YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

THE LIBRARY ASSOCIATES

Gift of
CHARLES G. MORRIS

Jerusalem.

Rome

SCRIPTURE
GEOGRAPHY;
OK,
A COMPANION TO THE BIBLE :

V GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF THE
PLACES MENTIONED IN THE HOLY SCRIPTURES.
IN TWO PARTS.
PART I. GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL I
EXTENDING FROM THE CREATION OF THE WORLD TO THE FINAL SET
TLEMENT OF THE ISRAELITES IN THE LAND OF CANAAN.
PART II- A GEOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE I
CONTAINING, IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER, A DESCRIPTION OF THE PLA
CES MENTIONED IN THE HOLY SCRIPTURES.
ACCOMPANIED BY FIVE MAPS.
I. Eastern countries, as mentioned by Moses. II. The World, as peopled
by the descendants of Noah. III. Map of Canaan, with the portions of the
Tribes. IV. Tetrarchies of Palestine, V. Countries mentioned in the New
Testament. And embellished wiih nearly one hundred engravings, illustra
tive of the heathen deities, of nations and countries mentioned in Scripture,
and of the subsequent history and present state of those countries.
TO WHICH IS ADDED,
SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY,
WITH ENGRAVINGS.
INTENDED FOR THE USE OF FAMILIES AND SCHOOLS.

BY THOMAS T. SMILEY, A. M., M. D.

Go through the land and describe it :— and the men went through the land,
and described it by cities, in a book." — Josh, xviii. 8, 9.

HARTFORD :
PUBLISHED BY J. SEYMOUR BROWN.
1847.

Entered according to the act of Congress, in tho year 1846, by
Fbomab T. Shiley, in the clerk's office of the district court for the
eastern district of Pennsylvania.

Mi

v99
Gs smsc

RECOMMENDATIONS.

From Roberts Vaux, Esq., President of the Pennsylvania Education Society
It affords me pleasure, whilst I regard it a duty, to confess hnw much 1
feel indebted to Dr. Smiley for his compendious "Scripture Geography ," o
volume, the composition of which is the result of great research into vari
ous and rare authorities in this department of knowledge, that are acces
sible to very few persons. The Holy Scriptures will be rendered morn
intelligible and interesting after the perusal of this work, the whole scope
of which seems to me to be eminently calculated, to ;;ive " energy to virtue
and confidence to truth." Every class of readers may derive instruction
from its pages, and it will be especially valuable in all schools for the right
education of youth. ROBERTS VAUX.

From the Christian Index, edited by the Rev. Dr. Branthj.
" The professions of the title-page are ably sustained, in the subsequent
pages of the work. The matter is abundant, judiciously arranged, and
clearly set forth. The Scripture Geography should be at once introduced
into all families, and schools, and its contents well digested by young and
old. Any book containing Geographical allusions cannot be understood
without a knowledge of the places referred to. Dr. Smiley is already well
known as the author of a most useful general Geography.

The following are among the numerous subscribers to
the work.

Rev. Ezra Stiles Ely, D.D. Philada.
 Stephen H. Tyng, D.D.
 Michael Hurley, D.D.
 John Hughes,
 H. Bibighaus,
 T. J. Kitts,
 T. Dasilva,
 Joseph H. Kennard,
 William Bryanfr,
 Keiley,
 S. G. Winchester,
— — - George Boyd,
 Charles Pitman,
 William Berrian,D.D. N. York
¦  James Milnor, D.D.
 Thomas Dewitt,
 J. L. Broadhead, D.D.
 Samuel H. Cox, D.D.
 William Creighton, D.D.
 E. W. Baldwin,
 D. E. Lansing, D.D.
 J. M. Forbes,
 D. Dunbar,
 John Knox,
 William Parkinson,
 P. Williams,
 C. T. Demareat,

Rev. J. Harrison, N. York.
 Mr. Johnson, "
 L. P. Bayard,
 F. W. Geisenhaimer, "
 John Middleton, "
 Albert Smedes, "
 ¦ James Hayborn, *
 William George Miller, "
 William Tappan, "
 William A. Van Vleck, "
 J. A. Schueller, "
 H. EI. Taylor,
 B. Pitcher, "
 Jonathan Power, D.D. "
 Heman Norton, "
 Robert M'Cartee, D-D. "
 Michael Lacoste, '*
 E. W. Griswold,
 C. G. Sommers, **
 W. C. Brownlee, "
 R. T. Studdart, "
 C. Baldwin, "
 F. M. Kip,
 James A. Yard, Trenton, N.J.
 Thos. J. Thompson, " "
 R. M. Greenbank, Centerville,
Maryland.

PREFACE.

The importance of a proper acquaintance with the geogra
phy of countries and places mentioned in the Holy Bible, must
be apparent to all who have " diligently searched the Scrip
tures," with a view to a thorough and proper understanding
of them. It is believed that many have neglected the sacred
volume, and have never attained a necessary knowledge of its
contents, not because they are infidels, or that they are aban
doned to vice, nor indeed that they have any specific objection,
but because the Scriptures appear unintelligible. They read
of Moab and Edom, of Canaan and Mesopotamia, of Cush and
Mizraim ; they search their geographies for information, but
find nothing to satisfy their inquiries. They are unable to
associate the historical record of events with time and place,
and thus their interest in the Bible history is lost, as well as
that sensible conviction of its veracity impaired, which in a
great measure depends upon a familiar acquaintance with the
geography of the countries where those events occurred. It
is not strange, therefore, that to such readers the sacred his
tory should become dull or tedious. Not only the interest and
pleasure of the reader, but also his confidence is increased, by
learning the character and situation of the places of which
he reads. It may also be remarked, that in describing the an
cient and modern state of many of these places, the most ex
act fulfilment of prophecy is spontaneously apparent. The
present state of Tyre, of Babylon, of Jerusalem, and many
others of which we have prophecies recorded, offers sufficient
proof of the sublime truths of divine revelation, to overthrow
the objections of the sceptic, and abundantly to confirm the
faith of the believer.
A2

1 1 PREFACE.
The plan and arrangement of the work may appear some
what novel, but it is that which has been chosen after mature
deliberation, as best adapted to the nature of the subject. In
Part I. the chain of Scripture history is pursued until the final
settlement of the Israelites in the promised land ; with such
geographical notice of the places mentioned, as was thought
necessary to the full understanding of the subject Particular
care has been taken to describe the different settlements of
the immediate posterity of Noah, as this was deemed impor
tant, in order to elucidate many circumstances relating to the
names and early history of different countries. It will be
found, upon examination, that most countries and cities in the
early ages of the world, were named from the families or per
sons by whom they were first peopled or founded ; and also
that colonies settled in remote regions, frequently retained the
name of the parent state. A want of attention to these gene
ral facts has caused much obscurity and confusion in ancient
geography. These considerations have induced us to give
the introductory part of this work its historical form, and it is
believed that the attentive and judicious reader will be sen
sible of its advantages.
In Part II. will be found, in alphabetical order, as full an
account of the places mentioned in Scripture as the limits of
our work would admit ; and, in addition to the geographical
description, such events in their history have been given, as
were thought necessary to a more full and complete under
standing of the sacred volume.
The engravings which are given in the work, of ancient
coins, medals, and sculptures, we consider of great importance
in confirmation of many passages in Scripture history. These
will be found a source of information almost wholly new, but
capable of the greatest services. They are the oldest, most
genuine, and often the most extensive memoranda extant ; and
may generally be relied on as having been composed while
events were fresh, and having suffered nothing by the errors
of transcription, to which all written records are liable, while
these unimpeachable witnesses have been preserved to us

unchanged, notwithstanding the lapse 01 nearly two thousand
years. Some may not immediately perceive the force and cogency
of the proofs afforded by these medallic illustrations, from the
want of proper examination, or understanding of the subject.
But when they find the " goddess of the Sidonians" of Scrip
ture, represented on the medals of Sidon ; and the Ashtaroth
of the Scriptures, who was doubtless the Astarte or Venus
of the Greeks, on those of many towns in the Holy Land,
they will find that by these antiquities they will obtain more
correct notions of the deities of the ancient nations, and the
objects of their worship. We find also Anammelech, " the
king of clouds" of the Sepharvaites in Persia ; also the most
undeniable proof of the propriety of Daniel's representation
of the kingdoms of Persia and Macedonia, by the figures of a
ram and a single-horned goat, which were actually the na
tional symbols of those kingdoms. Many others will be found
of equal importance, and it is confidently believed that those
who will give the subject due attention, will perceive the
force of these illustrations, and acknowledge their value. If
the reader find in the goat of Macedonia, or the ram of Persia,
that determinate illustration of the prophecies of Daniel,
which he never before received ; if he perceive in the medals
of Jerusalem a proof of the idolatry practised in the holy
places, the history of its destruction by Titus, and the fulfil
ment of our Saviour's prophecies concerning it, fully confirm
ed, he will doubtless acknowledge that these proofs have their
advantages, and that an acquaintance with them is proper for
those who understand the duty of being able to support, by a
ready answer, the hope that is in them.
Another remark may be made of these coins and medals,
of no small importance to the Christian. A sufficient num
ber is given of those belonging to the cities in and near Ju-
dea, all of which bear Greek inscriptions, to prove that at the
time when the New Testament was written, Greek was the
prevailing language throughout the country. For it is not to be
supposed that these cities would have adopted Greek inscrip-

Uons on their coins unless they understood them, and unless
the language had been current, and even prevalent This jus
tifies the gospel writers in communicating their information
in a language generally understood.
It yet remains to say something respecting the sources from
which the materials of this work have been derived. To the
Sacred Geography of Dr. Wells we are largely indebted ; and
the works of the learned Calmet have afforded valuable aid.
Much authentic information has also been derived from the
work of Busebius, entitled, Onomasticon Urbium el Locorum
Sacra Scripturce, <Src. written in Greek in the fourth century,
and afterwards translated into Latin and improved by St. Je-
rom. The best Scripture gazetteers have been consulted,
among which is the invaluable work of Mansford, recently
published in England. We have also drawn from the most
authentic commentators, and from such Geographies and
Travels as afforded useful information upon our subject Lem-
priere, D'Anville, and many other writers, have been carefully
examined, and no labour of investigation has been spared to
collect the best authorities and the most authentic information.
The author cannot conclude without the expression of his
warmest acknowledgments to such of his friends as have
kindly afforded him the use of rare and expensive works,
from which important information has been derived. But his
thanks are more especially due to his friend Charles B. Tre
go, Esq. for much valuable assistance in compiling this work,
the plan of which was laid several years ago, and as much
progress made in it from time to time, as intervals of com
parative leisure from more pressing pursuits would permit;
though, without the aid of his highly important services, a
much longer period must have elapsed before it could have
been presented to the public.
Philadelphia, June, 1834

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

PART I.
Geographical and Historical : extending from the Creation
of the World to the final settlement of the Israelites in the
land of Canaan.

CHAPTER I.
ANTEDILUVIAN GEOGRAPHY.

Our knowledge of the antediluvian world is limited to very
narrow bounds, owing to the extreme brevity of Scripture in
relating the events which occurred before the deluge. This
conciseness in the history has prevented any extended geo
graphical account of the places where those events occurred;
there being no mention of any excepting the Garden of Eden,
with the Rivers which determine its situation; the Land of
Nod, and the city of Enoch, which Cain built therein. With
regard to the situation of these places, we must in the begin
ning acknowledge that considerable uncertainty exists; and
that, though many pious and learned men have examined, with
great diligence and attention, all the existing sources of in
formation, yet their opinions and conclusions are various, and
even sometimes contradictory. In such cases we shall consi
der it our duty to designate that which we conceive to be the
most satisfactory decision, and leave the reader to form his
own opinion from proper investigation of the subject.
1. The situation of the Garden of Eden.
The name Eden, in Hebrew, signifies bliss, pleasure, 01
delight ; and as this place was remarkable as the residence of
our first parents, in their state of innocence and happiness, its

10 RCRIPTVJRE geograph
situation is particularly denoted by the sacred historian as
lying eastward, and having a river going out of i., which from
thence was parted and became into four heads. By the term
eastward, Moses probably means that it was situated eastward
from the place where he then wrote, L e. from the Land of
Canaan or its vicinity. But this is very general and indefinite ;
for it may apply to any of the countries east of the Land of
Canaan. It is then to the rivers that we must look for data
upon which to found a conclusion respecting the location of
Eden. These rivers were four, namely, the Pison, the Gihon,
the Hiddekel, and the Euphrates.
I. The Pison, we are told, " compasses the whole land of
Chavila, or Havilah, where there is gold; and the gold of that
land is good : there is bdellium and the onyx-stone." Some
have supposed this land of Chavila to be the present Cabul, a
country between Persia and Hindostan ; and the Pison to be
one of the rivers falling into the Indus from the west, as gold
and precious stones are known to exist in that region. The
Gihon they suppose to be the western branch of the Oxus,
now called Jihon : and the Hiddekel the eastern branch of the
same, both of which unite near Balk, a city in the eastern
part of the Persian dominions. The Euphrates, written in
Hebrew Phrath or Perath, they suppose to be the Hirmend,
or Hindmend. According to this theory, then, Eden must have
been situated somewhere in the eastern part of the Persian
empire, or in the country now called Cabulistan, between Per
sia and Hindostan.
II. The learned Huetius and others suppose Eden to nave
been placed in the southern part of Babylonia, not far from
the Persian Gulf, where they conjecture that the Tigris and
Euphrates joined, and afterwards separated; consequently
there were two rivers above and two below that junction,
making the four mentioned by Moses. But this certainly does
not well answer the description given in Scripture, and this
conjecture is also liable to other objections.
III. The most probable idea concerning the situation of
Eden, we conceive to be, that it was placed in or near Arme
nia ; because,
1. We have the name of a river which flowed from Eden,
Euphrates, which name has continued almost unchanged to
the present day. This river has its source in the mountains
of Armenia, near lake Arsissa. There are two streams at
first flowing westward, but after their junction near Mount

SITUATION OF THE GARDEN OF EDEN. 11
Taurus, turning to the south-west, the river receives a smaller
stream, and flows towards the Mediterranean; but coming
near the Caucasian mountains, it is turned to the south-east,
and at length joining the Tigris, it empties into the Persian
Gulf by several mouths.
2. The Hiddekel is generally agreed by historians to be the
Tigris. The prophet Daniel also says he had a vision "in
Babylonia, by the side of the great river, which is Hiddekel."
Now by the " great river," he must mean the Tigris, as it was
the only great river in Babylonia, except the Euphrates. The
Tigris rises near the head of the Euphrates, and pursuing a
south-easterly direction, divides Assyria from Mesopotamia.
And we are told (Gen. ii. 14, margin) that the Hiddekel goeth
eastward to Assyria. Therefore, we consider there can be
little doubt as to the identity of the two rivers.
3. The Pison is more difficult to determine, but has been
generally taken to be the Phasis, or Absarus of the ancients,
now called Batoum, which empties into the Euxine or Black
Sea. The Havilah, which was encompassed by this river,
was probably Colchis, between the Euxine and the Caspian.
This region was celebrated among the ancients for the abun
dance and excellence of its gold. It must, however, be borne
in mind, that there was another Havilah, in Arabia, different
from this country, and of which we shall speak in another
place. 4. The Gihon, which is said to have compassed the whole
land of Ethiopia. The Hebrew word, here translated Ethio
pia, is Cush, which was a term used to designate several re
gions in Asia, and one in Africa. (See Cush, Part II. of this
work.) Now, as the Cush here mentioned could be neither
in Africa nor Arabia, we must suppose it was either in Assy
ria west of the Caspian, or in Bactria east of the Oxus or Ji-
hon, both of which countries were settled by the descendants
of Cush. According to the first supposition, the Gihon may
be the river Kerah, called by the Greeks Gyndus, which is
possibly a corruption of the name Gihon. But it is more ge
nerally believed that the Gihon was the Oxus, yet called in
that country Jihon.
All reasoning upon the subject of the situation of Eden
must, however, be vague, and all conclusions naturally ap
pear unsatisfactory, when we reflect that as the surface of the
earth must have been convulsed and broken up by the univer
sal deluge, so the course of the rivers must have been, in

12 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
many instances, greatly, if not entirely, altered ; and that
many other changes in the face of the country would be the
natural and obvious consequence of the general desolation
produced by that awful visitation of the Deity upon a guilty
world. It is also possible that God chose to blot out this beau
tiful spot from his creation, after the expulsion of our first
parents from the garden, and so destroy both the scene and
the memorial of man's transgression.
II. The Land of Nod, and the City of Enoch,
The land of Nod, in which Cain is said to have dwelt after
he had been cursed for the murder of Abel, if it mean a
country, was situated on the east of Eden ; or as some trans
lators render it, before or over-against Eden ; meaning that
Cain removed no further from Eden than he was compelled,'
and that he remained not far from it. There is, however, a
strong presumption that the original meaning of this term
was not any particular country, but merely descriptive of the
state of Cain after his exile. The expression of the Samari
tan version of the Old Testament is Nad, a vagabond or trem
bler in the land, and the Hebrew word in our Bible will bear
the same meaning, as may be seen by reference to the mar
gin in Gen. iv. 16. And even if taken as the name of a region
of country, Nod imports wandering, exile, mildness, or
Ike wilds, in allusion to the unsettled and wandering state of
the unhappy fugitive.
With regard to the situation of the city of Enoch, which
Cain built nothing is known with any degree of certainty

CHAPTER n.
FROM THE DELUGE TO THE BUILDING OF BABEL, AND THE
CONFUSION OF TONGUES.
I. The Country and Mountains of Ararat.
There is no mention in Scripture of any particular place
luring the continuance of the flood ; we are only told of the
general prevalence of the waters, their depth on the moun
tains, and of their gradual subsiding, until the Ark rested upon
the mountains of Ararat. Gen. viii. 4.
The country of Ararat has been generally admitted to be
tn Persian Armenia, west of the Caspian Sea, in which re-

THE LAND OF SHINAR. 13
gion is situated the city now called Erivan. In the north
east part of Armenia are lofty mountains, and upon one of
these, called Mount Masis, and by the Turks Agridah, it is
supposed the Ark rested. It has two peaks, distinguished by
the names Greater and Lesser Ararat. The height of this
mountain is said to be not less than 15,000 feet : it is covered
with snow and ice, and may be distinguished at a distance of
nearly 200 miles. It has been visited by modern travellers,
but its summit has proved inaccessible. Some years ago, a
large reward was offered by the Turkish governor of Beyazid
to any one who should reach the top ; but though many of the
natives who lived at the foot of the mountain have made the
attempt, they have always failed to reach the summit, which
it is probable has never been visited by a human being since
the days of Noah.
There is, however, an expression in Scripture which seems
to lead to a contrary conclusion from that which places the
mountains of Ararat in Armenia. We read (Gen. xi. 2.)
that as mankind journeyed from the east, they found a plain
in the land of Shinar, and they dwelt there. Nov! Armenia
is not east, but very far north of Shinar, and indeed somewhat
to ttje west, so that this journey could not have been from I he
direction of Armenia. Inquiries have therefore been made to
discover the mountains of Ararat in some country to the east
of Shinar ; and some,- relying on ancient traditions, have
placed Ararat in the mountainous region between India and
Persia, not far from the sources of the Indus, on whose banks
the traditions and sacred books of the Hindoos affirm that
Noah lived for some time after the flood. The mountain Arya-
varla or Aryawart certainly has some affinity in name to the
Hebrew Araraut, and these mountains were far east from the
plain of Shinar, as the expression in Genesis would seem to
imply. Still we think it most probable that, after all, Ararat
was in Armenia ; and that when the posterity of Noah, or a
part of them, left Armenia, they first went eastward towards
the Caspian Sea, then south-eastward, and finally westward
to Shinar. H. The Land of Shinar, and the Cities built there.
We are now naturally led to inquire into the situation of
the land of Shinar, where the famous tower of Babel was
begun ; where the language of mankind was confounded, and
B

14 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
from whence they were scattered abroad upon the face of all
the earth.
The land of Shinar, or Singar, was certainly the same
afterwards called Babylonia or Chaldea, being a considerable
extent of level country through which flow the Tigris and
the Euphrates, and probably extending so far north as to in
clude a part of Mesopotamia. In the northern part of this
great plain or valley, in Mesopotamia near the Tigris, a city
is mentioned by ancient writers called Singara, and a. moun
tain called Singaras, which agree very nearly with the
Hebrew Singar or Shinar. Babel and Erech both lay in the
land of Shinar : Babel we know to be the same as Babylon,
and Erech was on the east of the Tigris ; hence it is manifest
that Shinar extended on both sides of the Tigris.
1. The City and Tower of Babel. — The tower of Babel
was begun probably in the very place, or at least in the im
mediate neighbourhood, where the city of Babylon afterwards
stood, i. e. on the Euphrates at some distance above its junc
tion with the Tigris. It is not likely that Noah, or his sons
Shem and Japhet, and possibly Ham, were concerned in
building the tower, but probably opposed it ; so that those who
undertook it had withdrawn themselves and chose a place at
some distance from the seat of Noah and the patriarchs.
The design of this mighty edifice seems to have been to
make themselves a name, or render themselves famous to
posterity. Gen. xi. 4. They seem also to have foreseen that
they would have to separate and scatter abroad upon the earth,
and possibly might therefore have mtended the tower a? a
memorial of their union, or a rallying point after their
separation. But Divine Providence chose this very occasion
to separate and scatter them, which was done by confounding
their language, so that they could no longer understand or
communicate their thoughts to one another.
For an account of the city of Babel, afterwards called
Babylon, founded by Nimrod in the land of Shinar, probably
upon the ruins of the tower of Babel, the reader is referred
to Part II. Article Babylon.
2. Erech, Accad, and Calneh. — Erech was another of the
cities which made the foundation of the kingdom of Nimrod
in the land of Shinar. It was called by the Greeks Erecca,
or Arecca, and according to Ptolemy, the Greek geographer,
was situated at the most southern bend of the common clian-
\\ of the Tigris and Euphrates. The Archevttes, of whom

SETTLEMENT OF THE EARTH. 15
we read in Ezra iv. 9. are supposed to have been inhabitants
of this place, brought by the king of Assyria to colonize
Samaria. But little is known concerning the situation of Accad.
The name is sometimes written Archad, which probably gave
name to the river Argades, mentioned by some Greek writers
as being near Sittace, on the east of the Tigris. A region
is also spoken of by Strabo, called Artacene, lying about Ar-
bela, which might also probably derive its name from Archad.
A ruin is also found not far from Bagdad, called Akar-kouff,
which is supposed by some to mark the place where Achad
formerly stood.
Calneh is the last mentioned of the cities in the land of
Shinar, belonging to the kingdom of Nimrod. This place is
also called Calno (Isa. x. 9.) and Canneh (Ezek. xxvii. 23.)
It seems to have been a considerable place in the time of the
prophet Amos, as he compares it with other places of some
note ; as does also Isaiah, as above. Calneh was situated upon
the Tigris, and was called Ctesiphon by the Greeks; the
country about it being called Chalonitis, evidently derived
from Chalneh, Chalno, or Chalone. It is said that Pacorus, a
king of the Parthians, changed the name of the city to Cte
siphon. Of Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah and Resen, cities built by
Asshur, or by Nimrod, in Assyria, we shall speak in their
proper places in Part If. of this work.

CHAPTER III.
SETTLEMENT OF THE EARTH BY THE SONS OF NOAH AND
THEIR POSTERITY.
It is evident from the words of the sacred historian, that
when the earth was repeopled after the flood, the first settle
ments were made after a regular manner. He says, after
enumerating the sons of Japhet " by these were the isles of
the Gentiles divided in their lands, every one after his tongue,
ftfter their families, in their nations." (Gen. xv.) In the same
manner he concludes his account of the sons of Ham, and of
Shem. Thus we see they were ranged, first according to
their nations, and next every nation was ranged by its fami-
.ies ; so that every nation had its separate allotment, and in
every nation the families dwelt and had their separate allot-

16 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
ments. This we think is the meaning of the text, " accord
ing to their families, in their lands, in their nations."
Though the order in which the sons of Noah are mentioned,
Gen. v. 32, and in other passages of Scripture, is Shem, Ham,
and Japhet, yet it is evident from Gen. ix. 22. 24. that Ham
was the youngest son of Noah, and it also appears (Gen. x.
21.) that Japhet was the eldest In the Scripture account,
however, of these patriarchs and their families, Japhet is first
mentioned, next Ham, and lastly Shem.
We shall now proceed to give an account of the division
of the earth among the posterity of Noah. It should be
recollected that in these primitive times, countries were
generally named from their first settlers, and nations from
their founder, or the head of the family from which they de
scended. I. Descendants of Japhet.
The sons of Japhet were Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan,
Tubal, Meshech, and Tiras. Of these seven nations, only the
families of two are mentioned, viz. those of Gomer and Ja
van. The sons of Gomer were Ashkenaz, Riphath, and To-
garmah : the sons of Javan were Elishah, Tarshish, Kittim,
and Dodanim.
I. Settlements of Gomer and his family.
The nation of Gomer appears to have been established in
the northern part of Lesser Asia. Josephus says that the
Galatians, who lived about the southern shore of the Euxine
or Black Sea, were called Gomerites. From this name also
is probably derived that of the Kimmerii, or Cimmerii, who
dwelt about these parts, and of Cimmeris, a town in Phry-
gia. From this region Gomer is believed to have spread
abroad into Europe, peopling the countries along the Danube,
and thence westward into Germany, France, &c.
1. Ashkenaz, the son of Gomer, was seated in the western
part of the nation of Gomer, which was the north-west of
Asia Minor. In Troas, or Lesser Phrygia, was both a city
and province anciently called Ascania, and the islands along
the coast were called Ascanian isles ; also in Bithynia isTi
bay, a river, and a lake, called likewise Ascanian, which
name is very probably derived from Ashkenaz. The learned
Bochart conjectures that the Black Sea, formerly and some
times yet called the Euxine, was in early ages called the sea
of Ashkenaz, from the settlement of that family on its coast

DESCENDANTS OF JAPHET. 17
Hence by the Greeks it was first named Pontus Axenus, in
stead of Pontus Ashkenas, and thence Pontus Euxinus.
2. Riphath, the second son of Gomer, probably settled east
of his brother Ashkenaz. For, according to Josephus, the
Paphlagonians, a people inhabiting the country south-east of
the Euxine, were originally called Riphateans, from Riphat
Pliny also mentions a people called Riphffii, who lived there,
and another called Arimphffii. It has, however, been sup
posed by some, that the Riphsean mountains, mentioned by
the Romans, and situated in the country north of the Black
Sea, received their name from Riphath.
3. Togannah, the third and last mentioned son of Gomer,
appears to have had his portion still further east than his
brethren ; i. e. in Armenia. Very ancient records preserved
in some monasteries in the east, speak of a man named Tar-
gamos, who dwelt in a fortress on Mount Ararat, and lived
to the age of six hundred years ; being the father of eight
sons, from whom, it is stated, are descended the people of
Armenia, and other nations about the Caucasian mountains.
Ezekiel speaks of the "house of Togannah of the north
quarters, and all his bands." (Ezek. xxxviii. 6.) This, with
some other considerations, have induced some learned com
mentators to place Togarmah in Cappadocia rather than Ar
menia. n. Settlement of Magog, Son of Japhet.
According to Josephus, Jerom, and other writers, Magog
was the father of the Scythians, on the east and north-east
of the Euxine. Strabo and Stephanus both i lention a coun
try situated in these parts, called Gogarene ; and it is not im-
Erobable that Georgia, the modern name of this country, may
ave been derived in like manner from Gog ; the people being
called Georgi, from Gorgeni or Gogeni. But the best evi
dence of the situation of the country of Magog is contained
in the Scripture itself, (Ezek. xxxviii. 2.) " Set thy face
against Gog, of the land of Magog, the prince of Rosh, Me
shech, and Tubal." From thi3 we learn that the land of Ma
gog must be near that of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal, the
situation of which is known ; and if near them, it could only
be on the north of them.
III. Country of Madai, Son of Japhet.
It is the general opinion of writers on this subject, that
Madai was the father of the Medes, and consequently must
¦have settled in the country about the south and south-west
B2

18 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
of the Caspian Sea, afterwards called Media, The ground
for this location of Madai is, that the Medes are called Madai
in the Hebrew text of Scripture.
But some learned commentators have been of a different
opinion. They consider that as Media lay far north-east of
the Holy Land, and of Egypt, and as the passage from one to
the other was by land and not by sea, consequently Media can
not well be considered as being comprehended under the term
" isles of the Gentiles," which the sacred historian says were
peopled by the posterity of Japhet. Moreover, the situation
of Media seems to indicate that if originally possessed by Ma
dai, he must have been widely separated from the rest of his
brethren, and to have lain within the lot of Shem, instead of
the general lot of his father Japhet. There was a descendant
of Shem, called also Madai, and from him the Medes probably
derived their origin and name.
In order to trace the descendants of Madai, the son of Ja
phet, within the bounds of his father's allotment, the learned
Mr. Mede supposes we must look to Macedonia, the ancient
name of which was ^Emathia, Aimathia, or Aimadia. A peo
ple in this country were also called Medi, or Mcedi ; all which
names may have been originally derived from Madai.
IV. The Country of Javan and his family.
The nation of Javan was first seated in the southern part
of Asia Minor, as appears not only from the name of a coun
try here called Ionia, but also from the four families of Ja van's
sons Elishah, Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim, who were all
settled in this region. The name Ionia is derived from Javan,
which is also written in Hebrew Ion and Iowan, by the LXX.
and by Josephus. Javan is the term used in the Old Testa
ment for Greece and the Greeks.
1. Elishah, the son of Javan. This name in the Samaritan
is written Elish or Elis, and in the Chaldee Alas, which near
ly approaches Hellas, the name which the Greeks called their
own country : according to Josephus, Eolia was named from.
Elishah. The Eolians were anciently settled northward from
the possessions of Javan, and hence we may conclude that
Elishah was established to the north of his father. The pos
terity of Elishah probably afterwards possessed themselves of
the islands in the Egean Sea, between Asia and Europe, call
ed in Ezekiel, (chap, xxvii. 7.) the isles of Elisha. These
people passing afterwards into Europe, were called Hellenes,
and their country Hellas, which afterwards became a general

DESCENDANTS OF JAPHET. 19
term for the whole of Greece. The city and province of El is,
the city of Eleusis, and the river Elissus or Dissus, are all pro
bably derived from Elish, or Elisha.
2. Tarshislu, the son of Javan, was probably settled on the
eastern part of the southern coast of Asia Minor. Josephus
says that Tarsus, the chief city of Cilicia, was founded by
Tarshish, and that the province of Cilicia itself was ancient
ly called Tarshish. This is conjectured to be the place to
which Jonah thought to flee from the presence of the Lord.
(Jon. i. 3.) Tartessus, an ancient city in Spain, was probably
built by a colony from Tarshish; for, as they were evidently
a sea-faring and commercial people, they might easily extend
their voyages in the Mediterranean as far as the coast of Spain.
Indeed the whole Mediterranean seems to have been called
the Sea. of Tarshish ; though probably this name was origin
ally applied only to that part of it lying near Tarshish, i. e: the
Sea of Cilicia, at the head of which Tarsus or Tarshish was
built See Tarshish, Part IL
3. Kittim, having the plural Hebrew termination, probably
means the descendants of Keth, who appear to have had their
portion west of Tarshish. Ptolemy mentions a country here,
jailed Ketis, or Cetis; and Homer speaks of a people called
Cetii, who took their name from the river Cetius in the same
region. Josephus says Cyprus was the seat of the Kittim, or
Chittim ; but as it was in their neighbourhood, it was probably
colonized by them, as the continent would naturally be peo
pled before the islands. The Kittim, in process of time, want
ing room, and finding the lower parts of Greece already set
tled by the descendants of Elishah and the Dodanim, probably
coasted along the western shore of Greece to the northern
parts, where some settled and others passed over into Italy.
Hence it happens that we find both Macedonia and Italy de
noted in Scripture by the name of Chittim. (1 Mace. i. 1. also
viii. 5, Dan. xi. 29, 30.)
4. Dodanim, also plural in Hebrew, means the family of
Dodan, son of Javan. The Dodanim were settled on the coast
south of the family of Elishah, where there was anciently a
country called Doris, from which came the Dorians, a consi
derable part of the Greek nation. The name is also preserved
in the city of Dodona.
V. Country of Meshech.
The possessions of Meshech appear to have been at first
situated east of Gomer, in part of Cappadocia and Armenia.

20 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
The name written Meshech in our translation, is by others
written Mosoch, and hence it seems probable that the people
called by the Greeks Mosochi or Moschi, who inhabited these
parts, were descendants of Mosoch or Meshech. In Armenia
was a river and country named Rosh, and a people named
Rhossi. These Rhossi and Bloschi, who were neighbours in
Asia, afterwards crossed into Europe, dispersed over the vast
empire of Russia, and their names are still preserved in those
of the Russians and Muscovites.
VI. Country of Tubal.
Tubal and Meshech being frequently mentioned together in
scripture, we may reasonably infer that they were seated ad
joining each other. Tubal was probably settled on the north
of Meshech, as Josephus affirms that the Asiatic Iberians were
descended from Tubal, and says they were originally called
Theobeli, from Thubal or Tubal. A city is also mentioned by
Ptolemy as situated in this region, called Thabilaca, which
may be derived from Tubal. We read in scripture that these
nations were merchants, and traded in slaves and vessels of
brass. (Ezek. xxvii. 13.) Now this agrees well with the
country where we have placed them ; for the regions about
Pontus and Cappadocia were noted for slaves, and Tibarenia
and Iberia produced excellent brass.
VII. Country of Tiras.
All writers agree tliat Tiras, son of Japhet, was the father
of the Thracians. Besides the evident derivation of the name
Thrace from Thiras, the founder of the nation, we have also
the name Athyras applied to a river, a bay, and a haven. There
was also in the peninsula of Thrace a city called Tyristasis,
a region called Thrasus, and a people called Trausi. One of
the names of Mars, the god of the Thracians, was Thuras,
which might have been given in honour of their founder, Thi
ras or Tiras. Some have supposed that the Trojans were also
descendants of Tiras, from the similarity of Tros to Tiras ;
and from the ancient Greeks having a tradition that the peo
ple east of the Hellespont and Propontis were originally Thra
cians. II. Descendants of Shem.
There are five sons of Shem mentioned in scripture ; name
ly, Elam, Asshur, Arphaxad, Lud, and Aram. Of two of these,
Arphaxad and Aram, the sons are designated.

DESCENDANTS OF SHEM. 21
I. Elam, son of Shem.
It is considered certain that Elam was settled in the south
ern part of the region east of the Tigris, as the Scripture
evidently and frequently denotes the inhabitants of that coun
try by the name of Elam. We also read in heathen writers
of a country in the same place, and a city, both called Ely-
mais. Like many other names of places, Elam is sometimes
taken in a stricter sense, by which it is distinguished from
Susiana and the other Persian provinces ; and sometimes in a
more comprehensive sense, including Susiana and the other
provinces. Thus Pliny and Ptolemy speak of the Elymaiias
a people dwelling on the Persian Gulf; and the prophet Dan
iel (viii. 2.) mentions Shushan, the chief city of Susiana, as
being situated in Elam. Elam in Scripture is used to denote
the kingdom of Persia, until the age of Cyrus and Daniel the
prophet; after which time it is generally called by its Greek
name, Persis, or Persia.
II. Asshur, son of Slum.
Asshur was established in the country called in the oriental
languages after his name, Asshur ; but in the western Ian
guages it was ealled Assyria, also derived from the name of
its founder.' By Assyria is here to be understood the country
properly and originally so called, in which was the city of
Nineveh, built by Asshur after he went out of the land of
Shinar. (Gen. x. li.) Some however understand this text to
mean that Nineveh was built by Nimrod, after he went out
into Asshur or Assyria. (See Part II. Article Assyria.)
III. Arphaxad, son nf Shem.
It is believed tiia-t Arphaxad settled in Mesopotamia, in the
southern part, near the Tigris, and also occupied a tract on
the east side of the river, called Arrapachitis, a name evident
ly derived from Arpachshad, for so is the name written in
the Hebrew text.
Of the dwelling place of Salah the son, and Eber the
grandson of Arphaxad, nothing is known with certainty ; but
they probably remained in Mesopotamia. Eber was the fore
father of the Hebrews, and the father of Peleg and Joktan.
There are thirteen sons of Joktan mentioned in Scripture,
" and their dwelling was from Mesha as thou goest unto Se-
phar, a mount of the east." (Gen. x. 30.) Mesha is supposed
to be the country which the Greeks called Mesene, near the
head of the Persian Gulf; Sephar is supposed to lie near the
Red Sea; consequently, the posterity of Joktan were settled

22 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
in Arabia. Some writers, however, do not incline to this
opinion, but think that Mesha is a mountain in the west of
Armenia, and Sephar another farther eastward.
IV. Lud, the son of Shem.
It is the general opinion that Lud peopled Lydia, a country
in Asia Minor ; but some suppose that his descendants were
settled in Africa, as there is a people called Lud, who lived
here. (Isa. lxvi. 19. Jer. xlvi. 9. Ezek. xxvii. 10. xxx. 5.)
These however probably descended from Lud, the son of Mis-
raim, called in the plural Ludim. (Gen. x. 13.)
V. Aram, the son of Shem.
The portion of Aram lay in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and
Syria ; and Armenia, or Araroenia, probably derived its name
from Aram. The country called in the Hebrew text Aram,
is frequently translated Syria ; but this is not to be understood
as comprehending the whole of Syria, but only that part of it
which belonged to the nation of Aram ; namely, the northern
and eastern parts. Syria is, indeed, sometimes used to denote,
not only Syria Proper, but also Mesopotamia: for instance,
we find Jacob, who is called in the Hebrew an Aramite, is in'
our translation called a Syrian, (Hosea xii. 12.) and it was in
Padan Aram in Mesopotamia where he " served for a wife
and kept sheep."
1. Uz, llie son of Aram. — The ancients agree that Uz was
the builder of the city of Damascus. From this we may
reasonably infer that the land of Uz denoted the country
about Damascus, including part of Arabia. This may agree
with what is said in Scripture with regard to the dwelling of
Job, and also of the situation of Edom, both of which are
said to be in the land of Uz.
2. Hul, the son of Aram. — It has been supposed that the
settlement of Hul was in Greater Armenia, as we find there
the names of several places containing the radical letters
of Hul or Chul. Cholobetene, the name of a province in Ar
menia, seems to have been derived from the Hebrew Cholbeth
i. e. the house or dwelling of Choi. Also Cholua, Choluata,
Cholimna, &c.
3. Gether, son of Aram.— Nothing certain is known of the
portion of Gether. Some have conjectured that it was in
Albania which borders on Armenia, as Ptolemy mentions a
city of that country, formerly called Getara, and a river
called tretras, both which names may possibly be derived
from Gether or Geter.

DESCENDANTS OF HAM. 23
4. Meshech,or Mash, son of Aram. — Mash is supposed to
have settled between his brothers Uz and Hul, having Hul
to the north and Uz to the south : his portion lying about
Mount Masius, which is thought to have been named after
him. From this mountain runs a river of Mesopotamia,
called Masca ; and the people of this region were anciently
called Masieni, or Masiani, from all which it may be reasona
bly inferred that this was the country of Mash, or Meshech.
IH. Descendants of Ham.
As Ham was the youngest son of Noah, consequently his
descendants formed the youngest brancli of Noah's posterity :
and may be distinguished into four nations, headed by the
four sons of Ham ; Cush, Misraim, Phut, and Canaan.
The sons of Cush, were Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah,
and Sabtecha. Sons of Raamah, Sheba and Dedan. It is
added afterwards that Cush begat Nimrod, " who began to be
a mighty one in the earth," &.c
From Misraim descended Ludim, Ananim, Lehabim,
Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, and Casluhim. From the last came
Philistim and Caphtorim. These, having all the plural
Hebrew termination im, denote the families of Lud, Anan,
Lehab, Naphtuch, Pathros, and Casluch, the sons of Misraim.
None of the sons of Phut are mentioned in Scripture.
From Canaan descended the following nations; namely,
Sidon, Heth, the Jebusites, Amorites, Girgasites, Hivites,
Arkites, Sinites, Arvadites, Zemarites, and Hamathites.
L Cush, the son of Ham.
It is thought that the first settlement of Cush was on the
Gulf of Persia, in that part which still bears the name of
Chuzestan ; from whence they spread over India and great
part of Arabia, particularly the western part on the coast of
the Red Sea ; invaded Egypt under the name of Palli, Hyc-
sos, or Shepherd Kings ; and thence passed probably as well
as by the Straits of Babelmandel, into Central Africa, and
first peopled the countries to the south of Egypt, or African
Ethiopia. It seems evident from Scripture that the family of Cush
had made settlements in the north-west of Arabia ; for we are
told that Moses had married a Cushite or Ethiopian woman.
(Numb. xii. 1.) Now, from Exod. ii. 15-21. it is certain that
Zipporah, the wife of Moses, was a Midianitish woman, and
Midian was in Arabia, on the Red Sea.

H SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
The word Cush in Scripture is frequently translated Ethio
pia, but certainly does not always mean Ethiopia in Africa :
though it is probable that Isaiah xviii. 1. Zeph. iii. 10. and
2 Chron. xii. 3. do refer to African Ethiopia. (See Cush,
Part II.)
1. Seba, the eldest son of Cush, is thought by some, to have
settled in the south-west of Arabia, where we find a city
called Sabe. Others, however, place him -in Nubia, on an
island formed by the Nile and other rivers, which island was
called by the Hebrews Seba, (Isa. xliii. 3.) and by the Romans
Meroe. (See Part II. art. Sheba.)
2. Havilah, the son of Cush, probably established himself
on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf. A peuple are men
tioned by the old Greek writers as dwelling here, called
Chaulotae, Chaulasii, or Chavelsi, a name most likely derived
from Chavilah or Havilah. This Havilah must not be con
founded with a son of Joktan of the same name. (See Part
II. art. Havilah.)
3. Sabtah, the son of Cush, is believed by some writers to
have settled in the north of Arabia, on the Persian Gulf, where
stood an ancient city called Saphtha, -which might have been
named from him. Others place him at Sabota, in Southern
Arabia. 4. Raamah, son of Cush, is generally allowed to have set
tled in South-eastern Arabia, where a city- was situated,
called Rliegma, after his name, which, though spelled Raamah
in our translation of the Scriptures, is in other versions writ
ten Rhegma.
Sheba and Dedan, the sons of Raamah, wore doubtless set
tled not far from their father, as we find in the same region a
city called Sabana, and another further eastward, formerly
called Dedan, now Daden. As further proof of their beino-
settled in the same neighbourhood, we find them generally
mentioned together ; as, " The merchants of Sheba and Raa
mah were thy merchants." (Ezek. xxvii. -22.) " Sheba and
Dedan, and the merchants of Tarshish." (Ezek. xxxviii. 13.)
We read in Pliny that the Sabajan nations spread them
selves from the Red Sea to the Gulf of Persia; but it is plain
from this that the Greeks confounded the two families of
Sheba and Seba, and called both by the eeneral name of Sa-
bseans. They are, however, distinguished from each other in
Scripture: "The kings of Sheba and Seba shall ofier ffifts"
(Psalm lxxii. 10.) &

DESCENDANTS OF HAM. 25
5. Sablecha, the son of Cush, probably settled among his
orethren in the north of Arabia.
6. Nimrod, the son of Cush. After having given an ac
count of the sons and grandsons of Cush, the sacred historian
adds, " And Cush begat Nimrod, who began to be a mighty
one on the earth." ((Jen. x. 8. ) From this we may probably
infer that he was the youngest son of Cush, but by far the
most noted. It is probable that he was a person of great cour
age and activity, and having first become " a mighty hunter,"
was at length tempted to try his strength in war, and so in
vaded the neighbouring regions, belonging to the family of
Arphaxad, the son of Shem. Having conquered the lower
part of the land of Shinar, he established a kingdom there ;
" and the beginning of his kingdom was Babel and Erech and
Accad and Calneh, in the land of Shinar." (Gen. a. 10.) Of
these cities we have already spoken, in our account of the
Land of Shinar.
In Gen. x. 11. our translation of the Scripture reads, " Out
of that land (the land of Shinar) went forth Asshur and built
Nineveh ;" by which is generally understood Asshur, the son
of Shem. But the names Asshur and Assyria being the same
in Hebrew, the text will also read, " out of that land he went
forth to Assyria and built Neneveh ;" meaning that Nimrod,
after building Babel and other cities in the land of Shinar,
went forth out of that land into Assyria, and built Nineveh.
This reading is given in the margin of our Bible, and is sup
posed to be the true meaning of the Hebrew text, as Nine
veh was, in all probability, named after Ninus, the son of Nim
rod, Nin-nave in Hebrew, meaning the dwelling of Ninus.
Of this city, and the others built by the same founder, we shall
treat in the second part of this work, under their several
heads. II. Misraim, the son of Ham. — There is no doubt with re
gard to the settlements of Misraim, as in Hebrew, Egypt is
generally called the land of Misraim, or simply Misraim ; and
to this day the Arabs call it Masr, and the Turks Misr. (See
Part II. Article Egypt.)
1. The Ludim, or descendants of Lud, son of Misraim. It
is generally believed that the country and people called Lud
and Ludim in Scripture refer to the African Ethiopians, which
people were celebrated for their skill in archery by the ancient
writers. Now this agrees with what is said of the Ludim in
Scripture (Jer. xlvi. 9. and Isa. lxvi. 19.) : also in the same
C

26 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
text of Isaiah, Lud and Phul are mentioned together, imply
ing that they were neighbours.
2. The Anamim are supposed to be the people afterwards
called Ammonians, who dwelt in the parts west of Egypt,
about the temple of Jupiter Ammon.
3. The Lehabim are conjectured to have peopled Libya,
which name Lehabya, might have been derived from Lehab,
their ancestor. The name Libya, though afterwards extended
to nearly the whole African continent, yet originally was
applied only to the country of Cyrenaica on the west of
Egypt. 4. The Naphtuhim are thought by some writers to have
inhabited the country adjoining to Libya proper, towards
Egypt; but others place them between Egypt and Arabia.
5. The Pathrusim, or family of Pathros,_are agreed by all
to have been settled in Thebais, a district of Upper Egypt,
where stood Pathyris, a place mentioned by the Greeks as
being near Egyptian Thebes. The Hebrew word Pathros is,
in the septuagint copy of the Scriptures, translated Pathyris.
6. The Casluhim are supposed to have occupied a country
east of Egypt called Casiotis, in which is a mount Casius,
which names bear some resemblance to Casluch. And fur
ther to confirm this location, we read that from the Casluhim
sprang the Philistim, whom we find afterwards in the adjoin
ing parts of Canaan.
7. The Caphtorim were doubtless settled contiguous to the
Casluhim ; for though the Philistines are said (Gen. x. 14.) to
have come out of the Casluhim, yet (I)eut. ii. 23. Jer. xlvii.
4. Amos ix. 7.) they are brought from Caphtor, or the Caph
torim. Now as the Caphtorim and Casluhim were neighbours,
they were probably in course of time so intermixed as to be
accounted but one people, called either Caphtorim or Caslu
him. Some are of opinion that the Copts or Cophtes of
Egypt have derived their name from Caphtor.
III. Phut, the son of Ham.
The nation of Phut is generally admitted to have been first
established in Libya, west of the family of Misraim, and
thence extending westward into Mauritania, in which is a
river called Phut, mentioned by Ptolemy, and also by St Je-
rom, who says the adjacent country was called Regio Phu
tensis, the country of Phut.
IV. Canaan, son of Ham.
Canaan and his posterity were settled in the country called

DESCENDANTS OF HAM. 27
oftei his name, the Land of Canaan, which God afterwards
gave for an inheritance to the children of Israel, or the seed
of Abraham. This country is important, from its being so
frequently mentioned in Scripture ; and the situations of the
several nations descended from the posterity of Canaan, re
quire to be particularly described, in order for the better un
derstanding of a considerable portion of the sacred history.
The land of Canaan lay east and south-east of the Mediter
ranean Sea, having the country of Aram, the son of. Shem,
north and north-east ; Cush, the son of Ham, south and south
east ; Misraim south-west ;.and the Mediterranean west. These •
were the general limits of the country originally ; but as the
sacred history informs us, (Gen. x. 18.) " afterwards were the
families of the Canaanites spread abroad :" i. e. some of them
extended their settlements among the neighbouring nations.
1. Sidon, the first-born of Canaan.
The settlement of Sidon was in the western part of the land
of Canaan, on the sea-coast, as is evident from the situation of
Sidon, a famous city called after his name. Not far from tiiis,
to the southward, in the same country, was Tyre, a city an
ciently celebrated for its wealth and commerce. These two
cities are frequently mentioned together in Scripture, but it is
evident that the Tyrians were a colony of Sidonians, as in
Isaiah xxiii. 12. Tyre is called the daughter of Sidon. Tyre
is not spoken of in the sacred history until the time of king
David, except in Joshua xix. 29 ; and as in the preceding verse
Sidon is called the great, it is manifest that Sidon was then
the chief city. Afterwards, however, Tyre became its supe
rior. Homer speaks of the Sidonians, but not of the Tyrians.
2. The Hiltites, or the Children of Heth.
This is the second of the families of Canaanites mentioned
in Scripture. The children of Heth were settled in the south
ern part of Canaan, about Hebron, as is proved from Gen.
xxiii. 3, where it is said that Abraham bought of the sons of
Heth a burying-pface, where he might bury his wife Sarah,
who died in Hebron. Further, (Gen. xxvi.) during Isaac's
sojourning at Beersheba, which was also in the south of Ca
naan, Esau, his son, married the daughters of Beeri and Elon,
both Hittites.
3. The Jebusites. This family possessed the tract of coun
try about Jerusalem, which was originally called Jebus, ac
cording to 1 Chron. xi. 4. where we are expressly told that

28 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
the Jebusites were the inhabitants of the land: so they were
situated in the mountains north of the Hittites.
4. Amorites. The mountains east and^south-east of Hebron,
were the abode of the Amorites ; for in Deut i. 7, 19. the
mountainous tract near Kadesh-barnea is called the Mount of
the Amorites : and in Gen. xiv. 7, we read of the Amorites in
Hazezontamar, which was the same place as Engedi, (2 Chron.
xx. 2.) situate in the hilly country in the east of Canaan to
wards Jordan. Hence the Amorites passed over Jordan, and
dispossessing the Moabites aDd Ammonites of some of then-
finest provinces, established a kingdom east of the river Jor
dan, and north of the Arnon, of which Heshbon was the cap
ital. Sihon was king of this country when the Israelites con
quered it on their way from Egypt.
5. The Girgashites. These people were probably settled
along the upper part of the river Jordan, and to the east
of the Sea of Galilee or Gennesareth, where, in the time of
our Saviour, was a city called Gergesa, and the people Ger-
gesenes, both of which names are probably derived from Gir-
gash. ' 6. The Hivites. The original settlement of the Hivites
was in the northern part of Canaan, about Mount Lebanon,
(Judges iii. 3.) but like many other families of the Canaan
ites, were afterwards dispossessed by their enemies, and
forced to seek a possession elsewhere. Sometimes also it
probably happened that they_chose to remove, or became in
termixed with other families ; so that we frequently read of
them as being situated in other places than those which we
mention as their first settlements.
7. The Arkites. The Arkites are believed to have inhabit
ed about Mount Lebanon, in the north of Canaan, in which
region a city is mentioned by old writers, called Arce.
8. The Sinites. These people are conjectured to have
dwelt near the last, as St. Jerom mentions a city which once
stood in the region adjoining, called Sin, probably retaining
something of the ancient name of the people.
9. The Arvadites. An island near the coast of Syria, call
ed Aradus, is thought to have received its name from this fam
ily, who might have occupied it as well as part of the adjoin
ing continent in the north-western part of Canaan.
,10. The Zemarites. Near the last mentioned people, on
the coast, is conjectured to have been the seat of the Zemar
ites; for here was a city called Simyra. There was also a

SOJOURNING OF ABRAHAM. 29
city called Zemaraim in the tribe of Benjamin, north of Je
rusalem, which probably derived its name from some of this
people. (Josh, xviii. 22.)
11. The Hamathites. On the borders of Syria, in the
north-east of Canaan, was situated the city of llama th, which
marks the settlement of this family. The entrance of Ha-
math (1 Kings, viii. 65.) seems to have been a mountain pass,
leading from the north of Israel into Syria, and in this text is
mentioned as the extreme northern boundary of the country
of the Israelites.
There were other nations inhabiting the parts about Ca
naan, such as the Avim, the Horites, the Emim, the Zumim
and Rephaim. From whom these were descended it is diffi
cult to tell. The Avim inhabited the country south-west of
Gaza, on the borders of the desert. The Horites dwelt about
Mount Seir, to the south of Canaan, adjacent to the wilder
ness of Paran.
The Emim, Zuzim, and Rephaim were gigantic people
dwelling south-east, east and north-east, of Canaan.
Of the Amalekites, Moabites, &c. we shall speak in another
place.

CHAPTER IV.
THE SOJOURNING OF ABRAHAM.
About 2083 years after the creation of the world, Terah,
the father of Abraham, left his home in Ur of the Chaldees,
and taking with him Abraham, his son, Lot his grandson, and
Sarai, Abraham's wife, departed to go into Canaan ; but being
come to Haran, they dwelt there. (Gen. xi. 31.)
1. Urofthe Chaldees.
With regard to the situation of Ur, learned men have not
well agreed. Chaldea was the country lying on both sides of
ihe Euphrates, extending southward to the Persian Gulf, and
northward into Mesopotamia ; being about the same region as
that called the Land of Shinar. The word translated Chal
dea, is in Hebrew Chasdim, whence it has been thought pro
bable that the country received its name from Chesed, one of
¦* the sons of Nahor, Abraham's brother.
Ur has been supposed by some to have been situated on the
Tigris, in Mesopotamia, or the northern part of Chaldea,
where a city of the same name was found by the Romans, on
C2

80 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
their march towards Nisibis ; but as this was not in Chaldea
proper, others have been induced to look much further south.
Accordingly, in the very heart of Chaldea, between the Ti
gris and the Euphrates, a city is found, called Orcha by Ptol
emy, and Ura by Josephus, which they suppose. to be the native
city of Abraham. It appears, however, from Acts vii. 2, 3, 4.
that Ur must have been in Mesopotamia, which was some
times called the Land of the Chaldees.
2. OfHaran.
The name of the place called Haran in our translation, is
Written in Hebrew Charan, and in Greek Charran. It is
supposed to have received its name from Haran, the father of
Lot and brother of Abraham ; and may have been named by
Terah, in remembrance of his deceased son. Here Terah
died after a residence of some time. To this place also Jacob
afterwards retired from the anger of his brother, and dwelt
with Laban. (Gen. xxvii. 43.) Haran was called Charra by
the Romans, and is celebrated in their history as the scene of
a great defeat of the Roman army under Crassus, by the Px.r-
thians. This place is yet called Harran, and is peopled by a few
families of wandering Arabs, who have been attracted thither
by a plentiful supply of water from several small streams.
In Haran, Abraham was called of God to proceed to a
country which he would show him, and where he was to be
a great nation : so he arose, and took his wife, and Lot, his
brother's son, and all their substance, and went forth to go into
the Land of Canaan. He next came to the place of Sichem
and the plain of Moreh.
3. Sichem and the Plain of Moreh.
Sichem is also called Sychem, Sechem, and Shechem, in
Scripture : it is the place called Sychar in the New Testa
ment. It received its name from Shechem, the son of Ha-
mor, the Canaanite ; and is a city of Samaria, near the par
cel of ground which Jacob bought of Hamor and gave to his
6on Joseph, whose bones were buried here when brouo-ht out
of Egypt. (Josh. xxiv. 32.) On the same piece of ground
was also Jacob's well, where our Saviour spake with the
woman of Samaria. Sichem was situated between Mounts
Gerizim and Ebal, nearly in the middle of the Land of Ca
naan. The plain of Moreh is believed to be the valley of
Shechem, part of which Jacob bought from the children of
Hamor. (Gen. xxxiii. 19.) The place is now called Naplous

SOJOURNING OF ABRAHAM. 3}
or Napolose, and contains about 100 Greek Christians, ant t
few Jews.
4. Bethel and Hai.
After leaving the plain of Moreh, Abraham removed to a
mountain between Bethel and Hai, and again from thence
southward ; but a famine arising in the land, he went down
into Egypt, and afterwards returned again to Bethel.
Beth-el in Hebrew means the house of God, and was so
named afterwards by Jacob, Abraham's grandson, from its be
ing the place where he had his remarkable vision or dream.
The name was afterwards transferred to the adjoining city of
Luz, which was thenceforth the real place named Bethel. It
was situated eight or ten miles north of Jerusalem. Here
Abraham and Lot separated ; Lot choosing the plain or valley
of Jordan, pitched his tent near Sodom, and Abraham remove>
to the plain of Mamre in Hebron. Hai was the place afte.'
wards called Ai, which was taken by stratagem by the Isre
elites. (Josh. vii. and viii.)
5. The kings of Elam, Shinar, Ellasar, and the king qj
Nations. The kings who came and made war with the fife kings oi
the neighbouring cities in the vale of Siddim, were confederate" !
together on account of the five kings having rebelled again.-*
Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, to whom they had been triuu-
tary twelve years. Elam was Persia, and Shinar was Chaj
dea. Ellasar was supposed by some to be a country in Arabia.
by others Ellas in Syria, or Thelassar in Mesopotamia. The
nations of which Tidal was king, were probably the petty
nations of Gilgal or Galilee.
6. The cities Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Beta
or Zoar.
These were the five cities with the kings of which Chedor
laomer and his allies made war. They were situated in the
plain or valley through which the Jordan flowed, and were
probably all situated within that part of it called the vale of
Siddim, before the destruction of this region by fire from
heaven. Four of these cities were destroyed by that awful ¦
visitation for their great wickedness, and the fifth was pre
served only at the earnest intercession of Lot, as a place of
refuge for himself, and because it was a little city : hence it
was called Zoar, i. e. the little ; its name before was Bela.
(Gen. xix. 20. 22.)
7. The vale of Siddim.

32 bCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
This was a rich and ferf ile valley, a continuation of the
vale of Jordan ; occupying the spot which is now the Dead
Sea. This was anciently called the Sea of the Plain, from its
situation in the great plain or valley of the Jordan ; and some
times the Salt Sea, from the extreme saltness of its waters.
That this sea was once the vale of Siddim is evident from Gen.
xiv. 3. and xix. 24, 25. It is said by travellers still to bear
unequivocal marks of the great catastrophe of which it has been
the site ; and some have even declared that when the waters
were low they discerned the ruins and fragments of walls which
had once belonged to the guilty cities which had been over
whelmed by the judgment of God. (See Dead Sea, Part II.)
8. Kirjath-Arba, or Hebron.
This city is situated in the hilly country, about 20 miles
eouth of Jerusalem. It is one of the most ancient cities of
the east, having been built seven years before Zoan, in Egypt,
the ancient capital of the Pharaohs. It was first called Kir
jath-Arba, i. e. the city of Arba, from Arba the father of
Anak, (Josh. xiv. 15.) from whom descended the gigantic An-
ikim, drive^n thence by Caleb when he conquered the place.
Why it was afterwards called Hebron is not certain. Some
say from Hebron, a son of Kohath and grandson of Levi ; and
others from Hebron, a son of Caleb. It is remarkable in sacred
history as the place where Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were
buried, and also Sarah, Rebekah, and Leah. A cave, supposed
to be the one in which they were buried, is yet shown here,
covered by a building which was formerly a Christian church.
It is also supposed that Zacharias and Elizabeth, the parents
of John the Baptist dwelt in Hebron. It is yet a place of
some consequence, and is now called Habroun, and Khalyl.
Near this place was the plain of Mamre, where Abraham
dwelt, being about two miles southward from Hebron : it was
formerly a pleasant and fertile vall#y, and probably for that
reason chosen by Abraham as his residence.
9. The river of Egypt.
By this term is generally understood the Nile, as it is the
only river of any consequence in Egypt ; but it is evident
that the river of Egypt mentioned in Numb, xxxiv. 5. and
Josh. xv. 4. could not be the Nile, but was a small river at the
southern boundary of the land of Canaan. This is confirmed
in Josh. xv. 47. where, among the cities belonging to the tribe
of Judah, is mentioned " Gaza with her towns and her vil
lages, unto the river of Eeypt " It is therefore clearly ascer-

SOJOURNING OF ABRAHAM. 3 '
tamed that this river was a stream to the south of Gaza, falliriJ
into the Mediterranean, forming the southern boundary of the
Land of Canaan; and being the border towards Egypt, thence
derived its name. In Amos vi. 14, it is called the River .jt
the Wilderness, from its situation on the edge of the deser
between Israel and Egypt It also appears to be the same
whic'i in some other places is called Sihor.
10. The Kenites.
The origin of this people is not distinctly known, but thev
are supposed to have been a tribe of Midianites residing near
the Amalekites, south-west of Canaan.
11. The Kenizites.
These are mentioned along with the Kenites, Kadmoniten.
&c. as people over whom the seed of Abraham should hav t
dominion. .They are supposed to have descended from Kena/.
the grandson of Esau, and to have had their dwelling some
where in Idumea, south of Canaan.
12. The Kadmoniles.
This tribe are supposed to have dwelt in the north-east part
of Canaan, near Mount Hermon, at the time when Abraham
visited the country. The Word Kadmonites is supposed to
mean an eastern people ; and hence some have conjectured
that they were placed east of the Jordan, or that the word
implied collectively all the people living east of that rivei.
The learned Mr. Bryant supposes them to have been Cad
mians, a Cuthite or shepherd colony from Egypt, who had
settled in Canaan, and afterwards spread themselves west
ward into Phenicia. Hence they emigrated by colonies into
Greece and Africa, carrying with them their language and
letters, as well as their name of Cadmians. Cadmus was one
of .the names of Osiris, the chief deity of Egypt; and from
this deity the Greeks, in process of time, framed an idea!
personage whom they made to be the person who brougtit
the Greek letters from Phenicia into Greece.
13. The Perizzites.
The origin and situation of the Perizzites are not well as
certained. They are supposed to have been some of the de
scendants of Canaan, or a people mingled with them. Dt
Wells supposes them to have derived their name from the
Hebrew word Perazoth, denoting villages, and that they
were rustics, not living in cities, nor consisting of any par
ticular family, but made up .of stragglers from all. Faber
thinks they were not Canaanites, but supposes their name \x
it

34 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
have been a general term, comprehending the Anakim,
Rephaim, Zuzim, Horim, &c. who were Phenician or Cuthic
emigrants. 14. The Rephaim.
This name is agreed, by those learned in Hebrew, to mean
men of extraordinary stature or strength. They were situa
ted east of the Jordan, adjoining the Emim and Zuzim. The
valley of Rephaim, or valley of giants, lay near Jerusalem,
and was probably once inhabited by some of these people de
tached from their chief settlement on the east side of Jordan.
15. The well Lahai-roi, Bered and Gerar.
After Hagar had fled into the wilderness, she was found by
the angel of the Lord at a fountain in the way to Shur. This
fountain was between Kadesh and Bered, and was called
Lahaiyroi, L e. the fountain of him that lives and sees me.
Shur was the name of that part of Arabia which adjoins
Egypt and the Red Sea. Kadesh was a city near the south
ern boundary of Canaan : Bered is nowhere else mentioned
in Scripture, but was probably not far from Gerar, the place
where Abraham sojourned after his removal southward from
the neighbourhood of Hebron. Gerar was probably not far
from Gaza, being in the land of the Philistines. Gen. xxi.
32. 34
16. Beersheba, and the Land of Moriah.
Beersheba, in Hebrew, means the well of the oath, and was
so named from the covenant made concerning it between
Abraham and Abimelech, king of Gerar. This place, in
which a city was afterwards built called by heathen writers
Bersabe, or Berzimma, was situated at the southern extrem
ity of the land of Israel. Hence the expression so often used
"from Dan even unto Beersheba," to express the greatest
length of the Holy Land ; Dan being at the extreme northern
border, and Beersheba at the southern.
While Abraham sojourned at Beersheba, he was required of
God, as a trial of his obedience, to go into the Land of Moriah,
and' there to offer his only son, Isaac, as a burnt offering.
(Gen. xxii. 2.) It is generally thought that this land of Moriah
was the mount so called, upon which Solomon afterwards built
the temple, and on part of which, namely, Mount Calvary,
our Saviour afterwards offered himself for the redemption of
mankind. Instead, however, of Moriah, the Samaritans in
this passage read Moreh, and say that it was to Mount Geri-
zim, near the plain of Moreh and Sichem, where Isaac was

SOJOURNINU OF ABRAHAM. 35
brought to be sacrificed. According to Maimonides, the place
where Abraham built the altar for this purpose was the same
where David afterwards built his, in the threshing-floor of
Araunah the Jebusite, near Jerusalem.
17. Abrahum's suns by Keturah,
After the death of Sarah, Abraham took to wife Keturah,
whose children are named, Gen. xxv. 1-4. To these children
Abraham gave gifts and sent them away from his son Isaac,
into the east country, i. e. into the eastern part of Arabia,
where we find some of their descendants afterwards mention
ed in the sacred history.
Midian, one of these, was the progenitor of the Midianites,
who were settled chiefly south-east of the Dead Sea, adjoining
the Moabites, with whom we afterwards find them sometimes
mentioned in conjunction as neighbours. Numb. xxii. 4. From
this place it is probable that the Midianites spread abroad into
the adjacent countries, as we read of them afterwards as be
ing in the vicinity of Mount Sinai, near the Red Sea, where
Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, and priest of Midian, had
his residence.
Jokshan, another son of Abraham by Keturah, had two sons
named Sheba and Dedan, who must be distinguished from the
two descendants of Cush, of the same name, settled in Arabia
Felix ; while the sons of Jokshan were settled to the north
ward of thein in Arabia Deserta.
13. Ishmael, son of Abrahiim and llagar.
Ishrnael dwelt in the wilderness of Paran, (Gen. xxi. 21.)
which was the desert and mountainous tract between the wil
derness of Shur on the west and Mount Seir or the land of
Edom, on the east; having the land of Canaan on the north,
and the Red Sea on the south. He became the father of twelve
sons, (Gen. xxv. 13.) whose posterity " dwelt from Havilah
unto Shur," that is, in Arabia Petrea, of which the western
part, towards Egypt is called Shur, and the eastern part,
towards the Persian Gulf, Havilah. The modern Arabians
value themselves on being descended from Ishmael, of whom
it was foretold that he should be a wild man, the father of
a great nation ; and that his hand should be against every
man, and every man's hand against him. Gen. xvi. 12. xxi. 18.
18. Descendants of Lot, the Moabites and Ammonites.
The posterity of Moab, the elder son of Lot settled east of
the Lake Asphaltites or Dead Sea, and in the adjacent coun
try, east of the Jordan; for we learn by Numb. xxi. 26. tha

36 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
the Amontts had conquered that country from the Moabites,
as far as the river Arnon.
The descendants of Amnion, the younger son of Lot, pos
sessed the country adjoining the Moabitcs, on the northward
and eastward ; from the Arnon to the river Jabbok, being the
northern part of what was afterwards the kingdom of Sihon.
Numb. xxi. 13. Josh. xiii. 25. and Judges xi. 13-23.

