcel of ground" at Shechem, his future burying-place (comp. Johniv. 5). Then he blessed. Ms sons, Joseph most earnestly of all, and died in Egypt. "And Joseph fell upon his face, and wept upon Mm, and kissed him" (1. 1). When he had caused him to be embalmed by " his servants the physicians " he carried him to Canaan, and laid him in the cave of Mach pelah, the burying-place of his fathers. Then it was that his brethren feared that, their father being dead, Joseph would punish them, and that he strove to remove their fears. We know no more of Joseph than that he lived "a hundred and ten years," having been more than ninety in Egypt ; that he " saw Ephraim's children of the third" [generation], and that "the children also of Machir the son of Manasseh were borne upon Joseph's knees ; " and that dying he took an oath of his brethren that they should carry up his bones to the land of pro mise : thus showing in his latest action the faith (Heb. xi. 22) which had gMded his ¦whole life. Like his father he was em balmed, " and he was put in a coffin in Egypt" (1. 26). His trust Moses kept, and laid the bones of Joseph in his inheritance in Shechem, in the territory of Ephraim his offspring. As to the dynasty wMch ruled in Egypt during Joseph's residence, see Egypt. — 2. Son of Heli, and reputed father of Jesus Christ. All that is told uo of Joseph in the N. T. may be summed un in a few words. He was a just man, and iv. 11) as distinctly said to have been a Kenite. The important services rendered by the sheikh of the Kenites to Moses during a time of great pressure and difficulty, were rewarded by the latter with a promise of firm friendship between the two peoples. The connexion then commenced lasted as firmly as a connexion could last between a settled people like Israel and one whose ten dencies were so ineradieably nomadic as the Kenites. They seem to have accompanied the Hebrews during their wanderings (Num. xxiv. 21, 22 ; Judg. i. 16 ; comp. 2 Chr. xxviii. 15). But the wanderings of Israel over, they forsook the neighbourhood of the towns, and betook themselves to freer air — to "the wilderness of Judah, which is to the south of Arad" (Judg. i. 16). But one of the sheikhs of the tribe, Heber by name, had wandered north instead of south (Judg. iv. 11). The most remarkable development of this people is to be found in the sect or family of the Rechabites. KE'NIZZITE. (Gen. xv. 19). [Kenezite.] KE'REN-HAP'PUCH, the youngest of the daughters of Job, born to him during the period of his reviving prosperity (Job xiii. 14). KETU'RAH, the wife whom Abraham "added and took" (A. V. "again took") besides, or after the death of, Sarah (Gen. xxv. 1 ; 1 Chr. i. 32). Some critics think that Abraham took Keturah after Sarah's KEY 285 KING death ; but it is more probable that he took her during Sarah's lifetime (comp. Gen. xvii. 17; xviii. 11 ; Rom. iv. 19; Heb. xi. 12). That she was strictly speaking his wife is also very uncertain. In the record in 1 Chr. i. 32, she is called a " concubine " (comp. Gen. xxv. 5, 6). KEY. The key of a native Oriental lock is a piece of wood, from 7 inches to 2 feet in length, fitted with wires or short nails, wMch, being inserted laterally into the hollow bolt which serves as a lock, raises other pins within the staple so as to allow the bolt to be drawn back. But it is not difficult to open a lock of this Mnd even without a key, viz. with the finger dipped in paste or other ad hesive substance. The passage Cant. v. 4, 5, is thus probably explained. KEZI'A, the second of the daughters of Job, born to him after Ms recovery (Job xiii. 14). KEZI'Z, of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 21) and the eastern border of the tribe. KIB'ROTH-HATTA'AVAH, Num. xi. 34 ; mai'g. "the graves of lust" (comp. xxxiii. 17). From there being no change of spot mentioned between it and Taberah in xi. 3, it is probably, like the latter, about three days' journey from Sinai (x. 33), and near the sea (xi. 22, 31). If HUdherd be Haze- roth, then " the graves of lust " may be per haps within a day's journey thence in the direction of Sinai. KID. [Goat.] KID 'RON (or KED'RON), THE BROOK, a torrent or valley — not a " brook," as in the A. V. — close to Jerusalem. It lay between the city and the Mount of Olives, and was crossed by David in Ms flight (2 Sam. xv. 23, comp. 30), and by our Lord on His way to Gethsemane (John xviii. 1 ; comp. Mark xiv. 26 ; Luke xxii, 39). Its connexion with these two occurrences is alone sufficient to leave no doubt that the Kidron is the deep ravine on the east of Jerusalem, now commonly known as the " Valley of Jehoshaphat." [Map, p. 249.] The distinguishing peculiarity of the Kidron valley — that in respect to which it is most frequently mentioned in the O. T. — iB the impurity which appears to have been ascribed to it. In the time of Josiah it was the common cemetery of the city (2 K. xxiii. 6; comp. Jer. xxvi. 23, "graves of the common people"). At present it is the favourite resting-place of Moslems and Jews, the former on the west, the latter on the east of the valley. The channel of the valley of Jehoshaphat is nothing more than the dry bed of a wintry torrent, bearing marks of being occasionally swept over by a large volume of water. KING, the name of the Snprexe Ruler of the Hebrews during a period of about 500 years previous to the destruction of Jerusa lem, b.c 586. The immediate occasion of the substitution of a regal form of govern ment for that of Judges, seems to have been the siege of Jahesh-Gilead by Nahash, king of the Ammonites (1 Sam. xi. 1, xii. 12), and the refusal to allow the inhabitants of that city to capitulate, except on humiliating and cruel conditions (1 Sam. xi. 2, 4-6). The conviction seems to have forced itself on the Israelites that they could not resist their for midable neighbour unless they placed them selves under the sway of a king, like sur rounding nations. Concurrently with this conviction, disgust had been excited by the corrupt admiMstration of justice under the sons of Samuel, and a radical change was desired by them in this respect also (1 Sam. viii. 3-5). Accordingly the original idea of a Hebrew Mng was twofold : first, that he shoMd lead the people to battle in time of war ; and, 2ndly, that he should execute judg ment and justice to them in war and in peace (1 Sam. viii, 20). In both respects the de-. sired end was attained. To form a correct idea of a Hebrew Mng, we must abstract our selves from the notions of modern Europe, and realise the position of Oriental sovereigns. Besides being commander-m-cMef of the army, supreme judge, and absolute master, as it were, of the lives of his subjects, the king exercised the power of miposing taxes on them, and of exacting from them personal service and labour. And the degree to wMch the exaction of personal labour might be carried on a special occasion is illustrated by King Solomon's requirements for building the temple. In addition to these earthly powers, the King of Israel had a more awful claim to respect and obedience. He was the vicegerent of Jehovah (1 Sam. x. 1, xvi. 13), and as it were His son, if just and holy (2 Sam. vii. 14 ; Ps. lxxxix. 26, 27, ii. 6, 7). He had been set apart as a consecrated ruler. Upon Ms head had been poured the holy anointing oil, which had hitherto been re served exclusively for the priests of Jehovah. He had become, in fact, emphatically "the Lord's Anointed." A rMer in whom so much authority, human and divine, was em bodied, was naturally distinguished by out ward honours and luxuries. He had a court of Oriental magnificence. When the power of the kingdom was at its height, he pat on a throne of ivory, covered with pure gold, at the feet of which were two figures of lions. The' king was dressed in royal robes (1 K. xxii. 10 ; 2 Chr. xviii. 9) ; his insigMa were, a crown or diadem of pure gold, or perhaps KINGS, BOOKS OF 286 KINGS, BOOKS OF radiant with precious gems (2 Sam. i. 10, xii. 30 ; 2 K. xi. 12 ; Ps. xxi. 3), and a royal sceptre. Those who approached him did him obeisance, bowing down and touching the ground with their foreheads (1 Sam. xxiv. 8 ; 2 Sam. xix. 24) ; and this was done even by a Mng's wife, the mother of Solomon (1 K. i. 16). Their officers and subjects called them selves his servants or slaves, though they do not seem habitually to have given way to such extravagant salutations as in the Chal- daean and Persian courts (1 Sam. xvii. 32, 34, 36, xx. 8 ; 2 Sam. vi. 20 ; Dan. ii. 4). As in the East to this day, a Mss was a sign of respect and homage (1 Sam. x. 1, perhaps Ps. ii. 12). He lived in a splendid palace, with porches and columns (1 K. vii. 2-7). All his drinking vessels were of gold (1 K. x. 21). He had a large harem, which in the time of Solomon must have been the source of enormous expense. As is invariably the case in the great eastern monarchies at pre sent, Mb harem was guarded by eunuchs ; translated " officers " in the A. V. for the most part (1 Sam. viii. 15 ; 2 K. xxiv. 12, 15 ; 1 K. xxii. 9 ; 2 K. viii. 6, ix. 32, 33, xx. 18, xxiii. 11 ; Jer. xxxviii. 7). The law of succession to the throne is somewhat ob scure, but it seems most probable that the king during his lifetime named his successor. TMs was certainly the case with David (1 K. i. 30, ii. 22) ; and with Rehoboam (2 Chr. xi. 21, 22). At the same time, if no partiality for a favourite wife or son intervened, there would always be a natural bias of affection in favour of the eldest son. KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF, originally only one book in the Hebrew Canon, form in the LXX. and the Vulgate the third and fourth books of Kings (the books of Samuel being the first and second) . It must also be remembered that the division between the books of Kings and Samuel is equally artificial, and that in point of fact the historical books commencing with Judges and ending with 2 Kings present the appear ance of one work, giving a continuous Mstory of Israel f^m the time of Joshua to the death of Jehoiachin. The Books of Kings contain the Mstory from David's death and Solomon's accession to the destruction of the kingdom of Judah and the desolation of Jerusalem, with a supplemental notice of an event that oc curred after an interval of twenty-six years, viz. the liberation of Jehoiachin from his prison at Babylon, and a still further exten sion to JehoiacMn's death, the time of which is not known, but which was probably not long after his liberation. The Mstory there fore comprehends the whole time of the Is- raelitish monarchy, exclusive of the reigns of Saul and David. As regards the authorship of the books, but little difficulty presents it self. The Jewish tradition, which ascribes them to Jeremiah, is borne out by the strong est internal evidence, in addition to that of the language. The last chapter, especially as compared with the last chapter of the Chronicles, bears distinct traces of having been written by one who did not go into cap tivity, but remained in Judaea after the destruction of the Temple. This suits Jere miah. The events singled out for mention in the concise narrative are precisely those of which he had personal knowledge, and in which he took special interest. The writer in Kings has nothing more to tell us concerning the Jews or Chaldees in the land of Judah, which exactly agrees with the hypothesis that he is Jeremiah, who we know was car ried down into Egypt with the fugitives. In fact, the date of the writing and the position of the writer seem as clearly marked by the termination of the narrative at v. 26, as in the case of the Acts of the Apostles. But though the general unity and continuity of plan lead us to assign the whole history in a certain sense to one author, yet it must be borne in mind that the authorship of those parts of the Mstory of which Jeremiah was not an eye-witness — that is, of all before the reign of JoBiah — would have consisted merely in selecting, arranging, inserting the con necting phrases, and, when necessary, slightly modernising the old histories which had been drawn up by contemporary prophets through the whole period of time. (See e.g. 1 K. xiii. 32.) For, as regards the sources of information, it may truly be said that we have the narrative of contemporary writers throughout. There was a regular series of state-annals both for the kingdom of Judah and for that of Israel, which embraced the whole time comprehended in the books of Kings, or at least to the end of the reign of Jehoiakim (2 K. xxiv. 5). These annals are constantly cited by name as " the Book of the Acts of Solomon" (1 K. xi. 41); and after Solomon, " the Book of the Chromcles of the Kings of Judah, or, Israel " (e. g. 1 K. xiv. 29, xv. 7, xvi. 5, 14, 20 ; 2 K. x. 34, xxiv. 5, &c.) ; and it is manifest that the author of Kings had them both before Mm, while he drew up Ms history, in which the reigns of the two kingdoms are harmonized, and these annals constantly appealed to. But, in addi tion to these national annals, there were also extant, at the time that the Books of Kings were compiled, separate works of the several prophets who had lived in Judah and Israel. Thus the acts of Uzziah, written by Isaiah, were very likely identical with the history KINGS, BOOKS OF 287 KINGS, BOOKS OF of his reign in the national chronicles ; and part of tfce history of HezeMah we know is identical in the chronicles and in the pro phet. The chapter in Jeremiah relating to the destruction of the Temple (Iii.) is identical with that in 2 K. xxiv., xxv. — Relation of the Books of Kings to those of Chronicles. — It is manifest, and is uni versally admitted, that the former is by fai the older work. The language, which is quite free from the Persicisms of the Chro nicles and their late orthography, clearly points out its relative superiority in regard to age. Its subject also, embracing the Mng dom of Israel as well as Judah, is another indication of its composition before the king dom of Israel was forgotten, and before the Jewish enmity to Samaria, which is apparent in such passages as-2 Chr. xx. 37, xxv., and in those chapters of Ezra (i.-vi.) which be- Jong to ChroMcles, waB brought to maturity. While the Books of ChroMcles therefore were written especially for the Jews after their return from Babylon, the Book of Kings was written for the whole of Israel, before their common national existence was hope lessly quenched. Another comparison of considerable interest between the two his tories may he drawn in respect to the main design, that design having a marked relation both to the individual station of the supposed writers, and the peculiar circumstances of their country at the time of their writing. Jeremiah was himself a prophet. He lived wMle the prophetic office was in full vigour, in Ms own person, in Ezekiel, and Daniel, and many others, both true and false. Ac cordingly, we find in the Books of Kings great prominence given to the prophetic office. Ezra, on the contrary, was only a priest. In his days the prophetic office had wholly fallen into abeyance. That evidence of the Jews being the people of God, which consisted in the presence of prophets among them, was no more. But to the men of Ms generation, the distinctive mark of the continuance of God's favour to their race was the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem, the restoration of the daily sacrifice and the Levitical worship, and the wonderful and providential renewal of the Mosaic institutions. The chief in strument, too, for preserving the Jewish remnant from absorption into the mass of Heathenism, and for maintaining their na tional life till the coming of Messiah, was the maintenance of the Temple, its ministers, and its services. Hence we see at once that the chief care of a good and enlightened Jew of the age of Ezra — and all the more if he were himself a priest — would naturally be to en hance the value of the Levitical ritual, and the dignity of the Levitical caste. And in compiling a history of the past glories of Ms race, he would as naturally select such pas sages as especially bore upon the sanctity of the priestly office, and showed the deep con cern taken by their ancestors in all that related to the honour of God's House, and the support of his ministering servants. Hence the Levitical character of the Books of Chronicles, and the presence of several de tailed narratives not found in the Books of Kings, and the more frequent reference to the Mosaic institutions, may most naturally and simply be accounted for, without resort ing to the absurd hypothesis that the cere monial law was an invention subsequent to the Captivity. (2 Chr. xxix., xxx., xxxi., com pared with 2 K. xviii. is perhaps as good a specimen as can be selected of the distinctive spirit of the Chronicles. See also 2 Chr. xxvi. 16-21, compared with 2 K. xv. 5 ; 2 Chr. xi. 13-17, xiii. 9-20, xv. 1-15, xxiii. 2-8, compare with 2 K. xi. 5-9, and vers. 18, 19, compare with ver. 18, and many other pas sages.) Moreover, upon the principle that the sacred writers were influenced by natural feelings in their selection of their materials, it seems most appropriate that while the prophetical writer in Kings deals very fully with the Mngdom of Israel, in which the prophets were much more illustrious than in Judah, the Levitical writer, on the con trary, should concentrate all his thoughts round Jerusalem, where alone the Levitical caste had all its power and functions, and should dwell upon all the instances preserved in existing muniments of the deeds and even the minutest ministrations of the priests and Levites, as well as of their faithfulness and sufferings in the cause of truth. From the comparison of parallel narratives in the two books, it appears that the results are precisely what would naturally arise from the circum stances of the case. The writer of the Chro nicles, having the Books of Kings before him, made those books to a great extent the basis of his own. But also having his own per sonal views, predilections, and motives in writing, composing for a different age, and for people under very different circumstances ; and, moreover, having before him the original authorities from which the Books of Kings were compiled, as well as some others, he naturally rearranged the older narrative aB suited his purpose and his taste. He gave in full passages which the other had abridged, inserted what had been wholly omitted, omitted some things which the other had in serted, including nearly everything relating to the Mngdom of Israel, and showed the colour of his own mind, not only in the na-. KIR-HARASETH 288 KIR OF MOAB ture of the passages wMch he selected from the ancient documents, but in the reflections which he frequently adds upon the events which he relates, and possibly also in the turn given to some of the speeches wMch he records. KIR-HARAfSETH (2 K. iii. 25). KIR- HA'RESH (Is. xvi. 11). KIR-HARE'SETH (Is. xvi. 7). KIR-HE'RES (Jer. xlviii. 31, 36). These four names are all applied to one place, probably Kir-Moab. KIR'IAH, apparently an ancient or archaic word, meaMng a city or town. It may be compared to the word "burg" or "bury" in our own language. Closely related to Kiriah is Kereth, apparently a Phoenician form, which occurs occasionally (Job xxix. 7 ; Prov. viii. 3). This is familiar to us in the Latin garb of CaHAago, and in the Parthian and Armenian names Cirta, Tigrano-Cferta. As a proper name it appears in the Bible under the forms of Kerioth, Kartah, Kartan ; besides those immediately following. KIRIATHA'IM. [Kirjathaim.] KIR'IOTH, a place in Moab, the palaces of which were threatened by Amos with de struction by fire (Am. ii. 2) ; unless indeed the word means simply " the cities " — wMch is probably the case also in Jer. xlviii. 4. KIR'JATH, the last of the cities enume rated as belonging to the tribe of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 28), probably identical with the better known place Kirjath-Jearim. KIRJATHA'IM.— 1. On the east of the Jordan, one of the places which were taken possession of and rebuilt by the Reubenites, and had fresh names conferred on them (Num. xxxii. 37, and see 38), tbe first and last of which are known with some tolerable degree of certainty (Josh. xii. 19). It existed in the time of Jeremiah (xlviii. 1, 23) and Eze- Mel (xxv. 9— in these three passages the A. V. gives the name Kiriathaim). By Euse- biuB it appears to have been well known. He describes it as a village entirely of Chris tians, 10 miles west of Medeba, " close to the Baris." — 2. A town in Naphtali not men tioned in the original lists of the possession allotted to the tribe (see Josh. xix. 32-39), but inserted in the list of cities given to the GerBhonite Levites, in 1 Chr. (vi. 76), in place of Kartan in the parallel catalogue, Kartan being probably oMy a contraction thereof. KIR'JATH-AR'BA, an early name of the city which after the conquest is generally known as Hebron (Josh. xiv. 15 ; Judg. i. 10). The identity of Kirjath-Arba with Hebron is constantly asserted (Gen. xxiii. 2, xxxv. 27; Josh. xiv. 15, xv. 13, 54, xx. 7, xxi. 11). KIR'JATH-A'RIM, an abbreviated form of the name Kirjath-Jearim, wMch occurs only in Ezr. ii. 25. KIR'JATH-BA'AL. [Kirjath-Jearim.] KIR'JATH-HU'ZOTH, a place to which Balak accompanied Balaam immediately after Ms arrival in Moab (Num. xxii. 39). KIR'JATH-JE'ARIM, first mentioned as one of the four cities of the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 17) : it next occurs as one of the land marks of the northern boundary of Judah (xv. 9) and as the point at which the western and southern boundaries of Benjamin coin cided (xviii. 14, 15) ; and in the two last passages we find that it bore another, perhaps earlier, name — that of the great CanaaMte deity Baal, namely Baalah and Kirjath- Baal. It is reckoned among the towns of Judah (xv. 60). It is included in the genea logies of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 50, 52) as founded by, or descended from, Shobal, the son of Caleb-ben-Hur. " Behind Kirjath-jearim " the band of Danites pitched their camp before their expedition to Mount Ephraim and Laish, leavmg their name attached to the spot for long after (Judg. xviii. 12). [Ma- haneh-dan.] Hitherto beyond the early Banctity implied in its bearing the name of Baal, there is nothing remarkable in Kir jath-jearim. It was no doubt this reputation for sanctity which made the people of Beth- shemesh appeal to its inhabitants to relieve them of the Ark of Jehovah, which was bring ing such calamities on their untutored inex perience (1 Sam. vi. 20, 21). In this high place the ark remained for twenty years (vii. 2). At the close of that time Kirjath-jearim lost its sacred treasure, on its removal by David to the house of Obed-edom the Gittite (1 Chr. xiii. 5, 6 ; 2 Chr. i. 4 ; 2 Sam. vi. 2, &c). To Eusebius and Jerome it appears to have been well known. They describe it as a village at the ninth mile between Jerusalem and Diospolis (Lydda). These requirements are exactly fulfilled in the modern village of Kuriet-el-Enab — now usually known as AbH Gosh, from the robber -chief whose head-quar ters it was — on the road from Jaffa to Jeru salem. KIR'JATH-SAN'NAH. [Debir.] KIR'JATH-SE'PHER. (Judg. i. 11, 12.) [Debir.] KIR OF MOAB, one of the two chief strongholds of Moab, the other being Ar op Moab. The name occurs only in Is. xv. 1, though the place is probably referred to under the names of Kir-heres, Kir-haraseth, &c. It is almost identical with the name Kerak, by which the site of an important city in a high and very strong position at the S.E. of the Dead Sea is known at tMs day. lu KISH 289 KNOP situation is truly remarkable. It is built upon the top of a steep hill, surrounded on all sides by a deep and narrow valley, which again is completely inclosed hy mountains rising higher than the town, and overlooking it on all sides. KISH. 1. The father of Saul; a Ben jamite of the family of Matri, according to 1 Sam. x. 21, though descended from Becher according to 1 Chr. vii. 8, compared with 1 Sam. ix. 1. — 2. Son of JeMel, and uncle to the preceding (1 Chr. ix. 36). — 3. A Ben jamite, great grandfather of Mordecai (Esth. ii. 5). — 4. A Merarite, of the house of Mahli, of the tribe of Levi. His sons married the daughters of his brother Eleazar (1 Chr. xxiii. 