CHAPTER V.
i'HE SETTLEMENT OF ESAU, AND THE SOJOURNING OF JACOB
I. Mount Seir or Edom, the dwelling of Esau.
Esau and Jacob having separated on account of their riches,
and the number of their cattle, which were more than the
country could bear ; Esau went from the face of his brother
Jacob, and dwelt in Mount Seir. Gen. xxxvi. 6-9.
Edom, afterwards called Idumea, was situated south of the
Land of Canaan, and the Dead Sea, and extended as far as
iome branches of the Red Sea; having the land of Midian on
lie east and the Amalekites on the west.
The settlement of Esau was in the mountains of Seir, to
-he south-east of the Dead Sea. This mountainous tract was
wssessed by the Horites, probably the family of Hor, after
whom Mount Hor may have been named ; as this mountain,
-in which Aaron died, was on the borders of Edom. This re
gion appears to have received the name of Mount Seir after-
vards, from the family of Seir, the Horite, (Gen. xxxvi. 20.)
¦vho seems to have been a person of consequence in that land.
Ifter the children of Esau had succeeded the Horites, the
ountry was called Edom, a name by which Esau was distin-
fuished, after he had sold his birth-right to Jacob. The Edom-
res were first governed by dukes or princes, and afterwards
>y kings. They were conquered by David, (2 Sam. viii. 14.)
ind the prophecy that Jacob should'rule Esau completely ful
filled. }
II. The Sojourning of Jacob.
After Jacob, the younger son of Isaac, had received the
olessing from his father, instead of Esau, he was hated by his
tdder brother, who even sought his life. He was therefore

SOJOURNINO OF JACOB. 37
sent by his mother to her brother Laban, who dwelt at Haran
in Padan Aram or Mesopotamia. On his way thither from
Beersheba, he came to a certain place, and lay down to sleep.
It was here that he had the vision in which God renewed to
him the promise already made to Abraham and Isaac : hence
this place was named by Jacob Bethel, the house of God. Of
its situation we have already spoken hi our account of the so
journing of Abraham.
1. Gilead and Mizpah.
After remaining several years at Haran, during which time
he married the two daughters of Laban, Jacob desiring to re
turn to Canaan, stole away from Laban, and, with his family
and his flocks, set out on his journey homewards. He crossed
the river (probably the Euphrates) and came to Mount Gilead,
where Laban, having pursued, overtook him. Here they made
a covenant raising a heap of stones, from which the place was
called Galeed, i. e. the heap of witness. The mountain where
this was done was afterwards called Galeed or Gilead by the
Israelites. It was situated east of the Sea of Galilee, being
part of that ridge of mountains which runs from Lebanon south
ward, on the east of the Holy Land, and included in the moun
tainous region called Trachonitis in the New Testament.
Mizpah was another name given this heap of stones, from
which the town of Mizpah, belonging to the tribe of Gad, and
lying near this famous place of the covenant took its name.
2. Mahanaim, the Brook Jabbok, and Penuel.
Having gone on his way some distance into Canaan, Jacob
was met by the angels of God. And when he saw them he
6aid, This is God's host ; and hence he called the place Maha
naim, i. e. the hosts. From this the city near this place was
afterwards called Mahanaim. It was situated near the river
Jabbok, on the way from Mount Gilead.
This brook or river Jabbok ran from the Mountains of Gi
lead, and probably emptied into the Jordan, south of the Sea
of Galilee ; some, however, think that it emptied into that
sea. Near this brook was also the place named Peniel, i. e. the
face, of God : so called from Jacob's wrestling there with an
angel ;- at which time he received the name of Israel. Hence,
the adjoining city was called PenueL
Not far from this last place, and near the river Jordan, was
Suceoth, where Jacob " built him an house, and made booths
Sir his cattle." Gen. xxxiii. 17. D

38 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
3. Ephrath, or Ephratah, afterwards called Bethlehem.
After leaving Succoth, Jacob crossed the Jordan and came
to Shalem, a. city of Shechem, where he bought a parcel of
ground. He next passed on to Bethel, where he built an altar,
and held communion with,God.
After this, when they had come near to Ephrath, Benjamin
was born, and Rachel died. She was buried here, and Jacob
set a pillar upon her grave, which probably stood a long time,
as it is mentioned in 1 Sam. x. 2. That Ephrath was the
same as Bethlehem, we learn from Gen. xxxv. 19. So that
the same place, remarkable for the birth of Benjamin, was no
less so for that of king David, and more famous still as the
birth-place of our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ
4. The Tower of Edar.
From the last mentioned place Israel journeyed again, and
spread his tent beyond the Tower of Edar. The word Eder
or Edar, in Hebrew, signifies a flock ; and In Micah iv. 8. the
Tower of Edar is translated the Tower of the Flock ; whence,
as it is termed " the strong hold of the daughter of Sion,"
some have supposed that it denotes a place near Jerusalem.
Others think it means the field near Bethlehem, where the
shepherds were keeping their flocks when the angel appeared,
and announced to them the birth of Christ.
From this place Jacob went to Isaac, his father, in Mamre
or Hebron, where Isaac died and was buried. Jacob remained
there, and from this place he sent Joseph to. see his brethren
who had gone to feed their father's flocks in Shechem, where
he had before bought a piece of ground.
5. Dothan.
Joseph, having come to Shechem, was not able to find his
brethren, who had gone to Dothan ; but being at length in
formed of it, he went thither. When his brethren at Dothan
saw him coming, they conspired against him, because of his
dreams ; and sold him to some Ishmaelites and Midianites,
who were going down from Gilead to Egypt with merchan
dise. These took Joseph with them to Egypt, where they
sold him to Potiphar, the captain of Pharaoh's guard. Accord
ing 1o Eusebius, Dothan was situated about twelve miles
north of the city of Samaria.
6. Adullam, Chezib, and Timnath,
These places are mentioned (Gen. xxxviii.) in relating cer
tain transactions of Judah, the son of Jacob. Adullam was a
xity in the northern part of the tract afterwards allotted to

ISRAELITES IN EGYPT. 39
the tribe of Judah, south-west from Jerusalem ; and was re
markable for a cave in its neighbourhood, in which David hid
himself from the pursuit of Saul. Chezib was not far from
Adullam ; and is thought by some to have been the place
called Achzib in Josh. xv. 44. Timnath was probably the
same place as that mentioned afterwards in the story of Sam
son : it was situated westward from Jerusalem, on the border
of the tribe of Judah, but belonged to the tribe of Dan.

CHAPTER VI.
RESIDENCE OF THE ISRAELITES IN THE LAND OF EGYPT.
Joseph, having through Divine favour attained the highest
degree of honour and power in Egypt next to the king, sent
for his father, his brethren, and their families, to bring them
from the Land of Canaan into Egypt Accordingly, Jacob,
with all his family, amounting to three-score and six persons,
together with their flocks and all that they had, went down
from the Land of Canaan, then the seat of famine, and were
placed by Joseph in the Land of Goshen, a fertile part of
Egypt. 1. The Land of Goshen, or Rameses.
The district of Egypt called Goshen was situated in the
easterly part of Egypt, between the river Nile and the north
ern extremity of the Red Sea. Some authors suppose it was
called the Land of Rameses, from a king of Egypt, of that
name, after whom the city of Rameses, which stood therein,
was also named. They conjecture that this district was the
property of the sovereign, in which his own cattle pastured,
as he tells Joseph, (Gen. xlvii. 6.) " make thy brethren rulers
over my cattle," which probably were kept in the best of the
iand, and to tend which, at any great distance, it does not
seem consistent that Joseph's brethren should do. Being Pha
raoh's own property, too, it might be given to the children of
Israel, with more propriety, as the possessions of his subjects
would not in that case be encroached upon.
2. The City of On.
This city, otherwise called in Hebrew Bethshemesh, the
House of the Sun, was the same called in Greek Heliopolis,
the City of the Sun. It was the priest of this On, whose
daughter was given in marriage by Pharaoh to Joseph ; and

40 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
the LXX. say that this was the place where Jacob and Joseph
met According to Josephus, this city was given to the Isra
elites on their coming into Egypt probably because it lay in
or very near to the Land of Goshen, on the eastern branch of
the Nde.
Near this city, in after ages, a temple was built for the
Jews by Onias, the high priest, who had been dispossessed of
his authority and office by Antiochus ; Ptolemy Philadelphus,
then king of Egypt, consenting to its erection.
3. Raamses and Pithom.
These were "treasure cities" built for Pharaoh by the
Israelites, while in a state of bondage.. By the term treasure
cities, it is probably to be understood that they were granaries
or repositories for corn ; as such places seem to have been
much in use by the Egyptians, after the good effects attend
ing the first introduction of them by Joseph were felt and un
derstood. Some commentators, however, consider them to
have been cities of defence, or military depots. It is not cer
tain whether Raamses and Rameses were the same city : if
not, they were not very far distant, both being near the east
ern branch of the Nile. Pithom is thought by some writers
to be the same as Pathumos, mentioned by Herodotus as be
ing situated near the canal which was made by the kings
Necho and Darius to join the Red Sea with the Nile. Others
incline to the opinion that it was situated where Pelusium,
the modern Damietta, was afterwards built i. e. near the
eastern mouth of the Nile.
4. Of the Employment of the Israelites while in Bondage.
The space of time which the children of Israel remained
in Egypt, is understood to have been about 215 years.* Joseph
ruled seventy years ; and it was about 58 years after his death
that the " new king arose up who knew not Joseph," (Exod. i.
8.) ; consequently the term of bondage lasted 87 years. There
is no reason for supposing that they were occupied all this
time in building the two cities already mentioned ; for their
number, when they went up out of the Land of Egypt,
amounted to six hundred thousand men, besides children.
(Exod. xii. 37.) At what, then, was this immense multitude
of people employed during nearly a hundred years )
May we not look to the Pyramids of Egypt as having been
•The 430 years' sojourning, mentioned in Exod. xii. 40, is to be computed
from the time of Abraham's departure out of Haran.

JOURNEYINGS OF THE ISRAELITES. 41
built by the children of Israel ; and yet standing as everlast
ing monuments of the trutb of sacred history ! We find that
the labours of the Israelites consisted in making bricks, with
which they mixed straw ; and it appears from the inspection
of various travellers who have examined these stupendous
edifices, that their interior parts contain, among other mate
rials, bricks of this kind. This is true of the great pyramid
which has been opened ; but the pyramids of Sakkara, at some
distance from this, are composed wholly of sun-burnt bricks,
mixed with chopped straw.
It is not likely that the native Egyptians laboured on these
structures ; for it was anciently, as it is yet in eastern coun
tries, the custom to employ slaves or bondmen in building.
Diodorus Siculus, the historian, informs us that Sesostris, the
king of Egypt, in building his public edifices, employed none
of his own subjects, but only captives ; and that he even had
it engraved on the temples that no Egyptian had a hand in
the building. It is therefore very probable that the " king
who knew not Joseph," dreading the increasing numbers and
strength of the Israelites, would set them to labour on such
buildings, and would afflict them with grievous tasks for the
mere purpose of wasting their strength and preventing their
increase. And as the last pyramid was never completely
finished, we may attribute its unfinished state to the Israelites
having left Egypt before its completion, and to the confusion
in the country consequent upon the destruction of Pharaoh
and his army in the Red Sea.
(For a further account of the Pyramids, and the Land of
Egypt in general, see Egypt Part II.)

CHAPTER VLL
JOURNEYINGS OF THE ISRAELITES FROM EGYPT TO CANAAN.
That part of the sacred history relating to the wanderings
of the children of Israel in the desert, and their progress to
wards Canaan, is in many places very perplexing and obscure
in its geography ; but we shall endeavour to trace their route
as accurately as the existing sources of information, which we
have diligently examined, will allow. The sands of the desert,
driven by easterly winds, are constantly advancing farther
westward ; and this will be found to have considerable influ-
D2

42 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
ence on the character of the wilderness into which the Isra
elites entered, as well as its extent. In the days of Moses it
probably did not begin so near to Egypt as it now does, nor
was it so totally barren and sandy as it now is. That it then
contained many fertile spots, is evident from the numerous
flocks and herds of cattle taken with them by the Israelites
from Egypt, having been able to find subsistence. Exod. xii.
38. The northern extremity of the Red Sea, too, advanced
much further to the north formerly than it does now, owing
to the constant driving of sand from the desert. The depth
of water at Suez is gradually diminishing, and before long
that part of the gulf will probably become dryland. Kolsoum,
which was a sea-port in the time of the Caliphs, is now three
quarters of a mile inland. It is probable therefore that Baal-
zephon, which in the time of Moses was upon the Red Sea,
was some miles further north, than the present Suez, which
is supposed by some to stand in the same place. Other con
siderable changes in the face of the desert may have been
produced by the same cause, whence probably arises much
of the difficulty attending the geographical account of the
stations or encampments of the Israelites in the wilderness.
1. Rameses. — This was the Rameses in the Land of Go
shen,, where the Israelites dwelt of which we have already
spoken. From this place they set out, in number " about six
hundred thousand on foot that were men, besides children."
Exod. xii. 37.
2. Succolh. — The first advance on their journey was to
Succoth, which word in Hebrew means booths, and the place
was so named because there the Israelites erected booths or
shelters. This place was not far on the way to the wilder
ness of the Red Sea, and is supposed to be the place now
called Birket el Hadgi or Pilgrim's Pool, a few miles east of
Cairo, where the caravan for Mecca now assembles.
3. Etham. They next " took their journey from Succoth,
and encamped in Etham, in the edge of the wilderness."
Exod. xiii. 20. Etham was probably near the present pilgrim
station called Adjeroud ; and that part of the wilderness next
to Egypt was called the wilderness of Etham. Numb, xxxiii.
8. Thus far Moses pursued the direct road to Canaan, yet the
regular and customary track; but being cume to Etham, he was
commanded by the Lord to turn again to the south and en
camp before Pi-hahiroth, between M^dol and the sea, ovei
against Baal-Zephon.

JOURNEYINGS OF THE ISRAELITES. 43
4. Pi-hahiroth. — This Hebrew word means, the mouth of
the gulf, and was probably so named from being near the
mouth of the present gulf of Suez. It is thought to be the
place more recently called Heroun or Heroopolis, which stood
near the extremity of the Red Sea.
5. Migdol. — It is not certain whether this was a city or a
tower. Some think it was a city, as the LXX. translators
render the name Magdolus, and Herodotus mentions a city
of tha-t name situated hereabouts ; but as Migdol in Hebrew
signifies a tower, some think it .was merely a building at a
well or station in the way; Magdolus or Magdolo being fur
ther north.
6. Baal-Zephon. — Tliis name is thought by learned men
to have been the name of an idol placed here to keep the bor
ders of the country, and prevent the escape of the slaves ;
Zephon being thought to come from the Hebrew Zephah, to
watch or spy : but it is also said to signify north, so that it may
have been a temple standing at the north point of the Red
Sea, near the present Suez.
7. Passage through the Red Sea. — Pharaoh, having been
told of the flight of the Israelites, pursued with a great force,
and overtook them at their encampment near Baal-Zephpn.
The Israelites, alarmed at the sudden appearance of the Egypt
ians, began to mistrust the providence of God, as no way of
escape appeared to them ; being shut in on all sides by the wil
derness, by the mountains, and by the sea, and having the army
of the Egyptians behind them. But they escaped by the way
which probably they least thought of; for Moses, stretching
out his hand over the sea, it was divided, and the Israelites
passed over on dry ground. The Egyptians following* the
sea returned to its place and they were all overwhelmed in
the waters, not one escaping. Exod. xiv. 15-30. This miracu
lous event seems to have been preserved in tradition among '
the neighbouring people ; as Diodorus, a heathen historian,
relates that among the Ichthyophagi, a people of this region,
an old tradition, delivered down from their ancestors, states
that the waters of the sea formerly parted, the waters falling
back on each side, so that the bottom was dry the whole
Dreadth across, appearing of a green colour ; but that some
time after the sea returned to its usual place. This tradition
doubtless refers to the miraculous passage of the Israelites. —
(See Red Sea, Part II.)
8. The wilderness of Shur. — After passing the Red Sua,

44 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
Moses led the Israelites out into the wilderness of Shur, a
distance of three days' journey. Exod. xv. 22. Numb, xxxiii.
8. This wilderness is probably the same as that of Etham,
mentioned before ; at all events, it was the desert tract of Ara
bia Petraia next to Egypt. The wilderness of Etham was
probably that part of it which lay nearest to Etham, and as
the Israelites went out of the Red Sea into the wilderness of
Shur, it is evident that they must have crossed this sea near
the north end of it, as both Shur and Etham were there situ
ated. 9. Marah. — This word in Hebrew signifies bitterness, and
the place was so named from the water which they found
there being so bitter that they could not drink it. Moses,
however, praying to the Lord, was shown a tree, the wood of
which being cast into the water, it was made sweet Exod.
xv. 23. Marah was on the east of the Red Sea, where Nie-
buhr says there are yet four pits of water which are bitter.
He describes the place as being eight (German) miles south
eastward from Suez.
10. Elim. — From Marah they came to Elim, where they
found twelve wells of water and seventy palm-trees. Exod.
xv. 27. Elim lies in the north skirt of the desert, two leagues
from Tor, where there are now nine wells and two thousand
palm-trees. Dr. Shaw says there is a distinct view of Mount
Sinai from Elim, the wilderness of Sin lying between them,
about a day's journey across.
11. The wilderness of Sin. — This was the desert between
Elim and Sinai. But the Israelites, in going from Elim to this
wilderness, made an encampment by the Red Sea (Numb.
xxxiii. 10, 11.) probably because they were obliged to turn
from the direct course by some obstacle which hindered them
from going directly forward. During their stay in the wilder
ness of Sin, they were first provided with manna, which sup
ply continued to be regularly given them during forty years
till they came to the land of Canaan. Exod. xvi. 35.
12. Dophka and Alush. — Nothing important seems to have
occurred at these encampments, as they are not mentioned in
Exodus. They are noticed Numb, xxxiii. 12. 14. Alush was
in the country of the Edomites, near the city of Petra.
13. Rephidim. — This station of the Israelites is remarkable
as being the place where Moses was ordered to go and smite
the rock of Horeb with his rod, in order to obtain water for
he people who, according to their usual custom, murmured

JOURNEYINGS OF THE ISRAELITES. 45
against him. It seems by this that Rephidim could not have
been far from Horeb. This place is also remarkable for an
attack upon Israel by the Amalekites, who were discomfited
by Joshua.
14. The wilderness of Sinai. — After leaving Rephidim, the
Israelites encamped in the wilderness of Sinai, which means
the desert lying about the foot of Mount Sinai. In this en
campment they remained a long time : here they received the
law; here Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, came to the
camp, and brought him his wife and children ; and here he
advised Moses to appoint judges to decide small matters of
controversy among the people, as the labour of hearing and
deciding all these matters was too great a burden for Moses
to bear. It is thought that the appointment of these judges
was the foundation of the celebrated Sanhedrim, or general
council of the Jewish nation, consisting of seventy senators,
who assembled at fixed times to determine the most important
affairs of church and state.
15. The Mountains Horeb and Sinai. — It is evident from
several passages of Scripture, that Horeb and Sinai are either
adjoining mountains, or that they are only two different heads
or summits of the same mountain. For what is in one place
related as having been done at Horeb, is in another related as
having been done at Sinai. For instance, we read (Exod. xx.)
that the commandments were delivered from Sinai ; and it is
repeated (Deut v.) that they were delivered from Horeb. And
also, (Deut ix. 8, 9.) " In Horeb ye provoked the Lord to
wrath — when I was gone up mto the mount (i. e. Mount Si
nai) to receive the tables of the covenant." Hence it follows
that the difference between these mountains can be no other
than that which we have above mentioned, that is, that they
were adjoining mountains, or only two different eminences or
peaks of the same mountain : consequently, the removing of
the Israelites from Rephidim, near where the rock of Horeb
was smitten by Moses, into the wilderness of Sinai, was only
removing from one end or side of the same mountain to the
other ; or, at most fr°m one mountain to another adjoining. .
Modern travellers, who have visited Mount Sinai, say that
it presents three sublime summits of red granite, Mount Sinai,
Mount Horeb, and a third which is called St. Catharine's
Mount Sinai lies to the east and Horeb to the west, so that
when the sun rises, Horeb is covered by the shadow of Sinai.
Mount Horeb has abundance of fruit trees on it, and threo

46 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
fine springs ; but there is none but rain-water on Mount SinaL
But the most remarkable thing to be seen at Horeb, is a soli
tary rock of red marble, about four yards square, which is be
lieved to be the same which was smitten by the rod of Moses.
It has several openings or mouths, from which it is supposed
the waters flowed ; some of them having horizontal and some
perpendicular cracks or clefts, which it is evident could never
have been produced by any tool. Dr. Shaw, who visitel this
mountain, says that the waters which flowed from it have hol
lowed across one corner of the rock a channel about two
inches deep, and twenty wide, which yet bears evident marks
of the gushing fountain.
On both these mountains are many churches and monaste
ries, inhabited by monks and hermits, who are chiefly members
of the Greek Church. Horeb and Sinai are situated in the
north-west of Arabia, between the two arms of the Red Sea.
16. Taberah, Kibroth-hatlaavah, and Hazeroth. — These
were encampments or stations of the Israelites, between the
wilderness of Sinai and the wilderness of Paran. Taberah,
the first, was noted as the place where the people were pun
ished for their murmurings and lustings, with a fire which
consumed some of them : hence the place was called Taberah,
i. e. burning. Kibrolh-hattaavah means the graves of lust ;
and was so, named from the people being buried there who
died of the plague sent as a punishment for their lusting. At
Hazeroth, Miriam was punished with leprosy, and was shut
out from the camp seven days, because she and Aaron had
spoken against Moses on account of the Cushite or Ethiopian
woman whom he had married.
17. The Wilderness of Paran. — After leaving Hazeroth,
the Israelites next pitched in the wilderness of Paran. This
term, in a comprehensive sense, seems to have denoted all the
desert and mountainous tract lying between the wilderness of
Shur, on the west and Mount Seir or the Land of Edom, on
the east ; having the Land of Canaan on the north, and the-
Red Sea on the south. In this sense, it seems to have com-1
prehended the wilderness of Sin, and the wilderness of Sinai ;
also the adjoining tract, in which lay Kibroth-hattaavah and
Hazeroth. In this sense it is probably understood, Deut. i. 19.
where by "that great and terrible wilderness," is probably
intended the wilderness of Paran. But in a stricter sense it
seems to have included only that part of Arabia Petrtea
which lies northward from Mount Sinai, about Hazeroth,

JOURNEYINGS OF THE ISRAELITES. 47
From the wilderness of Paran, Moses sent a man out of ever;
tribe, to spy out the Land of Canaan, (Numb. xiu. 3.) wh'
returned to him after forty days, unto the same wilderness, y
Kadesh Barnea. (Numb. xiii. 25. Deut. i. 19. Josh. xiv. 7.)
18. Kadesh, or Kadesh Barnea. — The encampment at thii
place is not particularly specified by Moses, but is probably
denoted by some of the encampments mentioned under othei
names; for we are told (Deut i. 46.) that the Israelites abodt
in Kadesh many days. Therefore it is likely that they
made several movements or new encampments during their
stay, which may be the reason that the single name of Kadesh
is not mentioned to designate the place of their stay, but the
several particular names by which their several particular
encampments were distinguished. This Kadesh is evidently
a different place from the Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin,
mentioned in Numb, xxxiii. 36. It was at Kadesh Barnea
that the spies returned, after searching the Land of Canaan, to
which they were then very near ; and there, by reason of their
infidelity, brought on themselves the judgment of wandering
in the desert, till they should have filled up the space of forty
years from their coming out of Egypt But the Israelites did
not come to Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin, till the last year
of the forty, as may be inferred from the death of Aaron,
(Numb, xxxiii. 38.) And as it is probable that Miriam died
but a few months before Aaron, so it is certain she died at Ka
desh in the wilderness of Zin. (Numb. xx. 1.)
19. Journeys from Kadesh, in the Wilderness of Paran,
to the Wilderness of Zin. — The encampments mentioned in
Numb, xxxiii. from about verse 20 to 36, were probably be
tween the decamping from Kadesh Barnea, to the encamping
at Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin. None of these are of
much interest in a geographical or historical point of view,
except Ezion-gaber (Numb, xxxiii. 35.) and Elath mentioned
with it Deut. ii. 8.
20. Ezion-gaber and Eloth. — Ezion-gaber was a city of
Idumea or Arabia Deserta, east from the Red Sea, and upon
the eastern arm of this sea, called the Gulf of Elah or Eloth.
At this port Solomon equipped his fleet for the voyage to
Ophir. Eloth was probably also a sea-port, near the former, on the
same gulf; and was also visited by king Solomon. 2 Chron.
viii. 17.
21. The Wilderness of Zin. — It is evident from Numb.

48 BCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
xxxiv. 3. 4. and Josh. xv. 1-3, that this wilderness lay south
east of the Land of Israel, along the border of Edom. We
have already observed that Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin,
was different from Kadesh in the wilderness of Paran, which
was further westward. Some writers indeed make the wil
derness of Zin to lie on the west of Edom, but we think Dr.
Wells' reasoning conclusive, that it was eastward of that
country. 22. Mount Hor. — From Kadesh the Israelites removed to
Mount Hor, which is remarkable as the place where Aaron
died. This was the edge of the land of Edom, and from
what has been said before, probably the eastern boundary.
The former inhabitants of Edom were called Horites, but
whether they took their name from the mountain, or the
mountain from them, is not certain, but probably the latter,
as places in those days generally took their names from the
inhabitants. With regard to the difficulty concerning the
place of Aaron's death and burial, which arises from compar
ing Numb. xx. 23-29. and xxxiii. 37. 38. with Deut. x. 6., Dr.
Wells observes that there has evidently been an error of some
of the early Hebrew copyists; and shows by a reference to
the old Hebrew-Samaritan copy of the Scriptures, that the
error is in Deut. x. 6, and that Aaron died and was buried in
Mount Hor. This will also account for the difference in the
order of encampments observed in the same place.
23. Encampments from Mount Hor to the Valley of Zered.
— After leaving Mount Hor, the Israelites " journeyed by the
way of the Red Sea, to compass the Land of Edom." (Numb.
xxi. 4.) The expression " by the way of the Red Sea," here
probably means not along the coast of the Red Sea, for they
were then advancing to the northward further from it ; but
that they went by the way or road used by the people of Ca
naan and the countries east of it, in their journeys to and from
the Red Sea. The Israelites passed by this way, round the
eastern border of the Land of Edom, and encamped in Zalmo-
nah, in Punon, and in Oboth. In this passage the people be
came discouraged, and " spake against God, and against Moses."
(Numb. xxi. 5.) For this they were punished by fiery ser
pents, which bit them, and many of them died ; but they were
at length relieved by a brazen serpent which the Lord directed
Moses to make.
From Oboth, they removed to Ije-abarim in the eastern
border of Moab : this place is elsewhere called Iim, and lay

JOURNEYINGS OF THE ISRAELITES. 49
in the Land of Moab, east of the Dead Sea. The Valley of
Zered was the plain through which flowed the brook Zered
or Zared, which emptied into the eastern side of the Dead
Sea. 24. From the Valley of Zered to the Mountains of Abarim.
— From the Valley of Zered the Israelites removed, and
pitched on the other side of Arnon, (Numb. xxi. 13.) proba
bly at the place called Dibon Gad, in Numb, xxxiii. 45, 46.
This, and the next station, Almon-diblathaim, were in the
land of the Amorites ; for they had crossed the river Arnon,
which was the boundary between Moab and the Amorites.
(Numb. xxL 13.)
25. The Mountains of Abarim, Mounts Nebo and Pisgah.
— The Abarim were a ridge of mountains between the rivers
Arnon and Jordan, of considerable extent, separating the Land
of Canaan from the Moabites, Amorites, and Ammonites.
They were steep and high mountains, presenting from their
summits a grand view of the Land of Canaan.
Mount Nebo was one of this chain, probably the highest,
and was situated near Jordan, over-against Jericho. It would
seem from Deut. xxxiv. 1, that Nebo and Pisgah were the
same mountain, and that if there were any distinction, it was
either the top of the mountain that was more peculiarly
called Pisgah, or some part of it where there were steps cut
out to go up. The ¦ name signifies high hill, whence it was
probably the most elevated summit But, according to Eu-
sebius, Aquila, who translated the Bible into Greek, has al
ways rendered the Hebrew term Pisgah, by a word which
signifies to cut out ; and so, in some places, do the LXX.
translators. Hence, some have thought it probable that in
one part of Mount Nebo, steps were cut out, to aid in the as
cent of the mountain, and that this part was called Pisgah.
The prospect of Canaan from this mountain was very exten
sive, including the whole of the country, from Dan in the
north, to Zoar in the south. Some writers have questioned
whether this was not the mountain to which our Lord was
taken by the tempter ; whence the view was so extensive as
to be called figuratively all the world.
A city in the tribe of Reuben was called Nebo, probably
from this mountain ; and also the city Ashdoth-Pisgah. (Josh.
xiii. 20.)
26. Encampment in the Plains of Moab. — After the Isra
elites had removed from the mountains of Abarim, thev
E

50 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
pitched their tents in the plains of Moab, by Jordan, near
Jericho. And they pitched by Jordan in such a manner, that
their camp extended from Beth-jesimoth unto Abel-shittim, in
the plains of Moab. (Numb, xxxiii. 48. 49.) Beth-jesimoth
was a city given afterwards to the tribe of Reuben. It lay
in the south border of the kingdom of Sihon, not far from the
Dead Sea. (Josh. xii. 3.) Eusebius mentions a place called
Beth-simath, which is probably the same, lying east of Jor
dan, about ten miles south-eastward from Jericho.
Abel-shittim, or the Valley of Shittim, lay some distance
northward from Beth-jesimoth. It is, in other passages of
Scripture, simply called Shittim. It is thought by some that
the shittim-wood, so frequently spoken of, took its name from
this place, where it probably grew very abundantly.
This is the last encampment mentioned, and ends the Mo
saic history of the journey ings of the Israelites from the Land
of Egypt to Canaan.
We shall close our account of this interesting subject, by
the following general observations.
From Egypt to Baalzephon, or Suez, it is certain that Mo
ses followed the customary road now taken by the caravans of
pilgrims ; here he turned off, crossed the Red Sea, and led his
people to Mount Sinai, for the purpose of solemnly engaging
them in devotion and consecration to the Deity, who had ap
peared to him there before, (Exod. iii.) and had given him, as
a token, this very solemnity, (verse 12.)
Having accomplished the sacred transactions at Sinai,
Moses had his choice of three ways to reach the Land of Ca
naan. 1. By a northerly course directly through the country
of the Edomites. 2. By going back again to the common
track from Egypt to Canaan, and so entering it on the south
west. 3. By taking a north-easterly course around Edom.
The first route was occupied by enemies ; for the Edomites
refused them a passage through their country. The second
they followed till they reached the boundary of their expected
country at Kadesh Barnea; but here they were turned back
by the faint-hearted reports of their spies, and by their own
folly and discontent. Hence they retreated again through
the wilderness, again passed not far from Sinai in their jour
ney to Eloth and Ezion-gaber, and finally entered Canaan by
the north-easterly route, around Mount Seir or Edom.
It appears that Moses judged rightly of his people at first,
that war would have terrified them ; and that even after they

THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN. 51
had been some time under his direction, their courage was
very moderate, and their habits of submission very weak :
as in the first instance they would not fight, and in the
second they would not obey. But after this capricious gene
ration had' passed away, better discipline produced better ef
fects, and a mutinous spirit no longer prevailing, Joshua, the
successor of Moses, effected his purpose on the east of Canaan.
This change in the point of attack, changed also the enemy to
be attacked ; for the people on the east of Canaan, not being
assisted by those on the west, their subjection was more easy.
The passage of the Jordan, too, cut oft' the southern part of
Canaan from the northern ; and by being thus divided, each
division opposed less resistance, as they could not act in con
cert together ; and more force Could be employed against each,
under the entire uncertainty of what district would be next
invaded.

CHAPTER VII.
THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN.
L The Country east of Jordan.
±. The original inhabitants of the country east of Jordan.
As it may be of use, for the clearer understanding of sa
cred history, we shall first give a short account of the several
people who successively held dominion in these regions.
It has been formerly observed that Uz^one of the sons of
Aram, settled in the. parts of Syria about Damascus ; and so
this country beyond Jordan, of which we are now speaking,
Was probably at first possessed by the descendants of Uz.
Whence it is thought, by many ancient as well as modern
writers, that the Land of Uz, mentioned in the book of Job,
is the country lying originally between Damascus on the north,
and the plantatior of Cush, or Arabia, on the south ; having
the Land of Canaan on the west, and Arabia Deserta east.
But when Abraham first sojourned in the Land of Canaan,
We find this country possessed by the Rephaim, Zuzim, and
Emim; names which imply men of more than ordinary
strength, and of a gigantic race. (Deut ii. 10-^21.) These
are thought not to be the descendants of Uz, but perhaps of

52 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
the Anakim and Rephaim, Canaanitish giants, who might
have seized on the country for themselves. It is said (Deut.
iii. 11.) that Og, a king of the Amorites, was of the Rephaim.
The country east of Jordan being depopulated by the great
overthrow given to the inhabitants of it, the Rephaim, Zuzim,
and Emim, by Chedorlaomer, (Gen. xiv. 5.) and by the num
bers that were probably carried away captives, the descend
ants of Lot, i. e. the Moabites and Ammonites, found it no dif
ficult matter to settle in these parts. For we read (Deut ii.
9. 10.) that the Moabites possessed the country wherein the
Emim dwelt, in times past ; and also, (verse 19. 20.) that the
Ammonites possessed the country wherein the Zamzummim
or Zuzim dwelt, in old times. The river Jabbok seems to have
been the boundary between the Rephaim and the Zamzum
mim, and it does not appear that the country of the Rephaim
was ever possessed by the descendants of Lot. It is observed
(Deut. iii. 11.) that Og, king of Bashan, was of the remnant
of the Rephaim or giants ; so that it is probable that they still
kept up their kingdom under a ruler of their own, until con
quered by the Israelites.
2. Land of the Ammonites.
It seems from Judges xi. 13, that the country east of Jor
dan from the river Jabbok, as far south as the Arnon, was the
land of the Ammonites ; yet it is certain that the south part
of it towards the Arnon was formerly inhabited by the Moab
ites. Some have conjectured that the Moabites in this part
were tributary, or under subjection to the Ammonites, and so
the king of the Ammonites might claim the whole country
between the two rivers, as belonging to him. Besides this,
the Ammonites possessed a considerable tract to the east, be
yond the hills that Dounded the eastern part of the country
beyond Jordan. This they still held after they were dispos
sessed of the country immediately on the east of Jordan by
the Amorites ; and this country east of those hills, where they
still kept their ground, is in Scripture called the Land of the
Children of Amnion.
The principal city of the Ammonites was called Rabbah :
Stephanus says that it was also called Ammana, either from
Ammon, the founder of the nation, or from its being the chief
city of the children of Ammon. Dr. Wells thinks it probable
that the name may have come from a city of the Zuzim in
this country, called Ham. This city was in after ages called
Philadelphia, from Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, who,

CONQUEST OF CANAAN. 53
having made himself master of this country, repaired and
beautified the city : but it never occurs under this name in
Scripture. 3. Land of the Moabites.
Besides the country which the Moabites possessed north of
tb,s Arnon, and which Sihon, king of the Amorites, took from
them, they possessed also a tract south of that river, between
Edom to the west and Midian to the south and east. This
they held, after the loss of the other part of their country.
The chief city of the Moabites was Ar, caHed by the Greek
writers Areopolis ; it was sometimes also called Moab.
After the captivity of the ten tribes, the Moabites repossess
ed themselves of several places north of the river Arnon ;
from which it happens that in the prophecies against Moab, we
find Heshbon and several other places, once belonging to the
tribes of Reuben and Gad, mentioned as belonging to the
Moabites. 4. Kingdoms of Sihon and Og.
Sihon was king of the Amorites who had come from the
west of Jordan and dispossessed the Moabites and Ammonites
on the east of that river. This kingdom was bounded north
by the river Jabbok, which separated it from the kingdom of
Og; east by the mountains which bounded it from the Am
monites; south by the Arnon, between it and the Moabites.
and west by the Jordan, which parted it from Canaan. The
capital city was Heshbon.
The kingdom of Og lay north of the river Jabbok, extend
ing northward as far as Mount Hermon, a. part of the chain
called Mount Lebanon ; having the Jordan on the west, and
the hills of Gilead on the east. It is also called the kingdom
of Bashan, whence came the Greek word Balanea, denoting
these parts in after ages. The chief cities of this kingdom
were Ashtaroth and Edrei. Ashtaroth lay in the north, and
is otherwise called Ashtaroth-Karnaim, whence the name
Carnea, by which it was afterwards known. Edrei was more
southerly, and was in later ages called Adara.
5. Kedemoth and Jakaz.
The wilderness of Kedemoth, whence Moses sent messen
gers to Sihon, king of Heshbon, (Deut. ii. 26.) lay along the
river Arnon, in the eastern part of the country, and is proba
bly the wilderness mentioned in Judges xi. 22. Jahaz was a
place in, or near, this wilderness.
E2

54 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
6. Argob, Bashan, and Gilead.
These Were parts of the kingdom of Bashan. (Deut iii. 4.
and 13, 14, 15.) Argob seems to have been a part of this
kingdom given to Jair, as Gilead was to Machir ; so that the
two probably formed the country or kingdom of Bashan. Gi
lead was the part wherein were the mountains or hills of
Gilead ; consequently Argob was the remaining, or northern
part. 7. Pethor, the city of Balaam.
Balaam was a famous soothsayer or diviner of those times,
who was sent for by the king of Moab to curse the people- of
Israel, because he feared them. (Numb. xxii. 3-6.) Pethor,
the city where he dwelt, is called in Hebrew Pethura. It is
called Pachora, by Ptolemy, and Pathura by Eusebius, who
places it in Upper Mesopotamia, Calmet supposes it to be
situated towards Thapsacus, beyond the Euphrates. It was
certainly in Mesopotamia. (Deut. xxiii. 4.)
8. Peor, or Baal Peor.
Peor is thought to have been a part of the mountains of
Abarim. On this mount seems to have stood the temple of an
idol, called Peor, or Baal Peor ; in whose sacrifices the Israel
ites partook, while encamped in the plains of Moab, by which
they greatly provoked God. (Numb. xxv. 1~5.)
II. The Country west of Jordan, or Canaan Proper.
Moses having died, Joshua succeeded him as leader of the
Israelites, and prepared to pass the Jordan. On the day after
the return of the two spies who had been sent to Jericho, he
removed the camp from Shittim, and came to Jordan. (Josh,
iii. 1.) Here they remained three days, after which they
crossed Jordan, opposite Jericho, on dry ground ; the waters
Which came down from the upper part of the stream standing
and rising up in a heap, as far as from the city Adam,
which was a city on the east of Jordan, not far from where
they crossed.
1. Gilgal.
This was the station where they encamped, after having
crossed the Jordan ; and the place where circumcision was re
newed ; it having been neglected during their wanderings in
the desert (Josh. v. 2-9.) Gilgal was situated between the Jor
dan and Jericho. Josephus says that Jericho was sixty furlong!
from Jordan, and that Gilgal was fifty ; hence from Gilgal tc

CONQUEST OF CANAAN. 55
Jericho was ten furlongs westward, or about a mile and a
quarter. Others say, two miles.
2. Jericho.
This was the first city taken by Joshua from the Canaan
ites : he destroyed it and pronounced a severe curse on him
who should rebuild it This was, however, done, about 530
years after, by Hiel, the Bethelite, (1 Kings xvi. 34.) on whom
the curse accordingly fell. This was the city honoured by
the presence of our Saviour, and where he wrought some
miracles. It was destroyed by the Romans, during the siege
of Jerusalem, on account of the treachery of its inhabitants.
A third city was afterwards built, but it seems not exactly in
the place where stood the former two ; as Eusebius tells us
that in his day the ruins of both the former were still shown.
Jericho is now called Ralia, or Eriha, and is a poor dirty
village, inhabited by Arabs. It is six leagues north-east from
Jerusalem, and stands in a plain, surrounded by barren moun
tains. This plain is, however, extremely fertile, and is watered
by a number of rivulets which flow into the Jordan.
In the latter days of the Jewish government, Jericho was
reckoned the second city in Judea ; in its royal palace Herod
died : it had also magnificent theatres and other noble build
ings. Here was also established a famous theological semi
nary, or school of prophets ; in which, says the Jerusalem Tal
mud, were twelve thousand priests, ready to supply deficien
cies which might occur in the temple at Jerusalem.
3. The valley of Achor.
After the destruction of Jericho, Joshua sent two or three
thousand men against Ai ; but these being beaten, he inquired
the reason of God, and was answered that it was because
some of the Israelites had sinned. The offender was found
to be Achan, who was put to death in the Valley of Achor,
so named from the trouble brought upon the Israelites by this
sin ; the Hebrew word Achor signifying trouble. It is evi
dent that this valley must have been near Jericho.
4. Ai, and Bethaven.
On the second attack, Joshua took Ai by stratagem and
burnt it We have already mentioned this place under the
name of Hai, in our account of the sojourning of Abraham.
It lay east of Bethel, and not far from it Eusebius and Jeroin
say that in their time some small rums of it were yet remain
ing. Masius tells us that Ai was three leagues from Jericho,
and Bethel one league from Ai.

56 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
Bethaven was near Ai, (Josh. vii. 2.) and seems to nave
been a distinct place from Bethel, though some have thought
from a passage in Hosea, that they were the same. The
wilderness of Bethaven, in the north of the tribe of Benja
min, (Josh, xviii. 12.) was probably named from this place,
and lay near it.
5. Cities of the Gibeonites.
The cities of the Gibeonites were Gibeon, Chephirah,
Beeroth and Kirjath-jearim. (Josh. ix. 17.)
Gibeon is said (Josh. x. 2.) to have been a great city,
greater than Ai. It was situated on an eminence, about
thirty furlongs from Jerusalem, northward, and not far from
the city of Gibeah. According to Eusebius and Jerom, it was
a royal city, and the metropolis of the Hivites. Eusebius says
that it was still a town or village in his time, yet retaining its
old name, being four miles west from Bethel. Of Chephirah
nothing is known but the name, and that it afterwards be
longed to the tribe of Benjamin.
Beeroth, say Eusebius and Jerom, lay near the hill of Gibe
on, being, in their days, a town or village in the road from
Jerusalem to Sichem, seven miles from the former.
Kirjath-jearim lay nine miles west from Jerusalem. It is
frequently mentioned in Scripture. Here the ark abode
twenty years, from the time it was sent away by the Philis
tines, till David removed it to Jerusalem. It was also the
native place of Urijah, the prophet, who was slain by Jehoia-
kim. (Jer. xxvi. 20.)
6. Beth-horon, and Azekah.
These places are mentioned in the account of the over
throw, by Joshua, of the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish,
and Eglon, who had confederated with the king of Jerusa
lem to attack the Gibeonites, after these last had made peace
with Joshua.
There appear to be two places named Beth-horon in Scrip
ture, i. e. the upper and the nether, (1 Chron. vii. 24.) and it
seems they both lay in the tribe of Ephraim. The one men
tioned in this battle of Joshua with the kings, must have been
in the south of Ephraim, not far from Gibeon ; Upper Beth-
horon was further north. Azekah lay in the tribe of Judah,
westward from Jerusalem.
7. Ajalon.
The Valley of Ajalon is famous as the place where the sun .
md moon stood still, at the command of Joshua, until Israel

CONQUEST OF CANAAN. 57
had avenged themselves upon their enemies. The city of
Ajalon probably stood in this valley ; it was situated between
Timnath and Bethshemesh, in the tribe of Dan ; and was one
of the cities given to the Levites. (Josh xxi. 24.) It seems,
however, that the Danites were never able to drive the Amor
ites out of Ajalon. (Judges i. 35.)
There were three other cities of this name ; one in the
tribe of Benjamin, three miles east of Bethel ; another in
Ephraim, two miles from Shechem, in llie way to Jerusalem,
east of Beth-horon ; and a third in the tribe of Zebulon, the
situation of which is not exactly known.
8. Makkedah.
Near this town was the cave where the five kings who had
fled from Joshua, hid themselves( whom he, after the battle,
put to death. Makkedah was in the tribe of Judah, twelve
or fourteen miles south-westward from Jerusalem.
9. Libnah, and Lachish.
These were cities taken by Joshua after Makkedah. (Josh.
x. 29-32.) Libnah was in the tribe of Judah, not far from
Makkedah ; being about sixteen miles south-west from Jeru
salem. Lachish was also in the tribe of J udah, near the last men
tioned places. It is frequently mentioned in Scripture ; and,
together with Libnah, was besieged in the days of Hezekiah,
king of Judah, by Sennacherib, king of Assyria. (2 Kings
xix. 8.)
10. Gezer.
" Horam, king of Gezer, came to help Lachish, and Joshua
smote him and his people." (Josh. x. 33.) This Gezer lay in
the south of the tribe of Ephraim, not far from Beth-horon,
(Josh. xvL 3.) and seems to have been a strong place, as it
was not taken by Joshua, who only overcame the king and
his people who had come to Lachish : Gezer itself seems to
have held out until taken by the king of Egypt, by whom it
was given to his daughter, the wife of king Solomon. (1 Kings
ix. 16.)
11. Eglon.
The king of this city-was another of the five kings : it was
taken by Joshua after he had conquered Lachish, from which
it was not far ; being also in the west of the possessions of the
tribe of Judah.
12. Debir, or Kirjath-sepher^
After having taken Eglon, Joshua advanced against He-

68 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
bron, which he also took. Of Hebron we have already treated.
From Hebron he returned to Debir, and took it. (Josh. x. 36-
39.) This 'city also had two other names, Kirjath-sepher, and
Kirjath-sannah. (Josh. xv. 15 and 49.) The word Kiriath or
Kirjath, in Hebrew, signifies a city, and Sepher a book ;
whence some have thought that this Kirjath-sepher, or city
of the book, was an old literary academy, or some learned in
stitution of the Canaanites. Others suppose it was so called
from some writings or national records being kept there. The
other name of this place, Kirjath-sannah, may mean the city
of the bush, or of sharpening ; denoting that it lay among the
bushes or thickets, or the place where men's minds were
sharpened by learning. This city lay not far from Hebron, in
the south of Judah.
13. Goshen, in Canaan.
We read (Josh. x. 41.) that Joshua .smote them from Ka-
desh-barnea, even unto Gaza ; and all the country of Goshen,
even unto Gibeon. This country of Goshen was situated in
the southern part of the tribe of Judah, about a city called
also Goshen ; possibly lying in a fat good soil, and so named
from resembling the Land of Goshen in Egypt
14. The Waters of Merom.
In this expedition Joshua had conquered all the south of
Canaan, and so he returned with his army to Gilgal. This
was seven years after the entrance of the Israelites into Ca
naan. They remained in the camp at Gilgal some time ; but
the kings in the north, having heard of their conquests in the
south, joined all their forces, and encamped at the waters of
Merom, to fight against Israel. It is generally agreed that
the waters of Merom, here mentioned, denote lake Semechon,
near the head of Jordan, above the lake of Gennesareth.
During the melting of the snows in Mount Lebanon, Lake
Merom overflows a space of about two leagues in circuit ; but
in summer, during the great heats, it is nearly dry. This
marsh is covered with reeds and shrubs, and the neighbour
hood is infested by wild beasts which come down from the
neighbouring mountains.
15. Hazor, Madon, Shimron, and Achshaph.
Hazor, of which Jabin was king, lay near Lake Merom.
Jabin, who appears to have been the chief prince in those
parts, having summoned the other kings in the north of Ca
naan, to join him against Israel, they accordingly encamped
together near the waters of Merom. But they were entire

CONQUEST OF CANAAN. 59
ly routed by Joshua, who took Hazor, burnt it and slew its
king. The other cities were also taken, and their kings
killed. Of the situation of Madon, nothing certain is known
Chimron lay in the tribe of Zebulon, west of the sea of Ga
lilee or Gennesareth. Achshaph was in the south of the
tribe of Asher.
16. City and Sea of Chinneroth.
We read (Josh. xi. 2.) that besides the kings we have just
mentioned, Jabin also sent to the kings of the plains south of
Chinneroth, and in the valley, and in the borders of Dor, on
the west Chinneroth was an ancient city on the sea of Ga
lilee, which is hence sometimes called the Sea of Chinneroth.
It is generally thought that Chinneroth was the city after
wards enlarged and ornamented by Herod, who gave it the
name of Tiberias, from which this sea is also called the Sea
of Tiberias.
17. City of Dor.
Dor was situated on the coast of the Mediterranean, a little
to the north of Cssarea : it was a considerable -place, and
gave name to the country round about The city was strong,
and difficult to attack, being built upon a peninsula which
projected into the sea. This city was given to the haif tribe
of Manasseh, but they suffered the Canaanites to retain it.
Jerom says it is nine miles from Cffisarea, and in his day was
desolate and uninhabited. The modern name of Dor is Tar-
toura. It consists of a single street opposite the sea, and is
resorted to by the Arabs and peasants, who barter their plun
der and commodities for rice and linens brought from Egypt
in small vessels, the port being shallow, and not admitting
large ships. The only water in the place, fit to drink, is ob
tained from a fountain which issues from a rock ten or twelve
feet in the sea, which, when the waters are high, is completely
covered with the waves.
18. Land of Mizpeh, and Misrephoth-maim.
Jabin also sent to the Hivite under Hermon, in the Land
of Mizpeh, (Josh. xi. 3.); and the Israelites chased theii
enemies unto Great Zidon, and Misrephoth-maim, and unto
the valley of Mizpeh, eastward, (verse 8.) The Land of Miz
peh here mentioned, is the tract about Mount Gilead, other
wise called Mizpeh (Gen. xxxi. 49.) : So the valley of Miz
peh must denote some valley about Mount Gilead, which fre
quently denotes not only the mountain of that name, but slso
the adjacent country as far as Mount Hermon, which, to-

60 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
gether with Mount Halek and Seir, are only branches of
Mount Lebanon.
Misrephoth-maim is understood to have been near Zidon.
In the twelfth chapter of Joshua, a summary is given of the
one and thirty kings slain by the Israelites. We shall now
proceed to notice those of their cities which have not been
already mentioned.
10. Jarmuth, Geder, Hormah, and Arad.
Jarmuth was one of the cities given afterwards to the tribe
of Judah, and lay not far south-west from Jerusalem.
Geder was probably either Gederah or Gederoth, near Jar
muth ; but which of these cannot be determined.
Hormah lay in the south-west of Canaan, in the tribe of
Simeon ; and is probably the place mentioned in the journeys
of the Israelites from Egypt and near which they were de
feated by the Amalekites. (Numb. xiv. 45.)
Arad was in the south of Judah. King Arad is mentioned
in Numb. xxi. 1. and xxxiii. 40. ; and we also read (Judges i
16.) of the wilderness of Judah, in the south of Arad.
20. Adullam, Tappuah, Hepher, and Apkek.
Adullam was in the tribe of Judah, south-west from Jeru
salem, remarkable for a cave near it into which David retired,
when he withdrew from Achish, king of Gath. (1 Sam. xxii. 1.)
There seem to have been two places named Tappuah ; one
in the tribe of Judah, and another on the border of Manasseh,
but belonging to Ephraim. It is not known which of these
it was whose king was slain by Joshua.
Hepher appears to be nowhere else mentioned in Scripture.
Aphek was in the tribe of Asher, (Josh. xix. 30.) but as
there were other places of this name, particularly one in Ju
dah, sometimes called Aphekah, it is uncertain which is re
ferred to in the present instance.
21. Lasharon, Taanach, and Megiddo.
The situation of Lasharon is not known. Some suppose it
to be the country of Sharon in the west of Ephraim, between
Caesarea and Joppa.
Taanach is more than once mentioned in Scripture. It was
a city of the Levites, and lay in the west of Issachar or Man
asseh, north-west from Samaria.
Near this was Megiddo, also lying on the west of Issachar,
but belonging to Manasseh : the Canaanites continued to dwell
in it, being tributary. (Josh. xvii. 11-13.) This city was
rebuilt by Solomon, (1 Kings ix. 15.) and is further remarka-

CONQUEST OF CANAAN. 61
ble for the death of Ahaziah and Josiah, kings of Judah. It
was situated about 44 miles north of Jerusalem, near the
great plain of Esdraelon, and has been the scene of many bat
tles besides that in which Barak overcame the army of Jabin.
(Judges v. 19.) Pharaoh and Josiah, Gideon and the Midian-
ites, Saul and the Philistines, Judas Maccabeus and Tryphon,
all fought here : and in later ages there were also in this
place bloody combats between the Tartars and Saracens. It
is called by ancient geographers, the capacious field of bat
tles.* The waters of Megiddo, (Judges v. 19.) probably mean
the southern branches of the river JCishon, which flows north
westward to the Mediterranean.
22. Kedesh and Jokneam.
There were two places called Kedesh ; one in the tribe of
Naphtali, (Josh. xix. 37.) called Kedesh Naphtali, which was
probably the one whose king was killed by Joshua. The
other was in Judah, (Josh. xv. 23.) and appears to have been
a place of not much consequence. Kedesh Naphtali was the
native place of Barak : it was one of the Levitical cities, and
also a city of refuge. (Josh. xxi. 32.)
Jokneam was a city in the tribe of Zebulon, also a city of
the Levites. It was near Mount Carmel, and hence is called
Jokneam of Carmel.
23. Tirzah.
This was a city of Ephraim, frequently mentioned in Scrip
ture, being for some time the royal city of the kingdom of
Israel; that is, from the time of Jeroboam to the reign of
Omri, who, having reigned six years in Tirzah, built Sama
ria, and removed the seat of government thither, where it
continued until the downfall of the kingdom. It seems to
have been a very beautiful and pleasant city, (Song vi. 4.) for
which reason it was probably chosen as the royal residence.
24. The Nations of Gilgal.
The king of the nations of Gilgal was also among thos?
enumerated as having been slain by the Israelites, and with
him we close our account of the places belonging to the one
and thirty kings. Nothing certain is known of the nations of
Gilgal, but it is generally supposed that their country extend
ed along the Jordan as far north as the sea of Galilee.
25. Shiloh.
In this place was the tabernacle of the congregation set
* Campum prieliorem capacr.m. Cellarius, Geog. Antiq.
F

62 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
up, (Josh, xviii. 1.) within which the ark was kept ; and here
it remained more than three hundred years, until taken by the
Philistines in the time of the high-priest Eli. Shiloh was
situated in the south part of the tribe of Ephraim, ten or
twelve miles south from Shechem. To this place was proba
bly also removed the camp of the seven tribes who had not
yet received their inheritance, namely, Benjamin, Simeon,
Zebulon, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Dan ; for we do not
read of the division of the country among them till after the
removal from Gilgal to Shiloh. (Josh, xviii.) The other tribes
had been before provided fop.
26. Timnath-serah, and Gaash.
Timnath-serah was the inheritance of Joshua, given him
at his own request, (Josh. xix. 50.) and here he died and was
buried. It was in the south of Ephraim, near Shiloh ; and
was otherwise called Timnath-heres. (Judges ii. 9.) Here
the sepulchre df Joshua was shown in the days of Eusebius
and Jerom.
It is not certain what is meant by the expression " on the
north side of the hill of Gaash." (Josh. xxiv. 30.) It may
mean that the city was built on the north side of the hill, or
that it was northward from the hill ; or that Joshua was buried
on the north part of the hill, or northward of it
Having thus given an account of the principal places men
tioned in the Scripture history of the Conquest of Canaan by
the Israelites, we shall now proceed to treat of the division of
the country among the tribes.

CHAPTER Vin.
DIVISION OF CANAAN AMONG THE TRIBES OF ISRAEL.
The Israelites, so called from being descendants of Jacob,
or Israel, were distinguished into twelve tribes, according to
the number of the sons of Israel, who were called the twelve
patriarchs, as being heads of these tribes.
The names of these twelve patriarchs, according to the
order of their birth, were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan,
Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulon, Joseph, and Ben
jamin. Of these tribes God chose that of Levi to minister about
holy things, to wait at his altar, and to serve in his worship

DIVISION OF CANAAN. 63
generally; he therefore ordained that they should live and
be maintained with the things of the temple, partaking with
the altar, and so be free from the common cares and concerns
of life. Therefore, in the partition of the land, not one of
the twelve parts into which it was divided, was given to the
tribe of Levi, as an inheritance ; for their inheritance was the
priesthood of the Lord. However, certain cities were as
signed them as habitations to dwell in, from which they are
called Levitical cities. But the two branches of Joseph, viz.
Ephraim and Manasseh, having two distinct allotments,
made up the number of twelve geographical divisions to be
distributed among the tribes.
These, according to their geographical order or situation
beginning at the south of Canaan, may be reckoned thus:
Judah, Simeon, Dan, Benjamin, Ephraim, Manasseh, (one
half of it) Issachar, Zebulon, Asher, Naphtali. These were
all west of Jordan. On the east of that river were the por
tions of Gad and Reuben, with the other part of Manasseh.
1. The Tribe of Judah.
Judah was the most considerable tribe of Israel, on several
accounts; and in the division of the conquered country regard
was primarily had to this tribe, and its lot is first noticed in
Josh. xv. where we are told that it is next to the border of
Edom, which was the southern boundary of Canaan.
In the same chapter we have the bounds of this tribe laid
down, in substance as follows : The south border was from the
shore of that bay of the Salt Sea which looketh southward,
i. e. from the south part of the Dead Sea, where it begins to
be narrowed to a bay ; hence westward, passing along to Zin ;
thence up on the south side to Kadesh Barnea, and so coming
out to the river of Egypt, and then going out, i. e. termi
nating at the Mediterranean Sea.
The eastern border was the Salt Sea, in its whole length
from south to north, even to the end of Jordan, i. e. the mouth
of that river where it empties into the Dead Sea at the north
ern extremity.
The'north border was from the bay of the Salt Sea, at the
mouth of Jordan ; westward by the Valley of Achor to Enro-
gel, and so, by the valley of the son of Hinnom to the south
side of the Jebusite or Jerusalem ; thence to the top of the
mountain west of the Valley of Hinnom, which is at the end
of the Valley of Giants northward. Thence the border was
drawn to Kirjath-jearim, and so passed along to the side of

64 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
Mount Jearim on the north side, going hence down to Beth-
shemesh, passing on to Zimnah ; and so to the side of Ekron,
northward ; going out, or terminating at the sea.
Its western border was the great, or Mediterranean Sea.
These boundaries, however, comprehend the tribes of
Simeon and Dan, who afterwards had their inheritance in the
portion first allotted {o Judah, which was found to be too large.
(Josh. xix. 9.) Judah was therefore properly bounded on the
south by Edom and the wilderness ; on the east by the Dead
Sea ; on the north by the tribe of Benjamin ; and on the west
by Simeon and Dan,
2. Tribe of Simeon.
The lot of Simeon was cast within the inheritance of Ju
dah, (Josh. xix. 1-9.) which was found to be too much for
them. Accordingly, the same cities which we find at first
allotted to the tribe of Judah, (Josh. xv. 26-32.) are afterwards
mentioned as assigned to Simeon, (xix. 2-8.) Now as these
cities are mentioned as being some of " the uttermost cities
of the tribe of the children of Judah, towards the coast of
Edom southward," so the tribe of Simeon must have been in
the south, or south-west of Judah.
The land of the tribe of Simeon was therefore bounded
south by the southern limit of Canaan ; east by Judah ; north
by Dan ; and west by the Mediterranean ; lying in the south
western corner of the Land of Canaan.
3. Tribe of Dan.
The inheritance of Dan was also within the portion first
allotted to Judah; as appears by comparing Josh. xv. 33. &c.
with xix. 41. &c. where we find cities mentioned first given
to Judah and afterwards to Dan. The situation of this tribe
has been generally agreed to have been in the north-west of
the original portion of Judah, adjoining Ephraim on the north,
and Benjamin on the east; though some writers think the
north part of Judah extended up between Dan and Benjamin.
Thus the boundaries of Dan were Simeon on the south ;
Judah and Benjamin on the east; Ephraim on the north ; and
the <5reat Sea on the west
4. Tribe of Benjamin.
By comparing Josh, xviii. 15-19. with xv. 5-9. it appears
that the north border of Judah was the same as the south bor
der of Benjamin ; hence they must have been adjoining each
other, Judah lying to the south and Benjamin north. The
eastern border was the Jordan, (Josh, xviii. 20.) the northern

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DIVISION OF CANAAN. 00
and We3tem border was from Jordan, on the north of Jericho,
through the mountains westward, to the wilderness of Beth
aven ; from thence over towards Bethel, and by the side of the
hill on the south of nether Beth-horon, terminating near Kir
jath-jearim. The tribe of Benjamin was therefore bounded south by Ju
dah ; east by the river Jordan ; north by Epliraim, and west
by Judah or Dan.
Some geographers have made the tribe of Benjamin extend
westward as far as the Mediterranean, on the ground that the
Hebrew expression, in the fourteenth verse of chap, xviii. lit
erally translated, means that the west border compassed the
Corner of the sea southward. It is, however, evident, from
other passages of Scripture, that the tribe of Benjamin did not
extend to the sea on the west In verse 12 the same word is
rendered the west, and so perhaps it would have been better
in the fourteenth, meaning the side towards the sea, L e. the
western side, towards the Mediterranean. By the expression,
compassed the corner of the west is to be understood that the
western boundary there made an angle or corner.
5. Tribe of Ephraim.
The lot of the children of Joseph, Ephraim, and Manasseh,
Was north of Benjamin ; for we read (Josh, xviii. 11.) that the
coast of the lot of Benjamin came forth between the children
of Judah and the children of Joseph. It has been already
shown that Judah lay south of Benjamin ; it must therefore
follow that the children of Joseph lay north. With regard to
the eastern and western boundaries of Ephraim and Manasseh,
it is manifest from Josh. xvi. 1-3. that they extended from the
Jordan to the Mediterranean. By comparing chap. xvi. 1-7.
with xvii. 11. it appears that the inheritance of the children
of Joseph had Benjamin on the south, and Asher and Issa
char on the north. It also seems (xvi. 5-7.) that Ephraim was
adjoining Benjamin; consequently, Manasseh was north of
Ephraim. Ephraim was therefore bounded on the east by the Jordan ;
on the south by Judah and Dan ; on the west by the Mediter
ranean, and north by his brother Manasseh.
6. Half the tribe of Manasseh, west of Jordan.
It has been already stated that the possessions of Manasseh
on the west of Jordan, lay north of Ephraim ; but the particu
lar boundary between them is obscure and not easily traced.
From this situation of the portion of Manasseh west of Jor-
F2

66 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
dan, its boundaries were Ephraim on the south ; the Mediter
ranean on the west ; Issachar on the north, and the Jordan on
the east.
7. The Tribe of Issachar.
The boundaries of Issachar, particularly to the westward,
are rather obscure. The border " went by Jezreel, and Mount
Tabor, and its outgoings were at Jordan." (Josh. xix. 17-22 ;
By some writers this tribe has been supposed to extend quite
to the Mediterranean. But if the lots of Ephraim and Man
asseh " met together in Asher on the north, and in Issachar
on the east" (Josh. xvii. 10.) it is difficult to understand how
Issachar could extend westward to the sea.
The general boundaries of Issachar were Zebulon on the
north ; the Jordan on the east ; Manasseh on the south ; and
possibly the Mediterranean on the west
8. Tribe of Zebulon.
It is agreed by geographers that Zebulon lay north of Issa
char ; but the same difficulty occurs with regard to the west
ern limits, as in Issachar. Some make it extend to the sea ;
others think it could not, if Manasseh joined Asher. Accord
ing to Josephus, the tribes of Asher, Zebulon, and Manasseh,
all came up near Mount Carmel.
Thus Zebulon appears to have been bounded on the north
by Asher and Naphtali ; east by the Sea of Galilee ; south by
Issachar, and west by the Mediterranean, or partly by Asher.
9. Tribe of Asher.
The length of the portion assigned to Asher is clearly de
scribed in Scripture ; as it is said that it extended to Mount
Carmel and to Great Zidon ; the former being to the south,
and the latter to the north. This was a maritime country,
from what we read in the song of Deborah, (Judges v. 17.)
" Asher continued on the sea-shore, and abode in his creeks."
Within this tribe was situated the great commercial city Tyre,
called by the Hebrews Tzor, or Zor ; also Accho, called by
the Greeks Ptolemais, once a celebrated port, now called Acra
or Acre.
Asher was bounded north and north-east by the extreme
limits of the Land of Caanan towards Syria ; east by Naphtali ;
south by Zebulon, or perhaps Manasseh or Issachar ; and west
by the Mediterranean Sea.
10. Tribe of Naphtali.
The situation of Naphtali is clearly described, (Josh. xix.
33, 34.) lying between Asher and the Jordan, from Mount

DIVISION OF CANAAN. 67
Lebanon north, to Zebulon south. It probably also extended
to the sea of Cinneroth or Galilee, as the city of Chinneroth
belonged to Naphtali. The place mentioned" in v. 34, called
Judah upon Jordan, certainly could not mean the portion of
the tribe of Judah, but probably some place so called upon the
river Jordan, above the sea of Galilee. The LXX. transla
tors make no mention of the word Judah hi this place, but
only the Jordan, which they make the eastern border.
The boundaries of Naphtali therefore were, on the north,
the mountains which separated Canaan from Syria ; on the
east the river Jordan ; on the south, the tribe of Zebulon, and
the sea of Cinneroth, and the tribe of Asher on the west
11. Tribe of Reuben.
The tribes of Reuben and Gad, with half the tribe of Man
asseh, had their inheritance on the east of Jordan, in the
country conquered from the kings Sihon and Og.
To Reuben was allotted the southern part of this country;
consequently this tribe was bounded, east and south, by the
river Arnon, which separated it from Ammon and Moab ; west
by the river Jordan ; and north and north-east by the tribe of
Gad. 12. The tribe of Gad.
The portion of Gad lay north of Reuben, and was bounded
west by the Jordan ; north by Manasseh ; east by the Ammo
nites ; and south by Reuben.
13. Half the Tribe of Manasseh, east of Jordan.
This half tribe had for its boundaries, on the west, the sea
of Cinneroth, or Galilee, and the Jordan above that sea, com
monly called Upper Jordan or Lesser Jordan ; on the north,
Jiat branch of Lebanon called Mount Hermon ; on the east,
a continuation of the same mountains, or Mount Gilead ; and
on the south and south-west, the tribe of Gad.
In concluding our account of the situation and boundaries
of the twelve tribes, we would remark that the Scripture ac
count of their limits and borders contains many names of
places scarcely noticed anywhere else in the sacred volume,
and the situations of which are now very uncertain. These
we have omitted, as being of little use to the understanding
of the subject and only tending to confuse and perplex the
reader. 14. Cities assigned to the Levites.
It has been before observed that in the partition of the land
of Canaan, the Levites had no portion assigned them among

68 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.
the rest of the Israelites; for their inheritance was the priest
hood of the Lord. Certain cities were, however, set apart
for them to dwell in, which from this circumstance have been
generally called Levitical cities. Of these a particular
account is given in Josh. xxi.
There were three branches of the Levites, descendants of
the three sons of Levi ; Gershon, Kohath, and Merari. Aaron,
the high-priest, was of the family of Kohath. To each of
these branches of the Levites, their cities were assigned by
lot, in the same manner as the Land of Canaan was divided
among the other tribes. The whole number of Levitical
cities was forty-eight Josh. xxi. 4-7.
15. The Sacerdotal Cities.
The thirteen Levitical cities which were assigned to the
children of Aaron, the priests, are called by some writers
sacerdotal, or priests' cities. For though Aaron and his chil
dren, the priests, were Levites ; yet all the Levites were not
priests : the priesthood appertaining particularly to the chil
dren of Aaron.
It is remarkable that the lots of these thirteen sacerdotal
cities all fell within the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benja
min : so that they were not only in the tribes nearest to Jeru
salem, but were so situated, that on the revolt of the ten
tribes, they remained subject to the house of David, as did
also Jerusalem, the place of God's more especial worship.
These lots were so ordered by divine providence, that twelve
of the thirteen cities fell within the tribes of Judah and Ben
jamin, and the thirteenth, Ain, (Josh. xxi. 16.) or Ashan, (1
Chron. vi. 60.) was so near the border of Simeon, as to be
sometimes called a city of Judah. 1 Chron. vi. 57-60. So
that it is probable that this, among several other places on the
border of that tribe, still remained subject to the king of
Judah. 16. The Cities of Refuge.
These cities were designed as an asylum for those who
might accidentally kill a person, " that the slayer might flee
thither for refuge from the avenger of blood." Josh. xx. 2.
These cities of refuge were six ; namely : Kedesh, in Galilee,
in mount Naphtali ; Shechem, in mount Epliraim ; Hebron, in
the mountains of Judah ; Bezer, in the tribe of Reuben ; Ra-
moth-Gilead, in the tribe of Gad ; and Golan, in the tribe of
Manasseh. The three former lay west of Jordan, and the
three latter east. These were all also Levitical cities.