21, 22, xxiv. 28, 29), apparently about the time of King Saul, or early in the reign of David, since Jeduthun the singer was the son of Kish (1 Chr. vi. 44, compared with 2 Chr. xxix. 12). KISH'ION, one of the towns on the boun dary of the tribe of Issachar (JoBh. xix. 20), which with its suburbs was allotted to the Gershomte Levites (xxi. 28 ; A. V. Kishon). KI'SHON, THE RIVER, a torrent or winter stream of central Palestine, the scene of two of the grandest achievements of Is raelite history — the defeat of Sisera (Judg. iv.), and the destruction of the prophets of Baal by Elijah (1 K. xviii. 40). The Nahr MukUtta, the modern representative of the Kishon, is the drain by which the waters of the plain of Esdraelon, and of the mountains .which enclose that plain, find their way to the Mediterranean. Like most of the so-called "rivers" of Palestine, the perennial stream forms but a small part of the Kishon. During the greater part of the year its upper portion is dry, and the stream confined to a few miles next the sea. The part of the Kishon at wMch the prophets of Baal were slaughtered by Elijah was doubtless close below the spot on Carmel where the sacrifice had taken place. KI'SON, an inaccurate mode of represent ing the name Kishon (Ps. lxxxiii. 9). KISS. Kissing the lips by way of affec tionate salutation was customary amongst near relatives of both sexes, both in Patri archal and in later times (Gen. xxix. 11 ; Cant. viii. 1). Between individuals of the same sex, and in a limited degree between those of different sexes, the kiss on the cheek as a mark of respect or an act of salutation has at all times been customary in the East, and can hardly be said to be extinct even in Europe. In the Christian Church the Mss of charity was practised not only as a friendly salutation, but as an act symbolical of love and Christian brotherhood (Ron. xvi. 16 ; 1 Sh. D. B. Cor. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xiii. 12 ; 1 Thess. v, 26 ; 1 Pet. v. 14). The written decrees of a sovereign are kissed in token of respect ; even the ground is sometimes kissed by Orientals in the fulness of their submission (Gen. xii. 40 ; 1 Sam. xxiv. 8 ; Ps. lxxii. 9 ; &c). Kissing is spoken of in Scripture as a mark of respect or adoration to idols (1 K. xix. 18 ; Hos. xiii. 2). KITE (Heb. ayydh). The Hebrew word thus rendered occurs in three passages, Lev. xi. 14, Deut. xiv. 13, and Job xxviii. 7 : in the two former it is translated " kite " in the A. V., in the latter " vMture." It is enume rated among the twenty names of birds men tioned in Deut. xiv. (belonging for the most part to the order Raptores), which were con sidered unclean by the Mosaic Law, and for bidden to be used as food by the Israelites, The allusion in Job alone affords a clue to its identification. The deep mines in the re cesses of the mountains from which the labour of man extracts the treasures of the earth are there described as " a track which the bird of prey hath not known, nor hath the eye of the ayydh looked upon it." The ayydh may possibly be the "Mte," but there is no certainty on the subject. KIT'RON, one of the towns from which Zebulun did not expel the Canaanites (Judg. i. 30). In the Talmud it is identified with " Zippori," i.e. Sepphoris, now Seffurieh. KIT'TIM. Twice written in the A. V. for Chittim (Gen. x. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 7). KNEADING-TROUGHS. [Bread.] KNOP. A word employed in the A. V. to translate two terms, wMch refer to some U KOHATH 290 LACHISH architectural or ornamental object, but which have nothing in common. 1. Caphtor. This occurs in the description of the candlestick of the sacred tent in Ex. xxv. 31-36, and xxxvii. 17-22. 2, The second term, Peka'im, is found only in 1 K. vi. 18, and vii. 24. The word no doubt signifies some globular thing resembling a small gourd, or an egg, though as to the character of the ornament we are quite in the dark. The following woodcut of a portion of a richly ornamented ioor-step or slab from Kouyunjik, probably represents sometMng approximating to the « knop and the flower " of Solomon's Temple. Border of a Slab from Kouyunjik. KO'HATH, second of the three sons of Levi, from whom the three principal divisions of the Levites derived their origin and their name (Gen. xlvi. 11; Exod. vi. 16, 18; Num. iii. 17 ; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 12, &c). Ko- hath was the father of Amram, and he of Moses and Aaron. From Mm, therefore, were descended all the priests ; and hence those of the Kohathites who were not priests were of the highest rank of the Levites, though not the sons of Levi's first-born. In the journeyings of the Tabernacle the sons of Kohath had charge of the most holy portions of the vessels (Num. iv.). It appears from Ex. vi. 18 — 22, compared with 1 Chr. xxiii. 12, xxvi. 23-32, that there were four families of sons of Kohath — Amramites, Izharites, Hebromtes, and Uzzielites. Of the personal history of Kohath we know nothing, except that he came down to Egypt with Levi and Jacob (Gen. xlvi. 11), that his sister was Jochebed (Ex. vi. 20), and that he lived to the age of 133 years (Ex. vi. 18). KO'RAH. 1. Third son of Esau by Aholi bamah (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18 ; 1 Chr. i. 85). He was born in Canaan before Esau migrated to Mount Seir (xxxvi. 5-9), and was one of the " dukes " of Edom. — 2. Another Edom- itish duke of this name, sprung from Eliphaz, Esau's son by Adah (Gen. xxxvi. 16). — 3. Son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi. He was leader of the famous rebellion against his cousins Moses and Aaron in the wilderness, for wMch he paid the penalty of perishing with Ms followers by an earthquake and flames of fire (Num. xvi. xxvi. 9-11). The particular grievance wMch rankled in the mind of Korah and his company was their exclusion from the office of the priest hood, and their being confined — those among them who were Levites — to the inferior ser vice of the tabernacle. Korah's position as leader in this rebellion was evidently the result of Ms personal character, which was that of a bold, haughty, and ambitious man. From some cause which does not clearly ap pear, the children of Korah were not involved in the destruction of their father (Num. xxvi. 11). Perhaps the fissure of the ground which swallowed up the tents of Dathan and Abi- ram did not extend beyond those of the Reu- benites. From ver. 27 it seems clear that Korah himself was not with Dathan and Abiram at the moment. He himself was doubtless with the 250 men who hare cen sers nearer the tabernacle (ver. 19), and perished with them by the "fire from Jeho vah " wMch accompanied the earthquake. In the N. T. (Jude 11) Korah is coupled with Cain and Balaam. KOR'AHITE (1 Chr. ix. 19, 31), KORr- HITE, or KOR'ATHITE, that portion of the KohatMtes who were descended from Korah, and are frequently styled by the synonymous phrase Sons of Korah. They were an im portant branch of the singers (2 Chr. xx. 19). Hence we find eleven Psalms (or twelve, if Ps. 43 is included under the same title as Ps. 42) dedicated or assigned to the sons of Korah, viz. Pb. 42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. LA'BAN, son of Bethuel, brother of Rebe- kah, and father of Leah and Rachel. The elder branch of the family remained at Haran when Abraham removed to the land of Canaan, and it is there that we first meet with Laban, as taking the leading part in the betrothal of his sister Rebekah to her cousin Isaac (Gen. xxiv. 10, 29-60, xxvii. 43, xxix. 4). The next time Laban appears in the sacred narrative it is as the host of his nephew Jacob at Haran (Gen. xxix. 13, 14). The subsequent transactions by which he secured the valuable services of his nephew are related under Jacob. LACEDEMO'NIANS, the inhabitants of Sparta or Lacedaemon, with whom the Jews claimed kindred (1 Mace. xii. 2, 5, 6, 20, 21 ; xiv. 20, 23 ; xv. 23 ; 2 Mace. v. 9). LA'CHISH, a city of the Amorites, the Mng of which joined with four others, at the invitation of Adonizedek Mng of Jerusalem, to chastise the Gibeonites for their league with Israel (Josh. x. 3, 5). They were LAHAI-ROI, THE WELL 291 LAMP routed by Joshua at Bethhoron, and the king of Lachish fell a victim with the others under the trees at Makkedah (ver. 26). The destruction of the town shortly followed the death of the Mng (ver. 31-33). In the spe cial statement that the attack lasted two days, in contradistinction to the other cities which were taken in one (see ver. 35), we gain our first glimpse of that strength of position for wMch Lachish was afterwards remarkable. Lachish was one of the cities fortified and garrisoned by Rehoboam after the revolt of the northern Mngdom (2 Chr. xi. 9). It was chosen as a refuge by Amaziah from the conspirators who threatened Mm in Jeru salem, and to whom he at last fell a victim at Lachish (2 K. xiv. 19; 2 Chr. xxv. 27). In the reign of Hezekiah, it was one of the cities taken by Sennacherib when on Ms way from Phoenicia to Egypt. This siege is con sidered by Layard and Hincks to be depicted on the slabs found by the former in one of the chambers of the palace at Kouyunjik. But though the Assyrian records appear to assert the capture of Lachish, no statement is to be found either in the Bible or Josephus that it was taken. After the return from captivity, LacMsh with its surrounding " fields " was re-occupied by the Jews (Neh. xi. 30). By Eusebius and Jerome, in the Onomasticon, Lachish is mentioned as " 7 miles from Eleutheropolis, towards Daroma," i.e. towards the south. LAHA'I-RO'I, THE WELL. In this form is given in the A. V. of Gen. xxiv. 62, and xxv. 11, the name of the famous well of Hagar's relief, in the oasis of verdure round which Isaac afterwards resided. LA'ISH, the city wMch was taken by the Danites, and under its new name of Dan be came famous as the northern limit of the nation (Judg. xviii. 7, 14, 27, 29). [Dan.] In the A. V. Laish is again mentioned in the account of Sennacherib's march on Jerusalem (Is. x. 30). This Laish is probably the small village, Laishah, lying between Gallim and Anathoth, and of wMch Mtherto no traces have been found. LA'ISH, father of Phaltiel, to whom Saul had given Michal, David's wife (1 Sam. xxv. 44 ; 2 Sam. iii. 15). LAKES. [Palestine.] LA'KUM, properly LAKKUM, one of the places which formed the landmarks of the boundary of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). LAMBS formed an important part of al most every sacrifice (Ex. xxix. 38-41 ; Num. xxviii. 9, 11, xxix. 2, 13-40, &c). On the Paschal Lamb see Pabsover. LA'MECH, properly Lemeeh. — 1. The fifth lineal descendant from Cain (Gen. iv. 18-24). He is the only one except Enoch, of the posterity of Cain, whose history is related with some detail. His two wives, Adah and Zillah, and his daughter Naamah, are, with Eve, the only antediluvian women whose names are mentioned by Moses. His three sons — Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal-cain, are celebrated in Scripture as authors of useful inventions. The remarkable poem which Lamech uttered has not yet been explained quite satisfactorily. It may be rendered :— Adah and Zillah I hear my voice, Ye wives of Lamech I give ear unto my speech, For a man had 1 slain for smiting me, And a youth for wounding me : Surely sevenfold shall Cain be avenged, But Lamech seventy and seven. It may perhaps be regarded as Lamech's song of exultation on the invention of the sword by his son Tubal-cain, in the possession of which he foresaw a great advantage to himself and his family over any enemies.— 2. The father of Noah (Gen. v. 29). LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH. The Hebrew title of this Book, Ecah, is taken, like those of the five Books of Moses, from the Hebrew word with which it opens. It contains the utterance of Jeremiah's sorrow upon the capture of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple. It consists of five chapters, each of wMch, however, is a separate poem, complete in itself, and having a distinct subject, but brought at the same time under a plan which includes them all. The book has supplied thousands with the fullest utterance for their sorrows in the critical periods of national or individual suffering. We may well believe that it soothed the weary years of the Babylonian exile. On the Mnth day of the month of Ab (JMy-August), the Lamentations of Jeremiah were read, year by year, with fasting and weeping, to commemorate tbe misery out of which the people had been delivered. It enters largely into the order of the Latin Church for the services of Passion-week. LAMP. 1. That part of the golden candle stick belonging to the Tabernacle which bore the light ; also of each of the ten candlesticks placed by Solomon in the Temple before the Holy of Holies (Ex. xxv. 37 ; IK. vii. 49 ; 2 Chr. iv. 20, xiii. 11 ; Zech. iv. 2). The lamps were lighted every evening, and cleansed every morning (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). 2. A torch or flambeau, such, as was carried by the soldiers of Gideon (Judg. vii. 16, 20 ; comp. xv. 4). The use of lamps fed with oil in marriage processions is alluded to in the parable of the ten virgins (Matt. xxv. 1). Modern Egyptian lamps consist of small glass vessels with a tube at the bottom contaming a cotton-wick twisted round a piece of straw, U 2 LANCET 292 LATCHET For night-travelling, a lantern composed of waxed cloth strained over a Bort of cylinder of wire-rings, and a top and bottom of per forated copper. This would, in form at least, answer to the lamps within pitchers of Gideon. Egyptian Lamp. LANCET. This word is found in 1 K. xviii. 28 only. The Hebrew term is Romach, which is elsewhere rendered, and appears to mean a javelin, or light spear. In the original edition of the A. V. (1611) the word is " lancers." LANGUAGE. [Tongues, Confusion op.] LAODICE'A, a town in the Roman pro vince of Asia, situated m the valley of the Maeander, On a small river called the Lycus, with Colossae and Hierapolis a few miles distant to the west. BMlt, or rather rebuilt, by one of the Seleucid monarchs, and named in honour of Ms wife, Laodicea became under the Roman government a place of some im portance. Its trade was considerable : it lay on the line of a great road ; and it was the seat of a conventus. From Rev. iii. 17, we should gather it was a place of great wealth. It was soon after this occurrence that Christianity was introduced into Lao dicea, not, however, as it would seem, through the direct agency of St. Paul. We have good reason for believing that when, in writing from Rome to the Christians of Colossae, he sent a greeting to those of Laodicea, he had not personally visited either place. But the preaching of the Gospel at Ephesus (Acts xviii. 19-xix. 41) must in evitably have resulted in the formation of churches in the neighbouring cities, especi ally where Jews were settled : and there were Jews in Laodicea. In subsequent times It became a Christian city of eminence, the Bee of a bishop, and a meeting-place of councils. The Mohammedan invaders de stroyed it ; and it is now a scene of utter desolation : hut the extensive ruins near Denislu justify all that we read of Laodicea in Greek and Roman writers. One Biblical subject of interest is connected with Laodicea. From Col. iv. ,16 it appears that St. Paul wrote a letter to this place when he wrote the letter to Colossae. The question arises whether we can give any account of this Laodicean epistle. Wieseler's theory is that the Epistle to Philemon is meant. Another view maintained by Paley and others, is that the Epistle to the Ephesians is intended. Ussher's view is that this last epistle was a circular letter sent to Laodicea among other places. The apocryphal Fpistola ad Lao- dicenses is a late and clumsy forgery. LAP'IDOTH, the husband of Deborah the prophetess (Judg. iv. 4). LAPWING (Heb. duciphath) occurs only in Lev. xi. 19, and in the parallel passage of Deut. xiv. 18, amongst the list of those birds which were forbidden by the law of Moses to be eaten by the Israelites. Com mentators generally agree that the Hoopoe is the bird intended. The hoopoe is not now eaten except occasionally in those countries where it is abundantly found — Egypt, France, Spain, &c, &c. The hoopoe is an occasional visitor to tMs country, arriving for the most part in the autumn. Its crest is very elegant, the long feathers forming it are each of them tipped with black. The Hoopoe (Upiipa Epopa.') LASE'A (Acts xxvii. 8), a city of Crete, the ruins of which were discovered in 1856, a few miles to the eastward of Fair Havens. LA'SHA, a place noticed in Gen. x. 19 as marMng the limit of the country of the Canaanites. It lay somewhere in the south east of Palestine. Jerome and other writers identify it with Callirhoe, a spot famous for hot springs near the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. LATCHET, the thong or fastening by which the sandal was attached to the foot. It occurs in the proverbial expression in Gen. xiv. 23, and is there used to denote something trivial or worthless. Another semi-pro verbial expression in Luke iii. 16 poults to LAODICEA. To face p. 293. LATIN 293 LAW the fact that the office of bearing and un- fasteMng the shoes of great personages fell to the meanest slaves. LATIN, the language spoken by the Ro mans, is mentioned oMy in John xix. 20, and Luke xxiii. 38. LATTICE. The rendering in A. V. of three Hebrew words. 1. Eshndb, which oc curs hut twice, Judg. v. 28, and Prov, vii. 6, and in the latter passage is translated " case ment " in the A. V. In both instances it stands in parallelism with "window." 2. Kh&raccim (Cant. ii. 9), is apparently synony mous with the preceding, though a word of later date. 3. Sebdcdh, is simply "a net work " placed before a window or balcony. Perhaps the network through which Ahaziah fell and received his mortal injury was on the parapet of Ms palace (2 K. i. 2). LAVER. 1. In the Tabernacle, a vessel of brass containing water for the priests to wash their hands and feet before offering sacrifice. It stood in the court between the altar and the door of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxx. 19, 21). It rested on a basis, i.e. a foot, though hy some explained to be a cover of copper or brass, which, as well as the laver itself, was made from the mirrors of the women who assembled at the door of the Tabernacle-court (Ex. xxxviii. 8). The form of the laver is not specified, hut may be as sumed to have been circular. Like the other vessels belonging to the Tabernacle, it was, together with its " foot," consecrated with oil (Lev. viii. 10, 11). 2. In Solomon's Temple, besides the great molten sea, there were ten lavers of brass, raised on bases (I K. vii. 27, 39), five on the N. and S. sides respectively of the court of the priests. Each laver contained 40 of the measures called " bath." They were used for washing the animals to be offered in burnt - offerings (2 Chr. iv. 6). The dimensions of the bases with the lavers, as given in the Hebrew text, are 4 cubits in length and breadth, and 3 in height. There were to each 4 wheels of l\ ' cubit in diameter, with spokes, &c, all cast in one piece. LAW. The word is properly used, in Scripture as elsewhere, to express a definite commandment laid down by any recognised authority. The commandment may be general, or (as in Lev. vi. 9, 14, &c, "the law of the burnt-offering," &c.) particular m its bear ing; the authority either human or divine. But when the word is used with the article, and without any words of limitation, it refers to the expressed will of God, and, in nine cases out of ten, to the Mosaic Law, or to the Pentateuch, of which it forms the chief portion. The Hebrew word, tdrdh, lays more Btress on its moral authority, as teach ing the truth, and gmding in the right way ; the Greek nomos (fo/aos), on its constraining power, as imposed and enforced by a recog nised authority. The sense of the word, how ever, extends its scope, and assumes a more abstract character in the writings of St. Paul. Nomos, when used by him with the article, still refers in general to the Law of Moses ; but when used without the article, so as to embrace any manifestation of "law," it in cludes all powers wMch act on the will of man by compulsion, or by the pressure of external motives, whether their commands be or be not expressed in definite forms. The occasional use of the word "law" (as in Rom. iii. 27, "law of faith;") to denote an internal principle of action, does not really militate against the general rule. It should also be noticed that the title " the Law " is occasionally used loosely to refer to the whole of the Old Testament (as in John x. 34, re ferring to Ps. lxxxii. 6 ; in John xv. 25, referring to Ps. xxxv. 1 9 ; and in 1 Cor. xiv. 21, referring to Is. xxviii. 11, 12). — The question has been frequently discussed how far the Mosaic Law has any obligation or existence under the dispensation of the Gospel. As a means of justification or salva tion, it ought never to have been regarded, even before Christ : it needs no proof to show that still less can this be so since He has come. But yet the question remains whether it is binding on Christians, even when they do not depend on it for salvation. It seems clear enough, that its formal coercive au thority as a whole ended with the close of the Jewish dispensation. It referred through out to the Jewish covenant, and in many points to the constitution, the customs, and even the local circumstances of the people. That covenant was preparatory to the Chris tian, in which it is now absorbed ; those customs and observances have passed away. It follows, by the very nature of the case, that the formal obligation to the Law must have ceased with the basis on which it is grounded. But what then becomes of the declaration of our Lord, that He came " not to destroy the Law, but to perfect it," and that " not one jot or one tittle of it shall pass away"? what of the fact, consequent upon it, that the Law has been reverenced in all Christian churches, and had an important influence on much Christian legislation ? The explanation of the apparent contradic tion lies in the difference between positive and moral obligation. To apply this principle practically there is need of much study and discretion, in order to distinguish what is local and temporary from what is universal. LAWYER 294 LAZARUS and what is mere external form from what is the essence of an ordinance. LAWYER. The title " lawyer " is gene rally supposed to he eqMvalent to the title " scribe," both on account of its etymological meaning, and also because the man, who