CONCLUSION OF PART I. 69
Conclusion of Part I.
Thus, having given a view of the first habitation of man
kind on the earth ; their destruction by the universal deluge,
except the favoured remnant preserved in the ark ; the re-
peopling of the world by the posterity of Noah, in their seve
ral settlements ; the migrations of Abraham, who was called
by God to be the progenitor of his peculiar people; and of
Jacob the father of the twelve tribes; their bondage in Egypt,
and their going out therefrcin into the land promised by God
for their inheritance ; with their conquest of, and final settle
ment in it ; we shall now conclude the first part of our work.
It may, perhaps, appear to the reader as though some places
had been omitted, and that others have been but slightly no
ticed ; for these he is referred to Part II. in which we design
to give an alphabetical account of all the places of any im
portance mentioned in Scripture, with such geographical de
scriptions and sketches of their history, as may conduce to a
proper and better understanding of the sacred volume, as far
as these circumstances are concerned.

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

PART II.
A Geographical Dictionary of the Bible : containing, in al
phabetical order, a description of the Countries, Kingdoms,
' Nations, Provinces, Cities, Towns, Villages, Mountains,
Hills, Rivers, Lakes, Seas, Islands, cjj-c. mentioned in the
Holy Scriptures.

Abana, a river of Damascus, in Syria. 2 Kings, v. 12.
This river rises in the mountains of Hermon, or Anti-Libanus,
on the north-east of Canaan, flows north-eastward and unites
with the Pharpar : it passes by the city of Damascus, four or
five leagues beyond which, its waters are lost in the sands of
the desert. It was known to the Greeks and Romans by the
name of Chrysorrhoas, but it is at present called Barrady.
Abarim, a chain of mountains east of the Jordan, between
that river and the Arnon. Numb, xxxiii. 47. See Part I.
p. 49.
Abel-beth-maacah, a city of the tribe of Naphtali, in the
north of Canaan ; taken by Benhadad, king of Syria, ami
afterwards by the king of Assyria. 1 Kings, xv. 20. and 2
Kings, xv. 29.
Abel-carmaim, or keramin, Abel of the Vineyards, a place
belonging to the Ammonites, so named from the abundance
of vines in the neighbourhood. Jud. xi. 33.
Abel-maim, a city belonging to the tribe of Naphtali, near
lake Merom, on the west 2 Chron. xvi. 4.
Abel-meholah, a city of Manasseh, west of Jordan, famous
as the birth-place of Elisha, the prophet. 1 Kings, xix. 16.
Abel-mizraim, i. e. the mourning of the Egyptians ; a
place supposed to be not far from Hebron, in the south of Ju-
dea ; so named from the great mourning made there by Joseph
and his brethren, with the principal persons among the Egyp
tians, for Jacob, whose body they had brought out of Egypt,
that it might be buried with his fathers. The Canaanites,

ACC

DICTIONARY OF. THE BIBLE.

71

supposing them all to be Egyptians, accordingly named the
place Abel-mizraim. Gen. 1.
Abel-Shittim, a city in the plains of Moab, east of Jordan.
Numb, xxxiii. 49. See Part I. p. 53.
Abez, a city belonging to the tribe of Issachar. Josh.
xix. 20.
Abilene, a province in Coelo-Syria, on the north-east of
Canaan or Galilee, lying west from Damascus. Lysanias was
governor of this province in the fifteenth year of Tiberius.
Luke iii. 1. Its capital city was Abila, or Abilene, respect
ing the situation of which geographers differ. We think,
however, that ancient medals of this place decide, beyond a
doubt, that Abila was on the river Chrysorrhoas, which ran
from the mountains of Anti-Libanus eastwardly towards Da
mascus. No 1, is a medal
of Abila, represent
ing on one side the
head of Faustina,
wife of the emperor
Marcus Aurelius ;
and on the other a
bnnt.h of grapes,
with the Greek in
scription, leuk. abi
la. and the date 236. This proves that ihe Greek name, Leucas, is
the same as ihe Hebrew Abila, or Abel, since both appear on the
same medaL The grapes may possibly refer to AbeLcarmaim, Abel o(
the vineyards. No. 2. A medal of the Abi
lene of Lysanias, with the
image of the river Chrysor
rhoas, and the inscription
ICRYSOROAS KLAUDIAION On
one side, and on the other the
figure of Victory, with the
inscription leukadion: prov
ing that this Leucadia or
Abilene was situated on the river Chrysorrhoas, which was the Abana
of Scripture. It is likely that, the title Klaudiaion was taken in ac
knowledgment of favours received from the emperor Claudius.
Accad, an ancient city in the Land of Shinar, built by
Nimrod. Gen. x. 10. This name is also written by ancient
authors, Achad, Archad, and Achar. According to Jerom
and other old writers, it is the place which was afterwards
called Nisibis by the Greeks and Romans. See Part I. p. 14.

72 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. ADA
Accho, See Ptolemais.
Achaia. A province in Greece, of which Gallio was de
puty in the time of the apostle. Acts xviii. 12. The Romans
divided Greece into two provinces ; Macedonia ^nd Achaia.
Macedonia included Thessaly and Epirus ; and Achaia, Greece
Proper, and the Peloponnessus. But Achaia, properly so
called, was a small country in Greece, lying along the gulf
of Corinth, on the south ; having Sicyonia on the east, Arca
dia and Elis on the south, and the Iqnian Sea on the west. Its
capital city was Patra?, Patara, or Patras.
Achmetha, supposed by some learned men to be the city
called by the Greeks Ecbatana, the capital of Media. In
Ezra vi. 2. we read that " there was found at Achmetha, in the
palace, that is in the province of the Medes, a roll," &c. In
the Vulgate Bible, the word is translated Ecbatana in Media.
But several interpreters render the word Achmetha, a
strong box, or cojfer, which lay amongst the old records of
Media, in which was found a copy of the edict of Cyrus, per
mitting the Jews to return to their own country. See Ecbatana.
Achor, a valley near Jericho. Josh. vii. 26. See Part I.
p. 55.
Achsaph, a city belonging to the tribe of Asher, the king
of which was conquered by Joshua. Josh. xii. 20.
Achzib, a city of the tribe of Asher, (Josh. xix. 29.) thought
to be the same which the Greeks called Ecdippa, the modern
name of which is Zib. It was near the Mediterranean, be
tween Tyre and Accho or Ptolemais, nine miles north of the
latter. In the time of Jerom, about four hundred years after
Christ this place was a small village called Chasalus. It has
been thought by some that Achzib and Achsaph are but dif
ferent names for the same town.
In the tribe of Judah was also another place called Achzib.
Josh. xv. 44.
Acrabatene, a district of Judea, extending between She
chem and Jericho, about twelve miles in length, frequently
mentioned by Josephus. There seems also to have been an
other district of this name in the south of Judea, on the bor
ders of Idumea or Edom. 1 Mace. v. 3.
Adadah, a city of the tribe of Judah. Josh. xv. 22.
Adad-rimmon, or Hadad-rimmon, a place in the valley of
Jezreel or Megiddo, where king Josiah was killed by Pha-
raoh-necho, king of Egypt. It was situated about ten miles
north-west from Jezreel. 2 Kings xxiii. 29.

ADR DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 73
Adam, or Adom, a city on the east of Jordan, over-against
Jericho ; the place where the waters of the Jordan parted to
allow a passage for the Israelites across the river on dry
ground. Josh. iii. 16.
Adamah, a city of the tribe of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 36.
Adasa, (1 Mace. vii. 40.) said by Jerom to be a town in
the tribe of Ephraim.
Adithaim, a city belonging to the tribe of Judah. Josh. xv. 36.
Admah, one of the five cities which, for their wickedness,
were destroyed by fire from heaven, and buried under the
waters of the Dead Sea. See Part I. p. 31.
Adoraim, a city of Judah, fortified by Rehoboam. 2 Chron.
xi. 9.
Adramyttium, a sea-port town of Mysia, in Asia Minor,
lying opposite the island of Lesbos or Mitylene. According
to Aristotle, it was named from Adramyttus, son of Alyattes,
king of Lydia, and brother of Croesus, who built it.
It is probable that the ship of Adramyttium, into which
St. Paul entered at Gaasarea, (Acts xxvii. 2.) was one which
was returning home to its own port, and so coasted along the
shores of Asia Minor.

No. 1. is a medal of
Adramyttium, showing
that Castor and Pollux,
the deities of mariners,
(Acts xxviii. 11.) were
reverenced in this city :
the cornucopias, be
tween the two stars,
refers to the goddess
Fortune, also a mari
time deity.

On No. 2. are
the figures of
Minerva and
Jupiter, which
show that these
divinities were
also worship
ped here.

/4 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. AIN
Adria, a name anciently given to that part of the Medi
terranean Sea adjacent to Sicily, and*outh-east of Italy. Ac
cording to Ptolemy, it extended from Sicily to Crete ; and
Strabo says that the Ionian gulf is a part of what was then
called the Adriatic Sea. Some have inquired how a ship
could be tossed up and down in the Adriatic, and driven on
the coast of Malta, or Melita. (Acts xxvii. 27. and xxviii. 1.)
This indeed could not be the case with regard to the Adria
tic, in its modern confined extent ; but according to the larger
sense, mentioned above, in which the term was used by the
ancients, it is perfectly clear that St. Paul's tempestuous voy
age from Crete to Malta, was in that part of the Mediterra
nean then called the Adriatic Sea.
Josephus relates that on his voyage from Judea to Rome,
he was shipwrecked in the Adriatic sea, and after being
taken up by a ship from Cyrene, was carried to Puteoli. From
this and other ancient authorities, there can be no question
that a considerable portion of the Mediterranean east of Italy,
was anciently called the Adriatic sea.
Adullam, a city in the tribe of Judah. See Part I. p. 38.
Adummim, a town or mountain in the border of the tribe of
Benjamin. , (Josh. xv. 7. xviii. 17.) It was notorious for being
the haunt of robbers ; and being on the road from Jerusalem
to Jericho, is supposed to be the place where the traveller
was robbed, who was afterwards relieved by the good Samari
tan. Luke x.
Africa, one of the four quarters of the world ; being a large
peninsula, joined to Asia by the narrow isthmus of Suez. It
is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, which separates it
from Europe, on the north ; by the isthmus of Suez and the
Red Sea, which separate it from Asia, on the north-east ; by
the Indian Ocean on the east ; the Southern Ocean on the
south ; and the Atlantic on the west Only the northern parts
of this country, including Egypt, and the adjacent regions,
are mentioned in Scripture. Africa was principally peopled
by Ham and his descendants, as we have more particularly
explained in the foregoing part of this work.
Ahava, a river of Babylon or Assyria, where Ezra gatherer]
the captive Jews together, whom he brought with him into
Judea. Ezra, viii. 15.
Ai, a city in Canaan near Jericho. Josh. vii. and viii. See
Part I. p. 55.
Ain, a city of the tribe of Judah, given afterwards to Si-

AIJ2 dictionary op the bible. 75
meon. It was also one of the Levitical cities. Josh. xv. 32
xix 7. xxi. 16.
Ajalon, a city of the tribe of Dan, assigned to the Levites;
situated between Timnath and Belhshemesh. There were
three other cities of this name : one in Benjamin, three miles
east of Bethel, fortified by Rehoboam, (2 Chron. xi. 19.) an
other in Epliraim, between Shechem and Jerusalem, which
was a city of refuge, and another in the tribe of Zebulon, east
of Mount Carmel.
Akrabbim, See Acrabaltne.
Alammelech, a city in the south-west of the tribe of Asher.
Josh. xix. 26.
Alema, a great and strong city in the country of Gilead,
east of Jordan. 1 Mace v. 26.
Alexandria, a famous commercial city of Egypt, built by
Alexander the Great St Paul sailed in ships belonging to
this port (Acts xxvii. 6. and xxviii. 11.) It was situated on
the west of the Delta, between lake Mceris and the Mediter
ranean, thirty-three miles south-west from Rosetta, and about
one hundred north-westward from Cairo. The body of Alex
ander the Great was carried from Babylon and deposited here
in a coffin of gold. The favourable situation of this city, be
tween the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and on the waters
of the Nile, drew to it the commerce of the east and the west,
and soon rendered it one of the most flourishing cities in the
world. The spices and other merchandise of India, were
brought up the Red Sea, to Egypt, and so passed through
Alexandria to the Mediterranean. But after the discovery
of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, around
the south of Africa, its trade declined, so that at present it is
little more than a village, having nothing remarkable but the
ruins of its former grandeur.
After the death of Alexander, it was the royal seat of the
Ptolemies for two hundred years ; and when Egypt became a
Roman province, it continued to be the metropolis or princi
pal city. It was taken from the Christians about the middle
of the seventh century by Amrou, general of the caliph Omar,
after a siege of fourteen months, in which he lost twenty-
three thousand men. At this time the famous library was
destroyed, in which successive kings had collected more than
four hundred thousand, or, as others say, seven hundred thou
sand manuscripts or volumes. Among the ruins of this city
are yet standing two obelisks of considerable height, covered

76 scripture geography. AMA
with hieroglyphics : and Pompey's pillar, which is one entire
piece of granite, forty feet high, and twenty-five feet in cir
cumference. Part of the ancient Pharos, or watch-tower, is
also yet standing, and is now a castle, useful-in directing ves
sels into the harbour. Some parts of the ancient walls of the
city yet remain, having large square towers two hundred
paces apart : the gates are of Thebaic marble and granite.
The water of the Nile was brought to the city by a canal
during the inundation, and preserved in cisterns for use.
Here is still to be seen the church of St Mark, in which it is
said the body of the evangelist was deposited, until some
Venetians carried it to Venice, where is a celebrated church
called St. Mark's.
Alexandria was taken by the French in 1788, but was
taken from them by the English in 1801, and restored to the
Ottoman government. The city is called by the Turks Scaiv-
deria or Iskanderia, and has a population of about thirty
thousand. Opposite to this city is the Httle island of Pharos, in which
the LXX. interpreters are said to have translated the Hebrew
Bible into Greek, each in a separate cell or apartment. This
translation is called the Septuagint, from the number of the
translators. Almon, a city of the tribe of Benjamin ; (Josh. xxi. 18.)
thought to be the same as Alemeth, given to the priests of
Aaron's family. 1 Chron. vi. 60.
Alush, one of the encampments in the wilderness. Part I.
p. 44.
Amad, a city in the tribe of Asher. Josh. xix. 26.
Amalek. There appear to be several tribes of the people
called Amalekites mentioned in Scripture, which, in a geo
graphical view, may be thus arranged :
1. Amalek, the ancient Gen. xiv. 7. where the phrase, " all
the country of the Amalekites" implies considerable extent.
This people probably dwelt near the Jordan. Numb.
xxiv. 20.
2. A tribe in the regions east of Egypt, between it and
Canaan. Exod. xvii. 8. 1 Sam xiv. &c.
3. The descendants of Eliphaz, son of Esau. Gen. xxxvi. 12.
For the proper understanding of Scripture history, the dis^
tinction between these should be observed.
It was probably to the first of these that Balaam alluded,

AMA DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 77
(Numb. xxiv. 20.) as having been " head of the peoples ;" for
the descendants of Esau could hardly have been meant
as they were then just appearing as a tribe or family. The
Arab writers often mention, and glory in their descent from
Amalek, and distinguish between families of pure Amalekite
blood, and those of mixed descent, among whom they include
those descended from Ishmael.
It was the second of these divisions of the Amalekites,
who attacked the Israelites, and against whom Moses and
Joshua fought, (Exod. xvii. 8-13.) and against which tribe
perpetual hostility was to be maintained, (verse 16. and 1 Sam.
xv.) These dwelt near the borders of Egypt, west of Edom,
and southward of Canaan, and appear to have been a fierce
and warlike people.
According to Moses, (Gen. xiv. 7.) the five confederated
kings carried the war into the country of Amalek, about Ka
desh, in the time of Abraham, long before the birth of Amalek,
the grandson of Esau ; which proves that these Amalekites
could not have been his posterity. It is therefore thought
probable that the Amalekites so often mentioned in Scripture,
were a people descended from Canaan, devoted to the curse,
as well as the others of his race, and very different from the
descendants of Amalek, the grandson of Esau. The Arabian
writers maintain Amalek to have been the son of Ham, and
grandson of Noah ; they also say that he was the father of an
ancient tribe in Arabia, exterminated in the reign of Saul ;
in the latter particular agreeing with the Scripture account :
This tribe, they say, contained only the Arabians who are
called pure, the remains of which were mingled with the
posterity of Joknan and Adnan, and so became Mosarabes, or
mixed Arabians. They farther believe that Goliah, who was
Killed by David, was a king of the Amalekites, and that the
giants, who inhabited the Land of Canaan in the time of
Joshua, were of the same race ; and finally, that part of the
Amalekites, while Joshua was yet living, retired into Africa,
and settled on the coast of Barbary. This agrees with in
scriptions said to have been found in Barbary, importing that
the people who wrote them fled from Canaan, from the face
of Joshua, the son of Nun, the robber.
The Amalekites of the Scripture appear to have been a
roving people, dwelling sometimes in one place, and some-
limes in another : it does not appear that they had cities, there
G2

78 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. AMM
being but one mentioned in Scripture ; and they probably
lived in hamlets, caves, and tents, resembling, in their wan
dering and ferocious character, their posterity, the modern
Arabs. Aman, a city belonging to the tribe of Judah. Josh*
xv. 26.
Amana, a mountain east of Jordan ; some say the same aa
Mount Hor ; but others mention a mountain of that name in
the half tribe of Manasseh, not far from Lake Merom. It is
not certain whether the mountain called Amana, in the Song
of Solomon, was this one, or another of the same name in
Cilicia, into which country his government also extended.
Ammah, a hill in the Land of Israel, near Hebron. The
name signifies the hill of two ways, i. e. where two roads
turned off. 2 Sam. ii. 24.
Ammonites, a people descended from Ammon, the son of
Lot. See Part I. p. 52.
Ammon-no, an ancient city of Egypt, the situation of which
is not certain. It is mentioned, Jer. xlvi. 25. Ezek. xxx. 15,
16. in which passages the LXX. translators render it Diospo-
lis, or the city of Jove. Now, there was a city of this name
on that branch of the Nile, which ran by Zoan, or Tanis. But
according to Bochart the Diospolis of these translators is
rather the famous Thebes, in the south of Egypt He supposes
that the Jove, from whom it was named, was Ham, the son
of Noah, and father of Misraim. His opinion is founded on
this, that what we translate (Jer. xlvi. 25.) the multitude of
No, is, in the Hebrew text Amon-no, meaning the god Arnon,
whose temple was in the city No : whence this city is called
Amon-no, in other places of Scripture. Now it is very pro
bable that Ham was the Amon here worshipped, as well as
Jupiter Amon or Ammon, whose oracle was so famous in the
adjacent parts of Africa. From the historian Diodorus we
learn that the same city which was called Thebes from The
bah an ark, was also called Diospolis, the city of Jupiter,
that is, of Ham. The name No, is elsewhere written Nevh
and Nau, which all, as well as Thebali, have some reference
to Noah and the ark. Ammon refers to Ham, the progenitot
of the people who worshipped him, and hence the Greeks
naturally called Ammon, Jupiter, and the city Diospolis.
This city was very large and populous, adorned with temples,
palaces, and columns, and is said to have had a hundred gates.

AMP

DICTIONARY of the bible.

79

The ruins of Thebes have been visited by modern travellers,
who state that they occupy a space of 27 miles in circumfer
ence. It must not be omitted that Jerom and other Greek and
Latin writers, translate Ammon-no by Alexandria, which
they suppose to have been built on the same place where
the former city stood; but this is not considered very
probable. Amorites, a people of Canaan. See Part I. p. 28.
Amphipolis, a city at the head of the Egean Sea, near the
mouth of the river Strymon, originally belonging to Thrace,
but afterwards included .in Macedonia. It was visited by St
Paul and Silas. (Acts xvii. 1.) It was built by an Athenian
colony, about 473 years before Christ ; was noted in the wars
between the Athenians and Spartans, and was taken by
Philip the Macedonian. In the division of Macedonia under
the Romans, by Paulus Emilius, it was made the chief city
of the first region of Macedonia, and a metropolis. It is now
called Emboli by the Turks, but is not a place of much im
portance. Ancient medals of Amphipolis show that this city was of
consequence.

No. 1. A female figure, with the emblems of Ceres, Uie torch, and
the ears of corn; also, with the shield of Minerva, and the sacred
calathus of the Egyptian deity, Serapis. These probably indicate the
eas1, the origin of Tight, and the country which first yielded food and
drink for man.
No. 2. Represents Augustus making a speech to his army, under the
tutelage of Julius Caesar ; and is remarkable, as it seems to indicate a
rivalship between Amphipolis and the neighbouring city, Philippi,
where both these emperors were highly honoured.

80

scripture geography.

ANT

No. 3. A bull, which appears originally to have been the emblem of
Mount Taurus .- the head of Apollo, on the same medal, agrees with
this conjecture. They all have the inscription, Ampiiipoleiton.
Anab, a city in the mountains of Judah. Josh. xi. 21.
Anaharath, a city belonging to the tribe of Issachar.
Josh. xix. 19.
Anakim, a gigantic people of Canaan, descended from
Anak. See Part I. p. 32.
Anamim, descendants of Misraim. See Part I. p. 26.
Anathoth, a city belonging to the tribe of Benjamin,
(Josh. xxi. 18.) distant from Jerusalem, according to Eusebius
and Jerom, about three miles. It was a Levitical city, of the
family of Kohath, and a city of refuge ; also noted as the
birth-place of the prophet Jeremiah. 1 Kings ii. 26. Isa. x.
30. Jer. i. 1.
Anem, a city in the tribe of Manasseh, given to the Levites
ofiJiohath's family. 1 Chron. vi. 73. — Also, a city in the tribe
of Judah, (Josh. xv. 50.) eight or ten miles east of Hebron.
Aner, a Levitical city in the half tribe of Manasseh, west
of Jordan. 1 Chron. vi. 70.
Anti-libanus, See IAbanus.
Antioch. There were anciently several cities of this name
of which two are particularly mentioned in sacred history,'
namely, Antioch in Syria, and Antioch in Pisidia.
1. Antioch in Syria. This city, sometimes called the
Greater Antioch, was situated upon both sides of the river
Orontes, about twelve miles from the Mediterranean Sea. It
was built according to some historians, by Antiochus Epi-
phanes ; but others say by Seleucus Nicanor, first king of

ANT

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

81

Syria, and named in honour of his father Antiochus. It was
the royal seat of the kings of Syria, and, according to Strabo,
not much inferior in power and dignity to Seleucia or Alex
andria: in fact, it was long the most powerful city of the
east. It afterwards suffered much from earthquakes, as well
as war, being several times taken by the Persians and Sara
cens. In the year 1098 it was taken by the Christian cru
saders, and in 1268 was taken and demolished by the Sara
cens. It is now called Antakia, and is but a ruinous town,
with houses built of mud and straw, dirty and narrow streets,
with filthy and wretched inhabitants.
In Antioch, the disciples of Jesus Christ were first called
Christians, (Acts xi. 26.) having been before, by way of
derision, called Nazarenes, as the Jews scornfully call them
to the present time, and as the Pagans called them Galileans.
Here was also the birth-place of St. Luke, and of Theophilus
Antiochenus; here also Paul and Barnabas remained and
preached during a whole year. In the earlier times of
Christianity, its bishop was honoured with the title of Patri
arch ; the celebrated martyr, Ignatius, was one of its
bishops. It was famous among the Jews for the Jus Civitatis, or
right of citizenship, which Seleucus had given to them, in
common with the Greeks and Macedonians, and which,
Josephus informs us, they continued to retain. These privi
leges contributed to render this place so desirable to the early
Christians, who were at first considered as a sect of Jews,
since here they could perform public worship in their own
way, and enjoy all religious privileges without persecution or
disturbance. This also accounts for the zeal of the apostles
in introducing the gospel into Antioch.

82

SCRIPTURE geography.

ANT

No. 1. A medal of Antioch, representing Nemesis, the goddess vf
divine punishment; which shows that the people were not insensible
to the nature and necessity of the divine government.
No. 2. shows the importance of Antioch in ancient times, as we
leam by the inscription, Antioch eon Mktro. Kolon. which proves
that it was dignified with the title ol'merropolis, &c. By other medals
of this place, it appears (hat it had also the title of sacred and an asylum
No. 3. This is by far the most interesting
medal to us, as Christians, from iis inscription,
Antiochkon epi. Satorninou — ovolo. The
Antiochtsftjis nwier Saturninus. This Satur
ninus was governor of Syria at the time of our
Saviour's birth, according to Josephus ; and
TerLullian even says that the enrolment or
taxing (Luke ii 1.) was made by him. Hence
has arisen a difficulty, since St. Luke says that
Cyrenius was governor oi' Syria at the time of
the taxing. The letters ovolo on this medal
are thought to stand for the name of Vo
lumnius, the colleague of Saturninus, at the time oi' ihe date oi this
coin, which is el, 35, from the Julian era, corresponding with the year
of Rome 740, which was about ten years beibre the death of Herod
Cyrenius was appointed to Syria, probably on the death of Volumnius,
about the year 746 or 747. Hence it appears that the account of St.
Luke agrees with that of Josephus and Tertullian, and that the taxing
was made by Cyrenius, who nad succeeded Volumnius as procurator
of Syria, associated with the governor Saturninus.
2. Antioch in Pisidia, so called to distinguish it from other
places of the same name, was the chief city of Pisidia, a small
province of Asia Minor, north of Pamphylia. It was one of
the sixteen cities said to have been founded by Seleucus in
honour of his father Ant'ochus. Paul and Barnabas preached
here with some success ; but the Jews raising" a sedition against
them, they were obliged to leave the city. Acts xiii. 14

AP0L dictionary of THE BIBLE. 83
No. 1. A medal of Antioch in Pisidia, representing the goddess
Cybele, worshipped in this city.
No. 2. A medal with the figure of the dcily. Men, Meen, or Mensis,
called in Hebrew Menu The prophet says, (Isa. lxv. 11.) "Ye prepare
a table for Gad, and furnish a drink offering to Meiti." (The Hebrew
words Gad and Meni, in ihe English translation of the Bible, are ren
dered that troop, and number.) Gad probably means the deity, Good
Fortune, whose figure, with the cornucopia and rudder, appears fre-
q uently on ancient medals. The crescent on our figure of Mem, alludes
to the moon, the " queen of heaven ;" and the worehip of this deity oc
cupied the whole family, fathers, women and children, as we learn from
Jer. vii. 18. ; and this was done " in the streets," in expectation of plenty,
(chap. xliv. 17, 18.) the very idea of the cornucopia accompanying For
tune. Antipatris, a town in Samaria, north-west from Jerusa
lem, anciently called Caphar-salama, but named Antipatris by
Herod, in honour of his rather, Antipater. It was situated in
the way from Jerusalem to Cssarea, and hither Paul and his
guard came by night. Acts xxiii. 31. It was 42 miles from
Jerusalem, and 26 from Cssarea. Josephus says it was 17
miles from Joppa.
Apamea, a city situated on the river Orontes in Syria.
There was another city of this name in Phrygia in Asia Mi
nor, called also Kibotos, the ark ; having on its medals a
figure of the ark, and a man receiving a dove flying to him,
with part of the inscription Noe : hence some have conjec
tured that the ark rested not far from this place, as the subject
was doubtless annually celebrated in the city. Calmet,
Script, lllusl.
Apharsachites, people sent by the kings of Assyria to in
habit the country of Samaria, in the room of those Israelites
who had been removed beyond the Euphrates. Ezra v. 6.
Aphek, the name of several cities mentioned in Scripture.
1. Aphek, a town in the tribe of Asher. Josh. xix. 30.
Judg. i. 31.' 1 Sam. iv. 1. xxix. 1. 1 Kings xx. 30.
2. Aphek, in the tribe of Judah. Josh. xii. 18. called Aphe
kah, xv. 53.
3. Aphek in the tribe of Manasseh. Josh. xii. 18. xiii.
Appii-Forum, a place in Italy, about 50 miles from Rome,
where Paul was met by some Christians, in his journey
thither. Acts xxviii. 15. This place is thought to have been
named the Forum of Appius, from the same Appius who gave
name to the Appian way, near Rome.
Apolloma, a city in the south of Macedonia, not far from

84

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY

ARA

Amphipolis, through which St. Paul passed on his way to
Thessalonica. Acts xvii. 1.
Ar, the chief city of the Moabites, (Numb. xxi. 15. 28.)
Called also Rabbath Moab. It was situated upon the river
Arnon, and was called by the Greek writers Areopolis. Some
have supposed this city to have been the same with Aroer;
but Aroer was given to the tribe of Gad, and was on the north
side of the Arnon, whereas Ar belonged to the Moabites, and
was consequently on the south side of that river.
Arabia, a large tract of country in Asia, bounded north by
Syria and Persia ; east by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea ;
south-east by the Indian Ocean ; south by the Straits of Babel-
mandel, and west by the Red Sea, Isthmus of Suez, and the
Land of Canaan or Judea : extending 1500 miles from north
to south, and 1200 from east to west. The name Arabia is
supposed to be derived from the Hebrew word Crebeh, a wil
derness or desert.
This is one of the most interesting countries in the world.
It has, according to prophecy, never been subdued : and its in
habitants, at once pastoral, commercial, and warlike, are the
same wild, wandering people, as the immediate descendants
of their great ancestor Ishmael are represented to have been.

Arab Tent.
But though in the tribes of the desert his descendants are re
cognized, Arabia was not first peopled by him, but by some of
the numerous families of Cush, as we have stated, in Part I. ;

ARA DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 85
and it is not until about 550 years after the deluge that we
read of the Ishmaelites and Midianites, as the shepherds and
carriers of the deserts, and who were prubably intermingled
and shared the territory and the traffic, as the traders who
bought Joseph are called by both names.
Arabia has-been divided by geographers into thr°o separate
regions, called Arabia Petnea, Arabia Deserta, and Arabia
Felix. Arabia Petrtea is the north-western division ; bounded north
by Judea and the Dead Sea ; east by Arabia Deserta ; soutli
by Arabia Felix ; and west by the western arm or branch of
the Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez. The greater part of
this division was more particularly the possession of the Midi
anites ; and in this region were the wanderings of the Israel
ites after leaving Egypt Here were also seated the Edomites
and Amalekites. The greater part of this district consists of
sandy and stony plains, with naked rocks; but it contains
some fertile spots, particularly in the neighbourhood of Mount
Sinai, and in the range of Mount Seir.
Arabia Deserta is bounded north and north-east by Persia ;
east by a range of mountains which separate it from Chaldea;
south by Arabia Felix ; and west by Syria, Judea, and Arabia
Petrtea. This was more particularly the country, first of the
Cushites, and afterwards of the Ishmaelites, as it is still of
their descendants, the modern Bedouins, who maintain the
same predatory and wandering habits. It consists almost en
tirely of one vast and lonesome wilderness, a boundless level
of dry and burning sands, denying existence to all but the
Arab and his camel. There are, however, scattered over this
dreary waste, a few spots of vegetation, where a feeble spring
of'brackish water, with a few palm-trees, fix the principal
settlement of a tribe, and afford stages of refreshment in these
otherwise impassable deserts.
Arabia Felix, so called from the happier condition of its
soil and climate, is situated in the southern part of the country.
It is bounded on the north by the two other divisions ; east by
the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea ; south-east by the Indian
Ocean; south by the Straits of Babelmandel; and west by
the Red Sea. It is divided into several provinces, of which
Yemen, at the southern extremity, is represented as a well
watered and fertile region, producing abundance of corn and
fruits, and rich crops of the finest coffee, of which large quan-
H

86 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. ARA
titles are exported. In the western part of this division are
the cities of Mecca and Medina.
The people of Arabia Felix claim descent direct from Jok
tan, -the son of Heber, of the family of Shem, instead of Abra
ham and -Ham, as the other Arabians ; and are indeed a total
ly different people from those inhabiting the other parts of the
country. Instead of being shepherds and robbers, they live
in towns and cities, and subsist by agriculture and commerce.
These were the people who were found by the Greeks of
Egypt, enjoying a monopoly of the trade with the East, and
possessing a high degree of wealth and refinement. From
them the precious spices and merchandise of the east were
carried across the country to Egypt, by the Cushite, Ishmael-
ite, and Midianite carriers, to a company of whom Joseph was
sold by his brethren.
It is a. singular and important fact, that Arabia has never
been conquered by any invader, and the people still inhabit
the land of their fathers. It was prophesied in Scripture that
they should be invincible, and their millions of inhabitants are
so many witnesses of the truth of revelation. Every man's
hand is against Ishmael, and his against every man ; and yet
he dwells securely among his brethren. The body of the na
tion has escaped the yoke of the most powerful monarchies.
The arms of Sesostris and Cyrus, of Pompey and Casar, of
Trajan and Napoleon, have never achieved the conquest of
Arabia. The present sovereign of the Turks may exercise
a shadow of jurisdiction ; but his pride is reduced to solicit

ARA DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 8?
the friendship of a people, whom it is dangerous to provoke,
and fruitless to attack. Their domestic , feuds are suspended
on the approach of a common enemy, and in their last hostili
ties against the Turks, the caravan of Mecca was attacked
and plundered by eighty thousand Arabs. When they advance
to battle, the hope of victory is in the front, and the assurance
of retreat in the rear. Mounted on horses and camels, which
in a few days can perform a march of four or five hundred
miles, they disappear before the conqueror ; the secret waters
of the desert elude his search, and his victorious troops are
consumed with thirst, hunger and fatigue, in the pursuit of an
invisible foe, who scorns his efforts, and safely reposes in the
heart of the burning solitude.
The Arabians were confounded by the Greeks and Romans,
under the general name of Saracens ; and by this they were
called when Mahomet appeared in the seventh century. Their
religion at this time was Sabianism, or the worship of the sun,
moon, &c. intermingled with some Jewish and Christian max
ims and traditions. The tribes themselves were generally at
variance one with another, and desultory skirmishes, arising
from these feuds, were frequent. Yet of these discordant ma
terials Mahomet constructed a mighty empire ; converted the
relapsed Ishmaelites into good Mussulmans ; united the jarring
tribes under one banner ; and out of a banditti, little known
and little feared beyond their own deserts, raised an armed
multitude which proved the scourge of the world. During
the whole of the succeeding century, the rapid career of his
followers was unchecked ; the disciplined armies of the Greeks
and Romans were unable to stand against them ; the Christian
churches of Asia and Africa were annihilated ; and from India
to the Atlantic, through Persia, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Asia
Minor, Egypt, with the whole of northern Africa, Spain, and
part of France, the Impostor was acknowledged. Constanti
nople was besieged ; the Roman empire was plundered ; and
nothing less than the subjection of the whole Christian world
Was meditated on the one hand, and expected on the other.
But the five prophetic months (150 years) which this scourge
was to last, (Rev. ix.) being fulfilled, the conquests of the
Caliphs were checked. They were first defeated in France,
by Charles Martel ; the Persians and Greeks were at length
aroused from their thraldom; the Turks, issuing from the
plains of Tartary, now first made their appearance in the east,
and the power of the Saracen Caliphate was extinguished.

88

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

ARA

But although the foreign dominion of the Arabians was thus
destroyed, their native independence was untouched ; for, re
turning to the state in which Mahomet found them, with the
exception of their religion being changed, they remained, and
still remain, the unconquered rovers of the desert.
Arad, a city lying to the south of the tribe of Judah,
twenty miles south of Hebron, according to Eusebius. See
Part I. p. 60.
-Aradus, a small and rocky island on the coast of Syria,
north of Tripolis. It is about a mile in circumference ; and
two miles from the shore. Aradus is the Greek name for this
place, and it is so called in Maccabees ; but its Hebrew name
was Arvad or Aruad, to which its modern name Ruad, bears
a striking resemblance. The Hebrew name was probably de
rived from Arvad, one of the sons of Canaan. See Part I. p.
28. The different names of Arpad, Arphad, and Arvad, oc
curring in Kings, Isaiah, and Ezekiel, appear to be the same.
Here was formerly a powerful city, and a republic, which the
liberty enjoyed by the inhabitants had rendered very populous.
It subsisted by naval commerce, manufactures, and arts.
"No. 1. A medal of Ara
dus, on which the fly ap
pears to have been intend
ed to commemorate Jupi
ter Muscarius ,- the same,
in all probability, as Baal-
zebub, Baal the jZy, the
god of Ekron, whose wor
ship was not confined to
lhat city. The stag with
the palm-tree refer to the
possessions of this people on the continent, probably about Mount Leba
non, which abounded with deer, agreeably to the comparison by Jacob,
of his son Naphtali to a deer, because that tribe had an allotment on this
mountain.

ARM

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

No 2. The two sphinxes, with the sacred measure on their heads,
seem to ally Arad us with Egypt.
No. 3. shows that the people of Aradus venerated the sun, and were
proud of the productions of their territory, corn and wine.
At present the island is deserted, and not a single wall is
remaining of all that multitude of houses, which, according to
Strabo, were built with more stories than even those of Rome.
Aram, a name given in the writings of Moses to the coun
try commonly called Syria, peopled by Aram, the son of Shem.
See Syria, and Mesopotamia.
Ararat, a mountain, or mountains, in the north-east of
Armenia, on which the ark is supposed to have rested. The
name is compounded of Ar-Arat, which is equivalent to Har-
Irad in Hebrew, and implies the Mountain of Descent, See
Part I. p. 12.
Areopagus, or Mars' Hill. See Athens.
Argob, a city and region lying east of Jordan in the coun
try of Bashan, afterwards given to Manasseh. See Part I.
p. 54.
Arimathea, also called Ramah, and Ramathaim Zophim,
(1 Sam. I.) a town about 30 miles north-west of Jerusalem,
on the road to Jaffa. This was the native place of Joseph of
Arimathea, who begged the body of Jesus from Pilate. (Matt.
xxvii. 57.) It is now called Ramla, and contains about 5000
inhabitants, who are chiefly occupied in agricultural pursuits,
for which the surrounding country is highly favourable,
abounding in vineyards, olives, and dates. Ramah and Lydda
were the two first cities taken by the crusaders.
Armenia, a considerable country of Asia, consisting of mod
ern Turcomania, and part of Persia ; having Colchis and Ibe
ria, the modern Georgia, on the north ; Media on the east ;
Assyria and Mesopotamia on the south, and Asia Minor on
the west. Armenia is sometimes confounded with Arama3a,
the land of Aram or Syria; but they are totally different.
Armenia, which is separated from Aram by the range called
Mount Taurus, was so named from Ar-Men, or Ar-minni, i. e.
the mountainous country of Meni or Minni, the people of
which are mentioned by Jeremiah, (chap. li. 27.) when sum
moning the nations against Babylon. Ararat and Minni, hi
this passage, are so translated in our Bibles as to make two
lifferent kingdoms ; but they appear to be the same, and im
ply the people of Ararat or Armenia.

90 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. ARP
This country includes the sources of the rivers Tigris and
Euphrates, the Araxes and Phasis ; and here the country of
Eden, in which the garden was situated, is by many sup
posed to have been situated. See Eden, Part I. p. 10.
Armenia was formerly an independent kingdom, but is now
subject, partly to Persia, and partly to the Turks. The part
subject to the Persians is Eastern, Upper, or Grand Armenia ;
and the other, Lower, Little, or Western Armenia. The peo
ple are sober, industrious, and enterprising, and have in all
ages maintained a great similarity of character, partly com
mercial, and partly pastoral ; some living at home with their
flocks, and others travelling as merchants and dealers into
distant countries. Merchants of Armenia are found in almosl
every considerable port of Asia and Europe.
The religion of the Armenians is Christian, of the sect of
Eutyches, owning but one nature in Jesus Christ ; and it is a
remarkable proof of the firmness of this people, that they have
been able to preserve their ancient faith, though subject to
their Mahometan masters, and surrounded by nations who
have not only submitted to the arms of the Turks, but also to
their religion.
Arnon, a river which formed the boundary between the
countries of Moab and Ammon ; rising in the mountains of
Gilead, east of Jordan, flowing at first towards the south, then
turning to the west, and emptying into the eastern side of the
Dead Sea. After the Ammonites had been dispossessed of
the country on the east of Jordan by the Amorites, this river
was the division between the latter people and the Moabites ;
and later still, after the Israelites had conquered the country
of the Amorites, the Arnon was the boundary between the
tribe of Reuben and the Land of Moab. It is also called the
river of Gad, (2 Sam. xxiv. 5. 2 Kings x. 33.) being the east
ern boundary of that tribe.
Aroer, a city on the river Arnon, probably partly on an
island, as it is called " the city in the midst of the river."
(Josh. xiii. 9.) It formerly belonged to the Amorites, but was
afterwards given to the tribe of Gad. Some have thought
there was another city of this name further south, in the tribe
of Reuben; and from a want of knowledge respecting the
true course of the Arnon, considerable uncertainty attends the
subject. Arpad, Arphad, and Arvad ; See Aradus.

ASH DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 9]
Arcboth, a city or country belonging to the tribe of Judah;
the situation of which is not known. 1 Kings iv. 10.
Arvadites, the descendants of Arvad, one of the sons of
Canaan. See Part I. p. 28.
Ashan, a city of the tribe of Judah, afterwards given to
Simeon. Josh. xv. 42. xix. 7.
Ashdod, a city of the Philistines, giving name to one of
the five governments of that people. It was first allotted to
the tribe of Judah, and afterwards to Dan ; but was possessed
for a long time after by the Philistines, and rendered famous
for the temple of their god, Dagon. (1 Sam. v. 1.) It is
situated upon the Mediterranean, nine or ten miles north of
Gaza. Ashdod was called by the Greeks Azotus, by the
Syrians Ezdoud, and by the Arabs Mezdd. It is represented
as having been a place of great strength ; and is remarkable
for sustaining the longest siege mentioned in history, having
been taken by Psammetichus, king of Egypt, after" a siege of
29 years. It is at present an inconsiderable vDlage, but con
tains many fragments of buildings and ruins, which remain of
its former greatness. Here Philip the Evangelist was found,
after he had baptized the Ethiopian eunuch. Acts viii. 40.
Ashdoth-Pisgah, a city of the Amorites, allotted to the
tribe of Reuben. It was so called from lying near Mount
Pisgah. Asher, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I. p. 66.
Ashnah, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 33.
Ashkenaz, a son of Gomer, and grandson of Japheth. See
Part I. p. 16.
Ashtaroth, or Ashtaroth Carnaim, one of the chief cities
in the kingdom of Bashan, given to the half tribe of Manasseh,
east of Jordan. Karnaim, in Hebrew, implies two-horned,
and the city is supposed to have derived both names from the
worship of the goddess Ashtaroth, who was represented like
the Egyptian Isis, with two horns, or a horned moon. This
city is sometimes called simply Carnaim, or Camion. 1 Mace.
v. 26. 43, 44.
Ashtaroth was the chief goddess of the Sidonians, and was
«nuch worshipped in Syria and Phenecia under that name, as
well as those of " the host of heaven," and " the queen of
heaven." She i6 supposed by some to be the Diana of the
Greeks ; but the worship paid to her was more that of Venus.
Salomon, to please his strange wives, introduced the worship

92 scripture geography. ASK
of Ashtaroth amongst the Israelites; but it was established by
Jezebel. (1 Kings xviii.) This goddess was afterwards
adopted by the eastern Greeks, under the name Astarte.
According to Jerom, Ashtaroth was called Carnea in his
time, and was then a considerable city, six miles from Edrei.
Asia is used in a threefold sense : l.'As one of the four
great divisions of the earth. 2. Asia Minor or Lesser Asia,
now called Anatolia. 3. The Asia of the New Testament,
comprehending Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and Lydia. This was
the Roman proconsular Asia, in which were the seven churches
of Asia, mentioned in the Revelations of St. John.
As the ancient Hebrews were strangers to the division of
the earth into three or four parts, we never find the name
Asia in any book originally written in Hebrew. They seemed
to think that the continent consisted only of Asia Minor and
Africa : the rest of the world was comprised under the name
" isles of the Gentiles." Gen. x. 5.
Asia Minor is the country lying west of Mount Taurus,
principally between the Euxine or Black Sea and the Medi
terranean ; containing the provinces of Bithynia, Pontus, Ga-
latia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Lycaqnia, Phry
gia, My3ia, Troas, &c. all of which are mentioned in Scrip
ture, and which we shall describe under their several heads.
Askelon, called Ascalon by the Greeks and Latins, was
one of the five great cities or lordships of the Philistines, sit
uated in the west of Canaan, 40 miles westward from Jeru
salem, between Gaza on the south, and Ashdod on the north.
It appears to have been the chief of those cities ; and even in
the time of the crusades, such was its strength, that it was
the last of the maritime towns which fell into the hands of the
Christians. It is memorable in the history of the crusades,
from the defeat of the Caliph of Egypt by Godfrey of Bou
illon, in 1099 ; and that of Saladin, the Saracen Emperor, by
Richard of England, in 1192, when 40,000 of the Saracens
and Turks were killed, and the place afterwards captured.
Ascalon was the birth-place of Herod the Great. It is now
in ruins, and though close to the shore, had but few advan
tages as a port, the coast being sandy and difficult of access.
According to Origen, there are wells here said to have been
dug by Abraham and Isaac.

ASS

dictionary of the bible.

93

No. 1. A medal of Ascalon, with the figure of Jupiter and the in
scription Alexakdrou, showing that Alexander the Great (who took
this city 332 years before Chrisl) was worshipped here as a deity; or in
compliment to him as son of Jupiter, which he reported himself to be.
In some other cities also, were temples dedicated to the worship of
Alexander. No. 2 shows Semiramis, or the Assyrian Venus, standing on a ship:
inscription Askalo.
Asphaltites Lake. See Dead Sea.
Asphar. a lake mentioned in 1 Mace. ix. 33. probably the
same as Asphaltites.
Assos, a sea-port of Troas, in the west of Asia Minor, to
which St. Paul went on foot from the city of Troas, and from
which he embarked with his companions to go to Mytilene, on
the opposite island of Lesbos. (Acts xx. 13, 14.) Jerom says
that Assos Was near the city of Troy.
Assyria, one of the first and greatest empires of Asia, fre
quently mentioned in Scripture, being intimately connected
with the history of the Jews. This empire, in its greatest
extent, included Persia, Chaldea, Media, Mesopotamia, Syria,
Judea, and part of Arabia. But the country of Assyria pro
per lies east of the Tigris, between Armenia on the north,
and Shinar, Chaldea, or Babylonia on the south ; having Me
dia on the east, and Mesopotamia on the west. It is generally
supposed to have been founded by Asshur, son of Shem, who
went out of Shinar, driven, as it appears, by Nimrod, and
founded Nineveh, not long after Nimrod had fixed his residence
at Babel or Babylon, and established the Chaldean monarchy.
But the learned Bochart, and other eminent scholars, adopt
the marginal translation, " Out of that land he (Nimrod) went
forth into Asshur or Assyria, and built Nineveh." (Gen. x.

94 scripture geography. ASS
11.) The decision of this question is difficult, but the weight
of authority is in favour of the marginal reading, which re
presents Nimrod as the founder of Nineveh. This is sup
ported by the Targums of Onkelos and Jerusalem, by Theo-
philus, bishop of Antioch, and Jerom, among the ancients ; and
by Bochart, Faber, Hyde, Wells, Marsham, Le Chais, and
the writers of the Universal History, among the moderns.
The government of this empire continued in thefamily of
Nimrod for many ages, probably till-its overthrow by Arbaces,
which introduced a Median dynasty. Arbaces, who in Scrip
ture is called Tiglath Pileser, was governor of Media ; and
Belesis, or Nabonassar, called in Scripture Baladan, was go
vernor of Babylon : these, conspiring together with the Per
sians and other allies, took Nineveh, aud overthrew the go
vernment of Sardanapalus, who lost his life in the contest.
Thus the second race of Assyrian kings began with Arba
ces ; while Nabonassar founded a new empire in Babylon, of
which he was the first king. This was about the year of the
world 3257, or 747 before Christ. We have no account of
the Assyrian empire, in the Scriptures, until the mission of
Jonah to Nineveh, A. M. 3180, and B. C. 824. Between 40
and 50 years after this, an Assyrian king, named Pul, who is
supposed to have been the father of Sardanapalus, invaded
the kingdom of Israel.
The first captivity of the Israelites was by Tiglath Pileser,
or Arbaces, mentioned above, who carried away the people
east of Jordan, i. e. the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half
tribe of Manasseh, into Media. (1 Chron. v. 26.) It was dur
ing the period of this second Assyrian empire, between the
reigns of Tiglatfi Pileser and Nabuchodonosor, from 747 to
655 before Christ, including the reigns of Salmaneser and
Sennacherib, that most of the events mentioned in Scripture
history, as connected with the Assyrians, took place. The
second captivity of the Israelites, and the extinction of the
kingdom of Israel, was under Salmaneser, in the year 721
before Christ. Sennacherib succeeded his father Salmaneser,
and invaded the kingdom of Judah, but on the payment of a
large ransom by king Hezekiah, the Assyrian passed on into
Egypt with his army, where he destroyed the city of No.
(Nahum iii. 10.) On his return he again attacked Judah,
and sent a blasphemous message to king Hezekiah, (2 Kings
xviii.) who, pleading earnestly for a particular display of di
vine power, was relieved, and an angel of the Lord went out,
and smote in the camp of the Assyrians a hundred and eighty-

ATA

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95

five thousand, so that in the morning they were all dead
corpses. (2 Kings xix. 35.) After this, Sennacherib returned
in disgrace to his kingdom, where he was afterwards killed by
his two sons, Adramelech and Sliarezer, as he was worship
ping in the temple of his god Nisroch. The Medes, in the
mean time, taking advantage of the loss of his army in Judea,
shook off the Assyrian yoke, and formed an independent em
pire. Sennacherib was succeeded by his son Esarhaddon,
called Asnappar in the book of Ezra, who carried away those
who remained of the people of Israel : he also sent part of
his army into Judah, who took its king, Manasseh, prisoner,
and sent him in chains to Babylon, which had been recently
seized by Esarhaddon, and annexed to the Assyrian empire.
Babylon remained an appendage of Assyria, for the space of
54 years, until they were again separated by Nabopolassar, a
general in the army, and father of Nebuchadnezzar, who
seized Babylon of which he was declared king, and which
again became independent of Assyria, 626 before Christ.
Fourteen years after this, Cyaxares, king of Media, and Na
bopolassar, king of Babylon, united against Assyria, besieged
and took Nineveh, killed Chyniladanus the king, and destroyed
the city, to which event the prophecies of Nahum are sup
posed to refer. Thus an end was put to the empire of Assyria,
612 before Christ, and Babylon became the ruling power in
the east
Atach, a city in the tribe of Judah. 1 Sam. xxx. 30.

View of Athens

96 scripture geography. ATH
Athens, a celebrated city and commonwealth of Greece.
This city, it is supposed, was founded 1580 years before Christ,
and 830 before the building of Rome ; to which adding the
time which has since elapsed, 1834, will make the duration of
Athens, to the present time, 3414 years. The situation and
history of Athens are too well known to make it necessary
for us to enter further into particulars than is requisite to elu
cidate the circumstances of St Paul's visit, A. D. 32. Athens
was famed for its power, laws, arts, literature, and learned
men. These last were divided into sects, differing in opinion
on religion and happiness, and spent their time in giving and
hearing lessons in philosophy, rhetoric, and metaphysics ; or
in vain and fruitless speculations on the nature of the gods,
the perfection of human nature, and the attainment of the
chief good. The rest of the inhabitants spent theirs " in
nothing else but either to tell or to hear some new thing."
(Acts xvii. 21.) They were all addicted to idleness, and the
numerous places of public resort afforded every class the
means of gratifying their thirst for inquiry, superstition, or
dissipation. Had the apostle brought seme new scheme of
philosophy or ethics, or some new god to add to the many
which the Athenians pretended to venerate, he would have
been well received. Under some ideas of this sort, the peo
ple carried St. Paul to the Areopagus, that he might explain
to them " the new doctrine of which he spoke." The Areo
pagus, or Hill of Mars, was an insulated precipitous rock, in
the centre of Athens, where a celebrated tribunal or court
was held, the judges of which were called Areopagites, of
whom Dionysius was one. (Acts xvii. 34.) This court took
cognizance chiefly of matters of religion, such as blasphemies
against the gods, the consecration of new ones, ceremonies of
worship, &c. This was the place to which Paul was brought
as " a setter forth of strange gods," and where, boldly stand
ing up, he reproved the Athenians for their absurd idolatries,
and preached Christ and the resurrection ; which to some was
foolishness, to others a matter of further curiosity, while c
few, among whom was Dionysius, were converted.
With regard to the altar with the inscription "to the
unknown god," we have the testimony of Lucian that such
really did exist at Athens ; and Diogenes Laertius tells us the
following occasion of their being erected. The city being
afflicted with a pestilence, Epimenides took several sheep to

ATT

dictionary or the bible.

97

the Areopagus, whence they were left to wander as they
pleased. Persons were appointed to watch them, and where
each sheep lay down, it was sacrificed on the spot to the pro
pitious god ; but which god it was, being uncertain, an altar
was erected to the miknown god, on every spot where a
sheep had been sacrificed. By this ceremony, it is said, the
city was relieved of the pestilence.

No. 1. A medal of Athens, showing the Acropolis standing on a high
rock, on which it is built. In the rock appears the sacred grotto of
Apollo and Creusa, a flight ofsteps up to the citadel, with the entrance
to the Propylea, the temple of Minerva, and the famous figure of that
goddess standing as protecting and presiding over all. The spear of
this figure was seen from far off at sea. St. Paul must have observed
all these idolatrous particulars, as well as the altar dedicated to the
unknown god.
No. 2. Represents a young woman scattering flowers, probably in the
great Panathenaic festival, which was held at stated times, in com
memoration of Minerva. Well might Paul's "spirit be stirred in him
when he saw the city wholly given to idolalry." Acts xvii. 16.
Attalia, a city on the coast of Pamphylia, in Asia Minor,
visited by Paul and Barnabas. (Acts xiv. 25.) It was named
from Attalus, its founder ; and is now called Sattalia. Being
well situated for trade, the Turks keep the fortifications in
repair.

A medal of Attalia, on one
side of which is Neptune, with
his trident, denoting this to be
a sea-port town : the figure
on the olher side is uncertain,
— possibly Pluto.

99 scripture geography. BAA
Ava, (2 Kings xvii". 24.) supposed to be the same as Ivah,
city of Assyria, from whence Salmaneser brought people
called Avites (2 Kings xvii.) to inhabit Samaria, after he had
carried away the Israelites into captivity.
Aven, a city of Egypt, (Ezek. xxx. 17.) supposed to be the
same as On, or Heliopolis.
Avim, a people of Canaan. See Part I. p. 29. Also a
city in the tribe of Benjamin, between Bethel and Parah.
Josh, xviii. 23.
Azekah, a city in the tribe of Judah, lying four leagues
south-west of Jerusalem. Josh, x v. 35. 1 Sam. xvii. 1.
Azem, a city in the tribe of Simeon. Josh. xix. 3.
Azmaveth, a city thought to be in the tribe of Judah, not
far from Jerusalem. Neh. xii. 29. and vii. 28.
Aznoth-Tabor, a city which Eusebius places in the plain
not far from Diocesarea. Josh. xix. 34.
Azotus. See Ashdod.
Azzah. See Gaza.

B.
Baalah, otherwise called Kirjath-jearim, (Josh. xv. 9.
1 Chron. xiii. 6.) a city of Judah, situated not far west of
Jerusalem. At this place the ark was stationed for some
time. There was also a mountain of this name, (Josh. xv.
11.) probably the same as Mount Jearim.
Baalath, a city in the tribe of Judah. (Josh. .xv. 24.) Also
in the tribe of Dan. Josh. xix. 44.
Baalath-beer, a city of Simeon. Josh. xix. 8.
Baal-Gad, a city in the valley of Lebanon, at the foot of
Mount Hermon, in the north-east part of the Land of Canaan.
(Josh. xi. 17. xii. 7.) The name Baal-Gad means the lord of
fortune, or good luck, or of a troop. This deity is frequently
represented on medals, sometimes having the name annexed,
and is usually feminine. There was, however, a male For
tune among the ancient deities, agreeing with the significa
tion of Baal-Gad.

BAA

dictionary of the bible.

No. 1. A vessel in which Isis is spreading her veil for the sail;
Jupiter Serapis is directing the course of the vessel, and Fortune is
guiding it ; Jupiter Serapis is therefore here the Baal-Gad, or Loid of
Fortune.

No. 2. A female figure of Fortune,
displaying many symbols ; the rudder,
cornucopia, ears of corn, &c. The
quiver on her back allies her to Diana,
while the ornaments of her head re
semble those of Isis.

100

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

BAA

Baal-hazor, a city in the tribe of Ephraim, where Absalom
kept his flocks. (2 Sam. xiii. 23.) It lay between Bethel and
Jericho, eight miles from Jerusalem..
Baal-hermon, a mountain in the north of Canaan, ne~ the
boundary of the country, the exact situation of which ¦ not
known. Some suppose it to be part of Mount Hermon, < .• that
it was a temple of the idol Baal, on Hermon. Judg. iii. 3. 1
Chron. v. 23.
Baal-meon, a city in the tribe of Reuben. (Numb, xxxii,
38.) It was taken from Reuben by the Moabites, who were
masters of it in the days of Ezekiel, (xxv. 9.) and seems to
have been a place of some importance in the time of the Mac
cabees. Baal-peor, an idol of the Moabites. See Part I. p. 54.
Baal-perazim, the place where David put the Philistines
to flight. (2 Sam. v. 20.) It lay near the valley of Rephaim,
or Giants, about 4 miles south-west from Jerusalem ; and is
probably the Mount Perazim of Isaiah, xxviii. 21.
Baal-shalisha, (2 Kings iv. 42.) a place situated, according
to Jerom and Eusebius, in the tribe of Simeon or Dan, 15 miles
north of Diospolis. The Hebrew word Baal-shaluha,
means the third idol, or the deity
of three, a triple divinity. The
idea of triplicate deities was com
mon among the ancients, as is pro
ved by ancient medals of different
countries. The annexed figure re
presents this emblem as it exists
in the very ancient Hindoo temple
at Elephanta, near Bombay.
This image is understood to im
ply the divinity in his creative,
preservative, and destructive, or
rather regenerative capacities.
This is one of the most exlraordi
nary works of art, of colossal size,
and immensely laborious workmanship.
Baal-tamar, the place of an engagement between the Is
raelites and the tribe of Benjamin; situated, according to Eu
sebius, near Gibeah. (Judges xx. 33.) This Hebrew name
means the idol of the palm-trees, probably so named from the
Canaanites here worshipping Baal in a grove of palm-trees.
Baal-zephon, a place near the western extremity of the
Red Sea. See Part. I. p. 43.

BAB dictionary of the bible. 101
Babel, a famous tower, built in the land of Shinar. See Part
I. p. 14.
Babylon, the capital city of Chaldea, at first called Babel,
W£S built by Nimrod, (Gen. x. 10.) in the place where the
tower of Babel was begun, and was probably the first city
built after the flood. Its early history is very obscure, and the
accounts of heathen writers respecting it, quite contradictory.
This city was much enlarged and adorned by Semiramis,
wife of Ninus, who, it is believed, was the son and successor
of Nimrod ; but it was most improved in extent and splendour
by Nebuchadnezzar, who gloried himself much upon what he
had done for it (Dan. iv. 30.) It was then called Babylon,
and for extent and magnificence was the wonder of the
world. According to ancient writers, it was at least forty-five miles
in circumference, and was built on both sides of the river
Euphrates, in the shape of a square. It had 25 principal
streets running each way through its whole length, intersect
ing each other, and thus dividing the city into 625 squares.
The walls" of the city were prodigious, being, according to the
most moderate accounts, 75 feet high, and 32 feet broad ; but
Herodotus, a Greek historian, who visited Babylon, says they
Were 350 feet in height, and 87 feet in breadth or thickness ;
extending in compass round the city a length of 60 miles.
These walls were built of brick, cemented with bitumen, and
had around them a deep ditch, filled with water, the sides of
Which were lined with brick walls; as were also the sides of
the river where it flowed thrdUgh the city. In every side of
this great square, at the entrance into the 25 streets, were 25
gates, making, in all, a hundred, which were made of solid
brass ; and between every two of these gates were three tow
ers. A bridge, five furlongs in length, and thirty feet wide,
connected the two parts of the city, which lay one on each
side of the river ; and at each end of this bridge was a palace.
It is even said that there was a subterraneous passage under
the bed of the river, from one of these palaces to the other.
In the midst of the city stood a magnificent temple, dedi
cated to Belus, or Bel ; and in the middle of this temple was
a stupendous tower, which is supposed to have been the same
tower, or part of it, which was left unfinished at the confusion
of tongues. It was probably afterwards resumed and com
pleted, and a prodigious city built around it This tower was
jn the form of a pyramid, with a square base, each side being

102 SCRIPTJJRE GEOGRAPHY. BAB
500 feet, and the height was about the same. On the top was
a statue of Belus, 40 feet high. This tower was built of
bricks, cemented with bitumen. The temple around this tow
er was erected by Nebuchadnezzar, and was a mile in circum
ference ; it was surrounded by a wall, in which were several
gates, all of brass. It is supposed that the brazen sea, the
brazen pillars, and the vessels of brass, which were carried
from the temple of Jerusalem, were used in making these
gates ; for we read in Scripture that Nebuchadnezzar put all
the sacred vessels which he carried from Jerusalem, into the
house of his god at Babylon, that is, into this house or temple
of Bel. The image or statue of Bel, on the top of the tower,
was probably Nebuchadnezzar's golden image mentioned in
Daniel. There were also in this temple many other statues
and images of gold, all of which made it so rich, that on the
return of Xerxes from his expedition into Greece, he plunder
ed it, and laid it in ruins. Alexander the Great, afterwards
wishing to restore it, employed ten thousand men during two
months in clearing away and removing the rubbish, but the
undertaking was found to be too great, and he was forced to
abandon it.
This great city was taken and destroyed by Cyrus, king of
Persia, in a manner remarkably corresponding with the pro
phecies. (Isa. xiii. 17. xxi. 2. xiv. 1-4. Jer. xxv. 11, 12. I. 24.
38. li. 11. 36. 39. 57.) Thus the glory of Babylon has passed
away, according to the word of the Lord, so that it has even
been difficult in modern times to discover the place where it

stood. Travellers have, however, discovered, about three
miles north of Hilleh, a town near the Euphrates, 47 miles
couth of Bagdad, immense masses of rn;r>.°, mostly composed

BEE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 10?
of bricks cemented with bitumen, and extending over a con
siderable space. Among these ruins appear the remains of a
vast monument, which is supposed to have been the great
tower. The bricks of these ruins are dug up and carried away by
the natives, for the purpose of erecting their buildings; and
it is said that the town of Hilleh, containing ten or twelve
thousand inhabitants, has been mostly built of them. Many
of these bricks contain unknown inscriptions, and are in size
generally about a foot square and three niches thick. These
ruins are now so much infested by venomous reptiles and
wild beasts, as to be dangerous of access.
There was also another city called Babylon, situated in
Egypt, on the Nile, not far from Cairo.
Babylonia, the country round the famous city of Babylon,
comprising the greater part of Chaldea, situated in the north
east of Arabia, on both sides of the river Euphrates. The do
minion of Babylonia, as an independent empire, may be said
to begin with Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchadnezzar,
who rendered it independent of Assyria in the year 626 before
Christ Under his son, Nebuchadnezzar, it became very
powerful ; he took Jerusalem, carried the Jews into captivity,
and subdued Egypt. But this power was not of long dura
tion; for in the year 538 before Christ, Cyrus, king of Persia,
took Babylon, and put an end to the empire.
Bahurim, a village near Jerusalem, in the tribe of Benja
min, on the road to Jordan. Here Shimei cursed David, and
threw stones at him. 2 Sam. xvi. 5. xvii. 18.
Bamoth, one of the encampments of the Israelites.
(Numb. xxi. 19, 20.) Eusebius says it was a city of Moab,
upon the river Arnon.
Bamoth-baal, a city in the tribe of Reuben, east of Jordan.
Josh. xiii. 17.
Bascama, or Basca, a town in the tribe of Judah, where
Jonathan Maccabeus was killed. 1 Mace. xiii. ?3.
Bashan, the kingdom of Og. See Part I. p. 53.
Bealoth, a city in the tribe of Judah. Josh. xv. 24.
Beer, the name of a city (Judg. ix. 21.) four learnies from
Jerusalem, m the way to Shechem. The wo.d leer, in He
brew, signifies a well.
Beer-elim, the well of the princes. Isa. tj. 8. Numb.
xxi. 18.
Beek-lahai-roi. See Part I. p. 34

104

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

BER

Beeroth, a city of the Gibeonites, afterwards yielded to
the tribe of Benjamin. (Josh. ix. 17. 2 Sara. iv. 2.) Eusebius
places it seven miles from Jerusalem, in the way to Nicopo-
lis. Near it is a fountain of excellent water, whence probably
it received its name, the wells.
Beeroth was also a station of the Israelites, (Deut x. 6.)
north of Ezion-gaber.
Beer-sheba, the well of the oath. See Part I. p. 34.
. Bela, or Zoar, a city near Sodom. See Part I. p. 31.
Bene-berak, a city in the tribe of Dan. Josh. xix. 45.
Bene-jaakan, a station of the Israelites in the wilderness,
(Numb, xxxiii. 31.) probably the same as Beeroth. (Deut
x. 6.) Beeroth beni Jaakan, the wells of the sons of Jaakan.
Benjamin, one of the tribes of Israel. See Part I. p. 64.
Beon, a city in the tribe of Reuben, (Numb, xxxii. 3.)
probably the same called Bean in 1 Mace. v. 4.
Berea, a city in the south of Macedonia, westward from
Thessalonica, where Panl preached with success? and whose
inhabitants are commended for receiving the word with all
readiness of mind, and diligently searching the Scriptures.
Acts xvii. 10, 11.

A medal of Berea, remarkable for the inscription, koin. make. b.
neo. eeraion, referring to the second Macedonia-; and for the date eoc,
thought to be 275 from the battle of Pharsalia, or the Julian era of
Rome 706. This date falls in the sixth year of Alexander Severus ;
and the head of Alexander the Great on this medal, was probably in
compliment to this emperor, who was bom in a temple of Alexander,
at Arce, in Phenicia, or CEesarea Libanus, and from that circumstance
adopted Alexander as his tutelary deily.
This is the only Macedonian medal which has such a date, and the
only one of this period inscribed with the name of the city where it
was struck; these circumstances, and those mentioned above, appear
to mark a distinction attached to this city, whose inhabitants are styled
ji Scripture noble Bereans.

BET

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

105

Bered, a place in Palestine, not far from Gaza, and near
the well where Hagar rested when flying from her mistress.
Gen. xvi. 14.
Berytus, probably the place called in Scripture Berothai,
(2 Sam. viii. 8. Ezek. xlvii. 16.) an ancient city in Phenicia,
on the Mediterranean, fifty miles north of Sidon. It is
thought that Baal-berith, (Judg. viii. 33.) was the deity wor
shipped at Berytus, and thence introduced into the Land of
Israel. It appears by ancient medals of this place, that Cas
tor and Pollux, Hercules, Neptune, Astarte, and various other
deities, were worshipped here.

No. 1. A medal of Berytus, representing Neptune in his marine car,
drawn by foui-sea-horses. He holds in his right hand a dolphin, in his
left a trident. ISeptune was Ihe tutelary deity of Berytus.
No. 2. Asrarle in her temple, crowned by a figure of Victory stand
ing on a pillar; tm each side of her, a figure holding a wreath ; -on the
lop of die temple, trophies. Snidas tells us that the Astarte of the
Syrians is called Venus by the Greeks.
Besor, a brook or river which Bills into the Mediterranean,
south of Gaza. This is thought to be the river of the wilder
ness, (Amos vi. 14.) and is perhaps the stream called the river
of Egypt, (Josh. xv. 4.) and several other places of Scripture.
See Part I. p. 32.
Betah, (2 Sara. viii. 8.) a city of Syria, probably the same
as Beten, belonging to the tribe of Asher. Josh. xix. 25.
Beth-abara, a place on the eastern bank of the Jordan,
where John baptized, (John i. 28.) and as the name signifies
the house of passage, some have thought it was the place
where the Israelites under Joshua crossed the Jordan ; but

106 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. BET
others think it was the place where Jacob crossed that river.
Eusebius says that many in his time were zealous to be bap
tized at this place, as it was supposed to be the spot where
John baptized the Lord Jesus Christ.
Bethanath, a city of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 38.
Bethany, a village situated at the mount of Olives, about
two miles east of Jerusalem. This was the abode of Martha
and Mary, with their brother Lazarus, whom Jesus raised
from the dead ; (John xi. 18.) and here Mary anointed the feet
of our Lord. Bethany is now a small village, where is yet
shown to travellers an old ruin, said to be the house where
Lazarus and his sisters dwelt; also near this is his sepulchre,
which is held in great veneration by the Turks, and used by
them as a place for prayer. Not far from this they show the
house of Mary Magdalene, and the fountain of the apostles,
so called because they were accustomed to refresh there ; this
fountain is near the road side, and very inviting to the thirsty
traveller. Beth-arabah, a city in the border of Judah, (Josh. xv. 6.)
Belonging to the tribe of Benjamin, (xviii. 22.)
Betharam, or Betharan, (Numb, xxxii. 36. Josh. xiii. 27.)
a fenced city east of Jordan, in the tribe of Gad.
Bethaven, the same as Bethel. This is the place where
Jeroboam set up his golden calves, whence it is called by the
prophet Hosea, (iv. 15.) in derision, Bethaven, the house of
vanity, instead of Bethel, the house of God.
Beth-eara, (Judges vii. 24) supposed to be the same as
Bethabara. Beth-basi, a city in the tribe of Judah, fortified by Simon
and Jonathan Maccabeus, (1 Mace. ix. 62.) and where Bac-
chides besieged them without success.
Beth-birei, a city of Simeon. 1 Chron. iv. 31.
Beth-car, a city of Dan, to which the Israelites pursued
the Philistines, and near which Samuel set up a stone which
he called Ebenezer.
Beth-dagon, the house or temple of Dagon, a city of Ca
naan in the tribe of Judah ; probably so called because here
was a temple of the idol of Dagon, before the country was
conquered by the Israelites. (Josh. xv. 41.) There was also
a city of this name belonging to the tribe of Asher. Josh.
xix. 27.
Bethel, a citv near the boundary between the tribes of

BET DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 107
Benjamin and Ephraim, situated about eight miles north of
Jerusalem. See Part I. p. 28.
Beth-emek, a city near the southern boundary of the tribe
of Asher. Josh. xix. 27.
Bether ; mountains of this name are mentioned in the
Song of Solomon, (ii. 17. and viii. 14.) In the latter place, it
is translated " mountains of spices." It is uncertain what
mountains are meant by this name ; some take it to mean
Bethoron, called Bether by Eusebius. This place is frequent
ly mentioned hi old Hebrew writings, and is memorable for a
terrible slaughter of the Jews in the time of the emperor
Adrian, during the rebellion of Bardochebas, when it is said
that the number of dead bodies was so great, that the blood
ran from them four miles to the sea,
Bethesda, the house qfnurry, or the house of effusion, a
pool near the sheep-market at Jerusalem, having five porches,
piazzas, or covered walks around it. (John v. 2.) Here an im
potent man, who had been so for thirty-eight years, was cured
by our Lord. The healing virtues of this pool are said by
Tertullian to have ceased after the Jews rejected Christ
According to Mr. Maundrel, a late traveller who visited this
place, the pool is now dry ; but the basin or pit which contained
the water remains, and is 120 yards long, forty broad, and
eight deep. At one end are some ancient arches, which the
people say were the porches where the multitude of lame,
halt, and blind, were accustomed to sit while they waited for
the moving of the waters.
Beth-gamut., a city of the Moabites in the tribe of Reuben.
Jer. xlviii. 23.
Beth-haccerem, a city between Jerusalem and Tekoah,
noted for its vineyards. Jer. vi. 1. Neh. iii. 14.
Beth-hoglah, a place in the tribe of Judah, (Josh. xv. 6.)
which, according to Eusebius, was eight miles from Gaza.
St. Jerom mentions a place of this name, eight miles from
Jordan, in the tribe of Benjamin. Josh, xviii. 21.
Beth-horon, places hi the tribe of Ephraim. See Part I.
p. 56.
Beth-jesimoth, a city in the plains of Moab, east of Jor
dan, where the Israelites encamped. See Part I. p. 49.
Beth-lebaoth, a city belonging to the tribe of Simeon,
(Josh. xix. 6.) called Lebaoth, among the cities first given to
Judah, (chap. xv. 32.)
Bethlehem, a city situated six miles south of Jerusalem,

1U3 scripture geography. * BET
otherwise called Ephrath or Ephratah, sometimes Bethlehem-
Ephratah, and sometimes Bethlehem-.Iudah, to distinguish it
from another place called Bethlehem, in the tribe of Zebulon.
This city was not considerable for its extent or riches ; but
was remarkable for being the birth-place of our blessed
Saviour, as well as that of king David, from whom the Sa
viour descended, according to the flesh. Ibn Haukal, a Ma
hometan writer, speaking of Bethlehem, says, " Here Jesus, on
whom be peace ! was born of bis mother."

View of Bethlehem.
Bethlehem is situated upon the declivity of a hill, and is
generally visited by pilgrims. It has been constantly hon
oured by Christians of all nations, on account of its being the
place where Jesus Christ was born ; and here, at the present
day, is shown the manger in which it is said he was laid ; also,
a grotto in a rock, where, according to tradition, the Blessed
Virgin hid herself and the divine babe from the malice of
Herod, before their departure into Egypt. They also show,
about half a. mile eastward, the field where it is said the
shepherds were watching their flocks, when they received the
glad tidings of the birth of Christ.
About the distance of an hour and a quarter's journey south
ward from Bethlehem, are still shown the famous fountains,
pools, and gardens, which are said to have been the delight
of king Solomon, and to which he is supposed to allude in
Eccles. ii. 5, 6.

BET dictionary of the bible. 109
The pools are three in number, lying one above another, so
that the waters descend from the highest into the one next
below it, and from it into the third. The breadth of each is
about ninety .paces ; but they differ' in length, the first being
160 paces, the second 200, and the third 220. They are all
jined with walls which are plastered, and contain a great
depth of water. The spring or fountain which supplies them
with water is about 140 paces dis'ant. This the friars of
Bethlehem insist is the sealed fountain, to which reference
is made in Scripture, (Songs iv. 12.) and they say there is a
tradition that Solomon shut up these springs, and kept the
door of them sealed with his signet, that he might preserve
their water for his own drinking, in their natural freshness
and purity. This would not be difficult, as they rise under
ground, and have no avenue to them but by a little hole like
the mouth of a narrow well. Through this hole, a person may
descend about four yards ; he then arrives in a vaultef! room
about fifteen paces long, and eight broad, adjoining to which
is another of the same form, but not quite so large. Both
these rooms are covered with stone arches, very ancient, and
perhaps truly the work of king Solomon. From these springs
the water is conveyed in earthen pipes, by many turnings aiid
windings about the mountains, to Jerusalem. These pools
are more likely to be those of Solomon, from the fact that
there is not such another store of spring- water anywhere else
throughout all the Holy Land.
On the west of Bethlehem is shown the well of David, so
called from being supposed to be that whose waters he so pas
sionately desired. (2 Sam. xxiii. 15.) A little distance beyond
this, are the remains of an aqueduct, which formerly conveyed
the water from Solomon's pools to Jerusalem. This is con
structed of stones perforated and let into each other, secured
with cement to prevent leaks, and is exceedingly firm and
durable. This row of stone pipes was covered for security
with a case of smaller stones laid over it, in very strong mor
tar. But the Turks have shown, in this instance, that nothing
can be so well wrought but they are able to damage or de
stroy it ; for of this strong aqueduct, carried fifteen or eighteen
miles with such vast" expense and labour, you see now only
here and there a fragment remaining.
Bethlehem is at present a considerable place, from which
is a delightful prospect, being surrounded with hills and val-
levs. It has several fine streets, and a church in the form of
* K

110 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. BET
a cross, erected by the famous Helena : here are also several
chapels, and convents of Latins, Greeks, and Armenians.
The complexion of the inhabitants is very dark, almost ap
proaching to black. The country around is abundant in
grapes, figs, and other fruits, which are the principal support
of the inhabitants.
Beth-meon, a city in the tribe of Reuben, belonging to the
Moabites, (Jer. xlviii. 23.) probably the same as Baal-meon,
',Numb. xxxii. 38.) Many of the cities in this region were
probably repossessed by the Moabites after the ten tribes had
been carried captive into Assyria ; and hence Jeremiah repre.
sents them as cities of the Moabites.
Beth-mmrah, a city in the tribe of Gad, (Josh. xiii. 27;
called Nimrah in Numb, xxxii. 3.
Beth-palet, (Josh. xv. 27.) or Beth-phelet, (Neh. xi. 26.)
a city in the south of the tribe of Judah, given afterwards to
Simeon. Beth-pazzez, a city of Issachar. Josh. xix. 21.
Beth-peor, See Baal-peor.
Beth-phage, the house of figs, a small village near Mount
Olivet, and, as it seems, somewhat nearer to Jerusalem than
Bethany. (Luke xix. 29.) The Jewish Talmudists say that
a Bethphage was within the walls of Jerusalem ; but this was
probably a place in the city where figs were sold, or a street
might be so called which led to the village which produced
figs, without the city. The distance from Jerusalem to the
village of Bethphage is computed to be fifteen furlongs.
Beth-saida, the house of fishing, a city situated at the
northern extremity of the Lake of Gennesareth, or Sea of
Galilee, near .where the Jordan enters it : a situation very
convenient for fishing, as its name implies ; and accordingly
we find the apostles Peter and Andrew, inhabitants of this
place, were fishermen by trade. It is frequently mentioned
in the New Testament, but not in the Old ; as Josephus tells
us it was but a small village until Philip the tetrarch render
ed it a magnificent city, and named it Julias, out of respect
to Julia, the daughter of Augustus Cffisar. The woe denounced
against it by our Saviour, (Matt. xi. 21.) has long since come
upon it, being now reduced to the state of a poor village, con
taining but five or six mean cottages.
Beth-shan, a city in the half tribe of Manasseh, west of
Jordan, about twelve miles south of the sea of Galilee. (Josh.
xvii. -11. 2 Sam. xxi. 12.) This city was called by the

BEZ DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. Ill
Greeks Scythopolis, or the city of the Scythians, from some
remarkable occurrence supposed to have taken place when
that people invaded Syria. It is said to have been 75 miles
from Jerusalem. (2 Mace. xii. 29.) It continued to be a con
siderable city in the days of Eusebius and Jerom, in the fourtli
century. It is now called Bysan, and consists of 70 or 80
houses, whose inhabitants are represented by modem travel
lers to be in a miserable condition, from the depredations of
the Bedouin Arabs. The ruins of the ancient city still re
main, and show that it was nearly three miles in circuit.
Beth-shemesh, the house of the sun, probably so named
from the worship paid here to that luminary by the Canaanites.
—A city of Judah, 30 miles west of Jerusalem, given to the
Levites. (Josh. xxi. 16.) Here 50,000 persons were destroy
ed for profanely looking into the ark, which was brought by
the kine, when sent away by the Philistines. (1 Sam. vi. 19.)
Other cities of this name are also mentioned in the tribes of
Naphtali and Issachar.
Bethshemesh in Egypt, was the same as On, called by the
Greeks Heliopolis. See Part I. p. 39.
Beth-tappuah, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 53.) situated in
the way to Egypt, near the wilderness of Paran.
Bethulia, a city celebrated for being besieged by Holo-
fernes, and where he was killed by Judith, (Judith vii.) sup
posed to have been situated in the west of Zebulou, near
the sea.
Beth-zur, or Beth-sura, a city belonging to the tribe of
Judah. (Josh. xv. 59.) It was one of the cities fortified by
Rehoboam ; (2 Chron. xi. 7.) and appears to have been a
place of great strength, being on the frontier of Judah towards
Edom. Here Lysias, the regent of Syria, under Antiochus
Epiphanes, was defeated by Judas Maccabeus, with a loss of
eighteen thousand men. Beth-sura is said, in 2 Mace. xi. 5,
to be only five furlongs from Jerusalem ; but this must have
been a mistake : Eusebius makes it twenty miles from that
city, in the way towards Hebron, which, in the time of the
Maccabees, was the principal city of the Idumeans. It was
probably near Hebron, but on the Jewish side of the frontier.
BeTonim, a city in the northern part of the tribe of Gad,
bordering on Blanasseh, east of Jordan. Josh. xiii. 26.
Bezek,> a city of the Canaanites, where 10,000 of them
were slain, and Adoni-bezek, their king, taken prisoner.
(Judges i. 4.) Eusebius and Jerom mention two towns, near

112 scripture geography. BOZ
together, of this name, seventeen miles from Neapoiis or
Shechem, on the way to Scythopolis or Bethshan.
Bezer, a city in the tribe of Reuben, (Deut. iv. 43.) and
one of the cities of refuge. It is usually styled " Bezer in
the wilderness," or " in the plain ;" implying its situation to
nave been in a desert part of the country, probably on the side
of Arabia.
Bileam, a city of Manasseh, east of Jordan, given to the
Levites of the family of Kohath. 1 Chron. vi. 70.
Bithynia, a province of Asia Minor, stretching along the
southern shore of the Black Sea, from Mysia to Paphlagonia;
having Phrygia and Galatia on the south. In this district
are 'situated the two cities of NisaBa or Nice, and Chalcedon,
both celebrated in ecclesiastical history, on account of the
general councils held in them. When Paul first travelled
towards Europe, the Holy Ghost allowed him not to preach
here. (Acts xvi. 7.) But a church was afterwards establish
ed, as St. Peter addresses his first epistle to Oie Hebrew
Christians who were scattered through this and the neigh
bouring countries.
Bochim, a place supposed to be near Jerusalem, where an
angel reproved the Israelites for their breach of covenant
with God, in consequence of which it was declared that the
inhabitants of the land should remain as thorns in their sides.
On hearing this, the Israelites " lifted up their voice and
wept," and called the place Bochim, which signifies weeping.
Judges ii.
Bozrah, (Gen. xxxvi. 33. Isa. xxxiv. 6. and Ixiii. 1. Micall
ii. 12.) a city of Edom, celebrated for its dyed garments, and
hs sheep. It is not known whether any vestige remains of it
at the present time.
There was another Bozrah in the land of Moab, (Jei.
xlviii. 24.) thought by some to be the same as Bezer. But
fliis Bozrah was probably the city of that name, or Bostra, as
it is now called, situated east of the sea of Galilee, in the
tribe of Manasseh; and to which it is probable the Moabites
extended themselves when they took possession of the vacant
cities of Israel, after the captivity of the ten tribes. Bostra
was made a Roman colony by Trajan, and took the title of
Nova Trajana, the new city of Trajan. This place has been
visited by modern travellers, who describe its ruins, particu-
.arly some beautiful columns, said to be equal to those of

C^S

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

113

Balbec or Palmyra. In different parts of these ruins are
found Cufic, Greek, anil Reman inscriptions.

A medal of Bostra, representing on one side the head of Trajanus
Decius: on the other a female figure, with her head crowned with tur
rets ; in her right hand the staff terminating in a cross ; in her left a
cornucopia ; beside her a Silenus dancing, with a wine-bottle on his
shoulder. There can be no doubt that this is the goddess Ashlarolh or
Astarte

Cabbon, a city in the tribe of Judah. Josh. xv. 40.
Cabul, a name given, by Hiram, king of Tyre, to the
twenty cities which were given him by king Solomon, as a re
ward for the great services he had rendered him in building
the temple. (1 Kings ix. 13.) Hiram, not being pleased 'with
them, called them Cabul, which in the Phenician language
signifies dirty or displeasing. They were situated in Galilee,
and probably not far from Tyre.
Gksarea. There were several cities of this name.
1. Caesarea Libanus, anciently called Arce or Area. It is
not known when it took the name of Cssarea, or at what time
it was made a Roman colony.

K2

114

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

C^S

A medal of Cffisarea Libanus, representing on one side the head of
Alexander Severus, who was born here, in the temple of Alexander
On the reverse a tall figure of the goddess Astarte, standing in a temple,
With the emperor placing a crown on her head.
2. Cmsarea Palestina Was a city situated on the Mediter
ranean, between Dor and Joppa, 50 miles north- west of Jeru
salem. It was built with great beauty and convenience by
Herod the Great, 22 years before the birth of Christ, and
named in honour of Augustus Csesar. The place before was
called the Tower of Straton. The harbour at this place was
naturally bad ; but to remedy this defect, Herod erected, at im
mense expense and labour, a vast mole or breakwater, built in a
semicircular form, of stones 50 feet long and 18 wide, which
were sunk in the water where it was 120 feet deep. Besides
this, Herod added many splendid buildings of marble to the
city, and fixed his residence therp, thus elevating it to the
rank of capital of Judea. It was to this place that St. Paul
was taken, 60 years after, to Felix, who was then governor.
(Acts xxiv.) Here also Agrippa was smitten by an angel of
God, so that he died. (Acts xii. 21.) This was the birth-place
of Eusebius, the celebrated historian, who was bishop of this
city in the beginning of the fourth century. It is now a
scene of desolate ruins, situated in a sandy desert. The waves
wash the ruins of the mole, the towers, and port near the sea,
and not a creature, except jackals and 'beasts of prey, resides
Within many miles of this silent desolation.

A medal of Cassarea Palestina, re
presenting Astarte standing on an
altar, holding in her right hand a
human head, in her left a staff; on
her head the sacred Calathus, and
a sword by her side. This is with
in a temple, on the balustrade of
which is another figure, apparently
looking up at the goddess. This
proves that the worship of this
deity was practised here.

3. Ccesarea Philippi was first called Laish, or Leshem.
(Judg. xviii. 7.) After it was subdued by the Danites, (verse
29.) it was called Dan, and is by heathen writers called Pa-

CAN DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 115
neas. Philip, the youngest son of Herod, made it the capita
of his tetrarchy or government, enlarged and embellished it,
and gave it the name of Cresarea Philippi. It is situated at
the foot of Mount Hermon, near the head of the Jordan, and
is about fifty miles from Damascus and thirty from Tyre.
Our Saviour visited, taught, and healed in this place ; here
also he rebuked Peter.- (Mark viii.) The woman whom he
healed, (Matt. ix. 20.) it is said, also -lived in this town.
Calah, one of the earliest cities of Assyria. (Gen. x. 11.)
It is supposed to have been situated on the river Lycus, which
falls into the Tigris ; as on the upper part of the Lycus, Stra
bo mentions a country called Calachene, which is conjectured
to have received its name from this, its capital city. Dr.
Wells supposes it to be the same with Halah, or Chalah, one
of the cities into which Shalmaneser transplanted the people
of Israel. If so, it must have been on the river Gozan, in
Media, instead of the Lycus.
Calneh, one of the cities built by Nimrod in the land of
Shinar. See Part I. p. 14.
Calvary, called in Latin Culvaria, and in Hebrew Golgo
tha ; both names implying a skull, or the place of skulls, pro
bably so called from its being a place of burial. This was a
small eminence or hill, on the north of Mount Zion, and on
the western side of Mount Moriah, said to have been 200
paces outside of the ancient walls of Jerusalem. On this
Mount our Lord suffered crucifixion, a mode of punishment
at that time in general use in the east. On the summit of
Mount Calvary stands a large and irregular building, called
the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which covers the spot
where our Lord suffered, and the sepulchre in which he was
laid. Here is shown the hole in the rock in which the cross
was fixed ; and near it the position of the crosses of the two
thieves ; also a cleft in the rock said to have been caused by
the earthquake which happened at the crucifixion. The se
pulchre is about six feet square and eight feet high, in which
is a block of stone said to be that on which the body of our
Lord was placed. The church which covers this spot has but
one door, the keys of which are kept by the Turks, who de
mand an entrance fee of nine sequins (about eight dollars)
from every foreign Christian.
Camon, a city in the tribe of Manasseh, east of Jordan.
Judges x. 5.
Cana, of Galilee, so called to distinguish it from Cana, oi

116 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. CAN
Kanah, in the tribe of Asher, (Josh. xix. 28.) not far from
Sidon, and much farther north than Cana of Galilee, which
lay in the tribe of Zebulon, eight miles north of Nazareth. At
this place Jesus performed his first miracle, (John ii. 12.) Dr.
Ckrke visited this place, and found among the ruins large
stone water-pots, lying about in numbers ; from the appear
ance of which it was evident that the practice of keeping wa
ter in large stone pots, each holding from eighteen to twenty-
seven gallons, was common in the country. This place is
now a village, almost deserted. The church built by Helena,
in the place where the marriage feast was held, is yet stand
ing, and is now a Turkish mosque.
Canaan, or Land of Canaan, the country so named from
having been peopled by Canaan, the son of Ham. See Part I.
p. 26. This country was nearly 200 miles in length, and 80
in breadth. It was bounded on the north and north-east by
Syria and Lebanon ; on the east by Arabia Deserta and the
land of the Ammonites and Moabites ; on the south-east by
the country of the Midianites ; south by Edom, or Idumea ;
south-west by Egypt; and on the west by the Mediterranean
Sea. Of the people originally inhabiting this country, and of its
conquest by the Israelites, we have treated in Part I. Those
of the Canaanites who remained in the country after the con
quest, were generally made tributary to the Israelites ; but
great numbers left it, passing by the way of Egypt into north
ern Africa, where they built many cities, and spread them
selves over vast regions, until they reached the straits of Gib
raltar. St. Athanasius relates that the inhabitants of this
part of Africa, in his time, reported themselves to be descended
from the Canaanites ; and it is agreed that the Punic or Car
thaginian language, was very nearly the same with the Ca-
naanitish. According to Procopius, in the ancient city of
Tongis, in this part of Africa, were two great pillars of white
stone, near a large fountain, with the following inscription in
Punic characters, "We are people preserved by flight from
that robber Joshua, the son of Nun, who pursued us."
Those of the original inhabitants of Canaan, who remained
after the conquest, were chiefly inhabitants of the western
and north-western parts of the country, along the sea-coast,
particularly about Tyre and Sidon. This was the country
called by the Greeks Phenicia, whose language was the
Punic ; and from which colonies were brought to Thebes in

CAR dictionary of the bible. 117
Greece, to Cilicia, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, Cyprus, and many
other places.
For a further account of the Land of Canaan, under the
dominion of the Israelites, and of its subsequent and present
state, the reader is referred to the article Judea.
Canneh, (Ezek. xxvii. 23.) thought to be the same as
Calneh. Capernaum, a city on the north-western side of the sea of
Galilee, near th» border of the tribes of Zebulon and Naph
tali. (Matt iv. 13.) The infidelity and impenitence of the
inhabitants of this place, which was honoured by the resi
dence of our Saviour, and which consequently had repeated
evidences of the truth of his mission, brought upon them a
heavy denunciation. (Matt xi. 23, 24.) This sentence of
destruction has been fully realized, and the ancient city is
now reduced to a state of desolation ; a few ruins only re
maining of that city which was once proudly '' exalted unto
heaven." Caphar-salama, a place not far west of Samaria, called
afterwards Antipatris. Here a battle vvas fought between
Judas Maccabeus and Nicanor, in which the latter was van
quished, and fled with the loss of 5000 men. 1 Mace. vii. 31.
Caphtor, the country of the Caphtorim, descendants oi
Misraim, son of Ham. See Part I. p. 26 : also the article
Philistines. Cappadocia, a country of Asia Minor, bounded north by
Pontus; east by the Euphrates, which separated it from Ar
menia ; south-east and south by Mount Taurus and Cilicia ;
and west by Galatia and Lycaonia. In early times this coun
try was tributary to the Persians, as it was afterwards to the
Romans, until united as a province to the empire by Tiberius
Caesar. The inhabitants of Cappadocia were anciently noto
rious for their wickedness; being, together with the people
of Cilicia and Crete, proverbial among the Greeks for theii
bad character, (see Crete ;) but after the introduction of
Christianity among them, it produced several great and good
men, among ,vhom were Gregory Nazainzen, Gregory Nis-
sen, St. Basil, and St. George, the martyr. This was one of
the countries, to which St Peter addressed his first epistle ;
and here Christianity flourished until about the ninth century ;
nor is it yet wholly extinct.
Carchemish, a city in Mesopotamia, upon the Euphrates,
belonging to the kingdom of Assyria. It was taken by Pha-

118 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. CAR
raoh Necho, king of Egypt, and retaken by Nebuchadnezzar,
(2 Kings xxiii. 29. 2 Chron. xxxv. 20. Jer. xlvi. 2.) and seems
to have been a place of considerable strength and importance,
forming a key to Assyria on its western side. Its importance
may be estimated from the fact of a king of Egypt taking so
long and painful a march to get possession of it It is sup
posed to be the same city which was afterwards called Cir-
cesium by the Greeks and Latins, and which was situated at
the junction of the Chaboras with the Euphrates. It is called
at present Kirkisia.
Carmel, a city in the southern p&rt of the tribe of Judah.
(Josh. xv. 55.) This place is noted in the return of Saul
from his expedition against the Amalekites, (1 Sain. xv. 12.)
and was also the native place of Nabal, the husband of Abi
gail. It was called Carmelia by the Romans, who, according
to Jerom, had a garrison there in his time. It is situated ten
miles eastward from Hebron.
Carmel, a celebrated mountain in the west of the Land of
Canaan, situated about ten miles south of Accho or Ptolemais.
forming a promontory on the opposite side of a bay. Accord
ing to modern travellers, it extends six or eight miles nearly
north and south, coming from the plain of Esdraelon, and
ending in the promontory or cape which forms the bay of
Accho. Its elevation is about 1500 feet, and its sides are
covered with trees and brambles, among which are wild vines
and olives, proving it to have been once cultivated.
This mountain is celebrated for the miracle wrought there
by the prophet Elijah, (1 Kings xviii.) and a cave is still
shown, where it_is said that Elijah desired Ahab to bring
Baal's false prophets, when the fire descended from heaven
upon the burnt sacrifice. The historians Tacitus and Sue
tonius both speak of the god of Carmel, whom Vespasian
went to consult when he was in Judea ; and say that there
was then an altar there which was venerable for its antiquity.
This altar of Carmel had its origin in the altar of God which
had been erected there by the ancient Hebrews, and which
was repaired by Elijah. This altar the heathens afterwards
held in such veneration, that they even resorted to it as an
oracle. There is now a convent of Carmelite friars on this mount,
who say that their habitation is in the spot where the prophet
Elijah resided.
Carnaim, the horns, a city of Bashan, so called from

CHE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 119
the worship of Ashtorath, the horned goddess. See Ash
taroth. Casiphia, a place to which Ezra sent messengers to Iddo.
\Ezra viii. 17.) It is the opinion of Calmet that Caspius,
near the Caspian sea, in the north of Media, where dwel1.
many captive Jews, is here meant ; but others think that dis
tance too far for such a mission, and suppose it was some
olace nearer Babylon.
Casluhim, the descendants of Casluh, son of Misraim, who
dwelt with the Caphtorim, at the entrance of Egypt from
Palestine, between Misraim and the Philistim. See Part 1
p. 26.
Casphin, or Caspis, a towh west of Jerusalem, not fat
from Jamnia ; it was a strong place, situated on a lake, and
was taken by Judas Maccabeus. 2 Mace. xii. 13.
Cedron, a brook near Jerusalem. See Kidron.
Cenchrea, a port belonging to the city of Corinth, about
nine miles distant ; from which St Paul sailed for Ephesus.
Acts xviii. 18.
Chaldea, the country otherwise called Shinar ; or Babylo
nia, lying on both sides of the Euphrates, of \vhich Babylon
was the capital ; extending southward to the Persian Gulf, and
northward into Mesopotamia. It had Elam or Persia on the
east, and Arabia Deserta west This country, and its people,
are called in the Hebrew text Chasdim, and are generally
supposed to have derived their name from Chesed, a son of
Nahor, the brother of Abraham. The early history of the
Chaldeans is very obscure ; they appear to have been an un
settled and predatory people, until collected together by Ni
nus, who is supposed to have been the son of Nimrod or Ashur,
and brought under the Assyrian dominion.
The Chaldeans are renowned as the founders of astronomi
cal science ; and appear to have long existed in Babylonia as
a distinct race of astrologers, philosophers, and priests, or
magi, rather than as a nation of themselves ; and as such they
are found at Babylon in the reign of Belshazzar, who, to
gether with the astrologers and soothsayers, summoned the
Chaldeans to interpret the mysterious writing on the wall.
Char aca, a city of the tribe of Gad, from which Judas
Maccabeus drove Timotheus. 2 Mace. xii. 17.
Charran, the same as Haran. See Part I. p. 30.
Chebar, a river in Chaldea, where the prophet Ezekiel saw

120 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. CIL
several of his visions ; probably the same called afterwards
Chaboras, which rises in the mountains in the upper part of
Mesopotamia, and, running south-west, empties into the Eu
phrates near Carchemish.
¦ Chelmon, a city opposite to Esdraelon, near which Holo-
fernes encamped before he went to lay siege to Bethulia.
Judith vii. 3.
Chephirah, a city of the Gibeonites, afterwards belonging
io the tribe of Benjamin. Josh. ix. 17. xviii. 26.
Cherith, a brook near which the prophet Elijah lay some
time concealed, to avoid the persecution of Jezebel ; and
where the ravens, every morning and evening, brought him
bread and meat. (1 Kings xvii. 3, 4,) The situation of this
brook is doubtful ; probably it was a western branch of the
Jordan, on the confines of Ephraim and Benjamin.
Chesalon, a city in the tribe of Judah, thought to be the
same as Jearim. Josh. xv. 10.
Chesil, a city belonging to the tribe of Judah. (Josh. xv.
30.) Eusebius calls it Exalus, and places it in the southern
part of Judah. '
Chesulloth, a city of Zebulon or Issachar. Josh. xix.
12. 18.
Chezib, See Achzib.
Chios, an island of the Grecian Archipelago, between Les
bos and Samos, and about four leagues from the continent,
opposite Smyrna. This island was passed by St. Paul in his
voyage from Mytilene to Samos. (Acts xx. 15.) It does not
appear that any church was established here for a long time
after the age of the apostles. This island is now called Scio,
and was extremely rich and beautiful, until the recent attempt
of the Greeks to recover their independence. In the course
of the warfare which ensued, Scio was attacked by the Turks,
and ruthlessly desolated with fire and sword.
Chittim, the descendants of Chittim, Kittim, or Keth, the
third son of Javan, and grandson of Japhet. See Part I. p. 19.
Chorazin, a city near the northern extremity of the sea of
Galilee, mentioned in the New Testament among the cities
where most of our Saviour's miracles had been performed ;
and against which a woe was denounced in consequence of
the unbelief of the inhabitants. (Matt. xi. 21. Luke x. 13.)
This woe has been accomplished ; for Chorazm and Bethsaida
are now deserted ruins.
Cilicia, a country of Asia Minor, supposed to have been

COO dictionary of the bible. 121
colonized by Phenicians, and to have derived its name from
Cilix, son of Agenor, a king of Phenicia. It was bounded on
the north by Lycaonia and Cappadocia; on the east by Syria ;
on the south by the Mediterranean ; and on the west by Pam-
phylia. Its capital city was Tarsus, famous as the birth-place
of the apostle Paul. Cicero was proconsul of this province,
under the Roman government.
Cinnereth, Chinnereth, or Chinneroth, a city on the north
western side of the sea of Galilee, which, from it, is frequent
ly called in the Old Testament the sea of Cinneroth ; from
which word that of Gennesareth, in the New Testament,
was probably derived. This town is thought by some to have
been afterwards called Tiberias, though the learned Reland is
of a contrary opinion. The city of Tiberias undoubtedly was
situated on the shore of this sea, which is also called the sea
of Tiberias.
Claud a, an island in the Adriatic sea, south-west from
Crete ; near which St. Paul sailed in his voyage to Rome, in
the midst of that tempest by which he was shipwrecked at
Malta. Acts xxvii. 16.
Cnidus, a city of Doris in Caria, a province in the south
west of Asia Minor, notorious for the worship of Venus,
whose famous statue by Praxiteles stood here. Extensive
ruins of this place yet remain. St. Paul passed it on his voy
age as a prisoner to Rome.
Ccslo-Syria, Syria in the vale, a name applied particularly
to the valley lywg between the mountainous ridges, Libanus
and Anti-Libanus ; but sometimes used in a larger sense for
the whole country lying north-east of Canaan towards Da
mascus. Colossje, a city of Phrygia, between Laodicea and Hiera-
polis ; situated, according to Herodotus, where the river Ly-
cus^disappears, running under ground about half a mile, and
then rises again and empties into the river Maeander. It is
mentioned by St. Paul, with Laodicea and Hierapolis, (Col.
iv. 13.) and, according to Eusebius, was destroyed with the
other two cities, by an earthquake, in the tenth year of the
emperor Nero, about a. year after the writing of the epistle
of Paul to its inhabitants : from which calamity it never re
vived, and is now buried in ruins.
Coos, an island of the Archipelago, lying near the south
west point of Asia Minor ; passed by St Paul in his voyage
L

122 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. COR
from Ephesus to Jerusalem. (Acts xxi. 1.) This island was the
birth-place of the celebrated physician Hippocrates, and the
painter Apelles. It is now called Stancho, and is represented
as a beautiful and fertile island, abounding in corn, fruit and
vegetables. Grapes, figs, oranges, and lemons, are produced
in abundance, and numerous flocks and herds are scattered
aver the plains. The population is estimated at 4000 ; one
naif Turks, and the rest Greeks and Jews. To each of these
nations a distinct quarter is assigned in the town of Stancho,
which is the capital.
Corinth, a celebrated city of Greece, the metropolis oi
Achaia, situated on- the isthmus which joins the Peloponne
sus, or Morea, to Attica on the continent This city was one
of the most populous and wealthy of all Greece; owing to its
favourable, situation for trade. It was destroyed in the year
146 before Christ, by the . Romans ; when, during the confla-
. gration, statues of various metals, in a melted state, acci
dentally running together, formed the celebrated composition
called Ails Corinthium, or Corinthian brass, which was ac
counted more valuable than gold. A hundred years after this
it was rebuilt by Julius Cajsar, who planted a Roman colony
there, and made it the residence of the proconsul of Achaia.
It soon regained its former splendour and prosperity, and be
came the most beautiful city of Greece; being also. the resi
dence of many celebrated artists and philosophers. Hence
the address of St. Paul to them, " Ye are rich, ye are wise,
ye are honourable." The order of architsfibre chiefly used-
in this city, gave the name of Corinthian to pillars of that
style. St. Paul came to preach at Corinth in the year of Christ
52, and was much opposed by the Jews, who took him before
the tribunal of the proconsul Gallio, the brother of the famous
philosopher Seneca ; but Gallio, equally indifferent both to Ju
daism and Christianity, finding that Paul had committecfno
breach of morality, or of the public peace, refused to hear
the complaint and drove them from the judgment-seat (Acts
xviii.) St. Paul was thus at liberty to remain at Corintn,
where he succeeded in converting many, and among others
Crispus, the chief ruler of the synagogue, and all his house.
The manners of the people were particularly corrupt ; in
the centre of the city was a celebrated temple of Venus, and
the Isthmian games were held near it, which gave occasion

COR

DICTIONARY OF THE BtBLE.

123

to the allusion of St Paul in chapter ix. v. 24, of his first
epistle to the Corinthians.
In the year A. D. 268, Corinth was taken and burned by
the Heruli ; and in 525 was again almost ruined by an earth
quake. About the year 1180, it was taken and plundered by
Roger, king of Sicily. From the year 1458, until the period
of the late revolution, Corinth remained under the govern
ment of the Turks; but it is now included within the recently
erected kingdom of Greece.

A very ancient medal of Corinth, representing the Chimera, a fabu
lous monster with the inscription Korinthion, and the hero Bellero-
phon, mounted on the winged horse Pegasus, in the act of combating
the Chimera. ' This emblem was foreign to Corinth, and in all proba
bility denotes an eastern origin. The Chimera was of Lycia, in Asia
Minor.

These medals commemorate the Isthmian games, celebrated on the
isthmus of Corinth, in honour of Neptune. They were celebrated
every fifth year,and the reward of the victor was a garland of parsley •
originally a branch of the pine tree. No. 3. appears to have beon
struck at the time when Claudius Optatus was Duumvir.

124

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

CRE

No. 4.

1 **> fra
it 3? gat
io T © /Has
M
^AlA.rAPACy^
This medal appears to denote the worship of Ihe sun, which certainly
existed at Corinth, as Pausanias ihere saw his ahars. Macrobius says
the sun was the same as Apollo, and the name Apollo is thought to be
derived from the Greek pallein, shooting abroad his rays. Pausanias
mentions a temple dedicated to Apollo Carneus, who certainly was a
radiated deity, and was probably the Carnaim of Scripture, or the male
deity of which Ashtaroth Carnaim was the female.
Crete, an island in the Mediterranean, now called Candia,
lying at the entrance of the Egean sea, or Archipelago. It
is one of the noblest islands in the Mediterranean, and was
formerly called Hecatompolis, the island of a hundred cities ;
also, Macarios, or Macaronesus, the happy island, from the
richness of the soil and the salubrity of the air. St. Paul
sailed near this island in his voyage to Italy. Acts xxvii.
7, &c. *
Crete is believed to have been originally peopled by the
Caphtorim. In the time of the Greek writers, its inhabitants
were in bad repute; being represented by Polybius and
others, as addicted to piracy, robbery, gluttony, falsehood, and
almost every crime. So thoroughly was their character
established for lying, that, as we read in Homer, when
Ulysses designs to deliver a falsehood, he always assumes the
character of a Cretan. In common speech, the expression
"to cretanise," signified to tell lies. Epimenides, one of
their own poets, and also Callimachus, gives them the same
character, to which St. Paul alludes in his epistle to Titus, i.
12. The bad character of the Cretans, Cappadocians, and
Cilicians, gave rise to the old Greek proverb, tria kappa
kakista, beware of ihe three ft's, i. e. Kappadocia, Kilicia,
and Krete.
CRE

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

123

In tnis island reigned Minos and Rhadamantlius, whose
laws were in great repute among the Greeks, and who, from
their justice and equity, were fabled by the poets to be
together with jEacus, the judges in the world of spirits.
Here also was the celebrated labyrinth made by Daedalus,
which was said to have been so intricate, from its many wind
ings and turnings, that when a person had once entered, it
was impossible for him to find the way out again, without the
help of a clue of thread. In this labyrinth was confined the.
famous fabulous monster Minotaur, which was destroyed by
Theseus.

A medal of Crete, representing on one side the Minotaur, and jn the
other the labyrinth in which, according to the fable, he was confined.
This Minotaur was a monster, having a human body with a bull's
head; or according to Ovid, "Semibovemque virum, semivirumque
bovem," half man and half bull. Dr. Wells conceives this figure to
have reference to the original country from which he supposes the
Cretans to have come, i. e. from that of which Mount Taurus, bull, is
the head, as this mountain was represented by many eastern nations
under the figure of a bull. It is remarkable that the LXX. and other
interpreters of Scripture, understand the golden calf, made by Israel in
the wilderness, as being of this figure, only having the head of a calf.
Crete was taken by the Romans under Metellus, after a
vigorous resistance of above two years ; and formed a Roman
province with the small kingdom of Cyrene, on the coast of
Libya. In the time of the apostle Paul, Titus, to whom the
epistle is addressed, was bishop of Crete : in the reign of the
emperor Leo, it had twelve bishops, subject to Constantino
ple. In the reign of Michael II. it was seized by the Sara
cens, who held it 127 years, till they were expelled by the
emperor Phocas. It remained under the dominion of the
emperor until given, by Baldwin, earl of Flanders, who had
h"en raised to the throne, to Bonifacio, Marquis of Montserrat,
L2

126 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. CUS
who sold it to the Venetians, A. D. 1194. Under their gov
ernment it flourished greatly ; but was unexpectedly attacked
by the Turks, in the midst of peace. The siege lasted 24
years, being commenced in 1646, and ending in 1670 ; hav
ing cost the Turks 200,000 men. This island is 200 miles
long, and 50 broad. Its principal city is Candia, formerly
strong, rich, and populous, but now not more than the eighth
part of the houses are inhabited. Such is the consequence of
Turkish despotism, reducing the finest and most flourishing
places to poverty and desolation.
Cush, Cutha, or Cushan, a name applied in Scripture to
the posterity of Cush, the son of1 Ham, and also to the coun
try inhabited by them. The word Cush, in most versions of
the Bible, has been translated Ethiopia, and as only one, oi
at most two countries of that name are known to us, very
grea^ confusion has been produced by that translation, with
regard to a proper understanding of several passages, as far
as geographical accuracy is concerned.
The family of Cush appears to have been numerous, and
the establishments of his descendants to have been proportion-
ably dispersed, not in one region only, but in several. The
first country which bore this name, and which doubtless was
the original settlement, was that which is described by Mo
ses as encompassed by the river Gihon, or Gyndes ; which en
circles a great part of Chuzestan, in Persia. In process of
time, the increasing family spread over the vast territory of
India and Arabia ; the whole of which tract from the Ganges
to the borders of Egypt then became the land of Cush, or
Asiatic Ethiopia. Until dispossessed of this country, or a
great part of it, by the posterity of Abraham, the Ishmaelites
and Midianites, they, by a further dispersion, passed over into
Africa, which, in its turn, became the land of Cush or African
Ethiopia, the only country called Ethiopia after the commence
ment of the Christian era. Even from this last refuge they
were compelled, by the influx of fresh settlers from Arabia,
Egypt, and Canaan, to extend their migrations still further,
into the heart of the African continent where only, in the
woolly-headed negro, the genuine Cushite is to be found.
There was then a threefold land of Cush, or Ethiopia, to
each of which some of the transactions mentioned in Scripture
under that name, are to be referred. We have seen where,
on the authority of Moses, was the first land of Cush : that
Arabia was likewise so denominated, appears from Ezekiel,

CUS DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 127
(xxix. 10.) whom God makes to say, " I will make the land
of Egypt desolate, from the tower of Syene even unto the
borders of Cush." Now as the tower of Syene was at its
southern extremity, the border of Cush, or its opposite one,
could be no other than its northern, or Arabian border. The
prophet Habakkuk, (iii. 7.) also joins it with Midian, which
was in Arabia. Besides the passages of Scripture already
mentioned, referring to Arabian Ethiopia, may be mentioned,
Numb. xii. 1. 2 Kings xix. 9. 2 Chron. xxi. 16. xiv. 9. Isa.
xxxvii. 9.
At what time the term Ethiopian was applied to the Cush-
ite colonies in Africa, it is difficult to determine. But it ap
pears certain that some at least of these colonies were plant
ed by the Cuthite shepherds, who invaded Egypt from the
east, and held it in subjection for the space of 260 years, im
mediately preceding the time of Joseph, or, according to some
writers, 100 years before this time ; and the remainder by a
second invasion and a new dynasty, which extended to the time
of the going out of the Israelites, when, or at a former expul
sion, a part of the discomfited Cuthites retreated up the Nile.
In 2 Chron. xii. 2, 3. it is said that Shishak, king of Egypt,
came up against Jerusalem, with certain African nations,
among whom are mentioned the Ethiopians ; and in chap. xvi.
8. the Lubim, or Libyans, are also associated with the Ethio
pians. Daniel, (xi. 43.) with the same exclusive reference to
Africa, mentions the Ethiopians in conjunction with Egypt and
Libya. Herodotus relates that in the army of Xerxes, which he
had prepared for the invasion of Greece, 480 years before
Christ, there were both Oriental and African Ethiopians ; and
adds the singular fact that they resembled each other in every
particular, except their hair ; that of the Asiatic Ethiopians
being long and straight, while the hair of those of Africa was
curled. This may be accounted for on the ground of a change
of climate and habits.
The curse denounced on the posterity of Ham, and which
has pursued this, the most numerous branch of his family,
from Persia to Arabia, and from Arabia to Africa, degenera
ting at each remove, is most conspicuous in their present con
dition. While employed in Arabia, as merchants and shep
herds, or as carriers between the descendants of Shem and
Japhet, some portion of civilization yet remained with them,
and the distinctive marks of the family doubtless even then

128 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. CUT
existed ; the dark skin and the Ethiopic physiognomy : but it
required a hotter clime, and a lower grade of moral degrada
tion, to mould that physiognomy into that of the modern Afri
can, to give the skin a deeper dye, and to add to the whole
the woolly head.
In the time of our Saviour, and from that time to the present,
Ethiopia has been used, in a general sense, to comprehend the
countries south of Egypt, then but imperfectly known, of one
of which that Candace was queen, whose eunuch was bap
tized by Philip. (Acts viii. 27.) This eunuch, in the Syriac
Testament, is called the Cushile. Mr. Bruce mentions a
place which he found on his return from Abyssinia, called
Chendi, where a tradition existed that a woman named Hen-
daque (which comes very near the Greek name of this queen,
Chandake) once governed all this country. Near this place
he found extensive ruins, denoting it to have once been a place
of consequence.
Thus, from the history of the Cushites or Ethiopians, we
see that they are not to be confined to either Arabia or Africa.
Many parts of Scripture history cannot be understood without
supposing them to have settlements in both ; which Herodotus
expressly asserts was the case. In fine, we may conclude,
that in the times of the prophets, and during the transactions
recorded in the second books of Kings and Chronicles, the Cush
ites, still retaining a part of their ancient possessions in Ara
bia, had crossed the Red Sea in great numbers, and obtained ex
tensive possessions in Africa ; where, being, in a further course
of time, altogether expelled from the east by the Ishmaelites
and others, their remains are now concentrated. It is to be
observed, however, that the Cushites, probably at the time of
their expulsion from Egypt migrated, orient colonies, into
several other parts, particularly to Phenicia, Colchis, and
Greece ; where, in process of time, they became blended with
the other inhabitants of those countries, the families of Javan,
Meshech, and Tubal, and their distinctive character totally
lost Cuthah, a Chaldee name, signifying the land of Cush.
" The king of Assyria brought men from Babylon, and from
Cuthah, and from Ava, and from Hamath, and from Sephar-
vaim, and placed them in the cities of Samaria, instead of the
children of Israel." (2 Kings xvii. 24.) The Cuthah here
meant must be a province of the Assyrian empire, which, ?s
some say, lies upon the Araxes, and is the same as Cush; but

C?P

D.CTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

129

others suppose it to mean the original land of Cush, or Chuses-
tan, about the lower Euphrates.
Cyprus, a large island in the Mediterranean, situated be
tween Syria and Cilicia, about 100 miles from the former, and
60 from the latter ; extending in length, from east to west,
about 200 miles, and in breadth 60. It is supposed to have
been first settled by colonies of the Kittim or Chittim, whose
name was preserved in that of the city called Citium by the
Romans. Others, however, believe it to have been colonized
by the Phenicians. The name Cyprus, given to this island
by the Greeks, is said to come from the cypress-tree, which
grows there in great abundance.
This island was famous in the time of the Greeks and
Romans for the worship of Venus, who was thence called
Cypria, or the Cyprian goddess. Salamis was a city of this
island, where Paul and Barnabas preached, (Acts xiii. 4, 5, 6.)
and introduced Christianity instead of the heathen abomina
tions of Cyprian worship.

i Mil 1/1/

No. 1.
tS=?^ if
flO^A

D

Kjr^v

A coin of Cyprus, representing the temple of Venus, and showing
that she was worshipped in this island, as in India, in the shape of a
mefa, or conical stone. This agrees with the description of her temple
at Paphos, by Tacitus, who says the image of the goddess was not of
the human form, but a smooth stone, i. e. the mefa. Maximus Tyrius
also says, the image of the goddess was a pyramid of white stone. The
crescent on the top of the temple marks this divinity for the female
power of nature.
The figure on the other side, holding a flower, is Jupiter Agreus.
The inscription, epistr. kyprion, possibly refers to the taking of the
island by the Romans. Zen on was a name common to some of the
Roman emperors on the throne of Constantinople, in the fifth and sixth
centuries.

130

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

CYR

A coin of Paphos, now called Baftb, in the island of Cyprus, showing
that Venus was the deity there worehipped, whence she was called the
Paphian Goddess. . The figure with the bow is Cupid, who received
equal honour at the same place, as is denoted by the inscription, papa-
phion. According to Pausanias, the Paphian Venus was originally
worshipped in Assyria : it was adopted in Cyprus and in Ascalon by
the Phenicians:
Cyprus formerly contained several petty kingdoms, tributary
to Egypt and afterwards to the Romans, from whom it was
taken by the Saracens : it subsequently passed under the domi
nion of the Turks ; and, 1 ike most of their other possessions, has
been reduced from the state of a populous and flourishing coun
try, to that of a ruinous and desolate region. When conquered
by the Turks in 1570, the population was estimated at one
million ; but at present it is only about 40,000. In this island
are about forty Greek monasteries, and two Catholic convents.
Mr. Connor, who recently visited this island, states that he
• was received in the kindest manner by the Greek archbishop,
and gives an encouraging prospect of the circulation of Oie
Scriptures among the inhabitants.
Cyrene, the capital of Libya, which gave the name of Cy-
renaica to the country in which it stood. It was founded by
a Grecian colony, and situated in a fertile plain, near the
Mediterranean, about 500 miles west of Alexandria. This
place is celebrated in profane history for the birth of Eratos
thenes, the mathematician, and Callimachus, the poet " From
the parts of Libya about Cyrene" we read (Acts ii. 10.) that
Jews went up to Jerusalem at the feast of Pentecost Of
this place was also Simon, the Cyrenean, whom the Jews
compelled to bear the cross of our Saviour. Matt, xxvii. 32.
Luke xxiii. 26.

UAL

DICTIONARY of the bible.

131

The district of Cyrene was sometimes called Pentapolis,
on account of its containing five principal cities, Cyrene,
Apollonia, Arsinge, Berenice, and Ptolemais. Each of these
nad medals of its own, but some were common to the whole
country.

From these medals it appears that the people of Cyrene were fond
of chariot-races, and addicted to the worship of Jupiter. As this pro
vince adjoined Egypt, their predilection for Jupiter Ammon is easily
accounted for. The plant Silphium and the palm-tree were common
here, and frequently represented on their coins. The harp of Apollo is
agreeable to the sporls and pastimes usually accompanying ihe chariot-
races of antiquity. This apparent fondness for pomp and show, and also
of the arts, In a people of that part of Africa, may be accounted for by
the fact that they were a Greek colony.

D.
Daebasheth, a city in the tribe of Zebulon, near the bor
der of Issachar. Josh. xix. 11.
Dabereth, a city of Issachar on the border of Zebulon.
(Josh. xix. 12. xxi. 28.) This was a city of the Levites, and
is thought to be the same which Jerom calls Debira, towards
Mount Tabor.
Dalmanutha, a place near Magdala, or included in its ter
ritory ; and probably situated on the east side of the sea of
Galileo. See Magdala.

132 scripture geography. DAM
Dai.m atia, the southern part of Ulyricum, a province lying
on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, or Gulf of Venice. This
is the country to which Titus went and preached the gospel,
(2 Tim. iv. 10.) since which time the Christian religion has
been continued here.
Damascus, a celebrated city in Syria, and one of the most
ancient and venerable, on account of its antiquity, in the
whole world, being noted as the birth-place of Eliezer, the
steward of Abraham, (Gen. xv. 2.) and founded, according to
Josephus, by Uz, the son of Aram, and grandson of Shem.
Jt is also remarkable for being the only city of equal antiquity
which retains to the present day a high degree of eminence
&r its wealth and population.
It is situated on the western side of a vast plain, open to an
immense distance on the south and east but inclosed on the
west and north, by the mountains of Anti-Libanus. At about
two miles' distance, the river Barrady issues, from these moun
tains, and supplies the city and the numerous gardens around
it with abundance of water, which renders it the most fertde
and delightful spot in all Syria. The Turks and Arabs be
lieve it to have been the original Paradise, and that it has not
its equal on earth. They also have a tradition that their
prophet, Mahomet, coming in sight of the city, was so struck
with the exceeding beauty and richness of the place, that he
resolved not to enter it, lest he should be tempted to resign
the heavenly Paradise, to which he aspired, for the paradise
of earth, which he saw before him.
The principal cause of the flourishing state of Damascus
arises from the pilgrims from the northern parts of Asia, who
unite at this point, from whence they proceed in a body to
Mecca. Their number amounts in each year to 30 or 50,0t"
many of whom remain three or four months in the city, be
fore the period of their departure arrives, when they set out
across the desert in one great caravan, a journey of 40 days
to Mecca, and as many back. Each of this army of pilgrims,
in order to receive some wordly as well as spiritual benefit
from his journey, loads his camel or his mule with the pro
ductions of his own country, which he disposes of on his
route, and returns freighted with the goods of India, of which
Jidda, the port of Mecca, is the great depot Thus this im
mense caravan engrosses to itself the trade of the countries
through which it passes ; and of all this trade Damascus is
the centre, and, together with Aleppo, derives considerable

DAM DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 133
advantage from it This is, in fact, the present channel of
that communication, partly over land, and partly by the Ara-
i.bian Gulf and Red Sea, between India and the countries of
the north and west, which has existed from the earliest ages,
of which Babylon, Palmyra, Tyre, Sidon, Alexandria, and
even Jerusalem, have, at different times, been the principal
marts. Damascus, in its earliest history, appears to have apper
tained -to the kingdom of Zobah. 2 Sam. viii. 5, 6. 1 Kings
xi.(23, 24.) From the latter passage of Scripture, it appears
that the Syrian kingdom of Damascus originated either dur
ing the reign of David or Solomon : the city and the rest of
Syria having before been subject to a king whose residence
was at Zobah ; though in still earlier times it is probable that
Damascus, which was at least as ancient as Zobah, was an
independent city. It continued to be the capital of the Syrian
kingdom until about the year 740 before Christ, when Ti-
grath-Pileser took it and killed Rezin the king : after which
it was subject to the kings of Assyria, until the overthrow of
that empire.
In the early ages of Christianity, Damascus was the seat
of a patriarch ; and the church of St John the Baptist still
exists, though now converted into a Turkish mosque. In this
church are said to be preserved the head of St. John, and
some other relics, esteemed so holy that it is death, even for a
Turk, to presume to go into the room where they are kept.
Here is shown the house of Ananias, (Acts ix. 17.) and also
the place where he restored sight to St. Paul, (Acts ix. 17.)
as well as the place where Paul was let down in a basket.
(Acts ix. 25.) The place of his vision and miraculous con
version is about half a mile from the city, eastward ; and the
place where he rested, in his way to the city, after the vision,
(Acts ix. 8.) is about a quarter of a mile. The street called
straight, (Acts ix.ll.) yet exists, and is about half a mile long,
running from east to west through the city. In this street is
shown the house of Judas, with whom St Paul lodged, and
in the same house an ancient tomb, said .to be that of Ananias.
The city is now called Sham, and is four or five miles in
circumference ; being reputed to contain 80,000 inhabitants :
it lies about 60 miles east from Sidon, and 150 north-east
from Jerusalem. It was visited in 1820, by the Rev, James
Connor, agent of the Church Missionary Society, who gives
an encouraging view of the success of his exertions at this
M

134

SCRIPTUM, GEOGRAPHY.

DAM

place. The patriarch of Antioch, the head of the Christian
church in the East, who resides at Damascus, received him in
the most friendly manner. He undertook to promote and
encourage the circulation of the Holy Scriptures to the
utmost extent of his power ; and he immediately sent letters
to his bishops and archbishops, urging them to promote the
objects of the Bible Society in their respective stations. This
is a most gratifying prospect, as there could not be a more
favourable spot selected for dispersing (by means of the im
mense confluence of merchants and pilgrims at this place) the
Scriptures through all the countries of Asia.

No. 1. A medal of Damascus, representing on the reverse the tur-
reted goddess ; holding out her right hand, in her left the cornucopia,
and at her feet the personification of a river. The inscription, Basile-.
os aretou fhilellenos, denotes it to be a medal of king Aretas ; but
as. there were several kings of Damascus or Arabia of that name, we
must examine the date, which is ap, 130, of the era of the Seleucidae, and
therefore brings us to the time of the Aretas mentioned in 2 Mace. v.
8. and who lived 170 years before Christ. The king Aretas whose go
vernor at Damascus is mentioned as nearly seizing St. Paul, (2 Cor. xi.
32. Acts ix. 25.) was another of that name.

DAN DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 135
No. 2. In the upper part of this medal is a temple, in which is Sile
nus ; below, a grotto, in which reclines a female figure, holding in her
right hand ears of corn, in her left a cornucopia ; resting on an urn,
from which flows a stream of water; before this grotto, an altar, no
doubt in honour of the goddess: inscription, the same as JNo. 2, with the
additional motio, peoai, fountains or springs. The meaning of the
whole seems lo be the same as No. 1 and 2 ; the urn holding the place
of the figure denoting Ihe ri\er on No. 1. It is. however, probable that
they refer to Ihe river Barrady, by which the vineyards and gardens of
the cily of Damascus were watered ; and to which, consequently, the
inhabitants were indebted for their fruits and wines.
No. 3. On this medal we have tive cities, represented by female
figures, ottering in a solemn manner, before an altar, a collection of
fruits to the goddess sitting on a rock; before n horn stands a Silenus, with
his w ine-botilc ; and behind whom flies the winged horse. The goddess
points with her right hand ; in her left she holds the cornucopia. This
medal probably imports a commemoration, by Damascus and other Sy
rian cities, of the oriphial goddess of plenty, &c. in regions much fur
ther east ; and that they are offering the fruits of their gardens to that
or'gin from whence they first recei\ed them. The altar plainly denotes
an act of worship : the Silenus refers to Bacchus, who was certainly a
deity of the east. Inscription, Damascus, a colony and metropolis.
The species of plum called damascene, as well as the da
mask rose, was orignally transplanted from the gardens of
this city to Europe ; and the flowered silks and linens called
damasks were originally among the manufactures of Damas
cus, and thence derived their name.
Dan, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I. p. 64. .
Dan, a city called Laish, or Leshem, before it was pos
sessed by the Danites, who called • it after the name of their
father, or tribe. (Josh. xix. 47. Judges xviii. 29.) It was
situated at the extreme northern point of the Jewish territo
ry, near the head of the Jordan. From this, its extreme
northern position, and that of Beersheba in the south, the two
places are frequently thus mentioned in Scripture, namely,
" from Dan even unto Beersheba," to describe the whole
length of the country.
It was at this place that Chedorlaomer, after he had invaded
the Land of Canaan and defeated the five kings, having taken
away Lot as a prisoner, was overtaken by Abraham, who fell
upon him by night, routed him, and recovered Lot and all
his property. (Gen. xiv.) Here Jeroboam set up one of his
golden calves. (1 Kings xii. 29.) After the death of Herod,
when his kingdom was divided, this city fell to the lot of his
youngest son Philip, who made it the capital of his tetrarchy
of Iturea and Trachonitis. He enlarged and beautified it

136 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. DEA
and gave it the name of Cassarea Philippi, under which name
it is mentioned in the New Testament ; being honoured by
the presence of our Saviour (Mark viii. 27.) This place is
called by the heathen Paneas ; its modern name is Banias ;
situated at the foot of the western branch of Mount Her
mon. Dinnah, a city of Judah. See Debir.
Dead Sea, anciently called the Sea of the Plain (Deut
iii. 17. and iv. 49.) from its situation in the great valley or
plain of the Jordan ; the Salt Sea (Deut. iii. 17. Josh. xv. 5.)
from the extreme saltness of its waters; and the East Sea
(Ezek. xlvii. 18. Joel ii. 20.) from its situation on the east of
Judea. By Josephus, and the Greek and Latin writers
generally, it is called Lacus Asphaltites, from the bitumen
Found in it ; and the name Dead Sea by which it is usually
called at present comes from a tradition, commonly, though
erroneously received, that no living creature could exist in
its saline and sulphurous waters.
This sea is about 70 miles in length, and 20 in breadth at
its widest part; having, like the Caspian, no visible com
munication with the ocean. Its depth seems to be altogether
unknown ; nor does it appear that a boat has ever navigated
its surface. Towards its southern extremity, however, in a
narrow part of it, is a ford about six miles over, used by the
Arabs ; who say that in the middle the water is warm, indi
cating the presence of warm springs beneath. In general,
towards the shore, it is shallow ; and rises and falls with the
seasons, and the quantity of water carried into it by the Jor
dan and other streams. It also appears either to be on the
increase, or to be lower in some years than in others ; which
makes it probable that those travellers are to be credited
who assert that they have beheld the ruins of cities, either
exposed or engulfed beneath the waters. Troilo and D'Ar-
vieux assert that they observed fragments of walls, &.c
Josephus says that he perceived traces or shades of the cities
on the banks of the lake. Strabo gives a circumference of
about seven miles to the ruins of Sodom ; and two aged and
respectable inhabitants of Jerusalem told Mr. Maundrell, the
traveller, that they had once been able to see some parts of
these ruins ; that they were near the shore, and the water so
shallow at the time, that they, together with some French
men, went into it and found several pillars and fragments of
buildings. These authorities are not to be despised, and we

DEB DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 137
may suppose, that, at the first destruction of these guilty
cities, they were not entirely overwhelmed with the waters,
but remained more or less exposed to view, as monuments of
the judgments of God ; and that from the slow increase of
the waters for nearly 4000 years, they have gradually
receded from our sight and are now only to be seen through
the water, if seen at all, after seasons of long continued
drought This sea now covers what was once the vale of Siddim,
containing the five cities of the plain, Sodom, Gomorrah,
Admah, Zeboim, and Bela or Zoar. See Part I. p. 31. Its
water is far more salt than that of the ocean ; 100 pounds of
the water yielding 41 pounds of salts ; while 100 pounds of
Water from the Atlantic only yields 6 pounds of salts. The
specific gravity of the water is 1.211, that of common water
being 1.000. A bottle of it having been brought to England,
Was analyzed by Dr. Marcet who, from 100 grains of the
water, obtained the following result : Grains.
Muriate of lime,  3.920
Muriate of Magnesia,  10.246
Muriate of Soda,  10.360
Sulphate of lime,  0.054
It was long affirmed that no fish were found in its waters,
and even that birds fell dead in flying over it Modern
travellers have refuted these tales ; for Mr. Maundrell observ
ed birds flying over and about it, and found, on the shore,
shells which had once contained fish. Chateaubriand, hear
ing a noise on the lake at midnight, was told by the people
of Bethlehem, that it proceeded from legions of small fish,
which come and leap about near the shore.
The Dead Sea is situatecfon the east of the land of Canaan,
between two ridges of mountains ; of which those on the
eastern or Arabian side are the highest and most rocky. The
whole region bears an aspect of the utmost sterility, showing
not a speck of vegetation, or the habitation of man or beast
Every traveller who has visited it represents it as most fright
ful and desolate, as if the country which was so signally
wicked as to require the exterminating hand of God to
cleanse it should bear upon it in all ages, the marks of his
displeasure. Debir, a city taken by Joshua from the Canaanites, and
afterwards given to the tribe of Judah. See Part I p. 57.
There was also a city of this name in the tribe of Gad, (Josh.
M2

138 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. DIN
xiii. 26.) and another in Judah or Benjamin not far from
Jericho. Josh. xv. 7.
Decapolis, a country so called from its containing ten
cities, some of which lay within the Holy Land, and others
Without; partly in Iturea, and partly in Perffia. These ten
cities confederated together, and preserved their indepen
dence during the time of the Asmonean princes, who govern
ed the Jewish nation from the time of Antiochus Epiphanes,
king of Syria, to that of Herod. Geographers are not agreed
in their lists of these cities. The authority of Josephus is
perhaps the best, and Pliny nearly agrees with him : he gives
the following, Damascus, Otopos, Philadelphia, Raphana,
Gadara, Hippos, Dios, Pella, Gerasa, and Seythopolis. This
country is mentioned in Matt. iv. 25. and Mark v. 20.
Dedan, Dedanim, the country inhabited by the posterity
of Dedan, the son of Raamah, and grandson of Cush. See
Part I. p. 24.
Dehavites, a people mentioned in Ezra iv. 9. probably the
same who are said (2 Kings xvii. 24.) to have been brought
by the king cf Assyria from Ava, in that part of Assyria
watered by the river Diaba.
Derbe, a city of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, to which St.
Paul and Barnabas fled, after being driven from Iconium,
(Acts xiv. 6.) Gaius, a disciple of St Paul, and St John the
evangelist, also Timothy, were natives of Derbe. It was
situated 20 miles south of Lystra.
Diblathaim, or Diblatha, a town on the east of Jordan,
near Mount Nebo. Numb, xxxiii. 46. Ezek. vi. 14. Jer.
xlviii. 22.
Dibon, or Dibon Gad, a city of Moab, east of Jordan, given
to the tribe of Gad, (Numb, xxxii. 3. 33, 34.) and afterwards
yielded up to Reuben. (Josh. xiii. 9.) It was one of the
encampments of the Israelites. Jerom says that it was called
also Dimon. Eusebius says that in his day it was a large
town, situated on the banks of tne Arnon. There was an
other town of this name in the tribe of Judah, which is thought
to be the same as Debir.
Dilean, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 38.
Dimnah, a city of Zebulon, (Josh. xxi. 35.) given to the
Levites of the family of Merari.
Dimon, or Dimonaji, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 22. Isa,
xv. 9.) thought to be the same as Dibon.
Dinabah, a city of Edom. Gen. xxxvi. 32. 1 Chron. i. 43.