is also called a "lawyer" in Matt. xxii. 35 and Luke x. 25, is called " one of the scribes" in Mark xii. 28. If the common reading in Luke xi. 44, 45, 46, be correct, it will be decisive against this. By the use of the word vo/aikos (Tit. iii. 9) as a simple ad jective, it seems more probable that the title " scribe " was a legal and official designation, but that the name vo/aikos was properly a mere epithet signifying one " learned in the law," and only used as a title in common parlance (comp. the use of it in Tit. iii. 13, " Zenas the lawyer "). LAYING ON OF HANDS. [Baptism.] LAZ'ARUS, another form of the Hebrew name Eleazar. — 1. Lazarus of Bethany, the brotherof Martha and Mary (John xi. 1). All that we know of him is derived from the Gospel of St. John, and that records little more than the facts of his death and resurrection ; but we may, with at least some measure of pro bability, fill up these scanty outlines. (1.) The language of John xi. 1, implies that the sisters were the better known. Lazarus is " bf Bethany, of the village of Mary and her sister Martha." From this, and from the order of the three names in John xi. 5, we may reasonably infer that Lazarus was the youngest of the family. (2.) In Luke x. 38 and John xii. 1, 2, a feast is given to Jesus by Martha and Mary ; but in Matt. xxvi. 6, Mark xiv. 3, the same feast appears as occurring in " the house of Simon the leper." A leper, as such, would have been compelled to lead a separate life, and certainly could not have given a feast and received a multitude of guests. Among the conjectural explanations wMch have been given of this difference, the hypothesis that this Simon was the father of the two sisters and of Lazarus, that he had been smitten with leprosy, and that actual death, or the civil death that followed on Ms disease, had left his cMldren free to act for themselves, is at least as probable as any other, and has some support in early ecclesiastical traditions. (3.) All the circumstances of John xi. and xii., point to wealth and social position above the average. (4.) A comparison of Matt. xxvi. 6, Mark xiv. 3, with Luke vii. 36, 44, suggests another conjecture that harmoMses with and in part explains the foregoing. If Simon the leper were also the Pharisee, it would explain the fact just noticed of the friendship between the sisters of Lazarus and the members of that party in Jerusalem. It would follow on tMs assumption that the Pharisee, whom we thus far identify with the father of Lazarus, was probably one of the members of that sect, sent down from Jerusalem to watch the new teacher. (5.) One other conjecture may yet be hazarded. There are some coincidences wMch suggest the identification of Lazarus with the young ruler that had great possessions, of Matt. xix., Mark x., Luke xviii. The age (Matt. xix. 20, 22) agrees with what has been be fore inferred (see above, 1), as does the fact of wealth above the average with what we know of the condition of the family at Bethany (see 2). If the father were an in fluential Pharisee, if there were ties of some Mnd uniting the family with that body, it would be natural enough that the son, even in comparative youth, shoMd occupy the position of a " ruler." But further, it is of this rich young man that St.^Mark uses the emphatic word ("Jesus, beholding Mm, loved him") which is used of no others in the Gospel-Mstory, save of the beloved apostle and of Lazarus and his sisters (John xi. 5). — Combining these inferences then, we get an insight into one aspect of the life of the Divine Teacher and Friend, full of living interest. The village of Bethany and its neighbourhood were a frequent retreat from the controversies and tumMts of Jerusalem (John xviii. 2 ; Luke xxi. 37, xxii. 39). At some time or other one household, wealthy, honourable, belonging to the better or Nico demus section of the Pharisees (see above, 1, 2, 3) learns to know and reverence Mm. Disease or death removes the father from the scene, and the two sisters are left with their younger brother to do as they think right. In them and in the brother over whom they watch, He finds that wMch is worthy of His love. But two at least need an education in the spiritual life. A few weeks pass away, and then comes the sickness of John xi. One of the sharp malignant fevers of Pa lestine cuts off the life that was so precious. The sisters know how truly the Divine Friend has loved him on whom their love and their hopes centered. They send to him in the belief that the tidings of the sickness will at once draw Him to them (John xi. 3). Slowly, and in words which (though afterwards understood otherwise) must at the time have seemed to the disciples those of one upon whom the truth came not at once but by degrees, he prepares them for the worst. " This sickness is not unto death " — " Our friend Lazarus sleepeth" — " Lazarus is dead." The work which he was doing as a teacher or a healer (Juhn x. 41, 42) in Betku- LEAD 295 LEAF, LEAVES bara, or the other Bethany (John x. 40 and i. 28), was not interrupted, and continues for two days after the message reaches him. Then comes the journey, occupying two days more. When He and His disciples come, three days have passed since the burial. The friends from Jerusalem, chiefly of the Pharisee and ruler class, are there with their consolations. . Tbe sisters receive the Pro phet, each according to her character. His sympathy with -their sorrow leads Him also to weep. Then comes the work of might as the answer of the prayer which the Son offers to the Father (John xi. 41, 42). The stone is rolled away from the mouth of the rock- chamber in which the body had been placed. *' He that was dead came forth, bound hand and- foot with grave-clothes ; and Ms face was bound about with a napMn." One scene more meets us, and then the life of the family which has come before us with such daylight clearness lapses again into obscurity. In the house which, though it still bore the father's name (sup. 1), was the dwelling of the sisters and the brother, there is a supper, and Lazarus is there, and Martha serves, no longer jealously, and Mary pours out her love in the costly offering of the spikenard ointment, and finds herself once again mis judged and hastily condemned. After this all direct knowledge of Lazarus ceases. The resurrection of Lazarus is recorded only by St. John. The writers of the first three Gospels confined themselves, as by a deli berate plan, to the miracles wrought in Galilee (that of the blind man at Jericho being the only exception), — 2. The name of a poor man in the well-known parable of Luke xvi. 19-31. The name of Lazarus has "been perpetuated in an institution of the Christian Church. The leper of the Middle Ages appears as a Lazzaro, Among the orders, half-military and half-monaBtic, of the 12th century, was one which bore the title of the Knights of St. Lazarus (a.d. 1119), whoso special work it was to mimster to the lepers, first of Syria, and afterwards of Europe'. The use of lazaretto and lazar- house for the leper-hospitals then founded in all parts of Western Christendom, no less than that of lazzarone for the mendicants of Italian towns, are indications of the effect of the parable upon the mind of Europe in the Middle Ages, and thence upon its later speech. LEAD, one of the most common of metals, found generally in veins of rocks, though seldom in a metallic state, and most com monly in combination with sulphur. It was early known to the ancients, and. the allusions to it in Scripture indicate that the Hebrews were well acquainted with its uses. The rocks in the neighbourhood of Sinai yielded it in large quantities, and it was found in Egypt. That it was common in Palestine is shown by the expression in Ecclus. xlvii. 18 (comp. 1 K. x. 27). It was among the spoils of the Midianites wMch the children of Israel brought with them to the plains of Moab, after their return from the slaughter of the tribe (Num. xxxi. 22). The ships of Tarshish supplied the market of Tyre with lead, as with other metalB (Ez. xxvii. 12). Its heaviness, to which allusion is made in Ex. xv. 10, and Ecclus. xxii. 14, caused it to be used for weights, which were either in the form of a round flat cake (Zech. v. 7), or a rough unfashioned lump or " stone " (ver. 8) ; stones having in ancient times served the purpose of weights (comp. Prov. xvi. 11). In modern metallurgy lead is used with tin in the composition of solder for fastening metals together. That the ancient Hebrews were acquainted with the use of solder is evident from Isaiah xii. 7. No hint is given as to the composition of the solder, hut in all probability lead was one of the materials employed, its usage for such a pur pose being of great antiqmty. In Job. xix. 24 the allusion is supposed to be to the prac tice of carving inscriptions upon stone, and pouring molten lead into the cavities of the letters, to render them legible, and at the same time preserve them from the action of the air. In modern metallurgy lead is em ployed for the purpose of purifying silver from other mineral products. The alloy is mixed with lead, exposed to fusion upon an earthen vessel, and submitted to a blast of air. By this means the dross is consumed. TMs process is called the cupelling operation, with which the description in Ez. xxii. 18- 22 accurately coincides. LEAF, LEAVES. The word occurs in the A. V. either in the singular or plural number in three different senses. 1. Leap of a tree. The olive leaf is mentioned in Gen. viii. 11. Fig-leaves formed the first covering of our parents in Eden. The barren fig-tree (Matt. xxi. 19 ; Mark xi. 13) on the road between Bethany and Jerusalem, " had on it nothing but leaves" The oak-leaf is mentioned in Is. i. 30, and vi, 13. The righteous are often compared to green leaves (Jer. xvii. 8). The ungodly on the other hand are " as an oak whose leaf fadeth " (Is. i. 30). In Ez. xlvii. 12 ; Rev. xxii. 1, 2, there is probably an al lusion to some tree whose leaves were used by the Jews as a medicine or ointment ; in deed, it is very likely that many plants and leaves were thus made use of by them, as by the old English herbalists. 2. "Leaves of doors. The Hebrew word, which occurs LEAH 296 LEBANON very many times in the Bible, and wMch in 1 K. vi. 32 (margm) and 34 is translated "leaves " in the A. V., signifies beams, ribs, sides, &c. 3. Leaves of a book or roll occurs in this sense only in Jer. xxxvi. 23. The Hebrew word (literally doors) would perhaps be more correctly translated columns. LE'AH, the daughter of Laban (Gen. xxix. 16). The dulness or weakness of her eyes was so notable, that it is mentioned as a con trast to the beautiful form and appearance of her younger sister Rachel. Her father took advantage of the opportunity which the local marriage-rite afforded to pass her off in her sister's stead on the unconscious bridegroom, and excused himself to Jacob by alleging that the custom of the country forbade the younger sister to be given first in marriage. Jacob's preference of Rachel grew into hatred of Leah, after he had married both sisters, Leah, however, bore to him in quick suc cession Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, then Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, before Rachel had a child. She died some time after Jacob reached the south country in which his father Isaac lived. She was buried in the family grave in Machpelah (ch. xlix. 31). LEASING, " falsehood." This word is re tained in the A. V. of Ps. iv. 2, v. 6, from the older English versions ; hut the Hebrew word of which it is the rendering is else where almost uniformly translated "lies" (Ps. xl. 4, Iviii. 