EBA

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

139

Dinaites, a people who opposed the rebuilding of the tem
ple in Jerusalem, after the return of the people from Babylon.
Ezra iv.
Dodanim, the descendants of Dodan, the son of Javan, and
grandson of Japhet ; settled in Asia Minor. See Part I. p. 19.
Dophka, one of the encampments of the Israelites in the
wilderness. See Part I. p. 44.
Dor, a city on the Mediterranean in the west of Canaan.
See Part I. p. 59. A medal, with the in
scription doreiton, of
Dor ; showing that As
tarte or Venus was wor
shipped here, as the prin
ciple of fertility ; as in
the neighbouring cities
on this coast. The head
is of Nero: the goddess
holds m her right hand
the staff crossed at the
top; in her left, the cornucopia. The dale, a a p, 131, refers to the era
of Pompey, who gave liberty to this town, with many others of Syria,
in the year of Rome 690: this date is Ihe twelfth of Nero.
Dothan, a town in Canaan. See Part I. p. 38.
Dumah, a city in the tribe of Judah. Josh. xv. 52.
Dura, a great plain in the neighbourhood of Babylon.
where the golden image of Nebuchadnezzar was set up to be
worshipped ; which Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego refus
ing to do, they were cast into a fiery furnace. Dan. iii. 1, &c.

E.
Ebal, a mountain in the tribe of Ephraim, near Shechem;
opposite mount Gerizim, only the valley of Shechem lying
between. This mountain was the place from which the
curses of God were to be proclaimed to the children of Israel
on their entering the land of Canaan ; and here also was an
altar of twelve stones erected, for burnt-offerings, and on
which a copy of the law was written by Joshua. Deut. xxvii.
Josh. viii.
The two mountains, Ebal and Gerizim, are similar in length,
height, and form ; their figure is a semicircle, and they are

140 scripture geography ECB
estimated to be about 800 feet high. Modern travellers have
not found on them any vestiges of buildings.
Ebenezer, the stone of help, a place in the north of Judah,
near Bethshemesh, where Samuel, in remembrance of the de
livery of Israel from the Philistines, set up a stone, which he
called Eben-ezer ; saying, " hitherto the Lord hath helped us."
1 Sam. vii. 11, 12.
Ecbatana, or Achmetha, the ancient capital of Media ; said
to have been built by Dejoces, or Arphaxad, the fourth king
of Media, after its revolt from Assyria. Next to Nineveh
and Babylon, this may be considered the strongest and most
beautiful city of the east in those early times. It is said to
have been 24 miles in circuit ; and the walls, as described in
the book of Judith, were 70 cubits high, and 50 broad, built
of hewn stones 6 cubits long and 3 broad, with towers 100
cubits high, and gates 70 cubits, and 40 in breadth. Accord
ing to Herodotus, within this outer wall there were six others
rising one above another ; and in the centre of the whole was
the palace, where Dejoces shut himself up, and made himself
invisible to his subjects: all the business of state being trans
acted through the means of privileged messengers.
Ecbatana continued to be the residence of the Median kings
during the reign of Dejoces, Phraortes, Cyaxaras I., Astyages,
and Cyaxares II., a period of about 170 years. But after the
union of Media with Persia^ under Cyrus and his successors,
it was only the summer residence of the Persian kings, being
preferred to Susa, the winter residence, on account of its cool
ness, lying further to the north, and being on much higher
ground. It was visited by Alexander, in his expedition into
Asia, and it was here that hejbarbarously murdered his physi
cian for the death of Hephestion. The Seleueidre, the suc
cessors of Alexander, having fixed the seat of empire further
to the west, Ecbatana declined, as it continued to do under
the Parthians. Its history is obscure from the time of the
Parthians to that of Timour, or Tamerlane, in the- 14th cen
tury, by whom it was taken and destroyed, and has never
since been of much consequence. It is at present called Ha-
madan, and contains about 40,000 inhabitants. It is a mart of
commerce between Ispahan and Bagdad, and between the lat
ter and Teheran.
Modern travellers describe Ecbatana as abounding in ruins
of great antiquity, and which fully confirm the accounts of its
ancient magnificence and extent Here are yet shown the

EDE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBIE. 141
tombs of Mordecai and Esther, standing near the centre of the
modern city, and covered by a dome, on which is the follow
ing inscription 'in Hebrew : " This day, loth of the month
Adar, in the year 4474 from the creation of the world, was
finished the building of this temple over the graves of Mor
decai and Esther, by the hands of the good-hearted brothers,
Elias and Samuel, the sons of the deceased Ismael of Kashan."
This inscription proves the dome to have been built 1360 years.
Within this building are two sarcophagi, or coffins, made of
a very dark coloured wood, evidently of great antiquity, carved
with much intricacy of pattern and richness of twisted orna
ment with a line of inscription in Hebrew running round the
upper ledge of each. Many other inscriptions in the same
language, are cut on the walls ; while one of the most ancient
engraved on a slab of white marble, is let into the wall itself.
This inscription is as follows : " Mordecai, beloved and honour
ed by a king, was great and good. His garments were as
those of a sovereign. Ahasuerus covered him with this rich
dress, and also placed a golden chain around his neck. The
city of Susa rejoiced at his honours, and his high fortune
became the glory of the Jews." The inscriptions on the cof
fins of Mordecai and Esther contain their names, and several
pious sentences, expressive of their trust in God ; with some
references to particular incidents in their lives. The key of
these tombs is always kept by the head person of the Jews
resident in Hamadan ; and on the day of the feast of Purim,
which is kept on the 13th and 14th of the month Adar, to
commemorate the deliverance of the Jews from the general
massacre ordered by Ahasuerus ; Jewish pilgrims resort
from all quarters to the tombs of Mordecai and Esther, by
whose intercession they were rescued. This custom has ex
isted for centuries, and is a strong presumptive proof that the
tradition of their burial at this place rests on some authentic
foundation. Eden, the country in which the garden was situated, which
was the first abode of Adam and Eve after the creation. In
addition to what has been said on this subject in Part I. we
may observe, that whatever difference of opinion may exist
with regard to the exact position of the garden, we think
there can be little difficulty in deciding upon the country of
Eden. The sacred historian says, "God planted a garden
eastward in Eden ;" which term eastward will apply to any
of the countries on the Euphrates, from Armenia to Babylo-

142 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. EG1t
nia ; and as nothing more is said of it in this place, we must
endeavour to discover its position from .what is said in other
passages where the word Eden occurs. Eden is mentioned
in 2 Kings xix. 12. in conjunction with Gozan, Haran, and
Rezeph ; the situation of which is well known, and may fur
nish a key to the other. Gozan was in Media; and Rezeph
or Rezipha, and Haran, in Mesopotamia ; and it seems quite
plain that in this passage, Sennacherib was describing his con
quests on the eastern and northern borders of his kingdom,
from Media to the Upper Euphrates. In Ezekiel xxvii. Eden
is again mentioned in conjunction with Haran, together with
Canneh, Sheba, Ashur, and Chilmad. Canneh was in Me
sopotamia ; Sheba and Chilmad are obscure ; but Ashur still
confines us to the upper part of the Euphrates or Tigris. It
is quite sufficient that from all this we can determine, that
the only country of Eden mentioned in Scripture, to which
the term eastward can be applied with respect to Canaan or
its vicinity, where Mp.ses wrote, was not in Babylonia, but
somewhere in Media, Armenia, or Mesopotamia.
Eden, a valley in Syria, between the mountains of Libanus
and Anti-Libanus, not far from Damascus. This place is re
ferred to in Amos i. 5. Huetius observes, that this valley de
served the name of Eden, or rather Beth Eden, the house of
pleasure, by reason of its fertility and pleasantness.
Edom, the country possessed by the descendants of Esau.
See Part I. p. 36.
Edrei, a city east of Jordan, belonging to the tribe of Man
asseh. (Josh. xiii. 31.) This city, and Ashtaroth, were the
two capitals of the kingdom of Bashan. There was also a
city of this name in the tribe of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 37.
Eglaim, (Josh. xv. 39.) or Gallim, (1 Sam. xxv. 44.) a city
in the Land of Moab, east of the Dead Sea.
Eglon, a city taken by Joshua. See Part. I. p. 57.
Egypt, a country in the north of Africa ; bounded north by
the Mediterranean sea ; east by the Red Sea and the Isthmus
of Suez ; south by Ethiopia ; and west by Libya ; being about
700 miles in length and 250 in breadth. This country is
called in the Hebrew Scriptures, the Land of Misraim, and
the Land of Ham ; by the Turks and Arabs at the present
day, Masr, and Misr ; and by the native Egyptians, Chemi, or
the Land of Ham. The name Egypt is supposed to be de
rived from the Greek word aia, signifying a land or country
and koptos, the name of a city in Egypt; which was softened

EGY DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 143
by the Greeks into aiguptos, from which the Latins made
iEgyptus. Faber derives the name from ai-capht, or the land
of the Caphtorim, from which also the modern Egyptians de
rive their name of Coplits. Others suppose the name to have
been originally, ai-gupl, the land of the vulture, or hawk,
which was the national emblem of Egypt and considered as
its tutelary divinity.
This country was first peopled after the deluge by Misraim,
or Misr, the son of Ham ; who is supposed to be the same as
Menes, recorded in the Egyptian history as the first king.
The subsequent history and condition of the country, for
many ages, is involved in fable; but from the most authentic
accounts, it appears that it was governed by its own princes,
for about 100 years from the time of Misrffim, when it was
subdued by the shepherds or Cushites, who invaded it from
Arabia or Chaldea ; and after ruling it for many years, were
expelled by Amosis. The historian ilanetho, as cited by Jo
sephus, speaks of this invasion of the shepherds, who, he says,
were called Hyc-sos, that is, shepherd kings ; and makes their
residence in Egypt to amount to 511 years.
It was during the reign of one of the kings of the shepherd
race, called Pharaoh in "Scripture, as were all the Egyptian
kings, that Abraham went into Egypt with his wife Sarah,
being driven out of the Land of Canaan by famine. About
190 years after this, and very soon after the expulsion of the
shepherds, Joseph was brought into Egypt as a slave by the
Ishmaelites, to whom his brethren had sold him ; and the prin
cipal events recorded of his life, are handed down by tradi
tions yet existing in the country. After he had risen, from
this humble station, to that of governor of Egypt, Jacob, his
father, with all his family, amounting to 70 persons, came into
Egypt at his invitation, that they might spend the remaining
five of the seven years of famine in plenty. They had a se
parate residence assigned them in the east of Egypt not being
permitted to reside with the people of the country, " every
shepherd being an abomination to the Egyptians." The reason
of this dislike probably arose from their long subjection to the
shepherd kings before mentioned, whose principal residence
was in this pastoral district of Goshen ; or at least they were
concentrated here, previous to their final expulsion from the
country. In this fertile land the Israelites " increased abundantly,
and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty ; and the land

144 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. EGY
was filled with them." They had been well treated, and en
joyed theirown territory, and their own religion, and fed their
own flocks in peace.
But after this there came a new king "who knew not
Joseph," and by whom the children of Israel were reduced to
a state of bitter bondage, afflicting them with burdens, and
setting over them task-masters, &c. This " new king" was
probably the first of a new dynasty of Philitim, or eastern
shepherds, who, according to Manetho, invaded Egypt a
second time, and held it till they were finally expelled, about
the time that the Israelites quitted Egypt ; the last king of the
race being that Pharaoh who was drowned in the Red Sea
with all his army. It is highly probable that the native
Egyptians seized*his occasion, when the government of their
oppressor was weakeped by the destruction of the king and
his army, to expel the tyrannical invaders from their country
a second time.
The successor of this Pharaoh was the celebrated Sesostris,
one of the most famous conquerors of antiquity, who carried
his arms over a great part of Asia, and even penetrated into
Europe, which no eastern monarch had done before. Nothing
of consequence, as connected with Scripture history, occurs
after this, (except the marriage of Solomon with the daughter
of one of the Pharaohs,) for the space of about 470 years,
when Shisbak invaded Judea with an immense army of
Egyptians and other African nations. (2 Chron. xii.) In the
reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah, about 724 before Christ,
Sebachon the Ethiopian conquered Egypt, and united the
two countries under one prince. This is the king called in
Scripture, So ; with whom Hoshea entered "into alliance in
order to shake off the Assyrian yoke. (2 Kings xvii. 4.) In
the reign of Sevecbus, the son of Sebachon or So, Senna
cherib, king of Assyria, invaded Egypt and ravaged the coun
try, destroying the city of No, as mentioned by the prophet
Nahum. Not long after this we find Pharaoh Necho, who
was the son and successor of Psammeticus, invading the do
minions of the eastern princes, and fatally vanquishing Josiah
king of Judah, at Megiddo. (2 Chron. xxxv. 21.) This prince
extended his conquests to the Euphrates, but was overcome!
byNebuchadnezzarofBabylon, and driven back to hisown fron
tier, after which, says the Scripture, " the king of Egypt came
not again any more'out of his land." (2 Kings xxiv. 7.) This
Beems to have terminated the power of Egypt, which never

EGY DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 145
afterwards appeared as a conquering, and not long as an in
dependent country.
In the year 525 before Christ, Egypt was invaded by the
Persians, under Cyrus; by whom it vas held until conquered
by Alexander the Great, B. C. 332; who built Alexandria,
and conferred many favours on the country, by which it was
much improved.
On the death of Alexander, Ptolemy governed Egypt as a
province, and at last assumed the title of king. His descend
ants occupied the throne for 294 years, until Egypt became a
Roman province, after the death of Cleopatra. During the
dynasty of the Ptolemies, this country again enjoyed some
thing of its former renown for learning and power. The first
of the race, Ptolemy Soter, was just prudent, and merciful —
rare qualities in eastern princes in those days. During his
long reign of 40 years, he did much for Egypt, especially for
the capital, Alexandria ; where he founded a college for the
study of philosophy and the sciences ; and made the first col
lections towards the library, which afterwards became so
famous for its magnificence and for its unfortunate fate. The
second Ptolemy, surnamed Philadelphus, pursued the mea
sures of his father for the improvement of learning and com
merce. He made such additions to the library, that at the
time of his death it amounted to 100,000 volumes ; amongst
which- was the Holy Scriptures of the Jews ; and it was he
who caused the Greek version of the Scriptures to be made
at Alexandria, which goes by the name of the Septuagint,
from the LXX. persons employed in the translation. The
third of the Ptolemies was Euergetes, who, like his predeces
sors, was a friend and supporter of learning ; but after him
the race degenerated, and that ray of light and liberty which
had dawned upon Egypt was extinguished; his successors
being generally cruel and vicious. Cleopatra was the last of
the race, and at her death Egypt was made a Roman province
by Caesar Octavianus, 30 years before Christ. It was under
the Roman government when visited by Joseph and Mary,
with the infant Jesus; and continued annexed to that empire
for about 470 years ; when, in the reign of the emperor Hera-
clius, it was conquered by the Arabs under Amrou, the gene
ral of the Saracen Caliph, Omar. The Saracens retained it
under subjection till the year A. D. 1250, when the Mame
lukes or foreign guards, deposed the sultan, overthrew the
government, and appointed a sultan of their own. This form

146 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. EGY
of government continued till the year 1517, when the Mame
lukes were reduced by the Turks, and Egypt was annexed
to the Ottoman empire. It was governed by a succession of
pachas, and gradually declined in the scale of prosperity and
power. The invasion and temporary occupation of Egypt by
Napoleon Bonaparte, must be familiar to every reader; as
must likewise be those more recent events which have re
vived in a degree the importance of Egypt, and which, under
the vigorous government of her present ruler, have effected
her virtual independence of Turkey.
Egypt appears to have been, at a very early period, the seat
of science and learning ; as we read in Scripture that Moses
" was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians ;" and it is
remarkable that our first acquaintance with this people intro
duces us to them as a people already arrived, comparatively,
at a high degree of excellence in every branch of useful and
refined knowledge. Astronomy, agriculture, medicine, juris
prudence, architecture, geometry, painting, and sculpture,
with many useful and ornamental manufactures, were carried
to a degree of perfection in which, for many centuries at
least, they must have remained unequalled by the other na
tions of the earth. The Chaldeans were their early rivals in
the sciences, and the Sidonians and Tyrians, in the arts, man
ufactures, and commerce.
This country was also fortunate in its geographical position,
which, forming the centre of communication between the east
and the west gave it a more extended intercourse with the
known parts of the earth. It was much favoured by the share
which it enjoyed of the trade with the- east ; the products
of which, first arriving at the Assyrian or Chaldean capitals,
were from thence conveyed to Egypt by the Cushite, and
afterwards by the Midianite and Ishmaelite traders, who,
like their descendants, the Arabs of the present day, with
their caravins of horses and camels, were the common carri
ers of all that part of the world. To a party of these travel
ling merchants was Joseph sold ; and of the same people Isai
ah speaks as the " travelling companies of Dedanim," (chap.
xxi.) descendants of Dedan, the grandson of Cush, or of De
dan, the son of Jokshan, the brother of Midian. But perhaps
a still greater cause of the wealth and prosperity of Egypt,
was the astonishing fertility of its soil, which was such as to
afford immense supplies to the neighbouring countries, parti
cularly Syria and Arabia; and in times of famine, which

EGY DICTIONARY OF IHE BIBLE. 147
were frequent in those countries, Egypt alone could support
their numerous population from perishing with hunger. We
have an affecting example of this in the story of the children
of Jacob. For this extraordinary and unceasing fertility,
Egypt, otherwise one of the driest and most barren countries
in the world, was indebted to its river, the Nile, whose peri
odical inundation gave to'the soil which it watered, that won
derful fertility which enabled it to support a population many
times greater than its own, numerous as it must have been ;
since the children of Israel, who occupied but a corner of the
land, amounted, at the time of their leaving Egypt, to 600,000
grown-up men ; from which the whole number of Israelites
alone cannot be estimated at less than two millions. The
extraordinary fertility of the soil is alluded to in Gen. xii. 47.
" The earth brought forth by handfuls." Modern travellers
have found sixteen and eighteen stalks of wheat springing up
from a single grain of seed. But the great reservoirs of
water, or artificial lakes, which once were employed for
watering the fields, as the Moeris, Bahira, and Mareotis, were,
under the misrule of Turkey, suffered to be materially impair
ed : and of 80 canals used for watering the country, several of
which were 60, 90, and 120 miles long, all, excepting six, are
nearly filled up.
As Egypt was the parent of the sciences, so it was of that
system of polytheism and idolatry which afterwards spread
over the nations. This was probably introduced first by the
Cushite invaders of the country, or possibly by Misraim him
self. The worship of the heavenly luminaries seems to have
been the first species of worship after the departure of man
kind from the true God, and seems to have had its origin with
the Cushite builders of the tower of Babel. Their sacred
hills and high towers gave them a greater view of the hea
vens, and brought them, as they thought, into a nearer com
munication with their starry deities. On these elevations
sacrifices were offered, which they deemed the more accept
able in proportion to the loftiness of the altar. This was the
origin of all the " high places" of the heathen world, so fre
quently mentioned in Scripture ; of the first tower of Babel,
of that of Bel us at Babylon, of the Indian pagoda, of the Egyp
tian pyramid, of the great altar or pyramid of the Mexicans,
and of" the Morai of Otaheite. The next descent was to that
of idolatry, or the adoration of visible representations of the
heavenly bodies, to which the names Baal, Adar, Nebo, Gad,

148 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. EGY
Ashtaroth, &c. were given. The next step was the canoni
zation and worship of hero-gods, and deified mortals, whose
bodies the Egyptian priests affirmed that they had in their
possession, embalmed and deposited in their sepulchres; such
as Chronus, Rhea, Osiris, Isis, &e. Besides these were eight
others, whom the Egyptians called demi-gods, to whom Dic-
dorus gives the names of Sol, Saturnus, Rhea, Jupiter, Juno,
Vulcanus, Vesta, and Mercurius ; which in fact are only
other names for the hero-gods ; and who are said to have
reigned in Egypt before Menes or Misraim. This system of
false theology was received from the Egyptians by the Greeks,
and from them communicated to the Romans.
The wonder of Egypt, the pyramids, are situated on a
rocky plain, about three miles from the village of Gizeh, on
the western side of the Nile, and four miles south-west of
Cairo. They are called by the Arabs Dgebel Phqraon, and
by the Turks Pharaen Doglary, that is, Pharaoh's moun
tains. Three of them are larger than the others, and may be
seen from Cairo, and a great distance beyond it. Of these
three pyramids, two are closed ; but the largest is open, and
is that which travellers ascend and enter into. There are
several smaller ones in the neighbourhood, which have been
opened, and are almost entirely ruined ; but there are four
yet remaining which deserve the greatest attention. These
four stand nearly in a direct line, and are about 400 paces
distant from one another. Their four faces correspond pre
cisely to the four points of the compass, north, south, east
and west. The two most northerly are the largest, being
about 500 feet in perpendicular height, and 700 on each side
at the base. The external part is chiefly built of great square
stones, cut from the rocks along the Nile, and the quarries
from which they have been taken are still visible. The
opening or entrance to the first pyramid is on the north side,
and leads successively to five different passages, which,
though running upwards, and downwards, and horizontally
all tend towards the south, and terminate in two chambers,
the one underneath, and the other in the midst of the pyramid.
In one of these chambers is a sarcophagus of granite, six feet
long, three wide, and four deep, formed of a single stone,
without any ornament, and smoothly hollowed out. Near
this is a deep hole or well, which appears to lead to some
cavity underneath, which has not been explored. About

KGY

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

149

¦ft

iiiiiiiippi

illHI

11b

Mm

Sllf^

mJif

*P

¦Bfflffll

¦¦r ii  ,,{

N2

150 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. EGY
three hundred paces east of the second pyramid, stands the
head of the famous sphinx, carved out of the solid rock.
twenty-six feet high, and twelve in circumference round the
nead. In the neighbourhood of these pyramids are many
others of different sizes, built of large bricks made of clay
mixed with chopped straw, and hardened by the heat of the
nun. One of these is little inferior in size to the largest men-
t loned above, but they are more damaged, and probably more
ancient. They do not appear to have been so neatly finisheu
or so well contrived as the others.
There are many splendid and magnificent ruins scattered
over this country, which give proof of the high cultivation
enjoyed by the ancient inhabitants. The art of embalming
dead bodies, in which the ancient Egyptians excelled, is now
Unknown. The mummy pits or caverns contain the genera
tions which are gone, and some of these embalmed bodies are
perfectly preserved, though they have been dead three
thousand years.
The southern or upper part of Egypt is extremely rocky
and arid ; but lower down it becomes more level and produc
tive ; and where the Nile divides into several streams, it
embraces that part of Egypt which was called by the Greeks
the Delta, from a fancied resemblance to the letter A. This
is a vast plain, fertilized by the Nile, containing numerous
villages, and yielding abundance of grain and other produc
tions. The present inhabitants of Egypt may be distinguished into
three classes : 1. The Cophts or Copts, descendants of the
ancient Egyptfans, who have lived for more than two thou
sand years under the dominion of different foreign conquerors,
and who have experienced many changes of fortune. They
have lost their manners, language, and religion ; and are re
duced to a small number, compared with the Arabs, who have
poured like a flood over the country. 2. The Fellahs, or hus
bandmen, who are possibly the people called in Scripture
Phul. This class suffers much oppression, being despised
by both Arabs and Turks; they seldom acquire property,
and if they do, they are not suffered to enjoy it 3. The
Arab conquerors of the country, including Turks, Mame
lukes, &c. Previously to the recent changes in the political
condition of Egypt, the Turks were in possession of most of
the offices under the government ; but the policy of the pre-

EGY

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

15)

sent ruler of Egypt tends to the encouragement and promo
tion of any other Europeans rather than Turks. A great
ir.any Frenchmen, in particular, have been patronized by thfi
present pacha; and he does not hesitate to avail himself of
tneir services both in the civil and military departments or'
Y.s government.
This is an extremely curi
ous medal, of silver, struck
.r Egypt before the reigns
«t the Ptolemies. It repre-
e nits on one side a man on
lorseback, and on the other
an ox of the humped kind
jying down: between his
tiorns is the lunar crescent,
and within that is a globe.
These symbols clearly refer
this ox to Egypt, The man on horseback is the most singular part of
this medal ; none oi' the countries adjacent having adopted the type of
a horseman. There is every reason to believe that the letters on this
medal are Persian, and that the person represented is Aryandes,
governor of Egypt under Darius, the last king of Persia, who then pos
sessed this country, and who caused the governor to be put to death ftr
coining money in his own name.

These medals represent the figure or divinity of the river Nile, seated
n the hippopotamus and the crocodile, both of which were character
istic symbols of Egypt. Tlje crocodile was. adopted as an emblem of
the country, and there is no other river known to antiquity to which
the hippopotamus can be referred. To show the rider seated equally
on each, proves an equal adoption of both : and as the crocodile is um
versally allowed to be the leviathan, we may suppose the hippopotamus
is the behemoth, of the book of Job

152

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

EKR

No. 4.

The inscription on this medal, zeus serapis, points at the originav
divinity of Jupiter; the measure on the head of Serapis is probably the
cup, which certain figures hold in their hands, transferred to the head
Before this figure is a Sphinx. Another medal resembling this, in
scribed, helios SERAns, proves that Serapis was the sun. The head
on this medal is Vespasian. This medal is of gold. The head is one
of the Lagidce, kings of Egypt: the reverse
is a reaper cutting corn. The type of the
reaper is uncommon, and is only found on
another medal of brass, struck also in Egypt ;
the fertility of which country is alluded to.
But ihis type is peculiarly interesting to us,
when we observe that the ears of corn which ¦
mark this fertility are seven in number; thus seeming lo refer to the
dream of Pharaoh, and the interpretation of it by Joseph.
Egypt, River of: See Part I. p. 32.
Ekron, the most northern of the five lordships or govern
ments of the Philistines. In the division of the country by
Joshua, this city fell to the lot of Judah, (Josh. xv. 45.) but
was afterwards given to Dan ; though it does not appear that
the Israelites were ever in peaceable possession of it. It was
a strong city, and was situated very near the Mediterranean,
between Ashdod and Jamnia; but all vestiges of it have been
extinct for many centuries. Zephaniah prophesied that
"Ekron should be rooted up," (chap. ii. 4.) This city was
celebrated for the worship of Baal-zebub, or the god of flies,
as the name imports. He seems to have been their Escula-
pius, or god of medicine, as he was consulted by Ahaziah,
king of Israel, concerning his health. (2 Kings i. 2.) Ekron
was called Accaron by the Greeks, and was then a consider
able town.

EMI DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE. 153
Elah, the name of the valley where the Israelites were
encamped when David fought Goliah. This valley, still un
altered in appearance, is situated three miles from Bethlehem,
on the road to Jaffa ; and many a pilgrim, journeying from
Jaffa to Jerusalem, has stopped to drink oT its venerable brook.
Elam, the original country of the Persians, whence they
spread over Persia, or Phars, and Susiana. Chedorlaomer, of
whom we read in Gen. xiv. was of this country. Elam de
rives its name from Elam, the son of Shem, and is used in
Scripture to denote the kingdom of Persia, before the time of
Cyrus and the prophet Daniel ; after which it is generally
called by its Greek name of Persia. See Persia.
Elath, or Eloth, a port of Edom on the eastern branch of
the Red Sea. See Part I. p. 47.
Elealeh, a town belonging to the tribe of Reuben. (Numb.
xxxii. 37.) According to Eusebius it was situated near Hesh
bon ; and the traveller Burckhardt found its ruins, yet called
El-aal, on the summit of a hill, about two miles north-east of
Heshbon. Eleutherus, a river in Syria, the source of which lies be
tween the mountains Libanus and Anti-Libanus. (1 Mace. xi.
7.) It flowed through this valley, and emptied into the Medi
terranean. Elim, one of the encampments of Israel in the wilderness
See Part I. p. 44.
Elisha, Isles of: See Part I. p. 18.
Ellasar, a. country of which Arioch was king, and who is
mentioned in conjunction with the kings of Shinar and Elam.
(Gen. xiv. 1.) It would appear from this, that Ellasar must
refer to some adjoining region, and it is probable that it was
Assyria, or El-asur : then a petty state, compared with the
subsequent empire of that name.
Elon, a city in the tribe of Dan, and another in the tribe
of Naphtali.
Eltekeh, a city of Dan, given to the Levites.
Eltekon, a town in Judah, on the border of Benjamin.
Eltolad, a city in the tribe of Judah, afterwards given to
Simeon. Elymais, the capital of Elam, the ancient Persia. 1 Mace.
;i. 1.
Emims, a gigantic people, inhabiting the country east and
south-east of the Dead Sea ; whence they were either ex
pelled by the Moabites, or incorporated with them. (Deut. ii.

154 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. ENH
10.) The origin of this people is not clearly known, but they
probably descended from Ham.
Emmaus, a village about eight miles north-east of Jerusa
lem, celebrated for the appearance of our Lord, after his re
surrection, to two of the disciples. (Luke xxiv. 13.) There
was another place of this name at the hot-baths near Tiberias,
called by the Greeks Ammaus, by the Hebrews Chammath,
and by the modern Arabs, Hamman.
Enam, a city in the tribe of Judah. Josh. xv. 34.
Endor, a city belonging to the tribe of Manasseh, west ot
Jordan, (Josh. xvii. 11.) where Saul went to consult a woman
who had a familiar spirit. (1 Sam. xxviii. 13.) This place
was four miles south of Mount Tabor.
En-eglaim, a place near En-gedi. (Ezek. xlvii. 10.) Jerom
says it was near the place where the river Jordan empties into
the Dead Sea.
En-gannim, the name of two cities : one belonging to the
tribe of Judah, (Josh. xv. 34.) the other to Issachar, given to
the Levites of Gershon's family. Josh. xxi. 29.
En-gedi, otherwise called Hazezon-tamar, a city in the tribe
of Judah, situated in a hilly country about 30 miles south-east
of Jerusalem, and not far from the Dead Sea. To the " strong
holds" in the neighbourhood of this place, David retired to
secure himself from the presence of Saul ; and in a cave at
this place he gave that jealous king a proof of his loyalty, when
he had him so completely in his power as to cut olf a part of
his garment, but did him no further injury. (1 Sam. xxiv.)
This cave was so large as to contain in its recesses the whole
of David's men, 600 in number, unperceived by Saul when he
entered. Many such caves exist in the Holy Land, which,
being mountainous and rocky, abounds with caverns in differ
ent parts. Josephus tells us of a numerous gang of banditti,
who, having infested the country, were pursued by the army
of Herod, and retired into certain caverns in Galilee, almost
inaccessible, where with great difficulty they were subdued.
Into such caves the Israelites frequently retired for shelter
from their enemies, (Judges vi. 2. 1 Sam. xiii. 6. and xiv. 11.)
a circumstance which has afforded a fine image of terror and
consternation to the prophets. Isa. ii. 19. Hosea a. 8. Rev.
vi. 15, 16.
En-haddah, a city belonging to the tribe of Issachar. Josh.
xix. 21.

EPH dictionary of the bible. 155
En-hakkore, the well of him who cried; the name of the
well which was miraculously opened to allay the thirst of
Sampson, after he had slain a thousand Philistines with tfu
jaw-bone of an ass. Judges xv. 19.
En-hazor, a city of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 37.
En-mishpat, See Kadesh.
Enoch, the first city of which we read in Scripture, buil-
by Cain probably not far from Eden ; but its situation is no*
known. Enon, the place where John baptized, " because there was
much water there." (John iii. 23.) It was between Salim and
Jordan, in the tribe of Manasseh, 53 miles-north-east from
Jerusalem. En-rogel, another name for the fountain of Siloam, on the
east of Jerusalem, at the foot of Mount Zion. It was on the
border of Judah and Benjamin, and in the king's garden. 2
Sam. xvii. 17.
Ephesus, a celebrated city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, situ
ated upon the river Cayster, about five miles from its mouth,
and 45 south of Smyrna. It was famous for a magnificent
temple of Diana : the most noted and frequented of all the
temples of that goddess, and reputed one of the seven won
ders of the world. It was said to have been 425 feet long,
200 wide, and supported by 127 columns 60 feet high. This
temple was set on fire on the night in which- Alexander was
born, by a man named Erostratus, in order to render his name
immortal ; but it was rebuilt with all its former magnificence.
St. Paul's preaching here created considerable alarm to the
Ephesians, who were chiefly supported by the worship of this
temple ; knowing that with the fall of Paganism their city
would suffer. This has come to pass : Ephesus and its tem
ple have sunk together. The city is now a miserable Turkish
village, and the ruins of the temple are scarcely found : the
city is prostrate, and the goddess is gone.
Ephesus, in the apostolic age, was the capital of the pro
consular Asia ; which included all the western parts of Asia
Minor. The city is now called by the Turks, Aiasoluc : the
church of St. John still remains, and is converted into a
Turkish mosque. Christianity was first planted in this city
by St. Paul, who visited it on his first departure from Corinth,
about A. D. 54. Here he taught during three years of his
important life; and raised a church, which maintained its

156

scripture geography.

EPB

faith in the midst of one of the most idolatrous cities of an
idolatrous age. It stands at the head of the seven churches
of Asia ; the pastors of which are called angels in the book
of Revelations: and to it there is a remarkable address. (Rev.
ii. 2-6.) But notwithstanding this divine approval, and the
triumphant state of the church of Ephesus, it neglected the
warning given, gradually fell from its high estate, and the
judgment threatened fell upon it: its candlestick was re
moved out of its place, and to the pure worship of God, suc
ceeded the blasphemies of the false prophet. This place,
where once Christianity flourished, a mother church, and the
see of a metropolitan bishop, cannot now show one family of
Christians.

No. 1. A representation of the marine Venus, the goddess of lavoura-
ble voyages, to which Ephesus, as a commercial city, might well pay
attention. The action of this figure resembles . that of the Isis of
Egypt, whom we sometimes see spreading her veil for the sail of a ship.
The inscription, ephesion g. neokoron, implies that Ephesus was for
the third time Neokoron, or conservator of the sacred implements, cere
monies, festivals, &c.

EPH

dictionary op the bible.

157

No. 2. A medal of Ephesus, re
presenting on one side die head
of Minerva; on the other, the
figure of the river Caysler, on
which Ephesus was situated.

^3

No. 2.

mty\^^y |

No. 3.

No. 3. This medal represents the image of Diana, standing in her
famous temple : and may give a good idea of the craft of Demetrius,
Acts' xix. 34.) who was a maker-of silver models of the temple, wi\h
images of the goddess ; and probably of other emblems attendant on her
worship. Inscription, Ephesion.
Ephes-dammim, a place between Shocoh and Azekah, on
the west of the valley of Elah ; where the army of the Phi
listines was encamped, when Goliah insulted the host of
Israel. 1 Sam. xvii. 1.
Ephraim, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I.
p. 65. O

158 scripture geography. EUP
Ephraim, a city on the border, between this tribe and Ben
jamin ; eight miles north from Jerusalem, and not far from
Bethel. This is thought by some to have been the place to
Which Jesus retired with his disciples. John xi. 54.
The Wood of Ephraim, in which Absalom's army was
routed, and himself killed and buried, (2 Sam. xviii. 6, &c.)
was on the east of Jordan, which Absalom and David had both
passed over, (chap. xvii. 24.) ; and consequently could not be
any wood in the tribe of Ephraim ; but some forest east of
Jordan, so named on some other account ; possibly as lying
opposite the tribe of Ephraim.
Ephratah, another name for Bethlehem.
Ephron, a city beyond Jordan, taken and destroyed by Ju
das Maccabeus. 1 Mace. v. 46.
Epiphama, a city of Syria, probably the same as Hamath.
It stood on the Orontes, between Antioch and Apamea.
Epirus. a province of Greece, having Macedonia on the
north, Thessaly east, and the Ionian Sea south-west.
Erech, a city built by Nimrod. See Part I. p. 14.
Esdraelon, a more modern name for the valley or plain of
Jezreel in the tribe of Issachar.
Eshcol, a fertile valley in the south of Canaan ; from which
the Hebrew spies carried a bunch of grapes, as a specimen of
the fruit of the land. Numb. xiii. 23.
Eshtaol, a town of Judah, given afterwards to the tribe of
Dan. Eshtemoa, or Eshtemoth, a city in the south of«the tribe
of Judah, given to the Levites. Josh. xv. 50. xxi. 14. 1 Sam.
xxx. 28.
Etam, a city in the tribe of Judah, between Bethlehem and
Tekoah. (2 Chron. xi. 6.) To the rock of Etam, Samson re
tired after having burned the harvest of the Philistines. ( Judg.
xv. 8.) From a noted spring near this place, water was brought
by an aqueduct to Jerusalem.
Etham, one of the encampments of the Israelites in the
wilderness. See Part I. p. 42.
Ether, a city of Judah, afterwards given to Simeon. Josh.
xix. 7.
Ethiopia, See Cush.
Euphrates ; the Hebrew name of this river is Phrath, or
Perath ; the Eu prefixed is a Greek particle implying excel
lence. It is written Euphrates in the New Testament ; but
in the Old, it is Perath.

EZI DICTIONARY Or THE BIBLE. 159
The Euphrates is a famous river of Asia, the source of
which is in the mountains of Armenia. It runs through the
frontier of Cappadocia, Syria, and Arabia Deserta on the west ;
and Mesopotamia on the east ; and passing through Chaldea,
or Babylonia, empties into the Persian Gulf. At the present
time it discharges its waters into that gulf through a channel,
which is common to it and the Tigris, with which it unites
about 60 miles from the gulf; but formerly it had a particular
channel of its own, of which Pliny says that in his time the
traces were yet to be seen.
This is a river of consequence in Scripture geography,
being the boundary which separated Padan Aram from
Syria, and the utmost limit, on the eastward, of the kingdom
of the Israelites. (Deut. i. 7. Josh. i. 4.) It was, indeed, only
occasionally that the dominion of this people extended thus
far ; but it appears that even Egypt, under Pharaoh Necho,
made conquests to the banks of this river. The general course
of the Euphrates is south-east; though in the upper part, in
Armenia, it runs westerly, and approaches the Mediterranean
Sea, near Cilicia. The general course of the Tigris is nearly
the same ; and the Country included between them was called
in Hebrew, Aram Naharaim, i. e. Syria of the rivers ; and in
Greek, Mesopotamia ; between the rivers. The Euphrates'
receives several streams in its course, as the Murad, the Rou-
ha, the Khabour or Chaboras, and others. At length it joins
the Tigris, and the united waters of these rivers form a kind
of sea, in which there are many islands. All their branches
being combined at Korna, they pass together to Basra, from
whence they fall into the Persian Gulf. There are many
towns on its banks, and much fruitful land in different places.
In general, its banks are rather level than mountainous. It is
generally about 500 feet broad ; but when the snows melt
upon the mountains of Armenia, it overflows its banks like
the Nile, and becomes broad and deep. This was one of the
rivers, the source of which was in Eden. See Part I. p. 10.
Ezion-gaber, a. city and port of Idumea, or Arabia Deserta,
on the eastern arm of the Red Sea. (Numb, xxxiii. 35. 1 Kings
ix. 26.) Near the mouth of this harbour was a reef of rocks
upon which the fleet of ships was lost, which had been fitted
out for Ophir, by Jehoshaphat and Ahazia, kings of Judah ard
Israel. (1 Kings xxii. 48. 2 Chron. xx. 36.) Prom these rocks
the place took its name, Ezion-gaber, i. e. the back-bone of
a great man ; which this ledge of rocks resembles in shape.

160

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

GAD

-Pair-haven, a port in the island of Crete, passed by St.
Paul. (Acts xxvii. 8.) A town is mentioned by Jerom and
others, as situated here.

G.
Gaash, a hill in the tribe of Ephraim. See Part I. p. 62.
The brook of Gaash, (2 Sam. xxiii. 30.) was probably near,
or at the foot of this hill.
Gaba, a city of Benjamin, assigned to the Levites. Josh.
xviii. 24.
Gad, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I. p. 67
Gad, a river, thought to be the same as the Arnon.
Gadara, according to Josephus, was the capital of Perea,
and situated about 7 miles east from the sea of Galilee or Ti
berias. It gave name to a district of country, as we read that
our Saviour having passed the see of Tiberias, came into the
country of the Qadarenes. (Mark v. i. Luke viii. 26.) St. Mat
thew (viii. 28.) palls it the country of the Gergesenes ; but as
the city of Gergesa was near Gadara, it is probable that their
territories were adjoining, or included, one within the other;
therefore some of the evangelists might call it by one name,
and some by the other.
There was another place called Gadara, situated in the west
of the land of Canaan, on the Mediterranean, probably not far
from Ashdod or Azotus, and called Gedor, Gezer or Gederah,
in the Old Testament, and Gazara in Mace. xiv. 34 To this
Gadara the following medal probably belongs.

GAL dictionary of the bible. 161
This medal represents on one side the head of Marcus Aurelius An
toninus, inscribed with his name ; on the reverse a galley with many
oars, and on the prow a standard with flags flying; the captain sits at
the helm, directing the course of the vessel. Inscription, Gadareon,
of Gadara ; with the word nau.ma, for nanmackia, which signifies a
naval combat, or at least a spectacle representing a sea-fight. It is dif
ficult to conceive how the Gadara of Perea, east of the sea of Galilee,
which was situated on a mountain, and which had no navigable water
near it, should be able to exhibit such a spectacle. It therefore proba
bly belongs to Gadara on the Mediterranean.
Galatia, a province of Asia Minor, bounded north by
Bithynia and Paphlagonia; east by Pontus and Cappadocia;
south by Lycaonia ; and west by Phrygia. It is believed to
have taken its name from the Gauls, who, under their captain
Leonorius, as Strabo informs us, left their own country in Eu
rope, and having ravaged Italy and Greece, burned the city
of Rome, passed into Asia, and advanced as far as Babylon,
carrying conquest and ruin wherever they went; but being
defeated by Attalus, king of Pergamus, and driven out of
other parts, they were at last confined to this province, where
they were finally established. Being now peopled by a mix
ture of Gauls and Greeks, it was called Gaulo-grecia, and at
length Galatia. These Gauls are said not only to have re
tained their own language, but to have made it the language
of the country.
St. Paul visited Galatia about A. D. 50, and founded a numbei
of churches. In 52 he wrote them an epistle, and again visited
them about a year after. From his letter to them, it seems
that Christianity did not alter their national character, which
was both fickle and ferocious. They received him, not merely
with the respect and affection due to an apostle, but as if he
had been an angel, or Christ himself. Yet they soon changed,
and relinquished his principles, behaving, according to his com
plaint, as if they had " been bewitched," or possessed with
evil spirits.
Galatia was a part of the kingdom of Pontus, in the time
of Mithridates Eupator.
Galilee, a province in the north of Canaan, or the Holy
.Land, consisting chiefly of what was once the territories of
Issachar, Zebulon, Naphtali, and Asher ; and according to
uome writers, including part of Dan, and of Perea, east of
Jordan. It was bounded on the north by Lebanon and Syria ;
on the east mostly by the Jordan and the sea of Galilee ; on
the south by Samaria ; and on the west by Phenicia. It has
02

162 scripture geography. GAL
generally been considered as divided into two parts, Upper
and Lower Galilee : the former called Galilee of the Gentiles,
(Matt. iv. 15.) probably because it was chiefly possessed by the
Gentiles, having some Jews scattered among them ; or be
cause it bordered upon the Gentile nations of Phenicians,
Syrians, and Arabians.
Galilee is an ancient name, being found so early as Josh.
xx. 7. xxi. 32. 1 Kings ix. 11. and several other passages of
the Old Testament ; it is thought to be the same as Gilgal,
the kings of whose nations are mentioned in Josh. xii. 23.
and probably is called Gilgal. (Deut. xi. 30.) This was the coun
try most honoured by the presence of our Saviour. It was here
that he was conceived, (Luke i. 26.) here that he was brought
by his reputed parents, when a child, out of Egypt ; here he
settled and lived with them, till he began to be about thirty
years of age, and was baptized bv John, (Matt. ii. 22. Luke ii.
39. 51. Matt. iii. 13. Luke iii. 23.) hither he returned after
his baptism and temptation. (Luke iv. 14.) And after his en
try on his public ministry, though he frequently visited other
provinces, yet here was his dwelling-place. (Matt. iv. 13.)
And lastly, hither the Apostles came to converse with him
after his resurrection, by his appointment. (Matt, xxviii. 7. 16.)
The most of his apostles also, if not all, were natives of this
country, whence they were ail styled by the angels, " men of
Galilee." (Actai. 11.) Our Lord was also called a Galilean,
(Matt. xxvi. 69.) and it deserves notice that he was addressed
under this title by his adversary, the dying Julian, who being
cut off from prosecuting his purposes against Christianity, ex
claimed in the hour of death, Vicisti Galilaie ! thou hast con
quered, O Galilean !
Galilee was fruitful and well cultivated, and the people
industrious. The number of its cities, towns, and villages was
very great, and they, as well as the whole country, were ex
ceedingly populous. It was one of the more extensive pro
vinces, into which the Holy Land was divided, after the return
of Israel from captivity ; somewhat greater in extent than
Judea ; but probably varied its bounds at different periods.
Its language differed considerably from that of Judea ; and as
the Galileans were a mixture of sundry nations, probably with
many Jews returned from captivity, many provincial idioms
might exist : hence we find Peter detected by his language.
Mark xiv. 70.
Galilee, Sea of, otherwise called the Sea of Tiberias,

GAZ dictionary of the bible. 1(M
from a town of that name, standing on its western shore ; and
the Lake of Gennesareth, which is probably a corruption of
Chinnereth, the ancient name of this sea, or lake. (Numb.
xxxiv. 11. Josh. xii. 3.) Its breadth, according to Josephus,
from east to west, is about six miles, and the length, from
north to soutli, about eighteen ; the water is pure and whole
some, abounding with a great variety of fish, not found any
where else. Its bed, and banks, are a smooth gravel, con
sequently very convenient for the drawing of nets. This sea
is viewed with veneration by Christians, from having been
much frequented by Christ and his apostles.
Gallim, a city of Benjamin. (1 Sam. xxv. 44. Isa. x. 30.)
Some authors mention a town of this name, east of Jordan, in
the land of Moab, south from the city of Ar.
Gath, a city of the Philistines, and one of their five lord
ships. (1 Sam. vi. 17.) It lay in the tribe of Dan, west of
Jerusalem, and is famous as the- native place of Goliah. It
was taken by David, was afterwards rebuilt by Rehoboam,
his grandson, and was finally laid waste by Hazael, king of
Syria. Eusebius and Jerom say that it still existed in their
day. It appears to have been an ancient city, being men
tioned so early as Josh. xi. 22.
Gath-hepher, a town in the tribe of Zebulon, (Josh. xix.
13.) the birth-place of the prophet Jonah, (2 Kings xiv. 25.)
whose tomb, according to Jerom, was still to be seen there in
the fourth century.
Gath-rimmon, a city of Dan, (Josh. xix. 45.) also in
Manasseh, west of Jordan, given to the Levites, (Josh. xxi.
25.) and another in Ephraim.
Gaulon, See Golan.
Gaza, one of the five principal cities and lordships of the
Philistines, situated in the south-west of the promised land ;
and is a city of great antiquity, being noticed among those
which formed the boundary of the territory of Canaan. Its
advantageous situation was the cause of the many revolu
tions to which it has been subject. It first belonged to the
Philistines, then to the Hebrews ; recovered its liberty in the
reigns of Jotham and Ahaz, and was reconquered by Heze
kiah. (2 Kings xviii. 8.) It was smitten by Pharaoh, (Jer.
xlvii. 1.) and was subject to the Assyrians and Babylonians,
who conquered Syria and Phenicia. Afterwards it fell into
the hands of the Persians, who were masters of it when
Alexander besieged, took, and destroyed it. A new city rose

164 scripture geography. GAZ
from its ruins, nearer the sea ; after which ancient writers
speak of Old Gaza, and Strabo mentions Gaza the desert,
which agrees with Acts viii. 26. In the destruction of this
city were verified the predictions of the prophets. (Amos i. 7.
Zeph. ii. 4.) The new city was called Majuma, and was
several times taken and retaken in the wars between Antio
chus and the Maccabees. It - afterwards fell under the do
minion of the Romans, and was given by Augustus to Herod
the Great. It is said in Acts viii. 26. to be a desert ; but this
probably means Old Gaza, and not Majuma, which was very
populous. The emperor Constantine gave Majuma the name
of Constantia, and granted it the honours and privileges of a
city, independent of Gaza ; but of both its name and its privi
leges it was deprived by the emperor Julian.
Some marks of the ancient grandeur of this place still
remain n the marble columns which now support dirty
cottages; a.,d it yet has a better appearance than most of the
towns in this country. The country around is very fruitful,
and well cultivated ; and the gardens in the vicinity of the
city are represented as offering a delightful prospect. The
inhabitants, in complexion, stature, manners, and language,
resemble the Egyptians more than the Syrians. Diseases of.
the eyes are common here,- and many of the people are led
through the streets entirely blind. In the town is a consider
able number of Christians, who inhabit a separate part of the
city, as do those of other different religions. The Greeks and
Armenians both have Christian churches here. The town
has about two thousand inhabitants, and stands about three
miles from the sea, having in indifferent port. There are
some manufactories of cotton, and a considerable commerce
is carried on, chiefly by means of caravans passing between
Egypt and Syria, and by the Arabs who resort here to sell
their plunder.
The French army of Egypt took Gaza in 1797, but soon
deserted it, having lost here 500 men by the plague.
It is noted in Scripture history for the exploits of Samson ;
and a little distance from the city is still shown a pile of rub
bish, which they say is the ruins of the temple which he
pulled down on the Philistines. Here also Philip baptized the
eunuch of Ethiopia. Acts viii. 26.
Gaza is situated fifty miles south-west of Jerusalem, and is
called by the Arabs, Rassa.

GAZ

dictionary op the bible.

165

No. 1.
/ &Sf$ A\ c \f I 1— — U 

v !» J) >/ \ ^

[IL

!/

A medal of Gaza, representing the head of the turreted goddess.
Ashtaroth, Astarte, or Venus; and on the reverse the peculiar and ap
propriate symbol of this city. It appears to be a key of a particular
shape, and it is possible that, besides the character of Gaza, as being
the key of Syria towards Egypt, as it really is, the inhabitants might
boast of the excellence of that kind of key which they were accustom
ed to use. This may also illustrate a circumslance mentioned in Judges
xvi. 2. The people of Gaza laid wait for Samson all night, in the gale
of their city, and were quiet, depending on the impossibility of his
opening the locks of their city door ; but at midnight he took away the
doors, the two posts, bar, and all which had been their reliance for
securing him. This bar is probably what we see in ihe figure, crossing
the key in (he middle. As Gaza prided itself upon being the key of
Syria, no doubt it would denote Ihis character by using on ils medals
a key of that kind, which it considered the most secure and substantial
The arms of Gibraltar are a key, lhat lown having been formerly
esteemed the key of Spain, as it now is of the Mediterranean.

No. 2.

/^^\ri

^fe^\

©Y\
\l ; JET _> A/1 <
IjSflJ^jk
ml
\v*> tJ t oi V L,
xvO JLAt/ \^£
— V ^^#
^&wm^s?r \
¦^sSi^isSsS^
Another medal of Gaza, with the head of the emperor Commodus,
inscribed with his name. The reverse exhibits a figure under the
character of Jupiter; holding in one hand the thunder, in the other a
globe : opposite to him is an heroic figure whose attributes are not dis
tinguishable : between the two figures is the symbol of the city of Gaza.
The whole passes in a temple having two pillars. The date &ac, 239,
is from the year of Rome 693, under the reign of Marcus Aurelius, two
years before his death. Commodus was then 17 years of age; his
166

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

GEB

father had associated him in the empire three years before. Perhaps
this medal represents the old emperor delivering the insignia of go
vernment to his son.
Geba, (1 Sam. xiii. 3.) the same as Gaba. (Josh, xviii. 24.)
Some writers have been of opinion that this Geba or Gaba,
was also the same as Gibeah ; but this is rendered unlikely,
not only by Gibeath, probably the same as Gibeah, being
named distinct from Gaba, (Josh, xviii.) but also by other cir
cumstances. By comparing 2 Sam. v. 25. with 1 Chron. xiv,
16. we find the same place called both Geba and Gibeon.
Considerable uncertainty attends this subject ; Geba or Gebau
appears to be the root of the many names which are written
in our translation Gibeah, Gibeath, and possibly Gibeon;
which makes distinction between these cities difficult.
A medal with the head of
the empress Plautina, inscrib
ed with her name : on the re
verse the inscription gabe-
non, of Gaba ; either Gabe in
Syria, or Geba in Judea. In
either case it shows that the
Gentile deities prevailed in
these countries long after the
time of Christ The date is
171, the thirteenth of Trajan.
Gebal, a country mentioned with Ammon, Amalek, &c.
(Psalm lxxxi. 7.) and supposed to be situated in the south of
Edom or Idumea.
There was also a place of this name in Phenicia on the
Mediterranean, perhaps the same whioh is sometimes called
Byblos. Pliny calls it Gabale, and its modern name is Gibyle,
or Jebilee. This was the place of the Gibelites mentioned in
Josh. xiii. 5. The people of Gebal were employed in caulking
the ships of Tyre, (Ezek. xxvii. 9.) it is also supposed to be the
place from which Solomon had his stone-cutters. (1 Kings v.
18.) This place was once famous for a temple of Adonis or
Thammuz ; it now has a ditch round it, with some square tow
ers ; but is miserably poor, and remarkable only for its ruins.
A medal inscribed gabaleon, of
Gabala, or Gebal ; and the only one
known which bears the name of this
town. Its type is a crab, holding in
its claws the emblems of the sun and

GER dictionary op the bible. 167
Geder, Gederoth, arrd Gedor : see Gadara.
Gehinnom, the valley of Hinnom, lying on the south and
east of Jerusalem, (Josh. xv. 8.) and through which the brooK
Kidron runs. This valley is remarkable as the scene of that
inhuman and idolatrous worship paid to Moloch, in which
parents made their children pass through the fire, or burned
them, as sacrifices to that idol. This valley having been the
scene of much cruelty, in order to render such idolatry odious,
the place was devoted to filthiness and pollution. It has been
said, that fires were continually burning in it to consume the
filth carried there from the city. This perpetual burning
added another similarity to those evils attributed to the place
of torment, and thus the ideas of wickedness, pollution, and
punishment were attachsd to this place ; so that the word
Gehinnom was used in the Syriac language to denote hell :
this was moulded by the Greeks into Gehenna, and is used in
Scripture as the term signifying hell, or hell fire.
Geliloth, a place in the borders of Judah and Benjamin,
(Josh, xviii. 17.) thought to be the place otherwise called
Gilgal ; or at least in nearly the same situation,
Gennesareth, Lake of; sec Sea of Galilee.
Gennesareth, country of; a region along the lake of this
name, decribed by Josephus, as wonderfully pleasant and fer
tile. The temperature of the air agrees with fruits of dif
ferent natures; so that here grow nuts, a mere winter-fruit;
palms which require mucli heat ; and near them figs and
olives, which require a moderate air. Josephus attributes the
extraordinary fruitfulness and beauty of this region, to the
peculiar providence of God, as if he took delight in this spot
of ground ; and it was a common saying among the Jews, that
God loved the sea of Gennesareth more than any other sea.
This remarkable tract of country was but four miles long, and
two and a half broad.
Gerar, a city in the land of the Philistines, where Abraham
sojourned, and of which Abimelech was king. It was situated
near the south-western corner of the land of Canaan, not far
from Gaza. Gen. xx. 1. xxi. 32. xxvi. 1. 17.
Gergesa, or Gerasa, a city east of the sea of Galilee, not
far from Gadara. St. Matthew says it was in the country of
the Gergasenes, that the swine ran down into the sea ; while
St. Mark calls it the country of the Gadarenes. See Gadara.
Origen says that in his time they showed the precipice on the

168 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. GEZ
sea of Tiberias or Galilee, from which the swine rushed into
the water.
Gerizim, a mountain near Shechem, in the tribe of Ephraim,
opposite to Mount Ebal ; Shechem lying in the valley between
them. After passing the Jordan, the Israelites were com
manded to go to these mountains ; six of the tribes were to
take their station on each ; those on Mount Gerizim were to
pronounce blessings upon those who should observe the law
of the Lord ; and those upon Ebal, curses against those who
should violate it. (Deut. xi. 29. xxvii. 12.) Gerizim is de
scribed by travellers as a fruitful mountain; while Ebal is
barren and scorched ; as if the blessing and the curse still
rested upon them.
The Samaritans maintain that Abraham and Jacob erected
altars at Gerizim ; and that there Abraham prepared to sacri
fice his son Isaac.
Geshur, a country in Syria, having its own king, whose
daughter David married, who was the mother of Absalom.
(2 Sam. xv. 8.) Absalom, after the murder of his brother,
fled to the king of Geshur, his grandfather. 2 Sam. xiii. 37.
Gethsemane, a village near Mount Olivet, whither Jesus
sometimes retreated at night. The garden in which he was
taken by Judas and those who were with him, is still shown :
it is a level spot of ground about 15 yards square, lying be
tween the foot of Mount Olivet and the brook Kedron. It is
now well covered with olive-trees ; some of them so remark
ably large as to be thought the same which were there in
the time of our Saviour. At the upper corner of the gar
den is a flat ledge of rock, said to be the spot where Peter,
James, and John fell asleep during the agony of our Lord,
which was suffered in a grotto a few paces distant In this
garden a narrow strip is walled out separate, as an accursed
piece of ground : this is said to be the path in which the
traitor Judas walked up to Christ, saying, "Hail, Master,"
and kissing him. This work is the more remarkable, as it
was probably done by the Mahometans, who, as well as the
Christians, detest the very ground on which was manifested
such infamous treachery.
Gezer, See Gadara.
Gezrites, or Gerzites, a people invaded by David while he
tarried at Ziklag, (1 Sam. xxvii. 8.) at the same time with the
Geshurites. These Gerzites are supposed to be the same as the
Gerrenians, or inhabitants of Gerar, mentioned 2 Mace. xiii. 24.

GOB DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 169
Giah, a valley near Gibeon. 2 Sam. ii. 24.
Gibbethon, a city in the tribe of Dan, allotted to the Le
vites. (Josh. xxi. 23.) It was a strong place, and endured a
long siege against Nadab. 1 Kings xv. 27. xvi. 15. 17.
Gibeaii, a city in the tribe of Benjamin, three or four miles
north of Jerusalem. It is sometimes called Gibeah of Saul,
being the place of his nativity. It was also noted for its sins,
as may be seen by reference to Judges xix.
Gibeah was also the name of a town in Judah, (Josh. xv.
57.) and of a hill where Eleazar was buried, (Josh. xxiv. 33.)
rendered in our translation, " a hill ;" but in the original it is
" Gibeah of Phinehas."
Gibeon, a city situated about four miles north of Jerusalem,
not far from Gibeah. Eusebius says that it was a. village in
his time, still retaining its ancient name, and four miles from
Bethel. See Part I. p. 56.
Gihon, one of the four rivers flowing from Eden. Gen. ii.
13. See Part I. p. 11.
Gihon, was also the name of a fountain west of Jerusalem,
where Solomon was anointed king. (1 Kings i. 33. 38. 45.)
Hezekiah ordered the upper channel of this fountain to be
conveyed to Jerusalem ; (2 Chron. xxxii. 30.) probably to pre
vent the enemy, when the city was besieged, from making
use of the water, as well as for the advantage of the citizens.
Gilboa, a mountain not far from Bethshean, in the east of
the tribe of Issachar ; celebrated for the death of Saul and his
son Jonathan. 1 Sam. xxxL 1, 2.
Gilead, part of the mountains extending from Mount Le
banon southward ; and east of the Land of Canaan. See Part
I. p. 37. On these mountains grew trees producing a kind of
gum, called the balm of Gilead.
There appears also to have been a place of this name in
Ephraim. Hosea vi. 8.
Gilgal, a place near Jericho. See Part I. p. 55 and 61.
Giloh, a city of Judah. (Josh. xv. 51.) Ahithophel, one"
of David s counsellors, was of this place. 2 Sam. xv. 12.
xxiii. 34.
Gimzo, a city in the south of Judah, taken by the Philis
tines in the reign of Ahaz. 2 Chron. xxviii. 18.
Girgashites, a people of Canaan. See Part I. p. 28.
Gittites, the people of Gath. Josh. xiii. 3.
Gob, a place where two battles were fought between the

170 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. GRE
Israelites and the Philistines, (2 Sam. xxi. 18.) probably the
same as Gezer, and so called. 1 Chron. xx. 4.
Gog and Magog. Magog was a son of Japhet, and the
father of the Scythians and other nations of the north. See
Part I. p. 17. Gog was the prince of the country of Magog.
(Ezek. xxxviii. and xxxix.) It is believed that Gog and Ma
gog in Ezekiel and the Revelations, are taken allegorically
for such princes as were enemies to the church.
Golan, or Gaulan, a noted city of Bashan, east of the Jor
dan, afterwards allotted to Manasseh. It was one of the
Levitical cities, and also a city of refuge. (Deut. iv. 43. Josh.
xxi. 27.) This city gave name to the region afterwards called
Gaulon, or Gaulpnitis, which extended from Perea on the
south, to Lebanon on the north.
Golgotha, See Calvary.
Gomorrah, one of the five cities destroyed by fire from
heaven. See Part I. p. 31.
Goshen, a district of Egypt inhabited by the Israelites ;
also a tract of country in the south of Judah. See Part I. p.
39 and 58. Also a city in the tribe of Judah. Josh. xv. 51.
Gozan, a river of Media, in a province of the same name,
to which the captive Israelites were carried by Sennacherib,
king of Assyria. 2 Kings xvii. 6. 1 Chron. v. 26.
Greece : this word is often used in Scripture in a very ex
tended sense, comprehending all the countries inhabited by
the descendants of Javan, the son of Japhet, not only in Greece
proper, but also in Ionia and Asia Minor. See Part I. pp. 18,
19. The Hebrew word Javan, or Iowan, is used in the
Old Testament to signify Greece and the Greeks. There is
but little said in Scripture with reference to this country,
until the time of Alexander, who, having pushed his conquests
into Asia, made Greece, or Macedonia, more important
After the time of this conqueror, the name of Greeks was
used in a still more uncertain and enlarged sense ; because,
the Greeks being masters of Egypt and Syria, the countries
beyond the Euphrates, and of other provinces, the Jews were
used to call all those Gentile people Greeks, who were subject
to the Greek empire, either in the east or west For this
reason, in many passages of the books of Maccabees, in the
Gospels, and in St. Paul's writings, a Greek commonly signi
fies a Gentile.
Javan, or Greece, is mentioned in Isaiah, (lxvi. 19.) in Eze
kiel, (xxvii. 13. 19.) in Daniel, (xi. 2) and Zechariah declares

GRE DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 17J
that God shall raise up the sons of Zion against the sons of
Javan, (ix. 13.) which refers to the wars carried on by the
Jews under the Maccabees, against Antiochus Epiphanes and
the Greeks who possessed the kingdom of Syria. Daniel
(viii. 21. x. 20.) describes Alexander the Groat by the name
of the king of Javan. Greece anciently included Macedonia,
and is so used by Daniel ; but in the time of St. Paul there
was a distinction, for we read that Paul, " passing through
Macedonia, came into Greece."
After the establishment of the Grecian dynasties in Asia,
it is natural that Judea should be considerably affected by
them; and the books of the Maccabees afford proofs of this.
The Roman power, superseding the Grecian establishments,
yet left traces of the Greek language, customs, &c. to the
days of the Herods, where the gospel history commences.
By the labours of the apostles, especially of Paul, the gospel
was propagated in those countries which used the Greek dia
lects ; hence we are interested in the study of this language,
as it was that in which the epistles to the churches of those
countries were written. Many flourishing churches were
early established among the Greeks, which for a long time
preserved the apostolic precepts and customs with much care.
But at length they began to differ on points of doctrine —
schisms and heresies divided the church, and rancour and
persecution followed. To check these evils, councils were
called, and various creeds were composed, some of which re
tain an authority to the present day.
The removal of the seat of government by Constantino,
from Rome to Constantinople, gave a sensible preponderance
to the Grecian districts of the empire ; and the ecclesiastical
determinations of the Greek church were extensively received
with respect, if not with submission. Greece continued to enjoy
the presence of the emperor till the beginning of the fifteenth
century, when the Turks began to harass the empire, and
finally took Constantinople, A. D. 1453. The submission of
all Greece followed ; since which time, this country and its
inhabitants exhibit a picture of wretched and debased slavery.
Recent events seem to render it probable that a part of the
Greek nation has regained its liberty ; but whether they are
qualified to retain it, time alone can determine.
" The architectural remains of Greece still attest its former
grandeur, though many of its most beautiful buildings, which
the hand of time might have spared, have fallen before the

172

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

HAI'

ruthless barbarism of the Turks, who seem to take a pleasure
in the wanton destruction of the proudest monument'! of
antiquity. Gur, a place near Ibleam, in the tribe of Manasseh, west
of Jordan; where Ahaziah, king of Judah, was mortally
wounded by Jeshu. 2 Kings ix. 27.
Gur-ba al, the name of a place inhabited by Arabians ; the
situation of which is not known. 2 Chron. xxvi. 7.