3, &c). LEATHER. The notices of leather in the Bible are smgularly few ; indeed the word occurs but twice in the A. V., and in each instance in reference to the same object, a girdle (2 K. i. 8 ; Matt. iii. 4,). There are, however, other instances in which the word " leather " might with propriety be substi tuted for "sMn" (Lev. xi. 32, xiii. 48; Num. xxxi. 20). LEAVEN. Various substances were known to have fermenting qualities ; but the ordi nary leaven consisted of a lump of old dough in a high state of fermentation, which was inserted into the mass of dough prepared for baking. The use of leaven was strictly for bidden in all offerings made to the Lord by fire. It is in reference to these prohibitions that Amos (iv. 5) ironically bids the Jews of his day to " offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving with leaven." In other instances, where the offering was to be consumed by the priests, and not on the altar, leaven might be used. Various ideas were associated with the pro hibition of leaven in the instances above quoted. But the most prominent idea, and the one which applies equally to all the cases of prohibition, is connected with the cor ruption wMch leaven itself had undergone, and which it communicated to bread in tlie process of fermentation. It is to tnis pro perty of leaven that our Saviour points when he speaks of the " leaven (i.e. the corrupt doctrine) of the Pharisees and of the Saddu- cees " (Matt. xvi. 6) ; and St. Paul, when he speaks of the " old leaven " (1 Cor. v. 7). LEB'ANON, a mountain range in the north of Palestine. The name Lebanon sig nifies "white," and was applied either on account of the snow, wMch, during a great part of the year, covers its whole summit, or on account of the white colour of its lime stone cliffs and peaks. It is the " white mountain " — the Mont Blanc of Palestine. Lebanon is represented in Scripture as lying upon the northern border of the land of Israel (Deut. i. 7, xi. 24 ; Josh. i. 4). Two distinct ranges bear this name. They run in parallel lines from S.W. to N.E. for about 90 geog. miles, enclosing between them a long fertile valley from 5 to 8 miles wide, anciently called Coele-Syria. The western range is the " Libanus " of the old geogra-. phers, and the Lebanon of Scripture. The eastern range was called "Anti-Libanus " by geographers, and " Lebanon toward the sun- rising" by the sacred writers (Josh. xiii. 5). 1. Lebanon — the western range — commences on the south of the deep ravine of the Litany, the ancient river Leontes, which drains the valley of Coele-Syria, and falls into the Medi terranean five miles north of Tyre. It runs N.E. in a straight line parallel to the coast, to the opening from the Mediterranean into the plain of Emesa, called in Scripture the "Entrance of Hamath" (Num. xxxiv. 8). Here Nahr el-Kebvr — the ancient river Eleu- therus — sweeps round its northern end, as the Leontes does round its southern. The average elevation of the range is from 6000 to 8000 ft.; but two peaks rise considerably higher. On the summits of both these peaks the snow remains in patches during the whole summer. The line of cultivation runs along at the height of about 6000 ft. ; and below tMs the features of the western slopes are entirely different. The rugged limestone banks are scantily clothed with the ever green oak, and the sandstone with pines ; •while every available spot is carefully culti vated. The cultivation is wonderful, and shows what all Syria might be if under a good government. Fig-trees cling to the naked rock ; vines are trained along narrow ledges ; long ranges of mulberries, on ter races like steps of stairs, cover the more gentle declivities ; and dense groves of olives fill up the bottoms of the glens. Hundreds of villages are seen — here bMlt amid laby rinths of rocks, there clinging like swallows* MHi-l faO w LEBBAEUS 297 LEES nests to the Bides of cliffs ; whilt convents, no less numerous, are perched on the top of every peak. The vine is still largely culti vated in every part of the mountain. Leba non also abounds in olives, figs, and mulber ries ; while some remnants exist of the forests of pine, oak, and cedar, which for merly covered it (1 K. v. 6 ; Ps. xxix. 5 ; Is. xiv. 8; Ezr. iii. 7). Considerable num bers of wild beasts still inhabit its retired glens and higher peaks ; the writer has seen jackals, hyenas, wolves, bears, and panthers (2 K. xiv. 9; Cant. iv. 8; Hab. ii. 17). Along the base of Lebanon runs the irregular plain of Phoenicia ; nowhere more than two miles wide, and often interrupted by bold rocky spurs, that dip into the sea. The main ridge of Lebanon is composed of Jura lime stone, and abounds in fossils. Long belts of more recent sandstone fun along the western slopes, which is in places largely impreg nated with iron. Lebanon was originally inhabited by the Hivites and Giblites (Judg. iii. 3 ; Josh. xiii. 5, 6). The whole moun tain range was assigned to the Israelites, but was never conquered by them (Josh. xiii. 2-6; Judg. iii. 1-3). During the Jewish monarchy it appears to have been subject to the Phoemcians (1 K. v. 2-6 ; Ezr. iii. 7). From the Greek conquest until modern times Lebanon had no separate Mstory. — 2. Anti- Libanus. — The main chain of Anti-Libanus commences in the plateau of Bashan, near the parallel of Caesarea-PMlippi, runs north to Hermon, and then north-east in a straight line till it sinks down into the great plain of Emesa, not far from the site of Riblah. Hermon is the loftiest peak ; the next Mghest is a few miles north of the site of Abila, beside the village of Bluddn, and has an elevation of -about 7000 feet. The rest of the ridge averages about 5000 ft. ; it is in general bleak and barren, with shelving gray declivities, gray cliffs, and gray rounded summits. Here and there we meet with thin forests of dwarf oak and juniper. The western slopes descend abruptly into the Bu- kd'a; but the features of the eastern are entirely different. Three side ridges here radiate from Hermon, like the ribs of an open fan, and form the supporting walls of three great terraces. Anti-Libanus is oMy once distinctly mentioned in Scripture, where it is accurately described as " Lebanon toward the sun-rising " (Josh. xiii. 5). "The tower of Lebanon wMch looketh toward Damascus " (Cant. vii. 4) -is doubtless Hermon, wMch forms the most striking feature in the whole panorama round that city. LEBBAE'US. This name occurs in Matt. a. 3, according to Codex D (Bezae) of the sixth century, and in the received Text. In Mark iii. 18, it is substituted in a few unim portant MSS. for Thaddaeus. [Jude.] LEECH. [Horse-Leech.] LEEKS (Heb. chdtsir). The word chdtsir, which in Num. xi, 5 is translated leeks, occurs twenty times in the Hebrew text. The He brew term, which properly denotes grass, is derived from a root sigmfying " to be green," and may therefore stand in this passage for any green food, lettuce, endive, &c. ; it would thus be applied somewhat in the same manner as we use the term " greens ; " yet as the chdtsir is mentioned together with omons and garlick in the text, and as the most ancient versions unanimously under stand leeks by the Hebrew word, we may be satisfied with our own translation. There is, however, another and a very ingenious inter pretation of chdtsir, first proposed by Hengs- tenberg, and received by Dr. Kitto (Pictor> Bible, Num. xi. 5), which adopts a more literal translation of the original word, for, says Dr. Kitto, " among the wonders in the natural history of Egypt, it is mentioned by travellers that the common people there eat with special relish a Mnd of grass similar to clover." This plant (of which the scientific name is Trigonella foenum Graecum) is si milar to clover, but its leaves more pointed, Trigonella foenum- graecum and great quantities of it are eaten by the people. The leek is too well-known to need description. Its botanical name is Allium porrum. LEES. The Hebrew shemer bears the radical sense of preservation, and was applied LEGION 298 LEOPARD to "lees" from the custom of allowing the wine to stand on the lees in order that its coljur and body might be better preserved. Hence the expression " wine on the lees," as meaMng a generous Ml-bodied liquor (Is. xxv. 6). Before the wine was consumed, it was necessary to strain off tho lees ; such wine was then termed "well refined" (Is. xxv. 6). To drink the lees, or " dregs," was an expression for the endurance of extreme punishment (Ps. Ixxv. 8). LEGION, the chief sub-division of the Roman army, containing about 6000 in fantry, with a contingent of cavalry. The term does not occur in the Bible in its pri mary sense, but appears to have been adopted in order to express any large number, with the accessory ideas of order and subordination (Matt. xxvi. 53 ; Mark v. 9). LE'HABIM, occurring only in Gen. x. 13, the name of a Mizraite people or tribe. There can be no doubt that they are the same as the ReBU or LeBU of the Egyptian inscrip tions, and that from them Libya and the Libyans derived their name. These primi tive Libyans appear to have inhabited the northern part of Africa to the west of Egypt, though latterly driven from the coast by the Greek colonists of the Cyrenaica. LE'HI, a place in Judah, probably on the confines of the Philistines' country, between it and the cliff Etam ; the scene of Samson's well-known exploit with the jawbone (Judg. xv. 9, 14, 19). It contained an eminence — Ramath-lehi, and a spring of great and last ing repute — En-hak-kore. It may perhaps be identified with Beit-Liktyeh, a village about 2 miles below the upper Beth-horon. LEM'UEL, the name of an unknown king to whom his mother addressed the prudential maxims contained in Prov. xxxi. 1-9. The Rabbinical commentators identified Lemuel with Solomon. Others regard him as king or chief of an Arab tribe dwelling on the borders of Palestine, and elder brother of Agur, whose name stands at the head of Prov. xxx. LENTILES (Heb. 'dddsMm). The word occurs in the four following passages : — Gen. xxv. 34, 2 Sam. xvii. 28, xxiii. 11, and Ez. iv. 9. There are three or four kinds of len tiles, all of which are still much esteemed in those countries where they are grown, viz. the South of Europe, Asia, and North Africa : the red lentile is still a favourite article of food in the East ; it is a small Mnd, the seeds of which after being decorticated, are commonly sold in the bazaars of India. The modern Arabic name of this plant is identical with the Hebrew ; it is known in Egypt and Arabia, Syria, &c, by the name 'Adas. Lentile bread is still eaten by the poor of Egypt. Lentile (Ervum lew.') LEOPARD (Heb. ndm&r) is invariably given by the A. V. as the translation of tbe Hebrew word, which occurs in the seven fol lowing passages, — Is. xi. 6 ; Jer. v. 6, xiii. 23 ; Dan. vii. 6 ; Hos. xiii. 7 ; Cant. iv. 8 ; Hab. i. 8. Leopard occurs also in Ecclus. xxviii. 23, and in Rev. xiii. 2. From Cant. iv. 8, we learn that the hilly ranges of Le banon were in ancient times frequented by these snimals. They are now not uncom monly seen in and about Lebanon, and tho southern maritime mountains of Syria. Under the name ndmer, which means " spotted," it is not improbable that another animal, namely tbe cheetah (Gueparda jubata), may be included ; wMch is tamed by the Maho- Leopurd (Levpardut vuriiu.) LEPER 299 LEUMMIM metans of Syria, who employ it in hunting the gazelle. LEPER, LEPROSY. The predominant and characteristic form of leprosy in Scrip ture is a wMte variety, covering either the entire body, or a large tract of its surface ; which has obtained the name of lepra Mo- saica. Such were the cases of Moses, Miriam, Naaman, and Gehazi (Ex. iv. 6 ; Num. xii. 10; 2 K. v. 1, 27; comp. Lev. xiii. 13). But, remarkably enough, in the Mosaic ri tual-diagnosis of the disease (Lev. xiii., xiv.), this Mnd, when overspreading the whole sur face, appears to be regarded as " clean " (xiii. 12, 13, 16, 17). The Egyptian bondage, with its studied degradations and privations, and especially the work of the Mln under an Egyptian aun, must have had a frightful ten dency to generate this class of disorders ; hence Manetho asserts that the Egyptians drove out the Israelites as infected with leprosy — a strange reflex, perhaps, of the Mosaic narrative of the " plagues" of Egypt, yet probably also containing a germ of truth. The sudden and total change of food, air, dwelling, and mode of life, caused by the Exodus, to this nation of newly-emancipated slaves, may possibly have had a further ten dency to produce skin-disorders, and severe repressive measures may have been required in the desert-moving camp to secure the publio health, or to allay the panic of infec tion. Hence it is possible that many, per haps most of this repertory of symptoms may have disappeared with the period of the Ex odus, and the snow-wMte form, which had pre-existed, may alone have ordinarily con tinued in a later age. But it is observable that, amongst these Levitical symptoms, the scaling, or peeling off of the surface, is no where mentioned, nor is there any expression in the Hebrew text wMch points to exfolia tion of the cuticle. The principal morbid features are a rising or swelling, a scab or baldness, and a bright or white spot (xiii. 2). But especially a white swelling in the skin, with a change of the hair of the part from the natural black to white or yellow (3, 10, 4, 20, 25, 30), or an appearance of a taint going " deeper than the skin," or again, " raw flesh " appearing in the swelling (10, 14, 15), were critical signs of pollution. The mere swelling, or scab, or bright spot, was remanded for a week as doubtful (4, 21, 26, 31), and for a second such period, if it had not yet pronounced (5). If it then spread (7, 22, 27, 35), it was decided as polluting. But if after the second period of quarantine the trace died away and showed no symptom of spreading, it was a mere scab, and the patient was adjudged clean (6, 23, 34). This | tendency to spread seems especially to have been relied on. A spot most innocent in all other respects, if it " spread much abroad," was unclean ; whereas as before remarked, the man so wholly overspread with the evil that it could find no farther range, was on the contrary "clean" (12, 13). These two opposite criteria Beem to show, that wMlst the disease manifested activity, the Mosaic law imputed pollution to and imposed segre gation on the sufferer, but that the point at which it might be viewed as having run its course was the signal for his readmission to communion. It is clear that the leprosy of Lev. xiii., xiv. means any severe disease spreading on the surface of the body in the way described, and so shocking of aspect, or so generally suspected of infection, that pub lic feeling called for separation. — It is now undoubted that the " leprosy " of modern Syria, and which has a wide range in Spain, Greece, and Norway, is the Elephantiasis Graecorum. It is said to have been brought home by the crusaders into the various coun tries of Western and Northern Europe. It certainly was not the distinctive wMte le prosy, nor do any of the described symptoms in Lev. xiii. point to elephantiasis. " White as snow " (2 K. v. 27) would be as inapplic able to elephantiasis as to small-pox. — There remains a curious question as regards the leprosy of garments and houses. Some have thought garments worn by leprous patients intended. This classing of garments and housewalls with the human epidermis, as leprous, has moved the mirth of some, and the wonder of others. Yet modern science has established what goes far to vindicate the Mosaic classification as more philoso phical than such cavils. It is now known that there are some sMn-diseases which ori ginate m an acarus, and others which proceed from a fungus. In these we may probably find the solution of the paradox. The ana logy between the insect wMch frets the human sMn and that wMch frets the garment that covers it, between the fungous growth that lines the crevices of the epidermis and that which creeps in the interstices of ma- Bonry, is close enough for the purposes of a ceremonial law. It is manifest also that a disease in the human subject caused by an acarus or by a fungus would be certainly contagious, since the propagative cause coMd be transferred from person to person. LE'SHEM, another form of Laish, after wards Dan, occurring in Josh. xix. 47. LET'USHIM, the name of the second of the sons of Dedan, son of Jokshan (Gen. xxv. 3). LE'UMMIM, the name of the tMrd of the LEVI 300 LEVITES descendants of Dedan, son of Jokshan, Gen. xxv. 3, being in the plural form like Ms brethren, Asshurim and Letushim. LE'VI. 1. The name of the third son of Jacob by his wife Leah. The name, derived from lavdh, "to adhere," gave utterance to the hope of the mother that the affections of her husband, which had hitherto rested on the favoured Rachel, would at last be drawn to her. "This time will my husband be joined unto me, because I have borne him three sons" (Gen. xxix. 34). The new-born child was to be a fresh link binding the parents to each other more closely than before. Levi, with his brother Simeon, avenged with a cruel slaughter the outrage of their sister Dinah. [Dinah.] Levi, with his three sons, Gershon, Kohath, Merari, went down to Egypt with his father Jacob (Gen. xlvii. 11). When Jacob's death draws near, and the sons are gathered round him, Levi and Si meon hear the old crime brought up again to receive its sentence. They, no less than Reu ben, the incestuous first-born, had forfeited tbe privileges of their birthright (Gen. xlix. 5-7). [Levites,] — 2. Son of Alphaeus (Mark ii. 14; Luke v. 27, 29). [Matthew.] LEVI'ATHAN occurs five times in the text of the A. V., and once in the margin of Job iii. 8, where the text has " mourning." In the Hebrew Bible the word livyathan, which is, with the foregoing exception, always left untranslated in the A. V., is found only in the following passages : Job iii, 8, xii. 1 ; Ps. lxxiv. 14, civ. 26 ; Is. xxvii. 1. In the margin of Job iii. 8, and text of Job xii. 1, the crocodile is most clearly the animal de noted by the Hebrew word. Ps. lxxiv. 14 also clearly points to this same saurian. The oontext of Ps. civ. 26 seems to show that in this passage the name represents some animal of the whale tribe ; but it ia somewhat uncertain what animal is denoted in Ib. xxvii. 1. Crocodile of tlie Nile {0. vulgaris.) As the term leviatlum is evidently used in no limited sense, it is not improbable that the "leviathan the piercing serpent," or " leviathan the crooked serpent," may denote some species of the great rock-snakes which are common in South and West Africa. LE'VIS, improperly given as a proper name in 1 Esd. ix. 14. It is simply a corruption of " the Levite " in Ezr. x. 15. LE'VITES. The analogy of the names of the other tribes of Israel would lead us to in clude under these titles the whole tribe that traced its descent from Levi. The existence of another division, however, within the tribe itself, in the higher office of tho priesthood as limited to " the sons of Aaron," gave to the common form, in this instance, a peculiar meaning. Most frequently the Levites are distingmshed, as such,, from the priests (1 K. vm. 4 ; Ezr. ii. 70 ; John i. 19, &c.), and this is the meaning which has perpetuated itself. Sometimes the word extends to the whole tribe, the priests included (Num. xxxv. 2 ; Josh. xxi. 3, 41 ; Ex. vi. 25 ; Lev. xxv. 32, &c). Sometimes again it is added as an epithet of the smaller portion of the tribe, and we read of "the priests the Levites" (Josh. iii. 3 ; Ez. xliv. 15). The history of the tribe and of the functions attached to its several orders is essential to any right appre hension of the history of Israel as a people. It will fall naturally into four great periods. I. The time of the Exodus — There is no trace of the consecrated character of the Levites till the institution of an hereditary priesthood in the family of Aaron, during the first with drawal of Moses to the solitude of Sinai (xxviii. 1). The next extension of the idea of the priesthood grew out of the terrible crisis of Ex. xxxii. The tribe stood forth, separate and apart, recognising even in this Btern work the spiritual as higher than the natural. From this time they occupied a distinct position. The tribe of Levi was to take the place of that earlier priesthood of the first born as representatives of the holiness of the people. As the Tabernacle was the sign of the presence among the people of their unseen King, so the Levites were, among the other tribes of Israel, as the royal guard that waited exclusively on Him. When the people were at rest they encamped as guardians round the sacred tent (Num. i. 51, xviii. 22). When on the march no hands but theirs might strike the tent at the commencement of the day's journey, or carry the parts of its struc ture during it, or pitch the tent once again when they halted (Num. i. 51). It was ob viously essential for such a work that there should be a fixed assignment of duties ; and now accordingly we meet with the first out- LEVITES 301 LEVITES lines of the organization which afterwards became permanent. The division of the tribe into tbe three sections that traced their descent from the sons of Levi, formed the groundwork of it. The work which they all had to do required a man's full strength, and therefore, though twenty was the starting- point for military service (Num. i.), they were not to enter on their active service till they were thirty (Num. iv. 23, 30, 35). At fifty they were to be free from all duties but those of superintendence (Num. viii. 25, 26). The Kohathites, as nearest of kin to the priests, held from the first the highest offices. They were to bear all the vessels of the sanc tuary, the ark itself included (Num. iii. 31, iv. 15 ; Deut. xxxi. 25), after the priests had covered them with the dark-blue cloth which was to hide them from all profane gaze. The Gershonites had to carry the tent-hang ings and curtains (Num. iv. 22-26). The heavier burden of the boards, bars, and pillars of the tabernacle fell on the sons of Merari. The Levites were to have no terri torial possessions. In place of them they were to receive from the others the tithes of the produce of the land, from which they, in their turn, offered a tithe to the priests, as recognition of their higher consecration (Num. xviii. 21, 24, 26 ; Neh. x. 37). When the wanderings of the people should be over and the tabernacle have a settled place, great part of the labour that had fallen on them would come to an end, and they too would need a fixed abode. Distinctness and diffu sion were both to be secured by the assign ment to the whole tribe of forty-eight cities, with an outlying "suburb" (Num. xxxv. 2) of meadow-land for the pasturage of their flocks and herds. The reverence of the people for them was to be heightened by the selection of six of these as cities of re fuge. Through the whole land the Levites were to take the place of the old household priests, Bharing in all festivals asid rejoicings (Deut. xii. 19, xiv. 26, 27, xxvi. 11). Every third year they were to have an additional share in the produce of the land (Deut. xiv. 28, xxvi. 12). To "the priests the Le vites" was to belong the office of preserving, transcribing, and interpreting the law (Deut. xvii. 9-12, xxxi. 26). II. The period of the Judges. — The successor of Moses, though be longing to another tribe, did faithfully all that could be done to convert this idea into a reality. The submission of the Gibeonites enabled him to relieve the tribe-divisions of Gershon and Merari of the most burdensome of their duties. The conquered Hivites be came " hewers of wood and drawers of water " for the house of Jehovah and for the congregation (Josh. ix. 27). As soon as the conquerors had advanced far enough to proceed to a partition of the country, the forty-eight cities were assigned to them. III. The Monarchy.