H.
Halor, a city on the river Gozan in Media, to which the
captive Israelites were carried by the king of Assyria. 2
Kings xvii. 6. xviii. 11. 1 Chron. v. 26.
Hachilah, a hill in the south-east of Judah, near Jeshimon ;
where David hid himself from Saul. (1 Sam. xxiii. 19. xxvi. 3.)
Here Jonathan the Maccabee afterwards built the almost im
pregnable fortress of Massada, whose garrison killed them
selves after the taking of Jerusalem by Titus.
Hadad-rimmon, See Adad-rimmon
Hadashah, a town in Judah, (Josh. xv. 37.) and according
to the rabbins one of the smallest, having only fifty houses.
Hadrach, a part of Syria, between Libanus and Anti-Li-
banus ; thought bj spme to he part of the territory of Damas
cus. Zech. ix. 1.

HAU DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. ITS
Hagarenes, the Ishmaelites, or descendants of Abrahan
and Hagar.
Hai, the same as Ai. See Part I. p. 56.
Halah, a place in Media, to which the liing of Assyria
transported the captive Israelites. 2 Kings xvii. 6.
Halhul, a city in the tribe of Judah, probably not far from
Hebron. Josh. xv. 58.
Hamath, is a term frequently used in Scripture ; and it
seems there were several places called by this name.
The kingdom of Hamath lay on the north of Canaan, ex
tending from the Mediterranean westf~to Damascus east.
The extent of Canaan is often expressed as reaching from the
entering in of Hamath, to the river of Egypt The capital of
this kingdom was sometimes called Hamath Zobah. It is
uncertain whether this is Hamath the great, (Amos vi. 2.)
which was in the north of Syria. Jerom says this last was
the same as Antioch. There was also a place called Hamath
in the tribe of Naphtali, near the entrance into Ccelo-Syria,
which was probably " the entering in of Hamath."
Hammon, a city of Asher, (Josh. xix. 28.) probably the same
as that said to be in Naphtali. 1 Chron. vi. 76.
Hammoth-dor, a city in the tribe of Naphtali, given to the
Levites. Josh. xix. 35. xxi. 32.
Hannathon, a town in the tribe of Zebulon. Josh. xix. 14.
Hanes, a city of Egypt, (Isa. xxx. 4.) called by the Greeks,
Anusis. St Jerom thinks it lay upon the borders of Ethio
pia ; while others suppose it to have been Daphnas or Pelu-
sium, near Damietta.
Hapharaim, a city of Issachar. Josh. xix. 19.
Hara, a place in Media or Assyria, to which some of the
Israelites were carried by Tiglath-Pileser. 1 Chron. v. 26.
Haran, or Charan ; See Part I. p. 30.
Hareth, a forest in the tribe of Judah, to which David fled
from Saul. 1 Sam. xxii. 5.
Harod, a well or fountain in the plain of Jezreel ; near the
hill of Moreh, and Mount Gilboa. Judg. vii. 1.
Harosheth, a city of Naphtali, near the waters of Merom :
here dwelt Sisera, who commanded the troops of Jabin, king
of Hazor. Judges iv. 2.
Hauran, a country north-east of the land of Canaan ; pro
bably the same as Iturea. St Jerom and others say that it
is the country south of Damascus. According to Abulfeda,
Bozra is the capital of the country of Hauran. It seems the
P2

174 scripture geography. HAZ
same as the province called by the Greeks Auranitis, on the
east of Jordan.
Havilah, or Chavilah ; there appears to be two countries
of this name mentioned in Scripture :
1. Havj^ah, the son of Cush, (Gen. x. 7.) who was settled
in Arabia, on the Coast of the Persian Gulf. See Part I.
p. 24. It is believed that Gen. xxv. 18. and 1 Sam. xv. 7.
may refer to this Havilah.
2. Havilah the son of Joktan, of the family of Shem. (Gen.
x. 29.) The sons of Joktan dwelt between the Mounts
Mesha and Sephar, which are generally allowed to have been
in Upper Mesopotamia, near the source of the Tigris ; con
sequently this Havilah was seated in that country or in the
south of Armenia. This agrees with the supposition that the
Tigris was the Pison, " which compasseth the whole land of
Havilah." (Gen. ii. 11.) The situation of these countries is,
however, very uncertain, and the opinions of the learned
respecting them are very contradictory. Dr. Wells supposes
this last mentioned Havilah to have been in Arabia, between
the southern extremity of the Dead Sea and Egypt ; and
makes the above-mentioned texts of Gen. xxv. 18. and 1 Sam.
xv. 7. refer to it : the other Havilah he thinks was near the
head of the river Indus, a branch of which was the Pison.
Calmet supposes Havilah to have been in the region where
the Tigris and Euphrates unite, and empty into the Persian
Gulf Havoth-jair, villages in the land of Bashan or Gilead, in
the tribe of Manasseh, east of Jordan. Numb, xxxii. 41.
Deut. iii. 14.
Hazar-gadda, a city in the south of the tribe of Judah.
Josh. xv. 27.
Hazar-shual, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 28.) given to
Simeon, xix. 3. Neh. xi. 27.
Hazar-susah, a city of Judah. Josh. xix. 5.
Hazeroth, or Hazerim, a station of the Israelites in the
wilderness. Numb. xi. 35. xii. 16. Deut i. 1.
Hazezon-tamar, the same as Engedi.
Hazor: there appear to ha ve been three cities of this name
in the tribe of Judah, one of which was otherwise called
Hezron. (Josh. xv. 23. 25.) Another in Naphtali. (Josh. xix.
36.) Another in Arabia, (Jer. xlix. 28. 30. 33.) which was
once a celebrated city, and the capital of a kingdom. The

liEL dictionary of the bible. 175
Hazor built by Solomon, (1 Kings ix. 15.) was probably that
in Naphtali, which he rebuilt or fortified.
Hebron, Chebron, or Kirjalh-arba ; an ancient city in the
tribe of Judah, and much noted in Scripture. See Part I.
p. 32.
Helam, a town east of Jordan, which was a place of
rendezvous for the Syrian troops. (2 Sam. x. 16.) It is
thought to be the same as Alamatha, mentioned by Ptolemy
in the region of Traction itis.
Helbah, a town in the tribe of Asher, from which the Ca
naanites were not driven out. Judges i. 31.
Helbon, a place near Damascus, famous for its wine.
(Ezek. xxvii. 18.) This is thought to be the place now
known by the name of Aleppo, called by the Arabs Halab.
From this place the ancient kings of Persia had the wine for
their own tables. It is situated in the north of Syria, and is
one of the most important cities in the Turkish empire; hav
ing about 250,000 inhabitants, and carries on an extensive
commerce, by means of caravans, with all parts of the East.
Heleph, a city in the borders of Naphtali, not far from
Sidon. Josh. xix. 33.
Heliopolis, a city in Egypt. See Part I. p. 39.
There was also a city in Coelo-Syria called Heliopolis, or
Balbec ; supposed to have been referred to by Amos, (i. 5.)
where he says, " I will cut off the inhabitants from the plain
of Aven," or Beckathaven ; the idol's camp, or the valley of
iniquity ; by which he is supposed to mean the place since
called Baal-beck, that is, the valley of Baal, or the idol. The
inhabitants of Balbec have indeed been "cut off;" for the
place is now a desert ; but magnificent ruins yet remain to
tell its former grandeur. Many pillars and columns of mar
ble are yet standing, 15 feet in circumference and 44 feet
high ; some, including their entablatures, are 72 feet in height.
The ground is strewed with broken columns, mutilated capi
tals, and the remains of pilasters, entablatures and cornices,
around ruined courts, edifices and temples, which display all
the ornaments of the noblest architecture, and are adorned
with the richest workmanship of sculpture. The size of the
stones which compose the mouldering walls is surprising;
being from 28 to 35 feet long, and 9 feet thick. In one place,
three stones extend 175 feet ; one of them being 59 feet long,
and the other two each 58 ; they are twel ve feet thick, and
of white marble. At a quarry, near these ruins, is a stone

176 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. HER
hewn on three sides, which is 69 feet 2 inches long, 12 feet
10 inches broad, and 13 feet 3 inches thick. By what means
the ancients moved these huge and ponderous masses of mar
ble, is utterly inconceivable ! The ruins of a temple dedicated
to the sun, is the most surprising object among the remains of,
this once populous and splendid city. Balbec lies in the way
from Tyre to Tadmor or Palmyra, and doubtless enjoyed a
liberal share of the opulent traffic of those populous and
wealthy cities. Its ruins are 50 miles north-west of Damascus.
Helkath, a city of Asher, (Josh. xix. 25.) given to the Le
vites. (xxi. 31.)
Hena, a city near the Euphrates, between Mesopotamia
and Arabia. 2 Kings xviii. 34.
Hepher, a country probably in the north of Judah. (1 Kings
iv. 10.) A city. Josh. xii. 17.
Heres, a mountain in the tribe of Dan, on which was situ
ated the town of Aijalon. Judges i. 35.
Hermon, a branch of the mountains of Lebanon, forming
the north-eastern boundary of the land of Canaan ; andwhich,
extending further south, along the eastern border of Manasseh,
is called Mount Gilead. Mount Hermon is mentioned (Deut
iii. 8, 9.) as the northern boundary of the kings of the Amor
ites, or of the country east of Jordan ; and there we learn
that it was called by the Sidonians, Sirion, and by the Amorites
Shenir. In chap. iv. 48. we find this same mountain called
Sion, instead of Sirion ; though in the Hebrew text it is writ
ten differently from the name of Mount Sion at Jerusalem.
In like manner the name given it by the Amorites, Shenir, is
sometimes written Seir; and means this Mount Hermon,
instead of Mount Seir, in Edom.
There also appears to have been another mountain called
Hermon, on the west of Jordan, and not far from Mount
Tabor. (Psalm lxxxix. 12. cxxxiii. 3.) Mr. Maundrell tells us
that in three hours and a half from the river Kishon, he came
to a small brook, from which he had an extensive prospect of
the plain of Esdraelon. To the east, six or seven hours dis
tant, Nazareth was visible, and the two mountains, Tabor and
Hermon. He adds, " we were sufficiently instructed by expe
rience, what the holy Psalmist means by the 'dew of Hermon,'
our tents being wet with it, as if it had rained all night" The'
learned Calmet, however, doubts whether the name of Her
mon was ever applied to any mountam, west of the Jordan,
till days more modern than the writing of the Scriptures.

HOB DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 177
Heshbon, a city, according to Eusebius, twenty miles east
of the Jordan, and nearly opposite Jericho. It was formerly
the capital of the Amorites ; and their king, Sihon, is some
times called king of Heshbon. (Deut ii. 26. Josh. xiii. 10.)
After the conquest of the country, Heshbon was given to' the
tribe of Reuben, (Josh. xiii. 17.) but seems afterwards to have
been made over to Gad. (verse 26.) It was near the border
or boundary between these two tribes. This place is noted
for its fish-pools, (Song vii. 4.) and seems to have had a lake
near it (2 Mace. xii. 16.) The Caspis mentioned in this
passage is supposed to be Heshbon; which continued to be a
noble city in the days of Eusebius and Jerom; being then
called by the Greeks, Esbus, and reckoned a city of Arabia,
under which name was then comprehended a considerable
part of Perea, or the country beyond Jordan.
After the carrying away of the ten tribes, Heshbon was
repossessed by the Moabites ; whence in the prophecies against
Moab, (Isa, xv. xvi. Jer. xlviii. xlix.) we find frequent men
tion of it
Heshmon, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 27.
Hethlon, a. city on the northern limits of the land of Ca
naan. Ezek. xlvii. 15. xhiii. 1.
Hezron, a city in the south of Judah.
Hiddekel, one of the rivers of Eden. See Part I. p. 9, 10.
Hierapolis, a city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, near Colosse
and Laodicea. St Paul, in his epistle to the Colossians, (iv. 13.) '
expresses his zeal and ailection for those of Hierapolis. This
city was destroyed by an earthquake in the early ages of Chris
tianity. Some white cliffs in the vicinity of the modern town,
called by the Turks Pambuck-Kulasi, or the cotton tower, are
said to mark the site of the ancient city. Here are vast and
splendid ruins, consisting of walls, arches, and pillars, of great
height and excellent workmanship ; proving this to have once
been a great and beautiful city. The numerous temples
erected there in the idolatrous ages, with so much art and
cost, probably gave it the mme of Hierapolis, the sacred city.
It is 17 miles north-west of Laodicea, the river Lycus running
between them.
.Hinnom, a valley near Jerusalem, sometimes called the
valley of the son of Hinnom. See Gehinnom.
Hivites, a people of Canaan. See Part I. p. 28.
Hobah, a place in Syria, to which Abraham pursued the
army which had taken Lot. (Gen. xiv. 15.) It is supposed bv

178 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. ICO
some to be the same as Abila, on the north-west of Damascus ;
but others place it beyond that city, towards the Euphrates,
where there was a place called by the Greeks Sopha, and
Sophene. Holon, a city in the mountains of Judah, (Josh. xv. 51.)
also a Levitical city, and a city of refuge. (Josh. xxi. 15.)
A city of Moab is mentioned by this name. Jer. xlviii. 21.
Hor, a mountain. See Part I. p. 48.
Horeb, a celebrated mountain in Arabia, near the Red Sea.
See Part I. p. 45.
Horem, a city of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 38.
Hor-hagidoad, an encampment of the Israelites in the
desert, (Numb, xxxiii. 32, 33.) written Guitgodah in Deut. x. 7.
Horites, an ancient people inhabiting Mount Seir in Edom,
before Esau settled in that country. (G:m. xiv. 6. xxxvi. 20. 30.)
They had princes, and seem to have been a considerable
nation before that time : afterwards tliey appear to have been
blended with the Edomites, or dn»c5niianu of Esau, so as to
have composed but one people. (Deut. ii. 1. xxxiii. 2. Judges
v. 4.) Their country lay south-east of Can lan.
Hormah, a city of Ju lali, afterwards given to Simeon.
(Josh. xv. 30. xix. 4. Numb. xiv. 45. Deut. i. 44.) Its original
name was Zephathah. Judges i. 17. 2 Chron. xiv. 10.
Horonaim, a ci:y of Moab. Isa. xv. 5.
Hosah, a town of Asher. Josh. xix. 29.
Hukkok, a city on the boundary between Asher and Naph
tali, (Josh. xix. 34.) given to the Levites, (1 Chron. vi. 75.)
and probably the same called Helkath. Josh. xxi. 31.
Humtah, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 54.

Ibleam, a town of Manasseh, west of Jordan, given to the
Levites : but the Canaanites were not driven out Josh. xvii. 11.
Judges i. 27. 2 Kings ix. 27. 1 Chron. vi. 70.
Iconium, the capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor. St. Paul
visited this place and converted many, both Jews and Gentiles,
(Acts xiii. 51. xiv. 1.) but the Jews exciting the people
against him and Barnabas, they were obliged to leave the
place. A Christian church was supported here for 800 years;
but at present not a Christian nor a Jew is suffered to reside
within the walls of the city. It is now called Cogni, and stands

1ND dictionary of the bible. 179
in a pleasant situation, on a spacious and fertile plain, 110
miles from the Mediterranean.
Idalah, a city of Zebulon. Josh. xix. 15.
Idumea, the Greek name for Edom. In later times, how
ever, Idumea seems to have comprehended more than the
original country of the Edomites, Mount Seir ; and probably
advanced into the southern part of Judea, which, during the
captivity of the Jews at Babylon, seems to have been pos
sessed by the neighbouring Idumeans. These, when conquered
by the Maccabees, chose rather to embrace Judaism than to
quit their habitations. They came to the assistance of Jeru
salem, when besieged by the Romans ; but did not remain
until it was taken, having returned to their own country, load
ed with booty. Though they were incorporated with the
Jewish nation, their country was long called Idumea, and still
retained its name in the times of the New Testament, (Mark
iii. 7, 8.) and for a considerable time afterwards.
Iim, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 29.
Ije-abarim, an encampment of the Israelites, (Numb. xxi.
11. xxxiii. 44.) called in the next verse Iim. This place was
in the east of Moab.
Ijon, a city in the northern part of Canaan, taken by Ben
hadad, (1 Kings xv. 20.) thought by some to be the same as
Hethlon. Illyricum, a province in the north-west of Macedonia; ly
ing along the eastern coast of the Adriatic, or Gulf of Venice ;
extending in length 430 miles, and in breadth 120. It was
divided into two parts, Liburnia, now called Croatia, north;
and Dalmatia, which still retains its name, south. St. Paul
(Rom. xv. 19.) says that he preached the gospel from Jerusa
lem round about to Illyricum ; meaning that he had preached
in all the countries lying in the circuitous route between them.
It does not appear, however, that Paul preached in Illyricum ;
but only travelled to its borders. There are now in this coun
try many Christians ; it being chiefly under the Austrian go
vernment India ; this country is mentioned in Scripture, (Esther i. 1.
viii. 9.) " Ahasuerus reigned from India even unto Ethiopia ;"
where it is thought to mean the country about the river Indus,
or Hindostan. There does not appear to be any record in
history of the Persian power ever having permanently main
tained itself east of the Indus. Only Alexander the Great
ever thought of establishing a power beyond that river. Na-

180 SCRIPTURE geography. IND
dir Shah afterwards penetrated to Delhi, but he returned from
thence to Persia, and did not attempt to retain both regions
under his rule.
By India may be understood the whole of that country
where the primitive religion and language of the Hindoos
prevail at the present day ; including Hindostan, the stupen
dous mountains of Thibet, the beautiful valley of Cashmere,
the country of Nepaul and Bootan, Siam and Ava, or the Bir-
man Empire, &c. These countries have been inhabited, from
the earliest antiquity, by a people who have no resemblance,
either in their figure or manners, to any of the surrounding
nations ; and though different conquerors have established
themselves, at different times, in various parts of India, yet
the aboriginal inhabitants have lost very little of their primi
tive character. This people, though now humbled and de
based, are believed to have been once eminent in arts and
arms, happy in their government, and distinguished in various
knowledge. This country was probably settled at a very early period, by
the immediate descendants of Ham, the son of Noah. (Asia
tic Researches, vol. 3. p. 490.) It was the Hamites who
founded the first monarchy of the Chaldeans, invented letters,
observed and named the luminaries of the firmament ; and
were thence dispersed, at various intervals, and in various
colonies, over many countries. The tribes of Misraim and
Cush seem to have been widely extended, particularly the
latter, and by them Africa, and a large proportion of Asia,
were principally peopled. The Phenicians were of this race,
who afterwards passed into Greece and Italy, supplanting part
of the clans who had preceded them, and uniting with others;
while some of this widely spread, and numerous family, who
appear to have been the first promoters of learning and science,
are thought to have found their way to Mexico and Peru,
where rude, traces of literature and mythology have been dis
covered, resembling those of Egypt and India. These facts
corroborate Scripture prophecy. Noah foretold that the chil
dren of Ham should be servants of servants. (Gen. ix. 25.)
And it may here be remarked that this passage, in some copies
of the Scripture, reads, " Cursed be Ham, the father of Ca
naan, a servantof servants shall he be unto his brethren." Ac
cordingly, a hundred millions of this people in India, besides
the Africans, and millions in America, are subdued and oppress
ed by the dominion of the Europeans.

1ND

DICTIONARY OF THE BinLE.

181

It is generally believed that Christianity was established in
India at a very early period. St. Bartholomew and St. Tho
mas are both said to have preached the gospel in this country ;
and the venerable Pantsenus of Alexandria, who visited India
about the year 189, found Christians there, who had the gos
pel of St Matthew in Hebrew. At the council of Nice, in
the year 325, John the primate of India was present, and sub
scribed his name. In the sixth century there was a seminary
for Christians at Serinda; and in 636 two monks went thence
to Constantinople. In the 13th century, before the Portuguese
had visited the country, Marco Polo and others say that Chris
tians were numerous in India ; and when Vasco de Gama ar
rived at Malabar, on the western coast, in 1503, he found
Christian churches and a Christian king. Since that time
little has been known respecting the Christians of India, till
within a few years they have been visited by the learned and
pious Dr. Buchanan, who assures us that more than 200,000
Christians now inhabit these countries, of pure morals, enjoy
ing gospel ordinances, and having colleges for the instruction
of their youth.

VViflow on ih^ Funeral Pile of tier Husband.
The most remarkable of the cruel rites connected with the
li .gion -of the Hindoos, is the practice, which has existea
fii. n time immemorial, of burning the widow on the funeral
pile of her dead husband. This practice, though long contin-
Q

182 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. ISR
oed and permitted by the British authorities, has lately been
prohibited in that part of India under their jurisdiction.
Ionia, a country in the south-west of Asia Minor ; also a
name sometimes given to Hellas or Achaia, from its having
been inhabited by Ionians. See Greece ; also Javan, Part I.
p. 18.
Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar, from whom de
scended the Ishmaelites or Arabians. See Arabia ; also Part
I. p. 35.
Isles of the Gentiles, (Gen. x. 5.) the countries of Asia
Minor and Europe. It is evident that by the word isle, in our
translation, the Hebrews understood not only such countries
as are surrounded by the sea ; but also such as were separated
from them by the sea, or to which they usually went by
water. (Isa. xi. 10, 11.) The original term in Hebrew seems
to denote settlement, or plantation. "By these were the
settlements of the Gentiles divided into their lands." (Gen. x.
5.) See also, Job xxii. 30. Isa. xiii. 15. xiii. 22.
Israelites, a people descended from Jacob or Israel ; called
at first Hebrews, being the descendants of Eber or Heber,
(1 Chron. i. 18. 25.) and in later times Jews, from the tribe
of Judah, or rather from the kingdom of Judah, after the revolt
of the ten tribes. After this revolt, the name Israelites was
more appropriate to these ten tribes, who had erected a sepa
rate kingdom under Jeroboam, and who, in a great measure,
abandoned themselves to idolatry and infidelity; while the
kingdom of Judah maintained their religion in greater purity.
For their impiety, the Israelites were conquered and carried
into captivity, and have long since ceased "to be reckoned
among the nations." The tribes east of Jordan were first
carried away by Tiglath-Pileser, A. M. 3264 ; and nineteen
years after, Salmaneser took Samaria, the capital of the king
dom, and carried the other tribes beyond the Euphrates, into
Media, south of the Caspian Sea. (2 Kings xvii. 6.) It is the
general opinion that these tribes have never returned from
captivity. About thirty years after this, the kingdom of
Judah was overthrown by Nebuchadnezzar, and the Jeios also
carried into captivity, to Babylon. Cyrus afterwards per
mitted the Jews to return td their own country, and Darius
gave them permission to rebuild the temple. It does not ap
pear, however, that any considerable number of the Israelites
ever returned ; but that they were chiefly, if not all, J«ws,
(Ezra i. 5. iv. 1.) and are so called in the edict of Darius.
Ezra vi. 7.

ISR dictionary of the bible. 183
The ten tribes of Israel have been long considered as lost,
or mingled with other nations ; but in the Asiatic Researches
we learn that a people have recently been discovered in
Afghanistan, or east Persia, (not very distant from the place
where it is thought the captives were settled by Salmaneser,)
who, it is confidently believed, are the lost ten tribes of Israel.
A considerable district of this country is called Hazareh, or
Hazarctli, which is probably the Arsareth mentioned in
Esdras. (See 2 Esdras xiii. 40. 45.) It is said that this peo
ple have traditions of their origin; and the Persian historians,
with whose empire they have always been connected, assert
that the Afghans are descendants of the Hebrews. The
names of their families, too, are distinguished by the very
names of the Hebrew tribes, as Reuben, Simeon, &c. Their
language, which has been examined by Mr. Vansittart, he
says is manifestly of Hebrew origin. Dr. Buchanan, during
his residence in India, investigated this subject, and was fully
convinced, from many proofs which he obtained respecting
this people, that they are the descendants of the lost Israelites.
Among other circumstances mentioned by him, he says he
asked the black Jews, a people in the south of India, where
their brethren, the great body of the ten tribes, were to be
found. They answered promptly, in the north, in the regions
adjacent to Persia. That eminent scholar, Sir William Jones,
whose residence in India gave him the best opportunities of
information on this subject, has also given it as his opinion
that the Afghans were descended from the Hebrews. St.
Jerom, in the fifth century, writing his notes upon Hosea, has
these words: " Unto this day the ten tribes are subject to the
kings of Persia, nor has their captivity ever been loosed."
Josephus recites a speech made by king Agrippa to the Jews,
in which he exhort*, tlisoi to submit to the Romans, and not
to stretch their hopes bpyond the Euphrates, that any of their
fellow tribes might come to their aid out of Adiabene ; telling
them that if those tribes wished to come, the Parthian king
would not permit it. Our limits will not allow us to adduce
other authorities, which might be easily done ; but we think
sufficient has been said to show that the posterity of the ten
tribes still exist in the countries to which they were carried
in their first captivity,
For a more particular account of the country, nation, and
history of the ancient Israelites, the reader is referred to the
article Judea.

184 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. JAG
Issachar, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I.
p. 66.
Italy, (Acts xxvii. 6.) , See Rome.
Ithnan, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 23.
Ittah-kazin, a town in the border of the tribe of Zebulon.
Josh. xix. 13.
Iturea, a province of Syria, east of the Jordan, and south
of Trachonitis; including the country formerly under the
dominion of the king or Bashan, afterwards called by the
Greeks Bafknea, and which was given to the half tribe of
Manasseh. Iturea is thought to have received its name from
Jetur, or letur, the son of Ishmael, (Gen. xxv. 15.) who settled
in this region, and whose posterity was driven out, or subdu
ed, by the Amorites, of whom Og was king in the time of
Moses. Philip, one of Herod's sons, was tctrarch or governor
of Iturea when John the Baptist entered upon his ministry
Luke iii. 1.
Ivah, (2 Kings xix. 13.) See Ava.

Jaakan, an encampment of the Israelites in the desert
See Bene-jaakan.
Jaazer, a city of the Amorites. See Jazer.
Jabbok, a brook or river, rising in the mountains of Gilead,
and flowing westward to the Jordan, into which it empties, a
little south of the sea of Galilee. This stream separated the
land of the Ammonites from the kingdom of Bashan.
Jabesh, or Jabesh-gilead, a city of Manasseh, east of Jor
dan, and near Mount Gilead, from which it received its name.
Judges xxi. 8.
Jabneel, a city in the tribe of Judah, (Josh. xv. 11.) also
another upon the borders of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 33.
Jabneh, a city of the Philistines, (2 Chron. xxvi. 6.) See
Jamnia. Jacob's well, a well near Shechem, in the valley between
Mounts Gerizim and Ebal. This well is still shown, and is
sunk in a solid rock ; it is 9 feet in diameter, and 105 deep.
Here our Saviour conversed with the woman of Samaria.
John iv. 12.
Jagur, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 21.
Jahaz, or Jahaza, a city of Reuben, (Numb. xxi. 23. Deut

JEA DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 185
it 32. Josh. xiii. 18.) given to the Levites, (1 Chron. vi. 78.)
and ravaged by the Assyrians and Chaldeans. Isa. xv. 4.
Jair, (Josh. xiii. 30.) See Havolh-jair.
Jamnia, a town on the coast of the Mediterranean, in the
west of the tribe of Dan, between Joppa and Ashdod, thirty
miles from Jerusalem, (1 Mace. iv. 15. v. 58. 2 Mace. xii. 8.)
at present a village called Yebna, situated about twelve miles
from Jaffa or Joppa.
Janoah, a city of Ephraim, (Josh. xvi. 6, 7.) taken and
mined by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria. 2 Kings xv. 29.
Janum, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 53.
Japhia, a city of Galilee, in the tribe of Zebulon. Josh.
xix. 12.
Japhleti, a town on the borders of Ephraim and Benjamin.
Josh. xvi. 3.
Japho, a city in the tribe of Dan, afterwards called Joppa.
Josh. xix. 46.
Jarmuth, a city of Judah, ten miles south-west from
Jerusalem ; the king of which was killed by Joshua. Josh. x.
3. 5. xii. 11. xv. 35. Neh. xi. 29.
Also a city of Issachar, given to the Levites, (Josh. xxi. 29.)
otherwise called Remeth, (xix. 21.) and Ramoth. 1 Chron.
vi. 73.
Jattir, a. city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 48.) given to the Levites.
(xxi. 14.)
Javan, one of the sons of Japheth. (Gen. x. 2.) See Part
I. p. 18 ; also Greece.
Jazer, a city east of Jordan, given to the tribe of Gad, and
afterwards to the Levites. (Josh. xiii. 25. xxi. 39.) It lay at
the foot of the mountains of Gilead, near a brook of the same
name which falls into the Arnon. Eusebius and Jerom say
it was 15 miles from Heshbon, and a little south of Ramoth
Gilead, at the head of a large river which fell into the Jor
dan, probably the Arnon. The Sea of Jazer, mentioned Jer.
xlviii. 32. was a lake or pond near the head of that river, and
not far from the town called Jazer. The Hebrews frequently
called all considerable waters, such as rivers, lakes, and
ponds, by the name of seas.
Jearim, a mount in the borders of Judah and Benjamin,
(Josh. xv. 10.) probably that on which the city of Kirjath-
jearim was built.
Jebus, an ancient city of Canaan, called afterwards Jerusa
lem. (Josh. x. xv. 8. Jndges xix. 10, &c.) See Jerusalem,
Q2

186 scripture geography. JER
Jebusites, a people descended from Jebus, the son of Ca
naan. See Part I. p. 27.
Jehoshaphat, valley of, called also the Valley of Kidron,
because the brook Kidron runs through it ; a valley east of
Jerusalem, between the city and the Mount of Olives.
Jehud, a city in the tribe of Dan. Josh. xix. 45.
Jerahmeelites, a people mentioned in 1 Sam. xxvii. 10
probably inhabiting part of Arabia, south of Judah.
Jericho, a city of Canaan frequently mentioned in Scrip
ture. See Part I. p. 55
Jerusalem, Jebus, or Saiem, the capital of Judea ; a very
famous and ancient city, founded, according to Manetho, by
the shepherds who invaded Egypt at a remote period of
antiquity. According to Josephus, it was the capital of Mel
chizedek's kingdom, which is called Salem in the book of
Genesis. Some suppose it to have been founded by Melchi
zedek, about the year of the world 2023, who called it Salem,
which signifies'peace. It was afterwards taken by the Jebu
sites, the descendants of Jebus, a son of Canaan. They
erected a fortress on Mount Zion, to which they gave the
name of Jebus, their father, the whole city being then called
Jerusalem, which signifies vision of peace. Adoni-bezek, the
king of the Jebusites, and the most powerful of the Canaanite
kings, was defeated and killed by Joshua, who destroyed
many of the people, (Josh, x.) but it does not appear that he
took the city, or any part of it. Shortly after his death, how
ever, it was taken and burnt by the children of Judah;
(Judges i. 8.) but this could only have been the lower part of
the city, as we read immediately afterwards that the Benja-
mites, to whom the city was allotted, " did not drive out the
Jebusites that inhabited Jerusalem," who continued to retain
possession of the upper town, or citadel of Jebus, for 400
years after, when they were driven out by David, who repair
ed the whole city, and built a new one on Mount Zion, on the
site of the fort of the Jebusites, which he called the city of
David. 2 Sam. v. 1 Chron. xi.
During the reigns of David and Solomon, this city was the
metropolis of the kingdom, and continued to increase in wealth
and splendour. At festivals it was the resort of the whole
population of the country ; and by the power and commercial
spirit of Solomon, it was made the centre of most of the
eastern trade through the ports on the Red Sea, and over
land by the way of Tadmor and Palmyra. Some idea of its

JER dictionary of the bible. 187
prodigious wealth at this time may be formed from the fact,
that the quantity of gold left by David for the use of the
temple amounted to the value of one hundred millions of dol
lars, besides fourteen millions in silver ; and Solomon obtained
14J millions in gold, by one voyage to Ophir, while silver
was so abundant " that it was not any thing accounted of."
These were the days of Jerusalem's glory, when universal
peace, unmeasured wealth, the wisdom and clemency of the
prince, and the worship of the true God, marked it above
every other city, as enjoying the presence and the especial
favour of the Almighty.
But these days were soon to have an end. After the death
of Solomon, ten of the twelve tribes revolted from his suc
cessor Rehoboam, and established a separate kingdom under
Jeroboam, the son of Nebat ; so that Jerusalem, no longer the
capital of the whole empire, and its temple frequented by the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin alone, must have suffered a
mournful declension. Four years after this, the city and
temple were taken and plundered by Shishak, king of Egypt
(1 Kings xiv. 26. 2 Chron. xiii. 2. 9.) One hundred and
forty-five years after this, in the reign of Amaziah, the city
was again taken by Joash, king of Israel. (2 Kings xiv.
2 Chron. xxv.) Jerusalem was again taken, one hundred and
sixty years afterwards, by Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, who
carried away Manasseh, the king of Judah, a prisoner to
Babylon. (2 Chron. xxxiii.) Within the space of sixty-six
years more, it was taken by Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt,
who killed king Josiah in a battle at Megiddo. (2 Kings
xxiii. 29.) Jerusalem was three times besieged and taken by
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, within a few years. The
first in the reign of king Jehoiakim, (2 Chron. xxxvi. 6.) the
second in the reign of his son Jehoiachin, (verse 10.) and the
third in the reign of his successor, Zedekiah, (verse 17.)
This last was the most formidable and disastrous siege which
Jerusalem had ever experienced. The Chaldean army enter
ed the city, took away every thing that was valuable, and
then burnt and destroyed it, with its temple and walls, and
left the whole razed to the ground. The whole population
of the city and country, except a few husbandmen, were then
carried captive to Babylon. 2 Kings xxv. 2 Chron. xxxvi.
17. 20.
Thus ended the kingdom of Judah ; and at this time com
mences the 70 years of captivity, foretold by Jeremiah. Dur-

188 scripture geography. JER
ing these 70 years, the city and temple lay in ruins; when
some Jews, faking advantage of the proclamation of Cyrus,
returned to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel, and began to build
the temple ; the sacred vessels belonging to which, that had
been taken away by Nebuchadnezzar, being restored by
Cyrus. Not much was done, however, being opposed by the
Samaritans, (Ezra iv. 6.) in the reign of Cambyses, the son of
Cyrus, who is called Ahasuerus in Scripture; and finally
stopped by a decree of Smerdis, called in Scripture Artaxerxes,
his successor. (Ezra iv. 7 to the end.) The temple con
sequently remained in an unfinished state until the second or
third year of Darius Hystaspes, who, having found i copy of
the decree of Cyrus among the Median records at Achmetha,
issued a similar one ; and even ordered the opposing Samari
tans to assist in the work. The temple was thus finished in
the sixth year of his reign. (Ezra iv. v. vi.) The city and
walls, however, remained in a ruinous condition till the
twentieth year of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who sent Nehe-
miah to Jerusalem, with power to rebuild the walls, which
was done, with incredible labour, notwithstanding the hostile
attacks of the Samaritans, in fifty-two days, in the year 445
before Christ ; after which the city itself was gradually rebuilt
Nehem. ii. iv. vi.
Jerusalem remained attached to the Persian empire, but
under the local jurisdiction of the High Priests, until that
empire was overthrown by Alexander, 14 years after. This
extraordinary conqueror visited Jerusalem himself, and not
withstanding the usual machinations of the Samaritans, show
ed great favour to the Jews, and particularly to the High
Priests, granting them an exemption from tribute every Sab
batical year. At the death of Alexander, on the division of
his empire among his generals, Jerusalem, with Judea, fell to
the kings of Syria ; and in the frequent wars which followed
between them and the kings of Egypt, belonged occasionally
to both parties. This unsettled state introduced disorder and
corruption ; the high priesthood was openly sold to the highest
bidder, and numbers of the Jews deserted their religion for
the idolatries of the Greeks. In the year 170 before Christ,
Antiochus Epiplianes, king of Syria, plundered the city, and
killed 80,000 of the Jews. He endeavoured to abolish their
religion also, and published an edict requiring all the people
in his dominions to conform to the religion of the Greeks ; in
consequence of which the service of the temple ceased, and a

JER dictionary of the bible. 189
statue of Jupiter Olympus was set up on the altar. This, as
might have been expected, led to rebellion ; those Jews who
still held their insulted religion in reverence, fled to the
mountains with Mattathias and Judas Maccabeus ; under the
latter of whom they defeated the armies of Antiochus, again
obtained possession of Jerusalem, purified the temple, and
restored the service after three years defilement by the
Gentile idolatries. The succeeding Maccabees ruled as high
priests, without the title of king ; having frequent contests
with the Syrians, until, in the year 130 before Christ, Hyr-
canus rendered the Jews independent His successor, Judas,
took the title of king, which continued with his successors 47
years, until the city and temple were taken by the Romans
under Pompey, and Judea made a Roman province, in the
year 63, B. C.
Jerusalem did not long after this enjoy the dignity of a
metropolis ; for Herod, who governed Judea under the Romans
with the title of king, removed the seat of government to
Caisarea, where it was continued by the succeeding Roman
governors. The Jews having become turbulent, and im
patient of the Roman authority, in the year A. D. 66, rose on
their rulers and killed the Roman garrison in Jerusalem.
When this was known at Rome, Vespasian was appointed by
the emperor Nero, governor of Syria, and general of the army
destined to act against Jerusalem. Having reduced the
greater part of the country to obedience, he was preparing to
attack the city, when his operations were suspended by the
death of Nero, and the dissensions which followed in the
empire. Vespasian himself having been declared emperor,
gave the command of the army in Judea to his son Titus, who
invested Jerusalem near the time of the Passover, or about
the beginning of April, in the year 70. At this time of the
great festival the city was crowded to excess, and being torn
by different contending factions, and a prey to civil war
within its own walls, its downfall was hastened by its own
inhabitants, who, instead of uniting against the common
enemy, mercilessly destroyed each other, and made wanton
destruction of the provisions which might have enabled them
to protract the defence. Before the termination of the siege
they were reduced to such distress from famine, that, accord
ing to Josephus, a rich and noble lady was driven by hunger
to kill and eat her own child. In order to prevent supplies
from being brought into the city, as well as to cut off all

190 scripture geography. JER
possibility of escape, Titus surrounded it with a wall, which
was built by the exertions of his whole array in three days.
The city was finally taken by assault on the 17th day of July,
when a dreadful carnage followed, and the city and temple
were burnt and razed to the ground. The number of those who
perished in this siege is computed by Josephus at 1,100,000,
besides many thousands killed in other parts of the country
during the same war.
After this, Jerusalem lay in ruins about 47 years, when the
emperor ^Elius Adrian began to build it anew ; erecting a
heathen temple, which he dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus.
(See the medals at the end of this article.) The city was
finished in the 20th year of his reign ; and was named -<Elia
Capitolina, from its founder, and the heathen deity who pre
sided over it. The Jews, having again rebelled, were again
subdued, and the city once more nearly destroyed ; it was,
however, restored by Adrian, who, enraged at the unconquer
able spirit of the Jews, forbade them on pain of death ever to
enter it, and to show his detestation of them, he placed the
marble statue of a hog over the gate leading to Bethlehem.
Jerusalem continued under the name of JUlia, inhabited more
by Christians and Pagans, than by Jews, till the time of the
emperor Constantine, who about the year 323 much improved
the city, restored its ancient name, and adorned it with many
new edifices and churches.
The emperor Julian, commonly called the apostate, having
abjured the Christian religion, and with the avowed design of
defeating the prophecies which had declared that the temple
should not be rebuilt, invited the Jews to return to the city,
promising to restore their temple and nation. Great numbers
of workmen were employed to clear the foundations ; but they
were soon obliged to desist by balls of fire which broke from
the earth, with earthquakes, whirlwinds, and other terrific
and supernatural phenomena. The truth of this miraculous
interposition of Providence, is attested by many credible wit
nesses and historians, heathens and Jews, as well as Christians.
In the beginning of the 7th century, Jerusalem was taken
and plundered by Chosroes, king of Persia, by whom many
thousands of the Christian inhabitants were killed, or sold for
slaves. It was soon retaken by the emperor Heraclius, and
restored to the Christians; the Jews being forbidden to come
within three miles of it Not long after this the Caliph Omar,
the third from Mahomet, invested the city, which, after once

JER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 191
more sufiering the horrors of a protracted siege, surrendered
on terms of capitulation in the year 637. Omar religiously
observed the terms of the treaty, and allowed the Christians
the use of their churches ; only requesting to be shown a place
where he might build a mosque. The patriarch showed him
the site of the temple, which, out of hatred to the Jews, had
been used by the Christians as a receptacle for the filth of the
town. This was cleared away, and a mosque was erected
by Omar, which has stood to the present time, and is reckoned
the first in size and magnificence, and the second in sanctity,
of all in the Mahometan dominions. From the Saracens of
Arabia, Jerusalem was taken by the Turks, and again from
them by the Saracens of Egypt.
In the year 1099, it again passed into the hands of the
Christians, being taken by the Crusaders under Godfrey of
Bouillon, who made a general massacre of the inhabitants ;
70,000 of whom were filled with the sword ; and the Jews,
equally the object of the pious hatred of the crusaders, were
collected together and burnt. Godfrey was chosen king of
Jerusalem, which was held by the Christians 88 years; and
then surrendered to Saladin, the sultan of Egypt, who per
mitted the Christians to ransom their lives. About 40 years
after this, it was given up to the emperor Frederic II., on con
dition that the walls should not be rebuilt, and that the
mosques should be reserved for the use of the Mussulmans.
The Christians soon after rose upon the Mahometans ; which
quickly brought the exasperated sultan upon them, who killed
great numbers, and razed this unfortunate city once more to
the ground. About 50 years after this, the western Christians,
who had continued to hold the maritime parts of Palestine,
with Acre for their capital, were totally and finally expelled
from the Holy Land by the sultan Khalil. Jerusalem was
next transferred to the Mamelukes, or foreign slaves and sol
diers of the Egyptian sultans ; who had risen on their masters
and usurped the government. The city remained in their
possession, in a desolate and half-ruined state, about 260 years,
when the Mameluke power fell before that of Othman, or
Ottoman Turks, in whose possession it has continued to the
present time, a prey to the tyranny of that nation.
Jerusalem in its most flourishing state, was four miles and
a half in circumference, and was divided into four parts, each
inclosed with its own walls.
Of the public edifices of this city, the temple claims our

192 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. JER
chief notice. The original temple, or that built by Solomon,
is particularly described in the Old Testament It was seven
years and six months in building, and was dedicated with
peculiar solemnity to the worship of the Most High, in the
year of the world 3001, before Christ 1003. It retained its
original splendour only 33 or 34 years ; when Shishak, king
of Egypt, took Jerusalem and carried away the treasures of
the temple : and after undergoing subsequent profanations and
pillages, this stupendous building was finally plundered and
burnt by the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar in the year of
the world 3416. 2 Kings xxv. 13-15. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17-20.
After the captivity, the temple emerged from its ruins,
being rebuilt by Zerubbabel, but with vastly inferior and
diminished glory ; as appears from the tears of the aged men
who had beheld the former structure in all its grandeur.
(Ezra iii. 12.) The second temple was profaned by Antiochus
Epiphanes, B. C. 163, who caused the daily sacrifice to be dis
continued, and erected the image of Jupiter Olympus on the
altar of burnt-offering. Three years after, it was purified by
Judas Maccabeus, who restored the true worship of Jehovah.
Some years before the birth of Christ, the repairing, or
gradual rebuilding of this second temple was undertaken by
Herod, who for nine years employed 18,000 workmen upon
it, and spared no expense in its adornment. The Jews con
tinued for some years to ornament and enlarge it; so that
they might assert with propriety that this temple had been
forty-and-six years in building. John ii. 20.
The temple itself, strictly so called, (which comprised the
portico, the sanctuary, and the holy of holies,) formed only a
small part of the sacred edifice on Mount Moriah, being sur
rounded by spacious courts, making a square of half a mile in
tircumference. It was entered through nine gates, which
vere on every side thickly coated with gold and silver ; but
here was one gate of surpassing beauty, made of Corinthian
arass, the most precious metal in ancient times. It was also
Iiuch larger than the others ; and its ornaments far more
costly and massive. This is supposed to have been the " gate
called beautiful," mentioned in Acts iii. 2. The inner temple,
or sanctuary, was covered on every side with plates of gold ;
so that when the sun rose upon it it reflected so strong
and dazzling an effulgence, that the eye of the spectator
was obliged to turn away, being no more able to sustain its
radiance than the splendour of the sun. To strangers who

JER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 193
were approaching, it appeared at u. distance like a mountain
covered with snow, for where it was not decorated with plates
of gold, it was extremely white and glistening. On the top
it had sharp pointed spikes of gold, to prevent any bird from
resting upon it, and polluting it. There were in this build
ing, stones which were 45 cubits in length, 5 in height, and
6 in breadth. Yet fully was the prediction of our Lord veri
fied ; for in the short space of about 30 years after he spoke,
this most magnificent temple, which the Jews had literally
turned into, a den of thieves, was, through the righteous judg
ment of God upon that wicked and abandoned nation, utterly
destroyed by the Romans, in the same month, and on the
same day of the month, when Solomon's temple had been
razed to the ground by the Babylonians, 657 years before ! It
is said that Titus wished to save the temple, and had given
orders to that effect But it was necessary for the fulfilment
of prophecy, that his orders should not be obeyed ; and a sol
dier, in the midst of the horror and confusion of such a time,
set fire to it ; when 6000 men, women, and children, who had
been led to seek security there by the assurances of a false
prophet, perished in the flames, or in attempting to leap from
the burning edifice. Titus himself afterwards ordered the
very foundations to be dug up ; so literally was the prediction
of our Saviour verified, that not one stone of that stupendous
pile should be left standing on another. Mark xiii. 2.
The most remarkable antiquities yet shown in Jerusalem,
and its neighbourhood, are the pools of Bethesda and Gihon ;
the tomb of the Virgin Mary, in the valley of Jehoshaphat ;
the tomb of king Jehoshaphat ; Absalom's pillar ; the tomb of
Zachariah ; and the royal sepulchres, which are evidently of
very great antiquity, and are cut out of the solid rock ; but it
is not agreed what kings were buried here. Of the church
of the Holy Sepulchre, we have spoken in the article Calvary,
and other interesting antiquities of the neighbourhood will
be found described in their proper places.
Jerusalem, called universally in Egypt and Syria El Kouds,
the holy city, is built upon high rocky ground, and, as seen
from Mount Olivet, the modern city presents an inclined
plane, descending from west to east. It is inclosed by a high
wall, fortified with towers ; and towards the west, and in the
centre of the city, the houses are numerous and closely built ;
but towards the east, large vacancies are observed. The
houses are mostly low, generally only one story high, without
R

194

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

JER

chimneys, and having flat roofs of stone, containing cisterns to
preserve the rain-water, which is collected for use, the city
containing neither wells, fountains, nor streams. The streets
are narrow and crooked, without pavements, full of loose stones
«nd abrupt declivities. The shops are few and mean, indi-

jp^liezek

Plan of Jerusalem and its environs.
A. Temple on Mount Moriah. B. Zion, or city of David. C.Salem,
the Lower Town. D. Bezr.ta, or the New Town.
eating the poverty of the inhabitants, and the oppression of
their Turkish masters. The population of Jerusalem is esti
mated to be: Mahometans 13,000, Jews 4000, and Christians
of various denominations 3000.

JER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 195
The Jews, the legitimate masters of Judea, are now as
slaves and strangers in their own land ; yet still awaiting,
under this most cruel and despotic government, a king who is
to work their deliverance. Six times have they witnessed
the destruction of Jerusalem, yet still they are not discouraged
— still their looks are turned upon Zion, from which nothing
can divert them. Near that temple, of which there does net
remain one stone upon another, they yet continue to dwell ;
and while the Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, have
disappeared from the face of the earth, tliis small people,
whose origin is much more ancient than that of these mighty
nations, still survive amidst the ruins of their country, with
no alteration of manners, and no mixture of foreign blood.
The Christians, though also pillaged and oppressed, and
their lives constantly in danger, yet linger around the Holy
Sepulchre, and the scenes made sacred by the presence and
miracles of the Saviour of the world. From the tomb of that
Saviour, neither the menaces of death, nor indignities, nor
robberies of every description, can drive them; and their
hymns and prayers resound night and day about that spot
where Jesus Christ suffered for the salvation of man.
This city, though decayed and " trodden down by the Gen
tiles," will always be^interesting to the believer in revelation.
Here his fond, delighted imagination will be fixed, not only
on account of the splendid scenes of Old Testament history ;
not only because here the Son of God accomplished the work
of human redemption ; not only because the spark was here
kindled which shall enlighten all nations ; — but because here
a constellation of prophecies have been fulfilled, in such a
manner as to carry conviction to every candid and unpreju
diced mind, of the solemn and sublime truths of Divine reve
lation.

196

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

JEZ

No. 1. This medal of Jerusalem, proves the truth of those histories
which inform us that the city, after being destroyed by the Romans
under Titus, was rebuilt by Hadrian, and formed into a colony. The
medal has the head of Efadrian on one side; on ihe other a colonist
driving oxen, which was the usual type of a colony, with a military
ensign, and the inscription col. ael. capit. cond. implying that Ha
drian was the condilor, founder, or re-establisher of the colony of jEtia
Capitotina, or Jerusalem. This is probably one of the first medals
struck on this occasion.

We are told in the life of Hadrian by Xiphylinus, that he built a
temple to Jupiter, in the very spot where the temple of God had stood;
and he made the Jews pay to this temple the same contributions as
they had been accustomed to pay yearly to their temple. No. 2. represents
Jupiter sitting in this temple, conversing with Minerva, and attended
by the female genius of the place, or by Juno.
No. 3. A head of Serapis. As this deity was the principal God of
Egypt, he is supposed to have been brought from thence, and worship
ped at Jerusalem.

No. 4. Ashtaroth, or Astarte, was among the ido-Is of Syria; and this
medal proves that she was also worshipped in Jerusalem, She holds in

.!0P DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 19?
ner left hand a staff; in her right a human head, and treads on a figure
lying down. Comm. on this medal, signifies Commodtana : it is a coin
of Severus.
JNo. 5. A coin of Hostilianus, with a figure standing, a blunt spear in
his right hand, and a human head in his left. The caduceus behind
rum, as well as the general character, denotes this to be Mercury.
There were then in Jerusalem temples to Jupiter, Serapis, Astarte,
and Mercury ; and, as is shown by odier medals, lo the Sun, to Bac
chus, Minerva, and June. These profanations are surely proofs tha
superstition and idolatry succeeded the worship of God in this once
holy city, and that it was indeed " trodden down by the Gentiles."
Jeshana, the name of a place, (2 Chron. xiii. 19.) probably
the same, afterwards called Zin, which Eusebius and Jerom
say was seven miles north of Jericho.
Jeshimon, a place in the tribe of Judah. 1 Sam. xxiii. 24.
Jethlah, a city of Dan. Josh. xix. 42.
Jezreel, a noted city, since called Esdraelon, situated in a
plain or valley of the same name, on the borders of Manasseh
and Issachar. Josh. xix. 18. 1 Kings xviii. 46, &c.
Also a city in Judah. Josh. xv. 56. 1 Sam. xxix. 1.
Jiphtah, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 43.
Jiphthah-el, a valley in the tribe of Zebulon. Josh. xix. 14.
Jogbeha, a city of Gad. Numb, xxxii. 35.
Jokdeam, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 56.
Jokmeam, a city of Ephraim, given to the Levites. 1 Chron.
vi. 68.
Jokneam, a city of Zebulon, given to the Levites, (Josh.
xxi. 34. xix. 11.) the same as Jokneam of Carmel, (Josh. xii.
22.) so called from being near Mount Carmel.
Joktheel, a city of Judah. (Josh. xv. 38.) Also a place
taken by Amaziah, king of Judah, from the Edomites : sup
posed by Eusebius and others to be the city, afterwards called
Petrea, the capital of Arabia Petrea. The city, before its cap
ture, was called Selah, which word means in Hebrew a rock,
the same as Pelra in Greek. 2 Kings xiv. 7.
Joppa, a sea-port town in the west of Canaan, lying near
the boundary between Dan and Ephraim, south of Csesarea.
It was anciently the only port to Jerusalem ; whence the ma
terials sent from Tyre for building the temple of Solomon,
were landed here. (2 Chron. ii. 16.) It is a very ancient city,
and was formerly called Japho, Josh. xix. 46.) being, accord
ing to tradition, and the fables of ancient authors, built before
the deluge. Its modern name is Jaffa : it is well fortified, and
is inhabited by Turks and Arabs, with a mixture of Greeks,
2R

198 scripture geography. JOR
Maronites, and Armenians. The houses are small, and sur
rounded with ruins of ancient walls and towers. The Franks,
Greeks, and Armenians, have each of them houses here, for
the reception of pilgrims who land at this place ; where they
have to pay for permission to visit the Holy Land. This money
is partly sent to Mecca, and partly to Constantinople.
Jaffa was laid waste in the crusades, and afterwards de
stroyed by an earthquake ; but it is now somewhat recovered,
and that part near the sea is adorned with handsome houses
of stone. The town carries on a considerable trade in soap
and rice, and has a population of about 1500. It was taken
by the French army of Egypt, under Bonaparte, in 1797, and
retained forty days.
Jordan, the largest and most celebrated river in the Land
of Canaan, and very frequently mentioned in Scripture. It
rises in the mountains of Lebanon, in the northern extremity
of Canaan, and after running 16 or 18 miles, spreads out in a
flat marshy place, forming the lake Semechon, called in Scrip
ture the wafers of Merom. After leaving this lake, and run
ning about 15 miles further, it enters the sea of Galilee, or
Tiberias, from the southern end of which it again issues, and
after a course, still south, of about 150 miles further, it final
ly empties into the Dead Sea.
Below the Sea of Galilee, the river is generally 20 or 30
yards wide, and is described by travellers to be deep and
rapid. The water is turbid, but wholesome. On both sides
along the Jordan, there is a great plain or valley, which ex
tends from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea. Josephus
says this plain is 150 miles long, and 15 wide. Though this
river anciently overflowed its banks in the spring, when the
snows were melting on Mount Lebanon, yet it seems evident,
from the accounts of modern travellers, that these floods are
now less, and more rare. This may have arisen, in some
measure, from the channel having worn deeper. The banks
of the river are in many places covered with trees and reeds,
under which the lions and other wild beasts hide ; and from
whence they are driven, by the rise of the waters. There is
an allusion to this, in Jer. xlix. 19.
The regular passages over Jordan were, 1. Jacob's bridge,
between lakes Semechon and Gennesareth ; a stone bridge,
with three arches, supposed to be more ancient than the days
of that patriarch. 2. A bridge at the issue of the river from,
the Lake of Gennesareth. 3. Bethabara, rather a ferry than

JUD DICTIONARY of the bible. 199
a bridge. (2 Sam. xix. 18.) It is also probable there was an
other at Bethshan, or Scythopolis.
Jotbah, a city of Judah, the native place of the mother of
Amon, king of Judah. 2 Kings xxi. 19.
Jotbathah, an encampment of the Israelites, between
Horhagidgad and Ebronali. Numb, xxxiii. 33.
Judah, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I. p
63. Judea; this name was originally applied only to the terri
tory belonging to the tribe of Judah ; but after the revolt of
the ten tribes, under Rehoboam, when Judah and Benjamin
were united in the same government, the name of Judah or
Judea was applied to both territories. Afterwards, when the
ten tribes had been carried into captivity, and Judah seemed
of course to possess the vacant territories of Simeon, and
Dan, all the southern part of the country was called Judea,
Finally, after the captivity and return of Judah from Babylon,
the name was extended to nearly the whole of the Holy Land ;
and is used at present, something like the term Palestine, in
definitely denoting either Judea proper, or the whole of the
country formerly inhabited by the Jews.
We have given in Part I. and under the article Canaan,
an account of the situation and boundaries of this country, as
well as its general history up to the time of its division
among the twelve tribes under Joshua. This division, the whole
being united under one government, continued during the
tunes of the judges and kings, a period of 475 years ; until
the revolt of ten of the twelve tribes from the authority of
Rehoboam, and the establishment of a separate kingdom
under Jeroboam. From this time Judea was divided into two
kingdoms : that of Judah, consisting of the tribes of Judah
and Benjamin, in the southern part, of which Jerusalem was
the capital ; and that of Israel, consisting of all the other
tribes, in the middle and north, of which Samaria (after the
time of Omri, the sixth king) was the capital. The two
kingdoms existed together about 250 years; when in the year
721 before Christ, Samaria was taken, after a siege of three
years, by Salmaneser, and most of the Israelites, who had
escaped slaughter, were carried captive into Assyria. The
kingdom of Judah continued 133 years longer ; when Jerusa
lem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 588 B. C., the temple
burnt, and Zedekiah the king, with the greater number of his
subjects, were carried in captivity to Babylon.

200 scripture geography. JUD
Judea now remained a desolate appendage of the Bay Ionian
empire, until the subversion of that power by Cyrus of Per
sia, 537 B. C, who, in the first year of his reign, issued an
edict, empowering the Jews to return to their own country
to rebuild their city and temple, and to live once more under
their own religion and laws. In the following year, part of
the Jews returned under Zerubbabel, and renewed their sac
rifices ; but the building of the city and temple, was for several
years interrupted by the treachery of the Samaritans. This
people, made up of the eastern colonies which Esarhaddon
had transplanted into the vacant cities of Israel, living under
Assyrian or Persian governors, and who had engrafted Juda
ism upon Paganism, conceived a deadly hatred to the Jews ;
which was heightened in the present instance by a jealousy
of the political existence of the Jews so near them. They
accordingly used every means of opposition in their power ;
but by the prudence of the Jewish rulers, and the favour of
Darius Hystaspes, who saw through the misrepresentation
and craft of the Samaritans, all opposition was surmounted ;
and the Samaritans were punished by being made to serve
the very people they had endeavoured to supplant The tem
ple was completed 26 years after the decree of Cyrus : but
the Jews had yet but partially returned, and their affairs were
in a very unsettled state, until the year 458 B. C, when Ezra,
and afterwards Nehemiah, were sent by Artaxerxes as gov
ernors of the Jews ; and under whom the walls of Jerusalem
were rebuilt, and the affairs of both church and state, happily
settled. 1'rom this time the Jews enjoyed, during a period of near
300 years, almost uninterrupted prosperity ; — governed by
their high priests, although subject to the kings of Persia,
until the overthrow of that empire by Alexander. They were
afterwards subject to the kings of Syria, until Antiochus Epi-
phanes commenced his persecutions against them ; when,
under the conduct of Mattathias and his son Judas, surnamed
Maccabeus, they took up arms against their oppressors ; and
after a religious war of 26 years, with five successive
kings of Syria, they succeeded in establishing the indepen
dence of their country, and the sovereignty of the family
of Mattathias. The princes of this family, generally called
Asmoneans, from Asmoneus the father of Mattathias, united
the royal and priestly dignity in their own persons, and
administered the affairs of the Jews during a period of

JUD DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 201
126 years, until a dispute arising between Hyrcanus II. and
his brother Aristobulus, the Romans, under Pompey, seized
the opportunity of reducing Judea to the condition of a pro
vince of the empire. Julius Crosar, having defeated Pompey,
continued Hyrcanus in the high priesthood ; but made Anti-
pater, an Idumean, prefect or governor of Judea. Antipater,
at his death, divided the country between his two sons, Pha-
sael and Herod ; giving to the former the government of
Jerusalem and Judea proper, and to the latter that of Galilee.
Shortly after, Judea was invaded by the Parthians, then rising
into a formidable power, and contending with the Romans for
the empire of the east Both Hyrcanus and Phasael were
taken prisoners by this people ; but Herod, having escaped,
went to Rome, where he was made by Mark Antony, with
the consent of the senate, sole ruler of Judea, including Gal
ilee, with the title of king. During his long reign, Judea
rose into some degree of importance ; but the people groaned
under the most arbitrary despotism. He adorned the princi
pal towns with magnificent buildings, and his treasures were
lavished with much show of liberality ; but this was at the
expense of his wretched subjects, whose lives and fortunes
were at his disposaL After enduring this oppression 37 years,
they were released by the death of this tyrant, who has been
misnamed the Great
It was during the reign of Herod, that our Saviour, Jesus
Christ, was born at Bethlehem ; his parents having gone
thither from Nazareth to be taxed, that is, to be enrolled in
the general census for the payment of a capitation tax ; ac
cording to a law instituted by Servius Tullius, the sixth king
of Rome, which required an enrolment of every inhabitant
of the empire, with their quality, employment, wives, chil
dren and estates. Herod, hearing of the extraordinary birth
at Bethlehem, and knowing that the Jevvs expected a de
liverer about this time, felt jealous or apprehensive of the
security of his throne, and issued a decree for the indiscrimi
nate slaughter of the whole infant population of Bethlehem ;
not doubting that the expected prince of the Jews would fall
in the general massacre. But our Lord was preserved by the
flight of his parents into Egypt, where they remained until
the death of the king.
The dominions of Herod were divided among his three
sons, Archelaus, Antipas, and Philip. To Archelaus, he left
Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, with the title of king ; to Anti-

202 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. JUD
pas, Galilee and Perea, with the title of tetrarch ; and to
Philip, Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, and Batanea, also with the
title of tetrarch. The reign of Archelaus was turbulent ;
and was troublesome to the Romans from frequent insurrec
tion of the Jews ; at length complaints having been made
against him of mal-administration, he was deposed and ban
ished by the Romans ; his territories being annexed to the
province of Syria. It was Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee,
surnamed Herod after his father, who beheaded John the
Baptist to please the wife of his brother Philip, whom he had
married, and for which unlawful and incestuous connexion,
the intrepid Baptist had boldly reproached him. It was this
Herod, also, who laid snares for our Saviour, (Luke xiii.)
He was afterwards banished by the Romans for aspiring to
the regal dignity. After this the government of Judea and
some of the adjoining provinces was given to Agrippa the
elder, or Herod Agrippa, who was a son of Aristobulus, the
son of Herod the Great This Herod Agrippa became sole
king of the Jews, and reigned over a greater extent of terri
tory than his grandfather, Herod the Great, had done. He
died at CaBsarea in the manner related in Acts xii. (which is
confirmed by Josephus) in the seventh year of his reign.
This is the Agrippa, or " Herod the king" as he is called in
the same chapter, who put to death the apostle James, and
.'ntended that of Peter. It was before the younger Agrippa,
son of the preceding Herod Agrippa, that St Paul delivered
his eloquent defence, which almost persuaded the king to be
come a Christian. (Acts xxvi.) He was king only of some
of the northern and eastern provinces ; the rest of Judea re
maining still under the government of the Roman procurator.
It was governed only for a short time by Herod Agrippa, who
took the administration of affairs upon the recall to Rome,
and subsequent banishment of Pontius Pilate. The. next
procurator or governor after this Agrippa, was Antonius Fe
lix, before whom Paul spoke, (Acts xxiv.) ; and who was suc
ceeded by Porcius Festus, before whom Paul (whose cause
had been left undecided by Felix) again defended himself"
The younger Agrippa was present at this defence, and joined
Festus in declaring that he had done nothing worthy of
death or of bonds. (Acts xxv.) Festus died in Judea, about
A. D. 62, and was succeeded by Albinns. After him came
Gessius Florus, a cruel and avaricious governor, under whose
mal-administration the Jews, driven to desperation, took up

JUD DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 203
arms against the Romans, and commenced that war which
terminated in the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, and the
extinction of their own existence as a nation, in the year 70,
A. D.
To these events — the destruction of Jerusalem, the final
subversion of the Jewish nation, the dispersion of the people,
¦uid the long-continued devastation of the land which was to
follow — so many well-known prophecies relate, that it must
De quite unnecessary to cite them.
From the time of its last invasion by the Romans, Judea,
inhabited almost entirely by Christians and Pagans, continued
a part of the Roman empire until the year 637 ; when the
Saracens, under their caliph Omar, having rapidly overrun
the greater part of the east, invaded Judea, and held it till
1079, when they were driven out by the Seljukian Turks ;
who in their turn were expelled by the armies of the Crusa
ders, who, assembling in countless numbers from almost every
nation in Europe, soon overspread the country, and converted
it from a Mahometan to a Christian state, with a king at its
head, the first of whom was Godfrey of Bouillon. The Cru
saders held possession of Judea about 90 years, from 1099 to
1188 ; during which time a regular church establishment was
instituted, consisting of a patriarch, with many archbishops;
and priories, abbeys, convents and nunneries, of different
orders, without number. These different religious establish
ments were rich in the possession of extensive lands, castles,
and towns ; and furnished 7000 troops for the defence of the
state. Saladin, the sultan of Egypt, overthrew this Christian
government, and annexed Judea to his empire, in which state
it was held by his successors about 50 years ; when it was
wrested from them, together with Egypt, by their own foreign
slaves, the Mamelukes ; who retained it till the year 1517,
when it was seized by the Ottoman Turks, under whose
despotic sway, in darkness and desolation, it remains at the
present day.
Such is a brief outline of the history of this once favoured
country : and who can contemplate its present condition — its
cities in ruins ; its fields lying waste ; its ports deserted ; its
roads, bridges, and fountains broken up and destroyed ; its
inhabitants few and wretched, deprived alike of every source
of knowledge and enjoyment, and stripped by the extortions
of a rapacious government and the plunder of the Arabs ;
property insecure ; and labour useless —who can contemplate.

204 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. JUD
all this without feeling a deep conviction of the truth of tne
firophetic denunciations, so frequent in Scripture, against this
and ; once so peculiarly favoured by the divine protection :
The ancient Jews seem to have been almost exclusively a
pastoral people, a nation of farmers and shepherds ; their pa
triarchs, lawgivers, judges, kings, warriors, prophets, — were
all, at different times, tillers of the ground and keepers of
flocks; and suffered no degradation from their station as hus
bandmen. In the patriarchal ages, and long after, throughout
the eastern world, as in Arabia at the present day, the pasto
ral life Was the most honourable, and wealth and rank were
estimated by the amount of flocks and herds. Even the fe
males of rank thought it no disgrace to be similarly employed ;
and the daughters of Bethuel, of Laban, and of Jethro, were
found tending their fathers' flocks. In such a state of society,
the distinctions of rank must have been fewer and less dis-
propottioned than in modern civilized nations. There were
no idle people living on the sweat of the brow of their fellow-
men, and looking down with scorn on those whom Providence
especially honours by making them useful in their generation.
The face of the country in Judea is beautifully diversified
with hills and plains — hills now barren and gloomy, but once
cultivated to their summits and smiling in the variety of their
produce, chiefly the olive and the vine ; and plains, ovei
which the Arab now roves to collect a scanty herbage for his
cattle, but once yielding an abundance of which the inhabit
ants of a northern climate can form no idea. Rich in its
soil, glowing in the sunshine of an almost perpetual summer ;
and abounding in scenery of the grandest and most beautiful
kind ; this happy country was indeed a land which the Lord
had blessed : but Mahometan sloth and despotism, as the in
struments employed to execute the curse of heaven, have
converted it into a waste of rock and desert, with the excep
tion of some few spots which remain to attest the veracity
of the accounts formerly given of it.
The hills of Judea frequently rise into mountains ; the most
considerable of which are those of Lebanon and Hermon, on
the north ; but those which surround the sea of Galilee and
the Dead Sea are also of considerable elevation. The other
mountains of note are Carmel, Tabor, Ebal, and Gerizim ;
with the mountains of Gilboa, Gilead, and Abarim ; with the
summits of the latter, Nebo and Pisgah; a description of
which will be found under their respective heads. Many of

UD DICTIONARY of THE BIBLE. 205
the hills and rocks abound with caverns — the refuge of the
distressed, or the resorts of robbers.
Owing to the scarcity of rain in Judea, and the heat and
dryness of the atmosphere, there are but few rivers ; and as
these all rise within its boundaries, their course is short, and
their size inconsiderable. The principal is the Jordan : the
other remarkable streams are, the Arnon, Jabbok, Kishon,
Kedron, Besor, Sorek, and the stream called the river of
Egypt. For a description, the reader is referred to these
articles. This country was once adorned with woods and forests ; as
we read of the forest of cedars in Lebanon ; the forest of
oaks in Bashan ; the forest or wood of Ephraim, &c. Of these
the woods of Bashan alone remain as described by travellers ;
the rest have been swept away by the ravages of time and
of armies, and by the gradual consumption of the, inhabitants,
whose indolence and ignorance have prevented their preserv
ing the trees or planting others.
Wildernesses or deserts are frequently mentioned in the
sacred writings. Of these there are but few in Judea, which
must not be compared with the extensive wastes of Arabia
and Africa ; they are of small extent, and consist of unculti
vated tracts, either mountainous and rocky, or plain and
sandy. Those in this country are, the wilderness of Ziph,
of Tekoa, of Kedemoth, and of Judea.
Judea, under its present governments, is divided into pasha-
licks, or districts, each governed by its pasha, or petty prince,
subject to the Turkish sultan or emperor. Of these districts
there are three : Acre and Gaza, on the coast, of which the
latter is the chief, and may be said to include the former ; and
that of Damascus on the east, including Jerusalem, Hebron,
Naplous, and Tiberias : the pasha of Damascus holding the
pashalick of Aleppo, is, in fact, the viceroy of Syria.
Lately the pasha of Egypt, having revolted from the sul
tan, has obtained possession of this country ; but what may
be its future destiny, considering the present disturbed state
of the Turkish empire, must be left to conjecture.
The present inhabitants of Judea consist of a mixed popula
tion of Turks, Syrians, Arabs ; Latin, Greek, and Armenian
Christians; Copts, Druses, and Jews. Of these the poor Jews
form but a small proportion, and live in obscurity and retire
ment ; compelled to use every art to escape the tyranny and
rapacity of their ferocious rulers.
S

206

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

JUD

No. 1. A medal representing the daughter of Zion, by which figure
the Hebrew poels and prophets personified their country, sitting under
a palm tree, in a mournful attitude ; accompanied by a prisoner whose
hands are tied behind him. This captive figure may represent the
nation of the Jews, or one of their chiefs. Inscription Jumla capta,
Judea vanquished, or conquered. This may remind us of the captives
in Babylon who " sat down and wept ;" but what is more remarkable,
we find Judea represented as a woman in sorrow, sitting on the ground,
in a passage of the prophet which foretells the very captivity recorded
on these medals.
No 2. has on one side of the palm tree, a collection of arms and
standards ; and on the other, the daughter of Zion, weeping as before,
and addressing the conqueror, vicisti oesak, thou luist conquered
C&sar .'

No. 3. The side represents Victory, inscribing on a shield the tri
umph of the Romans ; she tramples, at the same time, on a battered hel
met. Motto Victoria A-uqusti, the victory of Augustus. The second
represents a warrior holding a blunt spear, a sheathed sword, and

KAR

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

207

trampling on a helmet. This denotes peace procured at the expense of
the vanquished, whom we see depicted by the figure of a woman
weeping, under a palm tree.

No. 4. The head is Vespasian ; Ihe reverse represents Peace holding
up an olive branch, arid burning the implements of war before an,
allar; behind her is a column, importing a trophy of success. After
the conclusion of the Jewish war, Ihis emperor built a temple to Peace,
in which he deposiled the spoils of Judea, after having carried tnem
in triumph. Judea, wilderness of: a neglected tract of country, lying
along both sides of the Jordan, and perhaps the Dead Sea.
It was called a wilderness, not because it was absolutely un
inhabited ; but because it was less populous than the other
parts of the country. Here John the Baptist first taught,
and Christ was tempted. Matt. iii. 1. Mark i. 4. 13.

K.
Kabzeel, a city of Judah, near the south-western shore of
the Dead Sea, (Josh. xv. 21.) and was the native place of
Benaiah, one of David's mighty men. 2 Sam xxiii. 20.
Kadesh ; See Part I. p. 47.
Kadmonites, an ancient people of Canaan. See Part I.
p. 33.
Kanah, a brook on the border of Ephraim and Manasseh.
(Josh. xvi. 8. xvii. 9.) Also a city of Asher. Josh. xjx. 28.
Karkaa, a place in the border of the tribe of Judah. Josh.
xv. 3.
Kareor, a town in the tribe of Gad, near the head of the
Arnon. Judges viii. 10.

208 scripture geography. KID
Kartah, a city of Zebulon, given to the Levites. Josh.
xxi. 34.
Kartan, a city of Naphtali, given to the Levites, (Josh.
xxi. 32.) probably the same as Kiriathaim. 1 Chron. vi. 76.
Kattath, a town of Zebulon, (Josh. xix. 15.) called Kilron
Judges i. 30.
Kedar, a district in the north of Arabia Felix, so called
from Kedar, the son of Ishmael. (Gen. xxv. 13.) The peo
ple dwelt in tents, (Psalm cxx.) were rich in cattle, (Isa. Ix.
7.) of a swarthy complexion, (Song i. 5.) and excellent
archers. Isa. xxi. 17.
Kedemoth, a city of Reuben, near the river Arnon, from
which the wilderness of Kedemoth probably received its
name, lying near it. Josh. xiii. 18. Deut. ii. 26.
Kedesh, a city of Naphtali, (Josh. xix. 37.) given to the
Levites, (xxi. 32.) and a city of refuge, (xx. 7.) It is fre
quently called in Scripture Kedesh-Naphtali, to distinguish it
from another place of the same name in the tribe of Judah.
It was situated in the east of Naphtali, 20 miles from Tyre ;
and is called Kadosa by Josephus, and Kedes in the Greek of
Tobit i. 2.
Kedesh was also a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 23.) but it seems
never to have been a place of much note. There was also
a place of this name in Issachar, (1 Chron. vi. 72.) probably
the same called Kishion. Josh. xix. 20.
Kedron, a brook. See Kidron.
Kehalathah, an encampment of Israel in the wilderness.
Numb, xxxiii. 22.
Keilah, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 44.) eight miles north
west of Hebron. It was still a place of some note in the
fourth century ; and it is said that the tomb of Habakkuk, the
prophet, was shown there. 1 Sam. xxiii. 1. 1 Chron. iv. 19.
Kenath, a town of Manasseh, east of Jordan. Numb.
xxxii. 42.
Kenites, and Kenizites, people of Canaan. See Part I.
p. 33.
Keziz, a valley in the tribe of Benjamin. Josh, xviii. 21.
Kibroth-hattaavah, an encampment of the Israelites in
the wilderness. See Purl I. p. 46.
Kibzaim, a city of Ephraim. Josh. xxi. 22.
Kidron, a brook running through the valley of Jehosha
phat, on the east of Jerusalem, between the city and the
Mount of Olives. This brook has but a small quantity of

K1S dictionary of the bible. 209
water, and is often quite dry ; but upon sudden and heavy
rains it swells and runs with great rapidity. It was thus of
singular service to the city, as it received the contents of the
common sewers, and upon every such flood carried them off
into the Dead Sea. Not only the blood poured at the foot of
the altar in the temple, but the filth from the sacrifices, was
earned by a drain into this brook.
Kilmad, supposed to be a city of Media. Ezek. xxvii. 23.
Kinah, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 22.
Kir, a city of Assyria or Media, to which the people of
Damascus were carried captive by Tiglath-Pileser. 2 Kings
xvi. 9.
Kir-heres, the capital of Moab, the same as Rabbath-
Moab and Ar. This place was ravaged by the Assyrians and
Chaldeans. Isa. xv. 1. Jer. xlviii. 31. 36.
Kirjath, or Kiriath, the Hebrew word which signifies a
city; whence we so frequently find it in the names of places.
There was a town of this name in the tribe of Benjamin.
* Josh, xviii. 28.
Kirjathaim, a city of Moab, given to the tribe of Reuben.
Numb, xxxii. 37. Josh. xiii. 19.
Also a city of Naphtali, (1 Chron. vi. 76.) thought to be
the same as Kartan. Josh. xxi. 32.
Kirjath-arba, the ancient name of Hebron. See Part I.
p. 32.Kirjath-baal, a city of Judah, called also Kirjath-jearim.
Josh. xv. 60.
Kirjath-huzoth, the royal city of Balak, king of Moab.
Numb. xxii. 39.
Kirjath-jearim, a city of the Gibeonites, (Josh. ix. 17.)
called also Kirjath-baal, and Baalath: given to Judah, and
afterwards to Dan. Josh. xv. 60. xix. 44. See Part I. p. 56.'
Kirjath-sepher, Kirjath-sanna, or Debir, a city of Judah.
See Part I. p. 57.
Kishion, a city of Issachar, given to the Levites. Josh.
xix. 20. xxi. 28.
Kishon, a brook or river of Canaan. There seem to have
been two streams of this name, both rising near Mount Tabor,
in the tribe of Zebulon ; one flowing westward into the Medi
terranean, and the other eastward into the Sea of Galilee. It
is certain that the greater Kishon ran westward, and passed
near Mount Carmel, as we read, (1 Kings xviii. 40.) that the
prophets of Baal were brought down from the mountain, and
S2

210 scripture geography. LAO
slain at the brook of Kishon. Mr. Maundrel, the traveller,
tells us that this stream runs through the middle of the plain
of Esdraelon, and continuing its course close by the side of
Mount Carmel, falls into the sea at a place called Caiapha.
Kithlish, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 40.
Kitron, a city allotted to Zebulon, from which the Ca
naanites were not driven out. It appears to have been a
strong place. Judges i. 30.
Kittim, descendants of Javan, the son of Japheth. See
Part I. p. 19.
Koa, a region in Babylonia, mentioned in the prophecies
of Ezekiel, xxiii. 23.

L.
Laced^mon, (1 Mace, xii.) a famous city of Greece, called
also Sparta, which indeed was the proper name of the city.
Lacedremon being that of the country, according to Strabo
and Stephanus. This city was the capital of Laconia, and
situated on the Eurotas. It was smaller than Athens, but
equal or superior in power ; and in its most flourishing state
had no walls, the bravery of its citizens rendering them need-
lesa. In the time of Cassander, however, walls were erected,
which were pulled down by Philopoemon, 188 years after
Christ. Some time after this, Laconia was reduced to the
state of a Roman province, by the consul Mummius. The
town of Misistra now stands about a mile from the ancient
Lacedsmon. It appears, from ancient writers, that the Jews
claimed kindred with the Lacedaemonians, and that the latter,
after examination of their ancient records, allowed this kin
dred. Mr. Bryant supposes that the Lacedaemonians were
originally emigrants from the same country as Abraham.
Lachish, a city of Judah. (Josh. xv. 39.) See Part I. p. 57.
Lahmam, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 40.
Laish, or Leshem, a city near the head of the Jordan,
taken by the children of Dan, (Josh. xix. 47. Judges xviii. 7.
29.) and thence called Dan. See Ccesarea Philippi.
Lakum, a city of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 33.
Lahai-roi, a well. See Part I. p. 34.
Laodicea, a city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, situated on
the river Lycus, not far from Colosse. Its ancient name, ac
cording to Pliny, was Diospolis, which was afterwards changed
to Rhoas. It was rebuilt by Antiochus Theos, who named it
Laodicea, in honour of his wife Laodice. There are several

LEB dictionary of the bible. 211
other cities of this name mentioned in profane history ; but
the above-mentioned is the Laodicea of the New Testament.
Col. ii. 1 Rev. iii. 14.
This city was once one of the most commercial and wealthy
in Asia ; but, having been several times almost destroyed
by earthquakes, has been deserted by its inhabitants, and is
now a scene of ruins. The former wealth and luxury of its
people may be inferred from the *emains of sumptuous build
ings yet visible ; among which are two spacious theatres, with
seats rising in numerous rows, one above another. A modern
traveller says, " We saw no traces of either houses, churches,
or mosques; all was silence and solitude. A fox, which we
first discovered by its ears peeping over a brow, was the only
inhabitant of Laodicea."
Lashah, a city in the border of Canaan, probably not far
from Sodom. Gen. x. 19.
Lasba, a city in the island of Crete. Acts xxvii. 8.
Lebanon, the name of two opposite and parallel ridges of
mountains, called by the Greeks and Latins, Libanus and
Anti-Libanus, situated on the north of Canaan, and extend
ing from the neighbourhood of Sidon on the Mediterranean,
towards Damascus. The highest summits of these mountains
are covered with snow most of the year ; but their sides ana
the less elevated parts, are represented as being fruitful and
cultivated, enjoying a delightful temperature, and producing
corn, fruits, oil, and the best wine in Syria. Many rivers and
streams have their sources in the mountains of Lebanon, the
springs of which are increased by the melting of the snow
on the higher elevations. The Jordan, the Barrady, the
Orontes, and many smaller streams, all flow from these
mountains in different directions.
Though the mountains of Lebanon are of considerable ex
tent, yet the name is commonly confined to that part on which
the cedars grow ; other names being given to other parts of
these celebrated mountains. The cedars of Lebanon are
famed in Scripture, and trees of them are yet found there,
which are described by travellers as being thirty -six feet hi
circumference round the trunk, and evidently of great age.
There are not many remaining, but, according to appearances,
they were formerly more numerous than at present.
Lebaoth, a. city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 32.) called Beth-Le
booth, xix. 6.

212 scripture geography. LYB
Lebonah, a place not far from Shiloh, on the north. Judges
xxi. 19.
Lehabim, descendants of Misraim, the son of Ham. See
Part I. p. 26.
Lehi, a place in Judah, called also Ramalh-lehi, where
Samson killed 1000 Philistines with the jaw-bone of an ass.
Judges xv. 9. 14. 17.
Leshem, see Laish.
Levi, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I.
p. 62 and 67.
Libanus, see Lebanon.
Libnah, an encampment of the Israelites in the desert.
(Numb, xxxiii. 20.) Also a city in the tribe of Judah, 16
miles south-west of Jerusalem ; given to the Levites. (Josh.
x. 29. xii. 15. xv. 42. xxi. 13.) Also a city of Asher, called
Shihor-Iibnath. Josh. xix. 26.
Lod, a city, (1 Chron. viii. 12. Neh. xL 35.) called in the
Greek Lydda. 1 Mace. xi. 34. Acts ix. 35.
Lodebar, a place east of Jordan, near Mount Gilead. 2
Sam. ix. 4. xvii. 27.
Lubim, a people of Africa, inhabiting the country near
Egypt. 2 Chron. xii. 3. xvi. 8. See Lybia.
Ludim, the descendants of Lud, son of Misraim. See Part
I. p. 25.
Luhith, a place in the country of the Moabites, east of the
Dead Sea. Isa. xv. 5. Jer. xlviii. 5.
Luz, a city of the Canaanites, afterwards called BetheL
(Gen. xxviii. 19.) Also a city appropriated to the sons of
Joseph, not far from Shechem. (Josh. xvi. 2.) Another city
of this name was built in the land of the Hittites. Judsre3
l 26. Lybia, or Libya, in Hebrew, Lubim. (2 Chron. xii. 3. xvi.
8. Nahum iii. 9. Jer. xlvi. 9. Dan. xi. 43.) A country of
Africa, lying west of Egypt ; extending along the coast as
far as Cyrene, and to an unknown distance into the interior.
In a larger sense, Lybia seems to have been sometimes used
for nearly the whole of Africa west of Egypt It is men
tioned in the New Testament, (Acts ii. 10.) where certain
Jews from this country, being at Jerusalem on the day of
Pentecost, were converted by Peter, This country is now
called Barca, and is separated from Tripoli by the Gulf of
Sidra. It is generally a sandy desert, inhabited by a few
wandering Arabs, who subsist chiefly by plunder.

MAA dictionary of the bible. 213
Lycaonia, a province of Asia Minor, west of Cappadocia ;
having Galatia on the north, Cilicia and Pisidia on the south,
end Phrygia west St Paul preached in Iconium. Lystra,
and Derbe, cities of this province ; (Acts xiv. 1-6.) and the
churches established here by him and Barnabas, were support
ed till the subjugation of the country by the Saracens.
Lycia, a province in the south-west of Asia Minor, on the
coast of the Mediterranean. Its capital was Myra, where
Paul entered a ship to go to Rome, in order to appear before
NerQ. (Acts xxvii. 5.) The Lycians were formerly cele
brated for their justice and equity ; but before the Christian
era, many of them on the sea-coast were addicted to piracy.
Lydda, called in Hebrew Lod, (1 Chron. viii. 12.) and
sometimes by the Greeks Diospolis ; a town in the way from
Jerusalem to Caasarea, about 15 miles east of Joppa, and 33
from Jerusalem. Here Peter healed a man who had kept his
bed with the palsy eight years. (Acts ix. 32.) It is now a
mined village, called by the Arabs Lydd, having a market
once in a w.eek, where traders resort to sell cottons and other
commodities. Lydia, a province of Asia Minor, probably peopled by Lud,
the son of Shem. (See Part I. p. 25.) It lies on the east of
the Egean Sea ; having Mysia on the north, Phrygia on the
east, and Caria on the south. In the times of the last Lydian
kings, Croesus and Alyattes, the country was much more ex
tensive, comprehending the whole territory from the Egean
Sea to the river Halys. This country was conquered by Cy
rus, and has since been the prey successively of the Greeks,
Romans, Saracens, and Turks.
The gospel was early introduced into Lydia, and churches
established in its chief cities, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia,
&,c. ; it is even said that some vestiges of Christianity remain
here to the present day.
Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, the native place of Timothy.
Acts xv L 1.

M.
Maachath, a place belonging to the Amorites, situated in
the north of the district allotted to Manasseh, east of Jordan.
Josh. xii. 5. xiii. 13.
Maacha, or Belh-maacah, See Abd-beth-inaacah.

214

scripture geography.

MAC

Maarath, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 59.
Macedonia, a large province north of Greece ; bounded
north by the mountains of Haemus ; east by Thracia and the
Egean Sea; south by Thessaly and Epirus, in Greece; and
west by the Ionian and Adriatic seas.
This country was anciently called iEmathia, and has been
supposed by some to have been peopled by the descendants of
Madai, the son of Japheth.
Caranus, the first king of Macedonia, began his reign 814
years before the Christian era. In the reign of Amyntas I.
about 547 years before Christ, the Macedonians, upon being
threatened with an invasion, became tributary to the Persians.
Having, however, shaken off the Persian yoke, Macedonia
continued to increase in power ; and at length, during the
reign of Philip, 337 years before Christ, all Greece was brought
under the dominion of this nation. Alexander the Great, son
and successor of Philip, raised Macedonia to its heio-ht of

No. 1.

™AC DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.
No. 2.

215

No. 1. A represent
ation of an ancient
bronze figure of a goal
with one hom, which
was dug up in Asia
Minor. It is supposed
to have been affixed
to the top of amilita
ry standard, in the
same manner as the
Roman eagle ; and it
is related in history,
that Caranus, Ihe first
king of the Macedo
nians, ordered goata
to be carried before
the standards of his
army. No. 2. Anengraving
from a piece of sculp
ture on a pilaster in
the ruins of Persepo-
lis; in which a goat
is represented, with a
large hom growing
out of the middle of
his forehead, and a
man in a Persian d ress
is seen by his side,
holding the hom with"
his lefl hand . by which
is signified the subjec
tion of Macedon to
Persia, as we have
above mentioned, in
the year 547 before
Christ

power and greatness; and made it the third kingdom which
had obtained the empire of the world, having no less than a
hundred and fifty nations under its dominion. But after the
death of Alexander, the empire, being divided among his gen
erals, quickly fell into weakness and contention, and was soon
swallowed up in the rising and all-conquering power of the
Romans. Macedonia, when visited by the apostle Paul, (Acts
xvi.) was a Roman province ; and several of its cities, Thes-

216

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

MAC

salonica, Amphipolis, Berea, Philippi, &c. are mentioned in
the New Testament, in which Christianity was founded at an
early period.
This country was doubtless comprehended under the term
Chittim, by the prophet Daniel, by which term he describes
Greece in general ; and the symbol by which this nation is
designated, that of the goat with one horn, (Dan. viii. 5.) has
been proved, by reference to medals, coins, and inscriptions of
great antiquity, to have been the ancient symbol proper to
Macedonia, as that of Persia was the ram.

No. 3. It has been supposed !hat the Macedonians derived their ori
gin from Media, and proDably thence brought ihis symbol of iheir coun
try, which may once have been also proper to Media. This plate re
presents another sculpture al Persepolis ; in which are seen two single-
homed goals, walking logether, but each directed by ils proper super
intendent; signifying ihe two provinces of Upper and Lower Media,
subject lo Persia, and under Persian governors.
Other ancient medals represent ihe head of a ram joined with the
head of a single-horned goat, implying either the united empire of Per
sia and Media, or the conquest of Persia by the Macedonians under
Alexander. The fact that both Media and Macedonia were represented by the
goat with one horn, explainsihe reason of Daniel's perplexity on seein»
the vision, as he could not tell which of ihe two countries was inlend?
ed as the conqueror of Persia, until he was informed. Dan, viii. 15.
Machpelah, the cave in which Abraham and the other pa
triarchs, with their wives, were buried. It was situated near
Hebron, and was in. the piece of ground which Abraham
nought of Ephron, the Hittite, (Gen. xxiii.) which is the first

MAO DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 217
piece of land mentioned in history as sold or bought A church
built over this cave is now converted into a mosque, into
which neither Jews nor Christians are allowed to enter; but
they are permitted to look through holes made in the walls.
Madai, a son of Japheth. See Part I. p. 17.
Madmannah, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 31.
Madon, (Josh. xii. 19.) probably the same as Maron, in
Syria, north of Mount Libanus.
Magdala, a place visited by our Saviour, (Matt. xv. 39.)
otherwise called Dalmanutha. (Mark viii. 10.) It is supposed to
have been situated somewhere on the eastern coast of the sea of
Galilee ; and was probably the native place of Mary Magdalene,
from which she took her surname. The situation of this place
is, however, uncertain : and writers differ in their opinions re
specting it, some placing it on the east, and others on the west
of the sea of Galilee, while others suppose it to have been
near the head of the Jordan.
Maged, a city east of Jordan, taken by Judas Maccabeus.
1 Mace. v. 36.
Magog, a son of Japheth. See Gog, also Part I. p. 17.
Mahanaim, a city east of Jordan in the tribe of Gad, given
to the Levites. Josh. xxi. 38- See Part I. p. 37.
Mahaneh-dan, a place near Kirjath-jearim, where the
Danites encamped on their way to Laish. (Judg. xviii. 12.)
The name means the camp of Dan.
Makez, a place supposed to belong to the tribe of Dan. 1
Kings iv. 9.
Makeloth, an encampment of the Israelites in the wilder
ness. Numb, xxxiii. 25.
Makkedah, a city of Judah. (Josh. xv. 41.) See Part 1.
p. 57.
Mallos, a city of Cilicia, whose. inhabitants revolted from
Antiochus. 2 Mace. iv. 30.
Mamre, a fertile plain or valley, near Hebron, where Abra
ham dwelt, and where he built an altar to the Lord. (Gen.
xiii. 18.) The city 'of Hebron was also sometimes called
Mamre. Gen. xiii. 18.
Manasseh, one of the twelve tribes of Israel, whose in
heritance was partly on the east, and partly on the west of
Jordan. See Part I. p. 65 and 67.
Maon, a city in the south of Judah, (Josh. xv. 55.) near
which was a desert called the Wilderness of Maon. (1 Sam.
xxiii. 24.) Also a country in Arabia. Judg. x. 12.
T

21$ scripture geography. MED
Marah, an encampment of the Israelites in the desert
See Part I. p. 44.
Maralah, a city in the border of the tribe of Zebulon
Josh. xix. 11.
Mareshaii, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 44.) near which a
battle was fought between Asa, king of Judah, and Zerah,
king of Cush, or Ethiopia, in which the latter, with an army
consisting of a million of men, was defeated. 2 Chron. xiv. 10.
Mashai, a city of Asher, (1 Chron. vi. 74.) called also
Misheal and Mishal. Josh. xix. 26. xxi. 30.
Masrekah, a city of Edom. Gen. xxxvi. 36.
Mearah, a city probably near Sidon. Josh. xiii. 4.
Medkba, a city east of Jordan, in the tribe of Reuben ;
said by Eusebius to be near Heshbon. It is one of the cities
of Moab, mentioned by Isaiah ; and appears, from Josephus,
to have been afterwards conquered by the Arabians. It is
noted in the wars of the Maccabees. 1 Mace. xi. 36.
Media, the country of the Medes, situated in Asia, south
and west of the Caspian sea ; and bounded north by the Cas
pian, and the river Araxes ; east by Parthia ; south by Persia ;
and west by Assyria and Armenia. The Medes are denoted
in Scripture by the term Madai, whence it has been generally
supposed that this country was peopled by Madai, the son of
Japheth. (See Part I. p. 17.) The province of Media was
first raised into a kingdom, by its revolt from the Assyrian
monarchy, B. C. 820 ; aDd after it had for some time enjoyed
a kind of republican government, Dejoces, by his artifice,
procured the title of king, 700 B. C. After a reign of 53
years, he was succeeded by Phraortes ; who was succeeded by
Cyaxares. B. C. 625. His successor was A3tyages, in whose
reign C ~ 's became master of Media, B. C. 551, and ever
afterwarc s the country remained subject to the Persians.
Media is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, and
particularly by Daniel the prophet, who lived when Belshaz
zar was slain, and the kingdom of Babylon taken by the
Medes and Persians. Rages was also in Media, (Tobit i. 14.
iii. 7, &c.) and into this country were the captive Israelites
carried by Salmaneser. 2 Kings xvii. 6. xviii. 11.
The northern parts of this country, lying between the Cas
pian mountains and the sea, are very cold and barren ; but the
southern parts produce all sorts of grain, and necessaries of
life, and are so pleasant that the country adjoining to Tauris,

MEL dictionary of the bible. 219
probably the ancient capital of Media, Ecbatana, has been
called the garden of Persia.
Megiddo, a city of Manasseh, in the tribe of Issachar
(Josh. xvii. 11.) See Part I. p. 60.
Mejarkon, a city of Dan. Josh. xix. 46.
Mekonah, a city of Judah. Neb. xi. 28.
Melita, an island in the Mediterranean, now called Malta;
situated 60 miles south of Sicily, and being about 15 miles in
length from east to west, and 25 in breadth from north to
south. This island is thought to have been that of the Pba>
acians mentioned by Homer, at that period named Iperia, and
governed by Eurymedon. It appears that the Phenicians,
navigating the Mediterranean, took possession of this island
about 1519 before Christ and founded a colony which became
flourishing and powerful. They established, of course, the
worship of their divinities, as well as of those adored in Egypt ;
though perhaps the latter were derived direct from that coun
try by a colony from the neighbourhood cf the Nile, which,
perhaps, settled in the island. The name of Ogygia suc
ceeded to that of Iperia : the island now had kings, and Dido
was here received with due honour on her voyage to lay the
foundation of Carthage. The Greeks became masters of
Ogygia about 786 before Christ, and from them its name
of Melita is handed down to us. About 528 B. C. the Car
thaginians overpowered the Greeks, and exercised the sove
reignty of Melita, but without expelling the former inhabit
ants : to these succeeded the Romans, who under Attilius Re-
gulus took the island, yet their dominion was not established
till the beginning of the second Punic war. Malta was now
in prosperity, and its manufactures were considered at Rome
as articles of luxury. Under the Roman government oc
curred one of the most remarkable events in the history of
Malta ; the shipwreck of St. Paul, about A. D. 56. (Acts
xviii. 1.) Publius was at this time Protos, or chief.
On the division of the Roman empire, Malta fell to the lot
of Constantius. It was seized by the Vandals in 454, but
retaken by Belisarius 583, conquered by the Arabs in 870, and
by count Roger, or his brother Guiscard, in 1090. It passed
to the Germans by the marriage of Constance, heiress of
Sicily, with Henry IV., son of the emperor Frederick Bar-
barossa ; but its prosperous days were now over, and its riches
had disappeared. It was at length united to the crown of
Spain, and Charles V. gave it to the knights of St John of

220

scripture geography.

MaL

Jerusalem, who here established themselves, A. D. 1530.
These knights were in number 1000, of whom 500 were to
be resident in the island ; the others being dispersed through
Christendom, in their several seminaries in France, Italy, and
Germany. The knights surrendered the island to Napoleon
Bonaparte, who, being on his way to Egypt, in 1798, with a
formidable expedition, stopped at Malta, and took possession.
This island is now ill the possession of the British, and is
noted for its stupendous fortifications. It produces a variety
of excellent fruits, though the island is wholly a rock, not
having above three-feet depth of soil.

No. 1. A medal of Malta, exhibiting the head of the goddess Proser
pine, with a small globe, or egg, or stone, upon her head ; an emblem fre
quent among Egyptian deities. The reverse shows a divinity to which
two attendants are making offerings, and holding a canopy over the
deity ; from their hips issue wings, and their lower limbs resemble those
of the ox. This resembles the Hebrew cherub, which had several wings
and the legs of an ox ; and may serve to prove that the cherubic figure
was known to other eastern nations beside the Hebrews, and was, as
among them, appropriated to attendants on the deity. This medal is re
markable for the Punic letters all, above the canopy, which prove its
antiquity ; and as they are also found upon medals of a much later date,
they show the prevalence of the Punic language in this island, and jus
tify the appellation barbarians, given to the inhabitants, (Acts xxviii. 2.
4.) showing that it is to be explained, not by referring it to savage man
ners, bul to a foreign tongue. The signification of these letters is un
certain, but are supposed to refer to the goddess Urania, whom the
Arabs, according to Herodotus, called Alilath, and for which the letters
ALL, alii, or alilt, may stand. Scaliger proves Urania to be the moon ;
and the deity on our medal is probably the Phenician Astarte or Ash
larolh.

MES

dictionary of the bible.

221

No. 3.

L.

No. 2. A medal wilh ihe inscription melitaion, of Melita, the inten
tion of which is difficult to ascertain. The figure on the reverse has
two pair of wings, one pair at his shoulders, and Ihe olher at his hips.
He wears a cap divided into two points, has a necklace of beads, and
carries in his hands a crook or sickle, and a flail. These, wilh the
wheat ear which appears with the head, seem to refer to the production
of grain ; and may denqte 1he worship of the goddess of fertility. The
figures, as well as those of No. 1, have an Egyptian air, and denote the
ancient colonization of Malta from Egypt
Memphis, a city of Egypt, (Hosea ix. 6.) called in Hebrew
Noph, which see.
Mephaath, a city of the Levites in Reuben, in the land ot
Moab. Josh. xiii. 18. xxi. 37.
Merathaim, a province of Chaldea, upon the Tigris, pro
bably not far from Nineveh. Pekod, Koa, and Shoa, were
places also in its vicinity. Jer. 1. 21. Ezek. xxiii. 23.
Merom, a lake in the north of Canaan. Josh. xi. 5. See
Part I. p. 58.
Meroz, a city of Galilee. Judges v. 23.
Mesha, a mountain. See Part I. p. 21.
Meshech, a son of Japheth. See Part I. p. 19.
Mesopotamia, a country lying between the rivers Tigris
and Euphrates, whence its name from the Greek mesos, be
tween, and potamos, a river ; but in Hebrew it is called Aram
Naharain, i. e. Syria of the rivers ; and sometimes Padan
Aram, In Josh. xxiv. 2, 3. it is Eber hanaar, beyond the
river, rendered in our translation, " the other side of the flood."
Under these different names this country is much celebrated
in Scripture. It extended to Armenia on the north, and seems
to have included a considerable portion of Shinar or Chaldea,
to the south.
At an early period this country was subject to the Assyrians
T2

222 scripture geography. MIL
and Chaldeans. After this it was successively subjugated by
the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Parthians, the Sa
racens, the Seljukian Turks, the Tartars, and finally the Ot
toman Turks. Strabo informs us that it was divided into two
parts, the first of which he called Mesopotamia Felix, which
is probably the upper part of the country, the Padan Ararn
of Scripture. The other part he styles inculta et aspera, un
cultivated and rugged, which was the southern part of the
country towards Babylon. Anciently Mesopotamia contained
many cities, and seems to have been populous and flourishing ;
but there is now in this country no place of much conse'
quence. Methbg-ammah, a place taken by David from the Philis
tines, (2 Sam. viii. 1.) probably the same as Gath. 1 Chron.
xviii. 1.
Michmash, a city of Ephraim on the border of Benjamin,
east of Bethaven. 1 Sam. xiii. 5.
Middin, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 61.
Midian, a country lying south-east of Canaan, on the east
of the Dead Sea, and south of Moab ; peopled by the descend
ants of Midian, the son of Abraham and Keturah. (See Part
I. p. 35.) The Midianites were early a commercial people,
and traded to Egypt in spices, balm, &c. and some of them
were among the merchants who bought Joseph of his brethren
and carried him into Egypt. The Midianites are frequently
mentioned in Scripture, and appear to have been a roving
people, and to have spread abroad into several regions differ
ent from their original country. The capital of this country
was called Midian, and its remains were to be seen in the
time of Jerom and Eusebius, lying on the river Arnon, south
from the city of Ar. There is also a place in Arabia, on the
shore of the Red Sea, now in ruins, called Madyan by the
Arabian geographers, who affirm that it is the place where
Jethro the priest of Midian resided ; and they still show the
well from which Moses watered the flocks.
Migdal-el, a city of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 38.
Migdal-gad, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 37.
Migdol, a place on the frontier of Egypt Exod. xiv. 2.
See Part I. p. 43.
Migron, a place mentioned with Michmash, (Isa. x. 28.)
and probably near it ; apparently a city of Benjamin. 1 Sam.
xiv. 2.
Miletus, a sea-port town of Caria in Asia Minor said to

MIL dictionary of the bible. 223
nave been settled by a colony from Crete. This was the
nirth-place of Thales, one of the seven wise men of Greece,
and also of several other eminent philosophers. It was visited
by St. Paul, (Acts xx. 15.) where he was met by the elders
cf the church of Ephesus, as he could not take that place in
nis way.
Miletus was once exceedingly powerful and illustrious, and
its early navigators extended its commerce to remote regions.
The whole Euxine Sea, the Propontis, Egypt, and othei
countries, were frequented by its ships, and settled by its
colonies. These colonies, which were settled abroad, amount
ed to no less than 80, or as Seneca says, 380. The history
of this place, after the declension of the Greek empire, is
very imperfect The whole region has suffered frequent
ravages from the Turks. One of their sultans, in 1175, sent
twenty thousand men with orders to lay waste the Roman
provinces, and bring him sea-water, sand, and an oar. All
the cities on the river Meander and on the coast were then
ruined. Miletus was again destroyed, near the close of the
thirteenth century, by the victorious Ottomans. It is at pre
sent a mean place, and the whole site of the former city, to a
great extent, is overspread with rubbish, and grown up with
thickets. The principal monument of its ancient magnifi
cence, is a theatre in ruins, 457 feet long, with a front of
marble. There are also remains of the wall, broken arches,
a few scattered pedestals and inscriptions, with marble urns,
and many wells. One of the pedestals supported a statue of
Adrian, and another the emperor Severus, which has this
inscription, " The senate and people of the city of the Mile
sians, the first settled in Ionia, and the mother of many and
great cities both in Pontus and Egypt, and various otlier parts
of the world."
From the number of forsaken mosques among the ruins, it
is evident that Mahometanism has flourished in its turn at
Miletus. The Miletus at which Trophimus was left sick by St.
Paul, (2 Tim. iv. 20.) is supposed to have been Miletus in the
island of Crete , because when St. Paul visited Miletus on
the continent, Tiophimus went with him to Jerusalem, and
St. Paul did not return to that Miletus. (Acts xx. 17.)
Millo : this word in Hebrew signifies filled up, and proba
bly refers to a deep valley in Jerusalem, between the old city
on Mount Sion, and the temple on Mount Moriah. This va)-

224 scripture geography. MIZ
.ey is supposed to have been filled up by David and Solomon,
and a place made for the people to assemble, probably in a
nouse or castle built for that purpose. (2 Sam. v. 9. 1 Kings
ix. 15. 24. xi. 27. 2 Chron. xxxii. 5.) The Millo mentioned
m Judges ix. 6. probably refers to a person of that name.
Minni, a region in Armenia. Jer. Ii. 27.
Minnith, a city east of Jordan, not far from Heshbon,
.'udges xi. 33. Ezek. xxvii. 17.
Mishal, a city of Asher, near Mount Carmel, otherwise
called Mashal. Josh. xix. 26.
Misphat, or En-mishpat, a fountain, also called Kadesh,
where Moses and Aaron were judged for their unbelief. Gen.
xiv. 7. Numb. xx. 12. xxvii. 14.
Misrephoth-maim, a city in the north of the tribe of Asher
near the sea. Josh. xi. 8. xiii. 6.
Mithcah, a station of the Israelites in the wilderness.
Numb, xxxiii. 28-.
Mitylene, a principal city of the island of Lesbos, which
at last became so considerable as to give name to the whole
island, which is yet called Metelin. This island is about
seven miles from the main land of Troas or Mysia, and is one
of the largest islands in the Archipelago. St. Paul visited
Mytilene in his way from Corinth to Jerusalem, (Acts xx
14.) and from the 5th to the 8th century we find Christian
churches here.
This place is memorable for having produced many emi
nent persons, as Sappho, the poetess, Pittacus, one of the
seven wise men of Greece, Alcaeus, Theophanes, Arion, &c.
The city is on the south-east side of the island, and is well
fortified. Mizar, a hill near the Dead Sea, probably not far from
Zoar ; a place of resort for David, and where he appears to
have received some peculiar manifestations of divine good
ness. Psalm xiii. 6.
Mizpah, or Mizpeh : this name in Hebrew signifies a watch
tower, or a look-out station ; and it is not strange that in a
hilly country, and one perpetually exposed to the incursions
of enemies, like that of the Israelites, that we find many
places distinguished by this name.
1. Mizpeh, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 38.
2. Mizpeh, in Benjamin, josh, xviii. 26. Judg. xx. 1.
1 Sam. vii. 5. 1 Kings xv. 22. 2 Kings xxv. 23. Jer. xl. 6.
3. Mizpeh of Gilead. a city of Gad or Manasseh. (Judg. x.

NAA DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 223
17. xi. 11. 29. 34.) called Ramath-mizpeh, Josh. xiii. 26. See
Part I. p. 37.
4. The land of Mizpeh, and the valley of Mizpeh (Josh. xi.
3. 8.) were in the east of Canaan, near the mountains of
Hermon or Gilead.
5. A place in Moab, (1 Sam. xxii. 3.) probably the watch
tower in the wilderness mentioned in 2 Chron. xx. 24.
Mizraim, a name for Egypt, which was peopled by the
descendants of Mizraim, the son of Ham. See Egypt.
Moab, a country east of the Dead Sea, and south of the
river Arnon, inhabited by the descendants of Moab, the son
of Lot See Part I. pp. 34. 56.
Modin, a city or town west of Jerusalem, probably in the
tribe of Dan, situated on a hill, and famous for being the
dwelling and burying place of the family of the Maccabees.
1 Mace. ii. 1. 15. ix. 19. xiii. 25.
Moladah, a city of Judah, afterwards given to Simeon.
(Josh. xv. 26. xix. 2.) It lay near the southern boundary of
Canaan. Molasthi, a town not far west of Jerusalem, the native
place of the prophet Micah. Mic. i. 1.
Moreh, a celebrated plain, and also a hill near Sichem or
Shechem. See Pari I. p. 30.
Moriah, a mountain in Jerusalem, on which the temple
was built by Solomon. 2 Chron. iii. 1.
Mosela, (Deut. x. 6.) or Moseroth, (Numb, xxxiii. 30.) one
of the encampments in the wilderness, near Mount Hor, where
Aaron died.
Myndus, an island in the Icarian sea. 1 Mace. xv. 23.
Myra, a city of Lycia in Asia Minor, where St. Paul em
barked on board a vessel of Alexandria, in order to go to
Rome. (Acts xxvii. 5.) Myra was the metropolis of Lycia,
under the Romans ; and was afterwards the see of a Christian
archbishop. Mysia, a province in the west of Asia Minor, bounded
north by the sea of Propontis and Bithynia ; east by Phrygia ;
south by Lydia; and west by the Egean sea. St Paul
preached in this province. Acts xvi. 7.

N.
Naamah, a" city of Judah. Josh. xv. 41-
Naarath, a city of Ephraim, (Josh. xvi. 7.) called also

226 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. NAZ
Naaran, (1 Chron. vii. 28.) situated, according to Eusebius,
five miles from Jericho.
Nabath.eans, or Nabathites, the descendants of Nebaioth,
the son of Ishmael, (Gen. xxv. 13.) inhabiting Arabia Deserta.
These people are hardly mentioned in Scripture before the
time of the Maccabees ; but in the several wars which the
Jews maintained against the Syrians, the Nabathasans alone
showed them friendship, while most of the other surrounding
nations were against them. 1 Mace. v. 24, 25, &c.
Nachon, the name of a place, (2 Sam. vi. 6.) called also
Chidon. 1 Chron. xiii. 9.
Nahalal, a city of Zebulon, given to the Levites. (Josh.
xix. 15. xxi. 35.) The Canaanites were suffered to dwell in
it, not being driven out Judges i. 30.
Nahaliel, an encampment of the Israelites in "the wilder
ness. Numb. xxi. 19.
Nahash, the name of a city, (1 Chron. iv. 12.) the situa
tion of which is not known.
Nain, a city in Issachar, about six miles south of Mount
Tabor, and near the town of Endor. Here Christ restored
the widow's son to life. Luke vii. 11.
Naioth, a place near Ramah, to which David withdrew
from Saul. (1 Sam. xix. 18, 19.) Samuel, with the sons of
the prophets, also dwelt here.
Naphtali, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I.
p. 67.
Naphtuhim, a people descended from Misraim. See
Part I. p. 26.
Nazareth, a small city in the tribe of Zebulon, in Lower
Galilee, west of Mount Tabor, remarkable as being the place
where our Saviour was brought up, and where he resided
until about thirty years of age. (Matt ii. 23. Luke ii. 51. iv.
16.) From this place he received the name of a Nazarene.
The ancient city was built upon a hill ; (Luke iv. 16. 29.)
but according to the accounts of modern travellers, the present
town stands at the foot of it, and is surrounded on all sides by
hills and mountains. It is but a small place, and its inhabitants
are about one third Mahometans, and the remainder Chris
tians, chiefly of the Greek church. The fathers of the Holy
Land have an inn here, for the reception and entertainment
of pilgrims. The place is still shown where stood the house
of the Virgin Mary ; and on the hill near the town, is a rock
on the top of a precipice, said to be the place where the

NIC

DICTIONARY of the bible.

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sgisiigssg

View of JNazareih.
inhabitants were about to cast down Jesus. Both Turks and
Christians have a great veneration for this place and its neigh-
Dourhood. Nazareth is 90 miles from Jerusalem, and 24 from
Acre. Neah, a city of Zebulon. Josh. xix. 13.
Neapolis, a city in the east of Macedonia, to which St
Paul came after he had left Samothracia. (Acts xvi. 11.)
Neapolis or Naplous, according to Jerom, was also a name
afterwards given to the ancient Sichem or Shechem.
Neballat, a city of Benjamin. Neh. xi. 34.
Nebo, a celebrated mountain east of the Jordan. See Part I.
p. 49. There were also two cities of this name, one in the
tribe of Reuben, probably near Mount Nebo, (Numb, xxxii.
38.) and another in Judah, (Ezra ii. 29. x. 43.1 thought tt
be the same afterwards called Nabau, eight miles south of
Hebron. Neiel, a city in the boundary of the tribe of Asher. Josh
xix. 27.
Nekeb, a city of Naphtali, (Josh. xix. 33.) supposed by some
to be the place called in the same verse Adami.
Nephtoah, a fountain in the tribe of Benjamin. Josh. xv. 9.
Netophah, a place probably near Bethlehem. Ezra ii. 22.
Neh. vii. 26. 1 Chron, ii. 54
Nezib, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 43.
Nibshan, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 62.
Nicopolis ; there were two cities of this name ; one in

228 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. Nil.
Epirus, near the Gulf of Arnbracia, and another in Thrace,
near the eastern border of Macedonia : it is uncertain at which
of them Paul passed the winter, and from where he sent word
to Titus, who was then in Crete, to join him there ; but it was
probably that in Macedonia. (Titus iii. 12.) There was also a
place in Judea called in later times Nicopolis, situated 22
miles north-west of Jerusalem.
Nile, the great river of Egypt, to the periodical inundations
of which this country is indebted for its remarkable fertility.
The sources of the Nile were so much unknown to the
ancients, that the search for them became a proverb to express
any thing ridiculous or impossible. The Ptolemies, Caasars,
Alexanders, and Neros, were all unsuccessful in their efforts
to discover the head of the Nile ; and this honour was reserved
for the distinguished Scottish traveller, Bruce, who was some
time in Abyssinia, and visited the fountains of this celebrated
river, which are in that country, in a district called Geesh.
The people here pay divine honours to the Nile, and thousands
of cattle have been sacrificed to the spirit of the river, who
has his priests; and here the surrounding tribes annually
assemble to make their offerings. This solemn anniversary
cancels all offences, and their quarrels and animosities are
here terminated. This, however, is not the principal branch
of the Nile ; for Mr. Bruce himself confesses that the Bahr el
Abiad, or White River, is three times as large as the Abys-
synian branch. This White River is supposed to rise at least
700 miles farther south-west, in the Mountains of the Moon,
in the interior of Africa ; and Mr. Bruce says that if it were
not for this river, the Nile itself would be dry eight months in
the year, and at no time would it carry across the desert so
much water as to answer the purposes of agriculture in Egypt.
The source of the real Nile is then yet to be discovered.
After leaving Abyssinia, the Nile flows through Nubia into
Egypt, and a little below Cairo divides itself into two great
branches, which, with the Mediterranean Sea, form the island
called the Delta. There are several smaller branches. The
ancients reckoned eleven mouths to the Nile, of which seven
were considerable. In upper Egypt the high banks prevent the
expansion of the river during its inundations, and no part of it
is overflowed except the lower part of the Delta. The lands
near the river are watered by machines, and where the breadth
of the country renders it necessary, canals are cut to lead the
water from the river When the inundation reaches only to

NIL

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

229

the perpendicular height of twelve cubits, a famine necessa
rily follows in Egypt, nor is the famine less certain should it
exceed sixteen cubits; so the just height is between the two.
The Nilometer is a pillar erected in the river, on which are
marked the degrees of the ascent of the water. There were
several of these in different places ; and at the present time
there is one on the island where the Nile is divided into two
arms, one of which passes to Cairo, and the other to Gizeh.
In the beginning of the inundation the water is of a greenish
colour and unwholesome to drink ; but afterwards it becomes
red and very muddy. This redness is a certain sign that the
waters from Abyssinia have arrived in Egypt, and the colour
is owing to the soil of that country and Sennaar, which is a
red clay, while the soil of Egypt is very black. The inunda
tions of this river are produced by the great rains which fall
in Abyssinia and the adjacent countries, from about the begin
ning of June to the end of August ; and when the river exceeds
its usual rise, which is about twenty-four feet, it causes great
destruction and distress, sometimes carrying away whole vil
lages, and rendering much of the country unfit for the pur
poses of agriculture, as the superfluous water cannot be drained
off in time for the inhabitants to sow their seed.

' Cataract of the Nile.
In the course of this river there are several cataracts ; but
ihe largest, generally denominated, by-way of eminence, the

230 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. NIN
Cataract of the Nile, is particularly worthy of notice. The
river is about half a mile in breadth, and the depth of the fal.
40 or 50 feet About half a mile below, the rocks, on the oppo
site sides, approach each other within 30 feet, where a bridge
of a single arch has been cast over, from which the cataract
is seen with great advantage.
Nimrah, a city of Gad or Reuben, east of the Jordan,
(Numb, xxxii. 3.) and probably the same called Nimrim in
Jer. xlviii. 34. and Isa. xv. 6.
Nineveh, an ancient city of Assyria, built by Asshur, the
eon of Shem, (Gen. x. 11.) or, according to another reading of
the text, by Nimrod, the son of Cush. (See Assyria, also Part
I. p. 25.) Nineveh was not only one of the most ancient, but
also one of the most famous, powerful, and populous cities in
the world. It stood upon the banks of the Tigris, and was
probably founded not long after the building of the tower of
Babel. In the time of the prophet Jonah, who was sent thither
under Jeroboam the second, king of Israel, about 800 years
before Christ, Nineveh was a very great city, its circuit being
three days' journey. (Jonah hi. 3.) Diodorus Siculus says, it
was 48 miles in circumference, and surrounded by walls 200
feet high, and so broad that three chariots might drive on them
abreast ; with 1500 towers, 200 feet high. It is allowed by
Strabo to have been much greater than Babylon. At the time
of Jonah's visit it was so populous as to contain more than
120,000 persons who could not distinguish their right hand
from their left. (Jonah iv. 11.) If this, as is generally under
stood, mean young children, the total number of inhabitants
may be computed to have exceeded 600,000. Nineveh was so
strong as to have been deemed impregnable ; and there was
an old prediction concerning it, that it should never be taken
until the river became its enemy. This prediction induced
Sardanapalus to make it a place of retreat from his enemies,
who besieged it three years without success; but at last the
river overflowing, carried away a large portion of the wall.
This accident so terrified Sardanapalus that he burnt himself
and his treasures, and left the city to the besiegers. Destruc
tion being threatened to this city by the preaching of Jonah,
it th ?n escaped on repentance. But the people afterwards
resuming their wicked courses, it was destroyedby Astyages,
king of the Medes, that it might no longer be an encourage
ment to the Assyrians to rebel against him, as they formerly
had against some of his predecessors.

NOP dictionary of the bible. 231
The ruin of this great city was foretold by the prophets
Nahum and Zephaniah, in a very particular and pathetic man ¦
ner, and the uncertainty of its situation at the present time
is a complete fulfilment of these prophecies. It is supposed
to have been situated near the place now called Mosul, where
travellers in latter years have discovered extensive ruins ; and
traditions yet remain in that country respecting the ancient
city. They show a mosque on a hill, which is said to be the
place where Jonah was buried. The place is now called
Nunia. No, a city of Egypt (Nahum iii. 8. Jer. xlvi. 25.) Set
Ammon-no. Nob, a city of the priests, (1 Sam. xxii. 11. 19.) situated
according to Jerom, twelve miles from Gibeah, who says its
ruins were yet to be seen in his time.
Nobah, a city east of Jordan, (Numb, xxxii. 42.) to which
Gideon pursued the Midianites. Judges viii. 11.
Nod, land of: See Pari I. p. 12.
Noph, or Memphis, an ancient and famous city of Egypt,
and for a long time the residence of its kings. It was situ
ated on the western bank of the Nile, not far above the
modern Cairo, and in the same neighbourhood as the pyramids.
The kings of Egypt took great pleasure in adorning this city,
and it was their place of residence until the time of the
Ptolemies, when the seat of government was removed tc
Alexandria, and Memphis began to decline, its population re
moving in great numbers to the new capital ; yet it was still
a large city in the time of the emperor Augustus. Six hun
dred years after, it was taken and ravaged by the Saracens,
who afterwards built another city near it,, to which another
was afterwards added, which is known to us under the name
of Cairo. These last however, were on the opposite side of
the river from Memphis, being on the eastern shore.
Memphis once contained many beautiful temples, dedicated
to different Egyptian idols, to which the prophet Ezekiel re
fers, (xxx. 13.) This city is frequently mentioned by the pro
phets, who foretell the miseries it was to suffer from the kings
of Chaldea and Persia. (Isa. xix. 13. Jer. xliv. 1. Hosea ix.
6. Ezek. xxx. 13. 16.) These prophecies have been strictly
fulfilled, the city having been taken and almost ruined by
Cambyses, and other conquerors; and being now so com
pletely destroyed, that the spot on which it stood is not cer
tainly known. Jeremiah said, " Noph shall be waste and

232 scripture geography. OPH
desolate, without an inhabitant ;" and not a family or a cot
tage now remains. Only some traces of ancient ruins are
found, to mark the place where it is supposed the great city
once stood in its pride and magnificence.
Nophah, a city of Moab, belonging to the Amorites ; after
wards possessed by the children of Israel. Numb. xxi. 30.
Nophet, a city of Manasseh. '
O.
Oboth, an encampment of the Israelites in the wilderness,
between Punon and Ije-abarim. Numb. xxi. 10. xxxiii. 43.
Olives, Mount of: a hill situated nearly a mile east of
Jerusalem, the brook Kidron running between it and the city
There are three summits to Mount Olivet, or it consists of
three hills ranged one after another from north to south, of
which the northern is the highest. It was from the middle
summit that our Saviour ascended to heaven ; and over the
place of ascension is erected a small building, adjoining to
which is a Turkish mosque. The southern summit was that
on which Solomon built temples to the gods of the Moabites
and Amorites, (1 Kings xi. 7.) and hence this is called the
Mount of Corruption. (2 Kings xxiii. 13.) On Mount Olivet
are yet shown caverns cut under ground, called the sepul
chres of the prophets ; and twelve arched vaults standing side
by side, built in memory of the apostles, who are said to have
compiled their creed in this place ; also the spot where Christ
uttered his prophecy concerning the final destruction of Jeru
salem, of which city there is a full view from the top of this
mountain. The places called Gethsemane, Bethphage, and
Bethany, were all on or about the Mount of Olives.
On, a city of Egypt. See Part I. p. 39.
Ono, a city of Benjamin. 1 Chron. viii. 12.
Ophir, a country celebrated in Scripture for its gold, the
situation of which is doubtful, though it has been the subject
of much inquiry ; and about which many conjectures have
been proposed by the learned. It is generally thought to have
taken its name from Ophir, the son of Joktan; and we are
told in Scripture, that the thirteen sons of Joktan dwelt from
Mesha to Sephar, a mountain of the east (Gen. x. 30.) But
as Mesha and Sephar are places as much unknown as Ophir
itself, it has been necessary to look to other circumstances
relating to this country, in order to discover its situation.
From an examination of the passages of Scripture, in which

OPH dictionary of the bible. 283
mention is made of this country, it appears : 1. That the same
ships which went to Tarshish, went also to Ophir. (1 Kings
xxii 48. 2 Chron. xx. 36. 1 Kings ix. 28. x. 22.) 2. That
these ships set out from Ezion-gaber, a port on the Red Seai
and after a voyage of three years, returned freighted with
gold, peacocks, apes, spices, ivory and eboBy. (2 Chron. viii.
18. ix. 21.) 3. That the gold of Ophir was more esteemed
than any other gold mentioned in Scripture( and that it war
more abundant in that country than any other known at that
time. By these tokens, search has been made for the country
of Ophir ; and we shall give a brief sketch of the conclusions
of some of the learned writers on this subject
It is asserted by Josephus that Ophir is in the Indies ; but
as this is a very indefinite term, it is uncertain to what country
of India he refers. Accordingly a host of commentators have
given us their labours in explanation, almost every one fixing
upon a different country, and proving, to his own satisfaction
at least, that it was the real Ophir. Malacca, Celebes, Ma
labar, the island of Ceylon, Pegu, Java, Sumatra, Siam, and
Bengal, have all had their advocates. Others have looked in
quite another direction, and have found Ophir in the island of
Hispaniola, Cuba, and in Peru. Some have chosen Africa,
and have placed it on the eastern coast, in Sofala or Mozam
bique; while others have made Solomon's ships double the
Cape of Good Hope, and sail to Guinea and the gold coast, on
the west Others, still more adventurous, have pursued, the
same course around Africa, and entering the Straits of Gib
raltar, have found Ophir-on the Barbary coast of the Medi
terranean, or in Spain. Calmet supposes that Ophir was
somewhere in Armenia, and that the gold was brought down
to the Persian Gulf and there put on board the ships ; and
that they took in their apes, ebony, and peacocks, on the coast
of African Ethiopia, and their ivory and spices in Arabia, on
their return to the Red Sea. Dr. Wells is sanguine in sup
port of his theory, that the Vessels sailed some distance up the
river Indus, and there took in their cargoes. Mr. Bruce
thinks Ophir was at Sofala, on the east of Africa, and proves
that the voyage could not have been made by such ships as
those of Solomon, against the periodical moonsoons which
blow in those regions, in less than three years. He mentions
a place on the coast of Abyssinia, which he calls Tarshish,
where he supposes the vessels stopped for some time on their
voyage. Dr. Doeg has very ingeniously proved that the ships

234 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. PAL
of Solomon sailed from the Red Sea round Africa, entering
the Mediterranean, and, visiting the colony of Tarshish settled
in Spain at Tartessus, there took in part of their lading, and
probably obtained the rest along the coast of Africa on their
return. This indeed is not improbable, as the ships were na
vigated by Tyrians and Phenicians, who were a sea-faring
people, and by far the most commercial and enterprising of
any nation of antiquity. It was the Phenician mariners who,
according to Herodotus, conducted the ships of Pharaoh Necho,
king of Egypt, from the Red Sea by the same passage round
Africa, and entering the Straits of Gibraltar, returned to
Egypt by the Mediterranean. This was about two centuries
after the time of Solomon. There is a circumstance connect
ed with this voyage, which gives considerable weight to the
truth of the relation. Herodotus says that the mariners re
ported a fact which, for his part, he could by no means believe
to be true, namely, that in one part of the voyage their sha
dows fell the contrary way to what they usually did : a na
tural consequence of having crossed the equinoctial line, of the
existence of which that ancient writer was probably ignorant.
The fact of this voyage round Africa by the Phenician naviga
tors, proves them to have possessed sufficient courage and nau
tical skill, to perform the voyage in the time of Pharaoh, and
why not then in the reign of Solomon? Our limits will not
allow us to pursue this subject further ; but from what has
already been said, our readers will perceive that all attempts
to determine the situation of the land of Ophir, must rest
chiefly upon conjecture. •
Ophni, a city of Benjamin. Josh, xviii. 24.
Ophrah, a city of Manasseh, and the native place of Gi
deon. (Judges vi. 11.) Also a town of Benjamin. Josh, xviii.
23. Orthosias, a maritime city of Phenicia, opposite the
island of Aradus, and near Tripolis. (1 Mace. xv. 37.) It is
now called Tortosa, and still shows interesting antiquities.
P.
Padan-aram, a country supposed to lie in the north-west
of Mesopotamia. Gen. xxviii 2. 6.
Palestine, a name properly denoting the country of the
Philistines, but frequently used to designate the whole land
of Canaan, otherwise called the Holy Land, or Judea.
Palmyra, a city in the desert of Syria towards the Eu-

PAL dictionary of the bible. 235
phrates, called in Scripture Tadmor, and built by Solomon.
(1 Kings ix. 18.) Here was a stream of water and a fertile
spot in the midst of that vast desert, and the place being con
venient for carrying on the trade with India, and also pre
serving the intercourse between the Mediterranean and Red
Sea, a city was built here by that commercial and enterpri
sing monarch of the Hebrews. Its situation was extremely
favourable for the caravan trade, and it soon became a rich
and powerful city. It seems to have early passed out of the
Jewish nation, probably soon after the death of Solomon, as
the Hebrews were then engaged in civil dissensions, and were
divided into two kingdoms. Tadmor then submitted to the
dominion of the Babylonians and Persians, and afterwards to
the Macedonians under Alexander, and the Seleucidse, his
successors. But when the Roman power gained an ascen
dency in the east, and the Parthians seemed to limit their con
quests farther eastward, Palmyra enjoyed a free trade, and
was undisturbed by the contending powers, probably in a great
measure owing to its situation in the midst of a vast desert,
where armies could not well subsist while they reduced it by
force. With these advantages of freedom, neutrality and
trade, for nearly two centuries, it acquired a state of wealth
answerable to the magnificence of its noble structures. In
the reign of Adrian it sided with the Romans against the Par
thians, and was much favoured and embellished by that em
peror. From this time to that of Aurelian, about 148 years,
this city continued to flourish and increase in wealth and pow
er to such a degree, that the inhabitants brought a powerful
army into the field to the assistance of the Romans against
the Persians, for which service the emperor Gallienus gave a
share in the empire to Odenathus, one of the lords of Palmyra.
He, with his son, being murdered by a kinsman, his wife Ze-
nobia assumed the government of the east; but, her ambitious
designs displeasing the emperor Aurelian, he marched against
her, and having in two battles routed her forces, he besieged
her in Palmyra. The town was yielded to him, and Zenobia,
flying with her son, was pursued and taken. Aurelian spared
the city, and leaving a small garrison, marched for Rome with
his captive. The inhabitants, believing he would not return,
again asserted their independence, and killed the garrison he
nad left in the city. Aurelian hearing of this, though already
arrived in Europe, returned, destroyed the city, and put to the
sword nearly all the inhabitants. After this it never revived,

236

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

PAM

and gradually sunk into the state of a miserable village. It
is now in ruins, and the splendour and magnificence of its
porticoes, temples, and palaces which yet remain, have been
the wonder of travellers, who describe them as the most beau
tiful in the world.

Ruins of Palmyra.
On these ruins are still found a great number of inscriptions,
some in Greek, and others in the ancient Palmyrene charac
ters. The pillars are mostly of marble, from the mountains
of Syria ; but there are some of porphyry, of great magnitude,
and wonderful, considering the distance they must have been
brought ; no quarries of that stone being known nearer than
in Egypt, about midway between Cairo and Syene, between
the Nile and the Red Sea. This stone is very valuable for
colour and hardness, and the Egyptian quarries furnished blocks
of any magnitude.
Pamphylia, a province of Asia Minor ; bounded north by
Pisidia, east by Cilicia, south by the Mediterranean, and west
by Lycia, and part of Phrygia. That part of the Mediterra
nean along its coast was called the sea of Pamphylia. (Acts
xxvii. 5.) Perga was one of its cities, where Paul and Bar
nabas preached. (Acts xiii. 13.) The Pamphylians were a
commercial people, and it is probable that many strangers
flocked there, among whom were Jews, as we find " dwellers
in Pamphylia" mentioned as having come to Jerusalem on
the day of Pentecost. The country is fertile and well cul-

PAR DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 237
tivated: but the lower part is extremely hot in summer, and
the people retire to the mountains in the northern part of the
province, which are a part of the range called Mount Taurus.
Paneas, a city of Syria ; the same otherwise called Laish,
Leshem, Dan, and Csesarea Philippi.
• Paphos, a city in the island of Cyprus, now called Baffo ,
anciently famous for the worship of Venus. (See medals of
Cyprus.) Paul and Barnabas preached here, and converted to
Christianity Sergius Paulus, the Roman proconsul or deputy.
Acts xiii. 6.
Paran, a desert or wilderness south of the Land of Canaan.
See Part I. p. 46. The Paran mentioned in Deut. i. 1. and 1
Kings xi. 18. appears to have been a city, and is probably the
same which Eusebius says gave name to the Desert of Paran,
being situated in its neighbourhood.
Parthia, a country lying east of Media, having Hyrcania
on the north, Aria on the east, and the desert of Caramania on
the south. This country was for a long time connected with
Media, and together with it fell to the kings of Persia, being
afterwards, with Persia, subdued by Alexander the Great; it
continued so until about 250 years before Christ, when Arsa-
ces, a noble Parthian, wrested his own country, and the other
provinces east of the Euphrates, from the Grace-Syrian em
pire, and erected the Parthian kingdom. This new power
became a troublesome enemy to the Romans, and sometimes
carried its conquests from the Hellespont to the Euphrates,
and even to the Indus ; on the other side triumphing over
Egypt and Libya. The Parthians at length submitted to the
Romans, under Augustus Caesar, so far as to receive for their
kings such as should be appointed by the emperor and senate of
Rome ; but this submission was not of long continuance. The
government was overthrown by the Persians about A. D. 232,
and in 640 the country was overrun by the Saracens. The
ancient Parthia is now the Persian province of Irak ; and is a
fine and healthy country, though rather hilly. The ancient
Parthians were distinguished for the veneration they paid to
their kings; and for their peculiar manner of fighting on
horseback, when, pretending to retreat, they discharged their
arrows with great precision and effect shooting them back
wards over their heads. We find Jews from this country
attending the Pentecost at Jerusalem, (Acts ii. 9.) where they
appear as distinct from the Elamites or Persians.

238

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

PAT

No. 1.

No. 1. A medal of Parthia, representing the head of one of its kings;
and on the reverse, objects and implements of worship, with guards
standing on each side of the altar. The head of a man in the flame
of the altar, seems to denote that the Parthians worshipped deities
allied to those of India, as we sometimes find the head of the Hindoo
deity Brahma surrounded wilh flames. This tends to strengthen the
idea of the progressof idolatry from the east.