- — The rule of Samuel, himself a Levite, tended to give them the position of a ruling caste. The reign of Saul, in its later period, was the assertion of a self-willed power against the priestly order. The reign of David, however^ wrought the change from persecution to honour. When his Mngdom was established, there came a fuller organisation of the whole tribe. Their position in relation to the priesthood was once again definitely recog nised. When the ark was carried up to its new resting-place in Jerusalem, their claim to be the bearers of it was publicly acknow ledged (1 Chr, xv. 2). In the procession which attended the ultimate conveyance of the ark to its new resting-place the Levites were conspicuous, wearing their linen ephods, and appearing in their new character as minstrels (1 Chr. xv. 27, 28). In the worship of the tabernacle under David, as afterwards in that of the Temple, we may trace a de velopment of the simpler arrangements of the wilderness and of Shiloh. The Levites were the gatekeepers, vergers, sacristans, chorist ers of the central sanctuary of the nation. They were, in the language of 1 Chr. xxiii. 24-32, to which we may refer as almost the locus classicus on this subject, " to wait on the sons of Aaron for the service of the house of Jehovah, in the courts, and the chambers, and the purifying of all holy things." This included the duty of providing "for the shew-bread, and the fine flour for meat-offer ing, and for the unleavened bread." They were, besides this, " to stand every morning to thank and praise Jehovah, and likewise at even." They were lastly " to offer " — i.e. to assist the priest in offerings — " all burnt- sacrifices to Jehovah in the sabbaths and on the set feasts." They lived for the greater part of the year in their own cities, and came up at fixed periods to take their turn of work (1 Chr. xxv. xxvi.). The educa tion which the Levites received for their peculiar duties, no less than their connexion more or less intimate with the schools of the prophets, would tend to make them tho teachers of the others, the transcribers and interpreters of the Law, the chroniclers of the times in which they lived. We have some striMng instances of their appearance in this new character. The two books of ChroMcles bear unmistakable marks of having been written by men whose interests were all ga thered round the services of the Temple, and who were familiar with its records. Th« LEVITICUS 302 LICE revolt of the ten tribes, and the policy pur sued by Jeroboam, led to a great change in the position of the Levites. . They were the witnesses of an appointed order and of a central worsMp. He wished to make the priests the creatures and instruments of the king, and to establish a provincial and di vided worahip. The natural result was, that they left the cities assigned to them in the territory of Israel, and gathered round the metropolis of Judah (2 Chr. xi. 13, 14), In the Mngdom of Judah they were, from this time forward, a powerful body, politically, as well as ecclesiastically. IV. After the Captivity. — On the return from Babylon, the Levites take their old places in the Temple and in the villages near Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 29), and are present in full array at the great feast of the Dedication of the Wall. The two prophets who were active at the time of the Return, Haggai and Zechariah, if they did not belong to the tribe, helped it forward in the work of restoration. The last prophet of the O. T. sees, as part of Ms vision of the latter days, the time wheD the Lord " shall purify the sons of Levi " (Mal. iii. 3). Dur ing the period that followed the Captivity they contributed to the formation of the so- called Great Synagogue. They, with the priests, formed the majority of the permanent Sanhedrim, and as such had a large share in the administration of Justice even in capital cases. They take no prominent part in the Maccabaean struggles, though they must have been present at the great purification of the Temple. They appear but seldom in the Mstory of the N. T. Where we meet with their names it is as the type of a formal heartless worship, without sympathy and without love (Luke x. 32). The mention of a Levite of Cyprus in Acts iv. 36 shows that the changes of the previous century had carried that tribe also into " the dispersed among the Gentiles." LEVITICUS. The Book, which is so called because it relates principally to the Levites and Priests, consists of the following principal sections : — I. The laws touching sacrifices (chap, i.-vii.). II. An Mstorical section containing, first, the consecration of Aaron and his sons (chap, viii.) ; next, his first offering for himself and his people (chap, ix.) ; and lastly, the destruction of Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, for their presumptuous offence (chap. x.). III. The laws concerning purity and impurity, and the appropriate sacrifices and ordinances for putting away impurity (chap. xi.-xvi.). IV. Laws chiefly intended to mark the separa tion between Israel and the heathen nations (chap, xvii.-xx.). V. Laws concerning the priests (xxi., xxii.) ; and certain holy days and festivals (xxiii., xxv.), together with an episode (xxiv.). The section extends from chap. xxi. 1 to xxvi. 2. VI. Promises and threats (xxvi. 2-46). VII. An appendix containing the laws concerning vows (xxvii.). LIB'ANUS. [Lebanon.] LIBERTINES. This word, wMch occurs once only in the N. T. (Acts vi. 9), is the Latin Libertini, that is " freedmen." They were probably Jews who, having been taken prisoners by Pompey and other Roman generals in the Syrian wars, had been re duced to slavery, and had afterwards been emancipated, and returned, permanently or for a time, to the country of their fathers. LIB 'N AH. 1. A city which lay in the south-west part of the Holy Land, taken by Joshua immediately after the rout of Beth- horon. It belonged to the maritime lowland of Judah, among the cities of wMch district it is enumerated (Josh. xv. 42). It was ap propriated with its " suburbs " to the priests (Josh. xxi. 13 ; 1 Chr. vi. 57). In the reign of Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat it " re volted " from Judah at the same time with Edom (2 K. viii. 22 ; 2 Chr. xxi. 10). On completing or relinquisMng the siege of Lachish — which of the two is not quite cer tain — Sennacherib laid siege to Libnah (2 K. xix. 8 ; Is. xxxvii. 8). It was the native place of Hamutal, or Hamital, the queen of Josiah, and mother of Jehoahaz (2 K. xxiii. 81) and Zedekiah (xxiv. 18 ; Jer. Iii. 1). Its exact site is uncertain. — 2. One of the stations at which the Israelites encamped, on their journey between the wilderness of Sinai and Kadesh (Num. xxxiii. 20, 21) ; and the only conjecture wMch appears to have been made concerning it is that it was identical with Laban, mentioned in Deut. i. 1. LIB'NI, eldest son of Gershon, the son of Levi (Ex. vi. 17 ; Num. iii. 18 ; 1 Chr. vi. 17, 20), and ancestor of the family of the Libnites (Num. iii. 21, xxvi. 58). LIB'YA occurs only in Acts ii. 10, in the periphrasis " the parts of Libya about Cyrene," which obviously means the Cyrenaica. The name Libya is applied hy the Greek and Roman writers to the African continent, generally however excluding Egypt. LICE (Heb. cinnim, cinndm). TMs word occurs in the A. V. only in Ex. viii. 16-18, and in Ps. cv. 31 ; both of which passages have reference to the third great plague of Egypt. The Hebrew word has given occasion to whole pages of discussion. Some com mentators, and indeed modern writers gene rally, suppose that gnats are the animals intended by the original word ; while, on the other hand, the Jewish Rabbis, Josephus and LIGN ALOES 303 LINEN others, are in favour of the translation of the A. V. Upon the whole it appears that there is not sufficient authority for departing from the translation of the A. V. LIGN ALOES. [Aloes.] LIGURE (Heb. leshem), a precious stone mentioned in Ex. xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12, as the firBt in the third row of the Mgh-priest's breastplate. It is impossible to say, with any certainty, what stone is denoted by the Heb. term ; but perhaps tourmaline, or more definitely the red variety known as rubellite has better claims than that of any other mineral. Rubellite is a hard stone and used as a gem, and is sometimes sold for red sapphire. LILY (Heb. sh&shdn, shdshanndh). Al though there is little doubt that the Hebrew word denotes some plant" of the lily species, it is by no means certain what individual of this class it especially designates. If the shushan or shdshanndh of the O. T. and the Kplvov of the Sermon on the Mount be iden tical, wMch there seems no reason to doubt, the plant designated by these terms must have been a conspicuous object on the shores of the Lake of Gennesaret (Matt. vi. 28 ; Luke xii. 27) ; it must have flourished in the deep broad valleys of Palestine (Cant. ii. 1), among the thorny shrubs (ib. ii. 2) and pastures of the desert (ib. ii. 16, iv. 5, vi. 3), and must have been remarkable for its rapid and luxuriant growth (Hos, xiv. 5 ; Ecclus. xxxix. 14). That its flowers were brilliant in colour would seem to be indicated in Matt. vi. 28, where it is compared with the gor- L&Ium Chaloedonloam. geous robes of Solomon ; and that this colour was scarlet or purple is implied in Cant. v. 13. There appears to be no species of lily wMch so completely answers all these re quirements as the Lilium Chalcedonicum, or Scarlet Martagon, which grows in profusion in the Levant. But direct evidence on the point is still to be desired from the observa tion of travellers. — The Phoenician architects of Solomon's temple decorated the capitals of the columns with " lily-work," that is, with leaves and flowers of the lily (1 K. vii.), cor responding to the lotus-headed capitals of Egyptian architecture. The rim of the " brazen sea " was possibly wrought in the form of the recurved margin of a lily flower (1 K. vii. 26). LINEN. 1. As Egypt was the great centre of the linen manufacture of antiquity, it is in connexion with that country that we find the first allusion to it in the Bible. Joseph, when promoted to the dignity of ruler of the land of Egypt, was arrayed " in vestureB of fine linen" (shesh, marg. "silk," Gen. xii. 42), and among the offerings for the taber nacle of the tMngs which the Israelites had brought out of Egypt were "blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen " (Ex. xxv. 4, xxxv. 6). — 2. But in Ex. xxviii. 42, and Lev. vi. 10, the drawers of the priests and their flowing robes are said to he of linen (bad) ; and the tuMc of the high-priest, Ms girdle and mitre, which he wore on the day of atonement, were made of the same material (Lev. xvi. 4). From a comparison of Ex. xxviii. 42 with xxxix. 28 it seems clear that bad and shdsh were synonymous. — 3. Buts, always translated "fine linen," except 2 Chr. v. 12, is apparently a late word, and probably the same with the Greek Pvo-o-os, by which it is represented by the LXX. It was used for the dresses of the Levite choir in the temple (2 Chr. v. 12), for the loose upper garment worn by kings over the close-fitting tunic (I CM. xv. 27), and for the vail of the temple, embroidered by the Bkill of the Tyrian artificers (2 Chr. iii. 14). The dress of the rich man in the parable was purple and fine linen (j3vo-