No. 2. Similar in design to No. 1. The heads on these medals are
said to be portraits of the kings of Parthia, in whose reign they were
struck. In the globe worn by Ihis head is a symbol, supposed to be
that of a departed spirit, raised to divine honours. Among the deities
of Egypt, we find very frequently & globe borne on the head, as by
Isis, &c. The inscriptions on these medals are supposed to be the an
cient Persian characters.
Parvaim, a place from which Solomon received gold. (2
Chron. iii. 6.) It is thought to be the same as Ophir, or Ha
vilah. Pasdammim, (1 Chron. xi. 13.) the same as Ephesdammim,
a city of Judah. 1 Sam. xvii. 1.
Patara, a city of Lycia, in Asia Minor, once a sea-port
with a good harbour. St Paul arrived at this place from

PEL DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 239
Rhodes, and sailed hence to Phenicia. (Acts xxi. 1.) This
city was beautified by many temples, one of which was dedi
cated to Apollo, and contained an oracle not much inferior in
wealth and credit to that of Delphi. Patara, though once the
capital of the province, is now an inconsiderable town.
Pathros, a city and district of Upper Egypt, named from
the Pathrusim, descendants of Misraim. (Gen. x. 14.) This
place is mentioned in Isa. xi. 11. Jer. xliv. 1. 15. Ezek. xxix.
14. xxx. 14. and appears to have been considered distinct from
the Egypt of Scripture, which was the lower part of the
country now called by that name. Pathros is believed to
have been what is now called Upper Egypt, the Thebais of
the Greeks. Some have thought the Pathros of Isa. xi. 11.
to mean Arabia Petrea.
Patmos, an island of the Archipelago or Egean Sea, near
Samos. It has a good harbour, and is 25 or 30 miles in cir
cumference. To this island, as well as to others in different
parts, did the Roman government confine offenders ; a punish
ment which was laid by the emperor Domitian on St. John
the divine, who here wrote his revelation to the churches of
Asia. (Rev. i. 9.) The Greek monks of the island yet show
the cell or grotto in a rock, in which it is said he wrote, and
which they call Apocalypsis. In this island is a large con
vent, with a college for the education of Greek monies or
caloyers, who are spread over all Greece. They are said to
be ignorant and superstitious, though they have great influ
ence over the people : scarcely a piratical vessel is without
its caloyer or priest to give absolution to its plundering and
lawless crew for their murders and other crimes. The island
of Patmos is exceedingly rocky, and but little cultivated :
population about 3000.
Pau, a city of Edom, where king Hadar dwelt Gen.
xxxvi. 39.
Pelusium, a city of Egypt, called in Scripture Sin. (Ezek.
xxx. 15, 16.) It was situated on the eastern channel of the
Nile, thence called the Pelusiac branch, and was near its
mouth. It was well fortified, and is styled by Ezekiel " the
strength of Egypt." Being on the eastern frontier of the
country, it generally suffered the first attack of the Assyrian,
Babylonian, and Persian invaders. It was besieged by Sen
nacherib, Nebuchadnezzar, and Cambyses ; by the latter of
whom it was taken by a curious stratagem. He is said to have
placed in front of his troops, when marching to the assault, a

240 ' SllRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. PER
number of those animals which were esteemed sacred by the
Egyptians, such as cats, dogs, sheep, &c. by which means the
Egyptian soldiers of the town were prevented from throwing
their spears, or discharging their arrows on the assailants, by
the fear of wounding or killing some of the sacred animals ;
and the place was thus easily taken.
The name Pelusium, is derived from the Greek Pelos, mud,
and its Scripture name Sin, has in Syriac the same meaning,
as has also the modern name of the place, which is called by
the Arabs Tineh. According to some writers, Damietta
stands nearly in the spot once occupied by Pelusium ; but this
appears to be an error. Damietta is at least 50 miles distant,
at the other end of lake Menzala.
Peniel, or Penuel, a place east of Jordan, near the brook
Jabbok. See Part I. p. 37.
Pentapolis, the five cities, a name sometimes given to the
district which contained the cities, Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah,
Zeboim, and Bela or Zoar, which were destroyed by fire, vol
canic eruptions, and the sinking of the earth, on account of
their great wickedness. See Part I. p. 31. also Dead Sea.
Perea, a general name for the country east of Jordan ; but
which belonged particularly to that part of it lying south of
Iturea, and which was once the possession of the tribes of
Reuben and Gad.
Perga, a city of Pamphylia in Asia Minor, visited by St.
Paul and his company. (Acts xiii. 14.) This city was famous
among the heathen for a temple of Diana, and the yearly fes
tivals there held in honour of her, whence she is sometimes
styled Diana Pergaja. Here John, surnamed Mark, quitted
Paul and Barnabas, and returned to Jerusalem. This was one
of the most considerable towns of the province, and Christian
churches appear to have been maintained in it till the close
of the eighth century.
Pergamus, a city of Mysia in the west of Asia Minor, and
once the capital of the kingdom of Pergamus, which included
the provinces of Mysia, iEolia, Ionia, Lydia, and Caria. This
was once a noble city, and is celebrated as the native place
of Galen, the famous physician. Here parchment was invent
ed, and the city had a library of 200,000 volumes, which had
been collected by its kings. This noble collection was after
wards transported to Egypt by Cleopatra, and added to the
Alexandrian library. Previous to the use of parchment, wri
tings were made upon papyrus, which was only manufactured

PER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 241
in Egypt, and Ptolemy forbade its exportation from that coun
try, in order to prevent Eumenes, king of Pergamus, from
making a library as valuable and choice as that of Alexandria.
This gave rise to the invention of parchment at Pergamus,
and it was thence called charta pergamena. The rival libra
ries of papyrus and parchment, united by Cleopatra, were
fatally destroyed by the Saracens at Alexandria, A.D. 642.
Christianity was early established at Pergamus, but the
church appears to have departed from the purity of the gospel
in the time of St John the divine, as a severe doom is threat
ened against it. (Rev. ii. 12.) The place is now called Berga
mo, and presents many ruins which indicate its former magni
ficence. It yet contains a few families of Christians, who are
much oppressed by the Turks; the present population is about
3000. Perizzites, a people of Canaan. See Part I. p. 33.

Ruins of Persepolis.
Persepolis, the ancient capital of the Persian empire, sit
uated on the river Araxes, now called the Bendemeer ; and
represented by the Greek writers as one of the richest and
most magnificent cities in the world. It was taken by Alex
ander the Great who here found 120,000 talents in silver and
gold, which fell to his own share, after his soldiers had pil
laged the city and taken what they pleased in money and
jewels to an immense amount. But the chief beauty of this
city was the royal palace, built upon a hill surrounded by three
242 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. PER
walls, the first 16 cubits high, the second 30, and the third
60 ; all of them of black polished marble, with battlements
and towers. The palace was of exceeding beauty and mag
nificence, the roof shining with ivory, silver, gold, and amber;
and the king's throne being wholly composed of gold and the
richest pearls. This noble and splendid building, one of the
greatest ornaments of the eastern world, was consumed with
fire by Alexander in a drunken fit, at the instigation of Lais,
a courtezan, by way of revenge for the cities which the Per
sians had formerly burnt in Greece. Though Alexander, when
sober, repented of his rashness, and ordered that it should be
rebuilt, yet it never rose to its former glory ; the conqueroi
dying shortly after, and the building being neglected. It
appears to have soon fallen into ruin, as Quintus Curtius, who
lived in the reign of Claudius CaBsar, says that no trace of it
could have been found, if not indicated by the river Araxes,
on whose bank it stood. Modern travellers, however, have
discovered at a place called Chel-minar, on the river Bende-
meer or Araxes, the most magnificent ruins of a temple oi
palace that are now in existence on the face of the earth.
They lie at the north end of that spacious plain where Per
sepolis once stood, and are generally conjectured to be the
remains of that palace which was burnt by Alexander. Per
sepolis is mentioned in 2 Mace. ix. 1, 2., but probably there
means Elymais, as Persepolis was in ruins before the time of
Antiochus, being destroyed by Alexander ; whence it is pro
bable that the author has put Persepolis for the capital city
of Persia, though its true name was then Elymais, which the
Greek author might translate into Persepolis, which signifies
the city of the Persians.
Persia, an ancient and celebrated empire in Asia ; extend
ing from the Indus on the east, to the Euphrates on the west,
and from the Caspian Sea and Mount Caucasus north, to the
Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean soutli ; being about 1800
miles long, and 1100 broad. In the days of Ahasuerus, its
extent was " from India even unto Ethiopia, over an hundred
and seven-and-twenty provinces." (Esther i. 1.) This, how
ever, describes the Persian empire in its largest sense. Per
sia proper was only a province of this empire, and was bound
ed on the north by Media ; east by the deserts of Caramania ;
south by the Persian Gulf; and west by Chaldea, or Susiana.
This was the ancient Elam, so called from Elam, the son of
Shem, from whom its first inhabitants were descended ; and

PER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE. 243
by which name it is known in Scripture till the time of Daniel
the prophet who lived in the reign of Cyrus. This prince
united the kingdoms of Persia and Media, and is generally
considered the founder of the Persian empire, which from this
time began to be called Persia. The name is supposed to be
derived from Paras, or Peres, a horseman, as the inhabitants
were much on horseback, and it is even said to have been con
sidered degrading in that country to be seen going on foot.
From Peres, the Greeks formed their Persis, and the Latins
Persia. The people of Elam, or Persia proper, appear to have main
tained an independent government for some centuries before
they became subject to the Assyrian empire. From the domin
ion of the Assyrians they were partially delivered by Tiglath-
Pileser ; but were Conquered and annexed to the kingdom of
Media by Phraortes. About 500 years before Christ, Persia
and Media were united by Cyrus, the founder of the Persian
empire, and by whom it was raised to a high degree of power
and dominion. Cyrus was succeeded by Cambyses, who is
Called Ahasuerus, (Ezra iv, 6.) and after a reign of seven
years and five months he was succeeded by Orohastes, or
Smerdis the magian, called Artaxerxes. (Ezraiv. 7.) He was
killed, after a reign of only five months, by seven conspirators,
one of whom was Darius Hystaspes, who succeeded him. This
Darius is called Ahasuerus in the Hebrew book of Esther,
and Artaxerxes in the Greek of the same book. He reigned
36 years, from the"year of the world 3482 to 3519, being suc
ceeded by Xerxes I., who reigned 12 years. His successor
Was Artaxerxes Longimanus, who reigned 48 years, from
3531 to 3579. After him was Xerxes II. who reigned but one
year, being murdered by his brother Sogdianus, who reigned
seven montiis, and was succeeded by Ochus, or Darius Nothus,
who died in 3590, after a reign of 19 years. Next was Ar
taxerxes Mnemon, who reigned 43 years, being succeeded by
Artaxerxes Ochus, from 3643 to 3666 ; after whom was Arses,
who reigned three years, and died in 3668. His successor
was Darius Codomanus, who reigned six years, and was con
quered by Alexander the Great in 3674, which ended the
empire of Persia, and made it tributary to the Greeks. After
the death of Alexander, when the Macedonian empire was
divided among his officers, Seleucus Nicanor made himself
master of the Persian provinces, till the revolt of the Par
thians introduced new revolutions in the east. Persia waa

244 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. PER
partly reconquered from the Greeks, and remained tributary
to the Parthians for nearly 500 years. After this, the sove
reignty was again placed in the hands of the Persians by the
revolt of Artaxerxes, a common soldier, A. D. 229, who
became the founder of the second Persian monarchy, which
proved so inimical to the power of the Roman emperors.
About A. D. 640, Persia was conquered by the Saracens, and
submitted to the Mahometan dominion and religion, in which
state it still continues.
Authors speak differently of the religion of the ancient Per
sians. According to Herodotus, they had neither temples,
altars, nor statues, neither would they suffer any to be made>
because they did not believe, as the Greeks did, that the gods
were of human origin. They sacrificed on the highest moun
tains, and gave the name of God to the whole circuit of the
heavens. They sacrificed also to the sun, the moon, the earth,
and the water ; and knew no other gods anciently but these.
They afterwards learned from the Syrians and Arabians to
sacrifice to Astarte, Urania, or Venus. Some modern authors
think the ancient Persians had just notions concerning the
deity, and believed in one God ; and that the worship of the
sun and the fire was merely relative. The Persians refer
their religion to Zoroaster, who is thought by some to have
been the same as Abraham ; though others believe him to have
been the pupil of Abraham. There seem to have been two
persons named Zoroaster ; the first the founder of this ancient
religion, and of whom are recorded miracles and prophecies ;
the second, a reformer of that religion, who lived in the time
of Darius Hystaspes. The doctrine of Zoroaster teaches that
the world was created in six days, that at the beginning God
Created a man and a woman, that there have been several ter
restrial paradises, one universal deluge, one Moses and one
Solomon. All this, however, the second Zoroaster may have
taken from the history of the Jews. They hold the doctrine
of two opposite principles or spirits, whom they call Ormusd
ind Ahriman, a good and an evil, who divide between them
the government of the universe ; but that finally the good will
prevail over the evil. This Ormusd is the true God, called by
the Arabians Allah, the author of all good ; and Ahriman is
the Eblis of the Arabians, the devil, the author of all evil.
These doctrines of Zoroaster are still held in Persia by the
Magians and Guebras, who are worshippers of fire and of the
sun, and have never submitted to the religion of Mahomet

MAA

DICTIONARY OF THE ElBLE.

245

¦fM\

s>

trUk

Persian Ladies Iravellii

In their national character the Persians were warlike ; they
Were early taught to ride, and to handle the bo\v, and were
inured to bear the toils and fatigues of a military life. Their
national valour, however, soon degenerated, and their want
of employment at home, and their indulgence in luxury, ren-
-derd them unfit for war. In the reign of Xerxes, when the
empire was in its most flourishing state, a small number of
Greeks was able to repel an almost innumerable army of
Persians. The climate of this country is various. The mountainous
parts are cold and dry ; but in the south, from the Persian
Guff to the mouth of the Indus, the heat in summer is exces
sive. In the regions around Shiraz, the climate is said to be
delightful, and the extremes of heat and cold unknown. Many
parts of the country are fertile, and produce grain, fruits, and
wine. The government is an absolute monarchy, the lives
and estates of the people being entirely at the disposal of the
reigning prince. The Persians are generally handsome and
well shaped, and their manners very different from the Turks,
whom they hold in great abhorrence, esteeming Jews and
Christians much superior to them, and much nearer salvation.
Though Mahometans, like the Turks, they are of the sect of
Ali, between which, and the sect of Omar, to which the Turks
belong, there exists all the enmity of sectarian prejudice and
fanatical rancour. While a rude and insolent demeanour
towards foreigners and Christians, marks the Turkish charac-
V 2

246

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY,

PEK

ter, the Persians are courteous to strangers, and free from those
religious prejudices so prevalent in other Mahometan coun
tries. They are hospitable to travellers, are fond of inquiring
after the manners and customs of Europe, and in return readily
afford information respecting their' own country. The Persians
excel in poetry : astrologers are said to be in great reputation
among them. The art of printing has not yet been introduced
into this country, but they excel in writing, having eight dif
ferent hands, and their manuscripts are very beautiful. They
write like the Arabs and other eastern nations, from right to left-
Ancient medals of Persia are yet in existence, which bear the figure
of a ram, as the emblem of the Persian nation, and prove that Daniel
employed the proper type of Persian dominion, when predicting its
overthrow by the single-horned goat of Macedonia. This ram had two
horns, "one of which was higher than the other, and the higher came
op last." (Dan. viii. 3.) These were the kingdoms of Media and Persia,
united under Cyrus, of which the Persian exceeded in power.
No. 1. An engraving from
an ancient gem, representing
ihe appropriate symbols of
Persia and Macedonia, under
the figures of a ram, and a
goat with one horn. This gem
was probably engraved in the
time of Alexander the Greatf
and denotes the union of Per
sia and Macedonia under the
same empire. We offer it as"
affording a remarkable illus^
t ration of the emblems em
ployed by Daniel the prophet,
to signify those two kingdoms-
No. 2.

PHE

DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE.

247

No. 2. A representation of the ancient Persian deity Anammelech,
.he king of the clouds, the "god of Sepharvaim," (2 Kings x\]i. 31.) who
is represented in coin ersaiion with a human person, apparently of high
rank and office ; and is probably intended to signify an appearance of
the deity, come down from the sun, io commune wilh one of his wor
shippers. The figure oi' the sun, and oi the altar, seem to confirm this
supposition. No. 3. A figure sculp
tured at the enirance
of the palace at Perse
polis, and yet existing
(here. It has the an
cient cherubic form,
as represented attend
ing on majesty ; name
ly, the human head,
the eagle's wings, and
the body and legs of
the ox. This appear?
to confirm ihe idea
which we have else
where noticed, that
the cherubic figure was not peculiar to the Hebrews, but existed also in
other eastern nations.
Pethor, the city of Balaam. See Pari I. p. 54.
Pharathoni, a city of Ephraim, (1 Mace. ix. 50.) called
Pirathon. Judges xii. 15.
Pharpar, or Pharphar, a river of Syria, near Damascus,
which unites with the Abana, called by the Greeks Chry
sorrhoas, and now named the Barrady. See Abana.
Phenice, a port in the south-west of the island of Crete,
where St. Paul, in his voyage to Rome, advised the ship's
crew to spend the winter, because the season was too far
advanced to pursue their voyage with safety ; (Acts xxvii.)
but neglecting his advice, they were shipwrecked at Melita.
Phenicia, or Phmnicia, a province of Syria, on the coast
of the Mediterranean, the boundaries of which appear to have
varied at different times ; by some writers appearing to extend
from Orthosia as far south as. Pelusium on the borders of
Egypt ; and by others its southern limit has been Mount Car
mel and Ptolemais. After the conquest of the Land of Ca
naan by the Hebrews, the limits of Phenicia were narrow,
and it had nothing of the country of the Philistines, who
occupied the country from Mount Carmel to the borders of
Egypt. Neither could it then have extended far inland, for
the Israelites, having possession of Galilee, confined the Phe
nicians to the coast of the Mediterranean.

248 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. PHI
According to Herodotus, the Phenicians were seated on the
Red Sea before they came to the Mediterranean, where they
addicted themselves to navigation and commerce. Justin
also says, the Tyrians were a people conducted by a chief
named Phoenix, who left their native land on account of the
earthquakes to which it was subject. They first settled on
the Assyrian lake, sea of Tiberias, and afterwards on the shore
of the Mediterranean, where they built a city which they
named Sidona.
The Phenicians preserved their independence, not only
under Joshua, but also under David, Solomon, and the other
kings of the Jewish nation. They were, however, subdued
by the kings of Assyria and Chaldea, and afterwards were
successively under the dominion of the Persians, Greeks,
Romans, Saracens, and Turks ; not having had any kings of
their own for more than 2000 years. Their chief cities were
Sidon, Tyre, Ptolemais, Berytus, Tripolis, Orthosia, &c.
They were naturally an industrious people, and commerce
and navigation were among them in the most flourishing
state. They planted many colonies on the shores of the
Mediterranean, particularly at Carthage and Utica in Africa,
Marseilles in France, and several places in Spain, both within
and without the Straits of Gibraltar. Their commerce,
besides extending to all parts of the Euxine and the Mediter
ranean, reached even to the British isles, and to the shores
of the Baltic. The ships of Solomon were navigated by
Phenicians. They were also eminent in manufactures : the
purple of Tyre, the glass of Sidon, their fine linens, and curi
ous specimens of art in metals and wood, gave them such a
superiority over the manufactures of other nations, that among
the ancients, whatever was elegant, great, or pleasing, either
in apparel or domestic utensils, received the epithet of Sido-
nian. The language of the Phenicians appears to have had
little affinity to the other oriental tongues used in Arabia,
Syria, &c. It was a dialect of the Hebrew, the same as that
of the ancient Canaanites, and their letters or characters very
nearly resembled those of the Samaritans. Their letters
were the same in number as the Hebrew, but their form was
larger, and they were more conformable to those of very an
cient Greek inscriptions.
Philadelphia, a city of Lydia in Asia Minor, 27 miles
south-east of Sardis, and 40 from Smyrna. Its church seems
to have been noted, in gospel times, for the purity of its faith

PHI DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE. 249
and practice ; and in the address to this church, (Rev. iii. 7.)
it is commended for its zeal, and not blamed for any vice.
Like the other cities of this country, Philadelphia has under
gone many changes and revolutions. It was named from its
founder Attalus Philadelphus, brother of Eumenes, king of
Pergamus. In the times of the Greek empire, it was fre
quently besieged in the wars with the Saracens and Turks;
and in 1391 this city singly refused to admit Bajazet ; but
wanting provisions, was forced to capitulate. It was once
well fortified, but has suffered much from earthquakes, and
many parts of the city wall are yet standing, having large
gaps rent in them by the violent concussions of the earth. It
is yet a town of considerable extent, and being situated on
one of the principal roads to Smyrna, is much frequented,
especially by Armenian merchants. Among the inhabitants
of this place are many Greek Christians, who live in friendly
intercourse with the Turks, and have twelve churches, and a
bishop. Philadelphia, a city east of Jordan, so called by the Greeks;
being the same as Rabbath, the ancient capital of the Am
monites. Philippi, a city of Macedonia, so called from Philip, king
of Macedon, who repaired and beautified it, with the design
of making it a barrier against the Thracians. Its former name
was Dathos. In process of time it became a Roman colony,
and was famous for two great battles fought near it, one
between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and the other between
Augustus and Antony, en one side, and Cassius and Brutus
on Ihe other. St Paul visited Philippi, and there converted
several people ; he ako cured a servant maid, who had a
familiar spirit, by which she foretold future events. Certain
persons having stirred up the whole city against Paul, he was
imprisoned ; but having been informed that he was a Roman
citizen, the magistrates liberated him, and made an apology
for their ill treatment. (Acts xvi.) The Philippians appear
to have been afterwards very grateful for the grace received
from God, by the ministry of St. Paul. They assisted him on
several occasions, and he appears to have regarded them with
great affection, as his epistle to them is, of all his letters, the
most pathetic, and full of kind and affectionate expressions.
This city is now a scene of ruins ; few inhabitants remain ;
but the ruins of temples, palaces, and other magnificent
edifices of marble, attest its former splendour.

250 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. PHB
Philistines, a people inhabiting the western part of Ca
naan along the coast ; having five lordships or governments,
named from their principal towns, Gaza, Askelon, Ashdod,
Gath, and Ekron. The Philistines were descendants of the
Casluhim and Caphtorim, of the family of Misraim, the son of
Ham, and so brother to Canaan, the father of the Canaanites.
(Gen. x. 6. 14.) We learn also from Gen. x. 19. that the
coast from Sidon to Gaza originally belonged to the Canaan
ites; whence it follows that the Philistines must have become
masters of it by dispossessing the Canaanites, the original in
habitants. This is probable, as the Philistines, being descend
ed -from Misraim, were settled in Egypt, or the parts adjoin
ing on the south-west of Canaan. {See Casluhim and Caph
torim, Part I. p. 28.) Some writers have conjectured that
the Philistines were a branch of the Palli, or shepherds
who invaded Egypt from the east, in a remote period of
antiquity ; and that a colony of them occupied the southern
coast of Judea. The time of their coining into the Land of
Canaan is not known, but they appear to have been there a
long time before Abraham came thither in the year of the
world 2083, as they then had kings, and were in possession
of several considerable cities. (Gen. xx. 2. xxvi. 1.) On the
conquest of the country by Joshua, they were not driven out,
and were almost constantly at war with the Israelites ; and
though subdued by David, and kept in subjection by some of
the succeeding kings, yet they frequently revolted, and con
tinued to harass the Hebrew government as long as it con
tinued ; being " thorns in their sides," as had been foretold as
a punishment for their disobedience. (Judges ii. 3.) After
the Hebrews had been carried into captivity, the Philistines
probably took possession of a great part of" the country, and
appear to have become so considerable, that from them the
Holy Land was called by the Greeks, Palestine, under which
name it frequently occurs in Greek and Latin writers.
Phrygia, a region in Asia Minor, bounded north by Bithy-
nia, east by Galatia and Lycaonia, south by Pisidia and Lycia,
and west by Caria, Lydia, and Mysia. Its chief cities were
Laodicea, Colossse, and Hierapolis. Phrygia is frequently
mentioned in the New Testament, as St. Paul travelled much
in it, and established many churches. This country was di
vided into Phrygia the greater, called also Pactiana, and
Phrygia the lesser. According to Josephus and other writers,
it was peopled by the descendants of Togarmah, the son oi

PON DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE. 251
Gomer, and grandson of Japhet ; and the Phrygians accounted
themselves as one of the most ancient nations in the world.
They were of a servile disposition, and could only be kept to
their duty by beating; whence came the proverb, sero sapiunt
Phryges, the Phrygians are wise too late ; or as Cicero says,
made wise only by sufferings. For 2500 years they have
been subject to the Lydians, the Persians, the Greeks, the
Romans, and the Turks, the latter of whom still hold them
iu subjection.
Phut, the son of Ham, whose posterity settled in Africa.
See Part I. p. 26.
Pibeseth, a city of Egypt, situated south of Sin or Pelu
sium, and on the same branch of the Nile. (Ezek. xxx. 17.)
It was also called Bubastis, which word signifies a she cat,
under which form Diana was worshipped in Egypt But others
say that it signifies also a cow, and that the city was built in
honour of Isis, who was here worshipped under that form.
Pi-hahiroth, an encampment of the Israelites, near the
Red Sea. See Part I. p. 43.
Pirathon, a city of Ephraim, the native place of Abdon, a
judge of Israel, who was buried there. (Judges xii. 15.) It is
called Pharathoni, in 1 Mace. ix. 50.
Pisgah, a celebrated mountain, east of Jordan. See Part I.
p. 49.
Pisidia, a province of Asia Minor, bounded north and
north-east by Phrygia and Lycaonia, south by Pamphylia, and
west by Phrygia. Its principal city was Antioch, where Paul
preached. (Acts xiii. 14. xiv. 24.) This country was once
flourishing and populous, and Christianity was maintained
here for seven or eight centuries.
Pison, one of the four rivers of Eden. See Part I. p. 11.
Pithom, one of the cities built for Pharaoh, by the children
of Israel, while in Egypt. See Part I. p. 40.
Pontus, an extensive province in Asia Minor, on the south
ern shore of the Euxine, or Black Sea, called here the Pontic
Sea; having Colchis and Armenia on the east, Cappadocia
south, and Paphlagonia and Galatia west. Christianity was
early established in this country, as we find the first epistle
of Peter addressed to the faithful of Pontus, and the neigh
bouring provinces. (1 Peter i. 1.) This country revolted from
the Persians, and became an independent kingdom ; being in
its most flourishing state under Mithridates the Great. It was
afterwards conquered by Julius Caesar, and became a Roman

252 scripture geography. PTO
province, though it was often governed by monarchs tributary
to Rome. Under the emperors a regular governor was al
ways appointed over it. In this province was the city of
Cerasus, from which cherries were first brought to Europe,
and derived their name cerasa, Latin, cerises, French, from
the name of the city.
Pools of Solomon, See Bethlehem,
Potter's Field, also called Aceldama, the field of blood,
(Matt, xxvii. 7, 8. Acts i. 19.) a field purchased with the sil
ver which had been given as the price of our Saviour's blood.
It lay at the foot of Mount Zion, on the west side of the val
ley of Hinnom, and is yet shown at Jerusalem. It is a smal\
piece of ground, not more than thirty yards long, and about
half as broad. There is yet standing on it a square fabric,
built for a charnel-house, into which the corpses are letdown
from the top. The Armenian Christians now possess this
burying-place, for which they pay the Turks a rent of one
sequin a day.
Ptolemais, originally called Accho, a maritime city in the
tribe of Asher, north of Mount Carmel, 27 miles south of
Tyre, and 70 north of Jerusalem. The original inhabitants
of this place were not driven out by the Israelites. Judges i. 31.
This city was afterwards called Ptolemais, from Ptolemy,
king of Egypt, who enlarged and strengthened it ; but after
falling under the dominion of the Turks, it followed the ex
ample of many other cities, which, in like circumstances, cast
off their Greek name, and took one similar to the ancient
Hebrew appellation, being called Acca, Acra, or Acre. It was
visited by the apostle Paul, (Acts xxi. 7.) being then known
by its Greek name, Ptolemais.
The situation of Accho was very advantageous; on the
north and east it was encompassed by a spacious and fertile
plain, on the west by the Mediterranean, and on the south by
a large bay which extended from the city to Mount Carmel.
It was strongly fortified, and had a convenient harbour. This
city has many times changed masters, having been succes
sively under the dominion of the Romans, the Saracens, the
Christians, and the Turks. During the time of the crusades
it was the scene of bloody contests between the Christians
and the infidels. It was attacked by the fleets and armies of
the Crusaders in the year 1189, and after a sfttge of two years
was taken by the combined forces of Philip of France, and
Richard of England ; but not till 100,000 Christians had fallen

PTO

DICTIONARY of the bible.

253

in battle, and a greater number perished by disease. Under
the dominion of the Crusaders, it was much strengthened and
improved. The tutelar saint of the city was St. John, whence
it has been sometimes called, St. John (FAcre.
In the year 1291, this place was invested by the Turks,
with a powerful army. After a siege of thirty-three days, the
walls and towers were demolished, the city was taken, and
60,000 Christians devoted to deatli or slavery. The town was
entirely laid in ruins by the Turks, and remained almost de
solate till about the year 17-30, when it was again fortified by
Daher, an Arabian chief. Here he maintained his indepen
dence against the whole force of the Ottoman empire, until
basely assassinated in 1775. It was afterwards still furthei
strengthened with fortifications by the famous Djezzar Pacha,
who was assisted by Sir Sidney Smith, an English officer, ir
his defence against Bonaparte. Its inhabitants are about 40,000
there are here six Christian churches. The Jews also have
a synagogue. The streets are very narrow. The port is one of
the best on the coast ; and the trade is considerabla No. 1- Shows the head of
Alexander on- one side ; and
on the other, the inscription
Alexandrou, with the two
fiist Phenician letters of the
name of the city, Ak or Ok,
for Accho, also the date,
supposed to be 26, i- e. 16 or
17 years after the death
of Alexander. This medal
was probably struck on the
occasion of a festival in
honour of Alexander; such worship was paid to him while living, and
was long continued after his death- No. 2. A medal
of Claudius, with
the ceremony of
driving the oxen,
which was part
of that constitute
ing a colony. The
numbers of the
Roman legions es
tablished here and
in Syria, are mark
ed on the ensigns
But the most re
markable particu
lar for our observation is, that Claudius is called Divos, a deity, during
w

No.

1

jr _ f w ° * <b7*S.

fe
I'^'^A ^^ ^ts
-g-o=^sjfSi/
^szy^mJ'
=y t"m-i.-iQ^
254 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. RAB
his life-time. This is imcommon, but shows to what a height of
flattery these Asiatics had attained. The same title is given to Herod,
in person, Acts xii. 22.
Pul, or Phul, (Isa. Ixvi. 19.) supposed to be an island in
the Nile, called Philse, not far frjrni Syene. It is probable
that the people called Pul, in Scripture, inhabited not only
this island, but also the adjacent country. On the island are
ruins of very noble and extensive temples, built by the ancient
Egyptians. The Phul are probably represented in Egypt to
this day, by the Pholahs or Fellahs, who are mostly husband
men and cultivators of the soil.
Punon, an encampment of the Israelites in the desert, east
of Edom. (Numb, xxxiii. 42.) This name is also written
Phwnon, and Pkinon, and may have received its name from
Phinon, a duke of Edom. (Gen. xxxvi. 41.) Eusehius calls
the place Phanos, and says there were mines of metals there.
Puteoli, a city in Italy, where Paul stayed a week in his
journey to Rome. (Acts xxviii. 13.) It is now called Pozzuoli,
and is situated near Naples ; being yet famous for its natural
hot baths, in which it is said the water is of sufficient heat to
boil eggs. These hot springs are many in number, and were
celebrated in the time of Nero. They are eighteen miles
from Mount Vesuvius, and probably receive their heat from
the same subterranean fires which produce that volcano.
From these baths, or pits of water, in Latin putei, the town
probably took its name of Puteoli. It has suffered much from
volcanoes and earthquakes ; but vast ruins are yet visible,
among which are the baths of Nero, and Cicero's villa ; also
a temple of Jupiter Serapis, an interesting monument of an
tiquity, being in a style of architecture different from the
Greek and Roman temples, and built in the manner of the
Asiatics, probably by Egyptian and Asiatic merchants settled
at this place, which was once a great emporium of com
merce.

R.
Raamah, a place (Ezek. xxvii. 22.) probably named from
Raamah, the son of Cush. See Part I. p. 24.
Raamses, a city of Egypt, (Exod. i. 11.) supposed to be the
same as Rameses.
Rabbah, or Rabbath, sometimes called Rabbath-Ammon,
the capital city of the Ammonites, situated east of Jordan,
and not far from the head of the river Arnon. (Deut iii. 11.

MAO dictionary op the bible. 255
8 Sam. xi. 1.) It was taken by David, (2 Sam. xii. 29.) and
was from that time subject to the kings of Israel, until the
capture of the tribes cast of Jordan, by Tiglath-Pileser, when
the Ammonites practised great cruelties against the few
Hebrews that still remained in that country. Hence we find
the prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel pronouncing severely
against Rabbah. It was taken by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
king of Egypt, who named it Philadelphia; and about 170
years before Christ, was again taken by Antiochus, Icing of
Syria. Rabbath-moab, the capital of the Moabites, called also Ar
which see,
Rabbah, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 60.) and another in
Issachar, written Rabbith. Josh. xix. 20,
Rachal, a city of Judah. 1 Sam. xxx. 29.
Rages, a city of Media, (Tobit i.) near which Were pro
bably situated the plains of Ragau, mentioned in Judith i. 5,
&c. It is conjectured that this city was built by Reu, the
son of Peleg ; as the sons of Arphaxad, of whom came Peleg,
the father of Reu, settled in these and the adjacent parts ; and
Reu is translated by the LXX, Ragau. In the beginning of
the book of Judith, too, we have Arphaxad mentioned as
reigning over the Medes in Ecbatana, that name probably
having been given to this king in honour and memory of
their great ancestor, Arphaxad, the son of Shem, and grand
son of Noah.
This is supposed to be the city called at present Rey, in
habited by a polite and commercial people, who manufacture
fine linen, cotton, and eamblets, which are sent to all parts of
the world. The Persians call it the market of the universe;
and if so in the days of Tobit, it is no wonder that Jews were
found there.
Rahab, that tract of Lower Egypt called Delta by the
Greeks. Psalm Ixxxvii. 4. lxxxix. 10. Isa. Ii. 9.
Rakkath, a city of Naphtali, (Josh. xix. 35.) thought to be
the same as Tiberias, on the Sea of Galilee.
R akkon, a city of Dan. Josh. xix. 46.
Ramah, a city of Benjamin, not far from Gibeon. (Josh.
xviii. 25. Judges iv. 5. xix. 13.) It was situated on the road
from Jerusalem to Samaria, and was rebuilt and fortified by
Baasha, king of Israel, (1 Kings xv. 17.) that he might pre
vent communication with the king of Judah.
Ramah, in Mount Ephraim, called also Ramathain>cophim

256 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. RED"
the place where Samuel was born. (1 Sam. i. 1. 19.) See
Arimathea. Ramah, a city in the borders of Asher and Naphtali, (Josh.
xix. 29. 36.) though it is probable there was a place of this
name in each of these tribes.
Rameses, a city of Egypt, probably in the Land of Goshen,
See Part I. p. 39.
Ramoth, a city in the tribe of Gad, called also Ramoth-
Gilead, and Ramoth-Mizpeh, from its situation near the moun
tains of Gilead, and the land of Mizpeh. (Josh. xxi. 38. xiii.
26.) This place is frequently mentioned in Scripture, par
ticularly in the books of Kings and Chronicles. It was
situated east of Jordan, near the brook Jabbok.
Ramoth-negebh, Ramoth of the south, a city of Simeon.
Josh. xix. 8.
Raphon, a place east of Jordan, in the neighbourhood of
Carnaim, and not far from the brook Jabbok. Here Judas
Maccabeus had his camp before he obtained the victory over
Timotheus. 1 Mace. v. 37.
Red Sea, a branch of the Arabian Sea, or of that part of
the Indian Ocean between the coast of Africa and India, ex
tending towards the Mediterranean, and interposing between
Egypt on the west, and Arabia on the east. Its Hebrew
name is Jam-Suph, the weedy sea, from the abundance of
sea-weed found in it. The country of Edom was adjacent tc
this sea, and the name Edom, in Hebrew, signifies red, being
a name given to Esau after he had sold his birthright for a
mess of red pottage. Hence it was called the Sea of Edom.
which in process of time became the Erythrsean Sea, erythrus,
in Greek, denoting red. Hence the Latins, according to the
signification of the Greek name, called it Rubrum Mare, and
we from them call i.t the Red Sea. The Arabs call it Bahr
el Colzum, the sea of drowning or overwhelming, probably
in memory of the destruction of the Egyptians who pursued
the Israelites. We have already mentioned the miraculous
passage of the Israelites through this sea, {Part I. p. 43.) and
have related a tradition spoken of by Diodorus, as existing
among the ancient inhabitants of the adjacent regions. We
cannot suppose this pagan is writing in favour of revelation.
He knew not Moses, neither says he a word about Pharaoh
and bis host; and yet he records the miracle of the division of
the sea in strong and plain terms, and from the mouths of
unbiassed and undesigning pagans.

REU dictionary of the bible. 257
With respect to the width of the Red Sea where the Israel
ites crossed it, modern travellers describe it to be about twelve
miles. One of them says, " From the fountains of Moses,
which are seven or eight hours journey southward from Suez,
may now be seen the aperture of the mountain on the west
ern side of the sea, through which Israel passed into the
water. This aperture is west-south-west from the fountains ;
the breadth of the sea there is about four or five hours
travel." The length of the Red Sea, from the Strait of Babelman-
del to Suez, is about 1400 miles, and its general breadth about
120. It terminates towards the north in two arms or
branches ; the Gulf of Elath on the east, and that of Suez on
the west, of which the latter is much the longest, and was
the branch crossed by the Israelites. The tide here is said
never to rise more than three feet and a half.
Rehob, two eities in the tribe of Asher are mentioned by
this name. (Josh. xix. 28. 30.) They were situated in the
north, and near them in the adjoining part of Syria, was pro
bably the kingdom of Rehob, mentioned in 2 Sam. x. 6. 8.
Rehobotii, an ancient city, built about the same time as
Nineveh, and in the same country. It is uncertain whether
it was situated on the Tigris or the Euphrates. A city of this
name is also mentioned, (Gen. xxxvi. 37.) where Saul, king
of Edom, was born. It is not known whether this was Reho-
both on the Euphrates, or a place of that name on a river of
Edom. Rehoboth was also a name given to a well which was
dug by Isaac, near Gerar. Gen. xxvi. 22.
Rekem, a city of Benjamin. Josh, xviii. 27.
Remeth, a city of Issachar ; (Josh. xix. 21.) the same aa
Ramoth. 1 Chron. vi. 73.
Remmon, (Josh. xix. 7.) See Rimmon.
Rephaim, the ancient giants of Canaan. See Part I. p. 34.
Rephidim, an encampment of the Israelites in the wilder
oess. See Part I. p. 44/
Resen, an ancient city of Assyria, between Nineveh and
Calah. (Gen. x. 12.) In the chronicle of Dionysius, pa
triarch of the Jacobins, A. D. 772, among the Ninevite cities
which were depopulated by the Arabs, we find Ressin, which
is mentioned with other cities of Assyria, and is no doubt the
Resen of Scripture.
Reuben, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. 'See Part L
p. 67.
W 2

SJ58 SCRIPTURE geography. RHO
Rezeph, a city mentioned in 2 Kings xix. 12. Ptolemy
mentions a place called Rezipha, in Mesopotamia, east of the
Euphrates, which is probably the same.
Rhegium, or Regium, a maritime city of Italy, visited by
St. Paul on his voyage to Rome. (Acts xxviii. 13.) This
place is now called Reggio, and is in the kingdom of Naples,
on the Strait of Messina.
Rhodes, a famous island, south of Caria, in Asia Minor,
visited by St. Paul, (Acts xxi. 1.) and accounted in dignity
next to Cyprus and Lesbos, among the Asiatic isles, being 40
miles long and 15 broad. The Septuagint and Samaritan
bibles, instead of Dodanim, (Gen. x, 4.) read Rhodanim. St.
Jerom, Eusebius, Isidore, and others, follow them, and think
the isle of Rhodes was originally peopled by the Rhodanim,
or posterity of Javan. Most ancient copies of the Scriptures,
however, agree with our translation, and read Dodanim. From
whatever source this island may have been peopled, it is cer
tain that its ancient inhabitants were a powerful people, ex
pert in navigation, and a formidable maritime power. They
were called by the Romans, the maritime people ; they com
manded the neighbouring seas, and causes relating to naval
affairs were decided according to the laws of the Rhodians.
This island was famed for a prodigious statue of brass, call
ed the Colossus, which was erected standing astride over the
mouth of the harbour, so that the ships sailed between its
legs. It was seventy cubits high, and each of its fingers was
said to be as large as a common-sized man. On account of
its vast bulk, it was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the
world. It was thrown down by an earthquake, and many
years after, the brass of which it was made, being carried by
the Saracens to Egypt, was enough to load 900 camels.
The people of Rhodes maintained a long contest with the
Greeks, but having applied to the Romans for aid, the latter
seized the island for themselves, and made it a Roman colony.
In A. D. 1124, it was taken from the Saracens by the Vene
tians, and was afterwards taken by the Turks, who in their
turn were driven off by the knights of St. John of Jerusalem.
In 1522 it was attacked by Solyman, with 300 ships, and
200,000 men, and surrendered after losing 90,000 of its peo
ple ; the loss of the Turks was much greater.
The soil of Rhodes is fertile, producing delicious wines and
rich fruits, and its climate pleasant and healthy. Its popula
tion is about 36,000, of which one-third are Greeks, with a
few Jews.

ROM dictionary op the bible. 259
Riblah, a city of Syria, in the country of Hamath, north
of Canaan. Numb, xxxiv. 11. 2 Kings xxiii. 33.
Rimmon, a city of Judah, given to Simeon. (Josh. xv. 32.
xix. 7.) Also the name of a rock to which the Benjamites
retreated. Judges xx. 45.) Also a valley. Zech. xiv. 10.
Rimmon-methoar, a city of Zebulon, (Josh. xix. 13.) call
ed Rimmon. 1 Chron. vi. 77.
Rimmon-parez, an encampment of the Israelites in the
desert Numb, xxxiii. 19.
Rissah, an encampment in the wilderness, between Libnah
and Kehelathah. Numb, xxxiii. 21.
Rithmah, a station of Israel in the desert, near Hazeroth.
Numb, xxxiii. 18.
Rogel, a fountain near Jerusalem. The name imports
treading, and it is supposed to have been the fullers' fountain,
where they washed cloths by treading them with their feet.
Josh. xv. 7. 2 Sam. xvii. 17.
Rogelim, the plural of Rogel, a. city of Gilead, apparently
in the neighbourhood of Mahanaim. 2 Sam. xvii. 27.
Rome, the capital of Italy, and the metropolis of the Roman
empire ; founded by Romulus, 3252 years after the creation
of the world, and 752 before the birth of Christ, during the
reign of Jotham, king of Judah. The history of the city of
Rome, and of the Romans as a people, is so extensive and so
generally known, that we have no occasion to introduce it
into this work ; we shall merely treat of those parts of it
which seem to be immediately connected with Scripture his
tory. Rome is not mentioned in the Old Testament; though
most interpreters believe the Roman empire is referred to in
Dan ii. 40. under the name of the kingdom of iron, which
bruises and breaks in pieces all other kingdoms. Also by the
ships of Chittim, (Dan. xi. 29, 30.) is generally understood the
Roman fleet by which Antiochus was obliged to desist from
his designs against Egypt. In the apocryphal books of the
Maccabees, and in the New Testament, Rome and its people
are frequently mentioned. In 1 Mace. viii. 1, 2, &c. it is said
that Judas, having heard of the fame of the Romans, sent two
ambassadors to Rome, who were well received, and made an
alliance with the Romans. This was in the year 161 before
Christ, and 18 years after, this alliance was renewed by Jona
than, the brother of Judas Maccabeus, (1 Mace. xii. 1, 2, &c.)
and again by Simon Maccabeus, (xiv. 16.) About three years

260 scripture geography. SAL
Defore this, Quintus Memmius and Titus Manilius, the Ro
man legates, (2 Mace. xi. 34, &c.) being sent into Syria to
fettle some affairs with the king, Antiochus Eupator, interest
ed themselves in promoting the tranquillity of the Jews, and
wrote to them, confirming certain favours, and requesting to
Know what further they desired.
Of the wars which afterwards followed between the Jews
and the Romans, of the capture of Jerusalem and the destruc
tion of the temple, as well as the subsequent state of the
country under the Roman government, we have already
treated in the article Judea.
The establishment of the Christian church in Rome is
ascribed to the apostles Peter and Paul. It is thought that
Peter was led thither in the reign of Claudius ; and Paul was
carried there as a prisoner, where he afterwards dwelt and
preached, " two whole years, no man forbidding him." (Acts
xxviii. 30, 31.) Here he afterwards suffered martyrdom,
together with St. Peter, as most believe, under the sanguinary
reign of Nero. After the death of these eminent apostles, the
Christian church continued to flourish at Rome, though fre
quently much persecuted by some of the cruel and wicked
emperors who reigned in the decline of the Roman empire.
Others, however, among whom was Adrian, treated them
more mildly. Our limits forbid us to trace the progress of
the gospel in the Roman empire, though it would be interest
ing to recite the accounts of the zeal of its advocates, and the
fortitude of its martyrs; and to mark the final triumph of
Christianity over the absurd rites of heathen idolatry.
Rosh, the name of a people. . The Septuagint and other
translations of the Scriptures, in Ezek. xxxviii. 2, 3. xxxix. 1.
call Magog the chief prince of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal.
The people of Rosh are placed by Bochart, in the country on
the Araxes between the Caspian and Black seas; and from
them the present Russians have probably derived their origin
and name.

S.
Sabeans, a people of Arabia. (Isa. xiv. 14.) See Sheba.
Sabtah, and Sabtecha, sons of Cush. (Gen. x. 7.) See
Part I. pp. 24, 25.
Salamis, a considerable city in the island of Cyprus, visited
by St. Paul and Barnabas. (Acts xiii. 5.) This city gave
name to the whole eastern tract of the island, opposite to the

SAM dictionary op the bible. 261
coast of Syria. It was afterwards the see of the primate of
the island. The city was destroyed by the Jews in the reign
of Trajan; but being rebuilt, it was afterwards taken and
razed by the Saracens, in the time of Herodius. It never
recovered, and the see of the metropolitan bishop was removed
to Nicosia. Out of the ruins of Salamis is said to have arisen
Famagusta, the chief place of the island when it was taken
from the Venetians by the Turks.
There was also an island called Salamis, on the south of
Attica, in Greece.
Salchah, a city of Bashan. Deut. iii. 10.
Salem, the city of Melchizedek, (Gen. xiv. 18.) generally
understood to be Jerusalem.
Salim, a place in the region of Samaria, near which John
baptized. John iii. 23.
Salmone, a cape in the island of Crete, passed by St. Paul.
(Acts xxvii. 7.) Some think a city of this name was also
situated there. The cape still retains its ancient name, but
the city, if there was one, is gone.
Salt Sea, See Dead Sea.
Salt, valley of: a. valley in the south of Judah, on the
borders of Edom, near the Dead Sea. This valley is noted
in Scripture for the frequent slaughters made there of the
Edomites, by the Israelites. (2 Sam. viii. 13. 2 Kings xiv. 7.
1 Chron. xviii. 12. 2 Chron. xxv. 11.) In the first of these
texts they are said to be Syrians that were smitten, but in
1 Chron. xviii. 12. they are Edomites, which is doubtless the
true reading, not only on account of the situation of the valley
of Salt near the frontier of the Edomites, but very distant
from the Syrians, but also because the Greek, Syriac, and
Arabic interpreters all read Edom, and not Aram, or Syria.
The error in "the Hebrew text evidently arose from the simili
tude of the Hebrew words Qix Edom, and Qix Aram, the
Hebrew T D and i R being very much alike, and easily mis
taken one for the other.
Samaria, a country of the Holy Land lying between Judea
on the south, and Galilee on the north, and extending from
the Mediterranean on the west, to the Jordan on the east. It
comprised most of the country once belonging to the tribes of
Ephraim, Manasseh, and Issachar. That Samaria in the New
Testament included the country between Judea proper, and
Galilee, is evident from John iv. 3, 4. This province receiv
ed its name from the city of Samaria, formerly the capital of

262 SCRIPTURE geography. HAD
the kings of Israel, built by-Omri, and named Samaria, after
Shemer, the person of whom he bought the hill on which it
stood. (1 Kings xvi. 24.) This city was founded about A. M.
3085. It was built upon a hill about eight miles north of
Shechem, and, according to Josephus, was a day's journey
from Jerusa.em. Being the capital of the kings of Israel, it
was much ornamented and strengthened by them.
Samaria was first besieged by Benhadad, king of Syria,
and was reduced to great extremity, but it was then miracu
lously delivered, according to the prediction of the prophet
Elisha. It was afterwards taken by Salmaneser, king of
Assyria, after a siege of three years. This prince carried
away the Israelites, or the ten tribes, captive, and in their
stead sent a colony of divers nations who patched up a religion
out of the Jewish and their own heathenish rites. In the
time of the Maccabees, this city was taken by one of that
family, and laid in ruins. Herod the Great, being pleased
with it3 situation, rebuilt it in a stately manner, adorning it
with fine marble pillars and other sculpture, which are yet
found in abundance among the rubbish which marks the
place. He also inclosed it with a strong wall, and erected a
temple. In honour of Augustus Caesar, he named it Sebaste,
a Greek name answering to the Latin Augustus. Herod
Agrippa obtained this city of the emperor Caligula; and by
taking part with the Romans under Vespasian, against the
Jews, it avoided the calamities which fell upon the country
in consequence of the war. But the inhabitants, afterwards
adopting other politics, were exterminated from the country
with the Jews, by Adrian, and the city has since gone to
decay, having now but a few cottages, and convents inhabited
by Greek monks. Some travellers who have traced its ruins,
have conjectured it to have once been larger than Jerusalem.
Samaritans, a name commonly given in Scripture to the
people sent by the king of Assyria to inhabit the country
which was left desolate by the removal of the ten tribes intc
captivity. (2 Kings xvii. 24.) These strangers do not seem
at first to have had any temple, or any fixed place or form of
worship common to the whole ; but each nation worshipped
the deity they had been accustomed to in their own country.
(2 Kings xvii. 29, &c.) But they soon understood, from the
books of Moses which they possessed, and from the example
of the Jews, their neighbours, that God was to be worshipped
only in that place which he had chosen ; and smce the Jews

SAM dictionary op the bible. 263
would not allow them to go to the temple at Jerusalem, they
built a temple of their own upon Mount Gerizim, near the
city of Shechem, which was then their capital. This temple
was built by Sanballat, the governor of the Samaritans, whose
daughter had married Manasses, the brother of Jaddus, the
high priest of the Jews, and fearing that he would put her
away, to avoid excommunication for having married a strange
wife, Sanballat promised Manasses that if he would retain her,
he would build a temple answerable to that at Jerusalem, and
would make him the high priest of it ; which was accordingly
done. This proved the main occasion of the contention be
tween the Samaritans and Jews, which had proceeded so far,
that in the time of our Saviour they had no dealings with one
another. (John iv. 9.) For though the temple erected by
Sanballat had long before been destroyed by Hyrcanus the
Maccabean, yet still there remained a place of worship. (John
iv. 20.) This controversy respecting the right of the two
temples as to the place appointed by God for sacrifice, was
plainly determined by our Saviour against the Samaritans. For
he was passing from Galilee through Samaria, and was deter
mined to go to Jerusalem to celebrate there the feast of the
tabernacles ; for which cause the Samaritans refused to enter
tain him. Luke ix. 53.
The Samaritans having received the Pentateuch, or the
five books of Moses, from the priest that was sent them by the
king of Assyria, (2 Kings xvii. 27.) have preserved it to this
day in the same language and character in which it was then
written ; that is, in the old Hebrew or Phenician character,
which is now called the Samaritan, to distinguish it from the
modern Hebrew, in which the books of the Jews are now
written. After the captivity, the Jews changed their old char
acters, and used the Chaldee, to which they had been accus
tomed at Babylon, and which they still continue to use. It is
wrong, says Calmet, to give this the name of the Hebrew
character, for that can be said properly only of the Samaritan
text. The Samaritans at present are very few in number, though
there are still some residing at Shechem, now called Naplous.
They yet have priests, who they say are of the family of
Aaron ; and they still offer sacrifices, and observe the Sabbath
and the law of Moses with much strictness. Some are also
found at Gaza, Damascus, and Cairo.
Samos, an island of the Archipelago, five miles from the

264 scripture geography. SAR
continent, and 40 miles south-east of Chios. It is about 80
miles in circumference, and is said to be naturally produc
tive, though the agriculture is now much neglected. Its
wine has long been celebrated for its excellence, and the island
also produces honey and wax of superior quality. The in
habitants are about 12,000, chiefly Greeks ; St. Paul visited
Samos, on his voyage to Jerusalem. Acts xx. 15.
Samothracia, a small island on the south-western coast
of Thrace, at the head of the Egean Sea ; where St. Paul
landed as he went from Troas to Macedonia. (Acts xvi. 11.)
This island is now called Samandrachi ; it is about 20 miles
in circumference, and has commodious harbours.
Sansannah, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 31.
Saphir, a city (Micah i. 11.) thought by some to be Sepho-
ris in Galilee ; and by others Shamir, in the tribe of Judah,
which is called Saphir in the Greek of Josh. xv. 48.
Sardis, a city of Lydia in Asia Minor, situated on the banks
of the Pactolus, and the royal city of the Lydian kings until
Croesus, the last of them, was conquered by Cyrus, the first
Persian emperor. It was taken from Xerxes by the Greeks,
which so affected him that he commanded one of his attend
ants to say aloud every day, while he was at dinner, " The
Grecians have taken Sardis," thus continuing to remind him
of it until it should be recovered. It was destroyed by an
earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, who ordered it to be re
built ; and it long remained to be the metropolis of the pro
vince of Lydia. Strabo tells us it was a great and ancient
city ; yet of later date than the state of the Trojans. It was
situated at the foot of Mount Tmolus, which had on its top a
high tower of -white stone, built after the Persian manner.
Out of Mount Tmolus flowed the river Pactolus, celebrated
among the ancients for the gold found among its sands. This
gold was brought down by the current, and from it Crcesus
and his ancestors amassed their riches ; but now these springs
of gold have failed. The rivers Pactolus and Hylas fall into
the Hermus, and empty themselves into the Phocian Sea, now
called Fogia, or Fochia. The prospect from the top of Mount
Tmolus is exceedingly beautiful.
Sardis, now called Sart, is a poor village of shepherds ; yet
its ancient pillars and ruins still lift up their heads as if un
willing to lose the memory of their ancient glory. To the
south of the town are extensive ruins, which show what Sar
dis was, before earthquakes produced its present desolation.

SEL

dictionary of the bible.

265

Among these are the ruins of a great church, possibly that
addressed in Rev. iii. 1, 2, &c. the worshippers in which were
insincere and wicked.

An ancient medal of Sardis, representing the head of the goddess
Proserpine, who was worshipped in that city. The reverse shows the
history of her being carried off by Pluto, whose horses are urged for
ward and directed by a cupid: under their feet lies an urn overthrown,
a serpent, the good genius, assisting in the affair. The inscription around
the head, implies great dignity in this city : asias lvdias ellados a
metropolis sardis. i. e. Sardis, the first metropolis of Asia, Lydia,
and Greece. This must, however, be taken wilh some allowance ; for
as Sardis was a city of the Lesser Asia, she could not, properly speak
ing, be the metropolis of Greece. The inscription on the reverse, epi
sou L ermophilou asiarch sardianon B neokoron, commemorates
Sulpicius Hermophilus, the Asiarch, under whom Sardis enjoyed a
second Neocorate, or was a second time conservator of the sacred im
plemenLs, ceremonies, &c.
Sarepta, See Zarephath.
Sarid, a city of Zebulon. Josh. xix. 10.
Sea, the terms Great Sea, Western Sea, Sea of the Philis
tines, &c. in Scripture, generally denote the Mediterranean,
which lay west of the land of Canaan. Of the other seas
mentioned in the sacred history, we have treated under their
proper names.
Seba, See Sheba.
Secacah, a city in the south of Judah. Josh. xv. 61.
Seir, mount; See Part I. p. 35. Also a mountain in the
border of Judah, near Kirjath-jearim. Josh. xv. 10.
Seirah, a place probably near Bethel. Judg. iii. 26.
Selah, (2 Kings xiv. 7.) See Joktheel.
Seleucia, a city of Syria, westward from Antioch, and near
X

266 scripture geography. SHE
the mouth of the river Orontes, built by Seleucus Nicanor.
St. Paul and Barnabas embarked here, on their voyage to Cy
prus. (Acts xiii. 4.) It is also mentioned in 1 Mace. xi. 8.
Semechon, lake; See waters of Merom, Part I. p. 58.
Sephar, a mountain, (Gen. x. 30.) generally supposed to he
situated in Mesopotamia, though some conjecture it to have
been in Arabia.
Sepharvaim, a people brought by the king of Assyria to in
habit the country of the Israelites after they had been carried
into captivity. (2 Kings xvii. 24.) Their origmal dwelling is
supposed to have been in the neighbourhood of Mount Sephar,
in Mesopotamia. The city of Sepharvaim is mentioned in
Scripture, (2 Kings xix. 13. Isa. xxxvii. 13.) and was proba
bly the capital of these people.
Shaalabbin, a city of Dan, (Josh. xix. 42.) elsewhere call
ed Shaalbim, and Shaalim.
Shaarim, a city of Simeon, (1 Chron. iv. 31.) noticed
among the cities of Judah, (Josh. xv. 36.) and there called
Sharaim. Shahazimah, a city of Issachar. Josh. xix. 22.
Shalem, a city of Shechem, (Gen. xxxiii. 18.) probablv the
original name of Sichem or Shechem.
Shalisha, See Baal-shalisha.
Shamds, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 48.) and another in
Ephraim. Judges x. 1.
Shapher, mount, one of the encampments of the Israelites,
near Haradah. Numb, xxxiii. 23.
Sharon : there seem to be three places or districts of this
name mentioned in Scripture. One in the west of Ephraim,
between Csasarea and Joppa ; another in the east of Zebulon,
between Mount Tabor and the sea of Tiberias ; and another
in the tribe of Gad, east of Jordan. The name Sharon sig
nifies a plain, and seems to have been a place noted for fruit-
fulness and excellent pastures. 1 Chron. xxvii. 29. Isa. lxv.
10. Song ii. 1. Acts ix. 35.
Sharuhen, a city of Simeon. . Josh. xix. 6.
Shaven, a valley near Jerusalem, called also the king's
dale. (Gen. xiv. 17.) Shaveh-kiriathaim, (Gen. xiv. 5.) was
probably a valley near Kiriathaim in the tribe of Reuben.
Sheba, and Seba : there appear to be four people of this
name mentioned in Scripture : —
1. Seba, a son of Cush, and grandson of Ham. Gen. x. 7.
2. Sheba, son of Raamah, and grandson of Cush. Gen. x. 7.

SHE dictionary of the bible. 267
2. Sheba, a son of Joktan, of the family of Shem. Gen. x. 28.
4. Sheba, a son of Jokshan, who was the son of Abraham
by Keturah. Gen. xxv. 2.
It appears most probable that Seba, the son of Cush, settled
hi Arabia Felix, and was the father of the Sabeans, noted for
their riches and spices. Isa. Ix. 6. Jer. vi. 20.
Sheba, the son of Raamah, is conjectured to have settled
in the south-east of Arabia; and of this family may have been
the merchants of Sheba mentioned by Ezekiel.
Sheba, the son of Joktan, has also been placed in Arabia by
some writers ; but more probably dwelt in the north of Meso-
potamia. Sheba, the son of Jokshan, dwelt in Arabia Deserta, and
was probably the ancestor of the Sabeans who took away the
flocks of Job.
All these families in Arabia were confounded by the Greeks
under the general name of Sabeans ; and Pliny says that the
Sabean nations spread themselves to both seas ; i. e. from the
Red Sea, or Gulf of Arabia, to the Gulf of Persia.
It has been contended by some authors, that Seba the son
of Cush settled in Ethiopia, south of Egypt; and that thence
came that queen of Sheba who visited king Solomon. (1 Kings
x.) This was the opinion of Josephus ; and Mr. Bruce relates
that the Abyssinians boldly maintain that this queen was of
their country, and that their kings are descended from Meni-
lek, who they say was the son of Solomon by the queen of
Sheba. They have a catalogue of the kings descended from
her, with the order of their succession. Dr. Wells, however,
agrees with the learned Bochart, and thinks the queen of
Sheba was so named, not from any country in African Ethio
pia, but from the south of Arabia Felix. Sheba was usually
called the south country : and this queen is said to have come
from the utmost parts of the earth, i, e. from the utmost parts
of Arabia, southward. This part of Arabia also abounded
with gold and spices, which were brought to Solomon by the
queen : and it is related that women reigned over these Sa
bean nations, as well as over the Ethiopians.
Sheba, a city of Simeon. Josh. xix. 2.
Sheban, a city of Reuben. Numb, xxxii. 3.
Shebarim, a place near Ai and Bethel. Josh. vii. 5.
Shechem, or Sichem. See Part I. p. 30.
Shema, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 26.
Shemer, the name of the hill upon which was afterward*
built the city of Samaria. 1 Kings xvi. 24

268 scripture geography. SHU
Shen, a place near Mizpeh in Judah, (1 Sam. vii. 12.) pro
bably the same called Seneh, xiv. 4.
Shepham, a city of Syria, in the north-eastern border of
Canaan ; possibly the same called afterwards Apamea.
Sheshach, a name by which Jeremiah is understood to
mean Babylon. Jer. xxv. 26.
Shibmah, or Sibmah, a city of Reuben, situated, according
to Jerom, near Heshbon. Numb, xxxii. 38. Josh. xiii. 19.
Shicron, a city in the border of Judah. Josh. xv. 11.
Shihon, a city of Issachar. Josh. xix. 19.
Shilhim, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 32.
Shiloh. See Part I. p. 61. This place is frequently men
tioned in Scripture. The name in Hebrew may signify dis
solving, or untying the shoe, or peace, or abounding ; in Sy-
riac, illusive, or deceptive.
Shimron, a city of Zebulon. Josh. xix. 15.
Shinar. See Part I. p. 13.
Shittim, a place east of Jordan, in the Land of Moab,
where the Israelites were encamped for some time. Numb.
xxv. 1. Josh. ii. 1. Part I. p. 50.
Shocoh, a place near Azekah. 1 Sam. xvii. 1.
Shophan, a city of Gad. Numb, xxxii. 35.
Shual, a district invaded by the Philistines in the time of
Saul ; probably situated in the tribe of Ephraim. (1 Sam. xiii.
17.) The name Shual signifies a fox, and the Land of Shual,
here mentioned, may have been so named from abounding
with those animals. Shual may also mean a path, or a fight,
or the fist, and from this latter meaning some have conjectur
ed that the story of Samson's catching three hundred foxes,
in order to burn the standing corn of the Philistines, (Judges
xv. 4.) would have been better translated by saying that he
took three hundred handfuls or sheaves, (manipulus, Latin,
from manus, the hand,) and turned them end to end, and put a
fire-brand in the midst, between the two ends, and cast them
into the standing corn of the Philistines. A much more likely
way of setting a field of grain on fire, than to catch three
hundred foxes, and tie them two and two, with fire-brands
between their tails ; particularly if the fox of Scripture, as is
allowed by the most learned commentators, was the animal
known to us by the name of jackal.
Shunem, a city of Issachar, south of Mount Tabor. (Josh.
xix. 18.) At this place dwelt the woman who so hospitably
entertained the prophet Elisha, and whose child he restored to
life. 2 Kings iv.

SID dictionary of the bible. 269
Shur, a city of Arabia Petrea, which is supposed to have
given name to the wilderness of Shur in its vicinity. (Gen.
xvi. 7. xx. 1.) Part I. p. 44.
Shushan, the capital of Susiana in Persia, situated upon
Ihe river Ulai. (Dan. viii. 2.) It was the winter residence of
tne Persian kings, from the time of Cyrus; but in the summer
they removed to Ecbatana, on account of the heat This city
is also mentioned in the beginning of the books of Esther and
Nehemiah, and is generally called the palace. It was an
ciently a rich and splendid city, and when taken by Alexan
der, he found here 50,000 talents of uncoined gold, besides
wedges of silver, and jewels of inestimable value. The old
city is now a heap of ruins ; but there is said to be one near
it now called Suster, which is a flourishing place, 122 miles
south-west from Ispahan.
Sibmah, the same as Shibmah.
Sibraim, a place between Damascus and Hamath. Ezek.
xlvii. 16.
Sichar, and Sichem, names of Shechem.
Siddim, vale of: See Part I. p. 31.
Sidon, a city of Asher, in the north-west of Canaan, or
Phenicia, on the coast of the Mediterranean, about 25 miles
north of Tyre. It was one of the most ancient cities in the
world, having been founded by Sidon, the son of Canaan, and
great-grandson of Noah. Having long enjoyed an extensive
commerce, it became one of the most opulent cities in the
world, and in the time of Joshua, (xi. 8.) was called " Sidon
the great," by way of eminence. The Sidonians were famous
.for ship-building, and hewing timber, (1 Kings v. 6.) and from
this place Solomon had his principal workmen to build the
temple. They were also distinguished in other arts, and are
said to have been the first makers of transparent glass. Not
withstanding the strength, riches, and prosperity of Sidon, its
ruin was foretold by the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, and others.
This was accomplished in the time of Ochus, king of Persia ;
for the Sidonians having rebelled, he came against them with
an army, and the city was betrayed into his hands, upon
which the inhabitants in despair set fire to their own nouses,
and perished in the flames, with their wives and children, to
the number of 40,000. In the time of the crusades, it was
held by the Christians, but was afterwards taken from them
by -the Turks.
Sidon is now a mean place, though it yet has a considerable
X2

270

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

SID

trade, being the chief port of Damascus. It is now called
Seyde, or Saide, and is 45 miles west from Damascus. There
are three Christian churches here.

No. 1. An ancient medal of Sidon, representing Astarte holding a
cross, and standing on a ship, having the modius, or sacred measure, on
her head. Inscription, sidonos theas, the Sidonian goddess; also some
Phenician letters, which prove its great antiquity.
No. 2. The Sidonian goddess seated on a bull, probably having re
ference to the story of Europa: on ihe reverse the lemple of Venus, as
appears by the crescent surmounting a column: Inscription Sidonio,
date zkp, 127, from the era of the Seleucidae.

No. 3. The goddess in her car; on her
head the modius, with flowers in festoons
hanging from it on each side. The in
scription the same as No. 1. Date 227

No. 4.

No. 5.

SIN dictionary of the bible. 271
No. 4. Astarte resting her right hand on a trophy ; on her left stands
Victory on a pillar ; at her feet is Silenus, and beside her a shell. This
shell is supposed to be the purple murex, and to allude to the Tyrian
dye, which was said to be extracted from it
No. 5. The goddess in her temple, holding the long cross in her hand
Silenus withhis wine-bottle at her feet, a Victory on a pillar beside her
Before the temple is an altar, and beside it the shell. This figure is in
most respects similar to No. 4, and shows that there was a temple to
this goddess in Sidon, and that she was worshipped in that city.
Sihon, kingdom of: See Part I. p. 53.
Sihor, or Sk'ihor, (Josh. xiii. 3. 1 Chron. xiii. 5.) a river
supposed by some to be the Nile ; but was more probably a
river falling into the Mediterranean near the southern bound
ary of the Land of Canaan, on the frontier of Egypt, and
called in several passages of Scripture, the river of Egypt.
See Part I. p. 32. Shihor-libnath was a river in the tribe of
Asher. Josh. xix. 26.
Siloam, a pool or fountain on the south-west of Jerusalem,
(Nehem. iii. 15. John ix. 7.) probably the same elsewhere
called Gihon. The tower of Sdoam (Luke xiii. 4.) is thought
to have stood near this pool, towards the west A church was
formerly built over the fountain, but it has now gone to ruin.
Simeon, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I. p. 64.
Sin, a desert between Elim and Sinai. (Exod. xvi. 1. Numb.
xxxiii. 11.) See Part I. p. 44. Also a city of Egypt, (Ezek.
xxx. 15.) afterwards called Pelusium, which see.
Sinai, a mountain in Arabia, between the two gulfs, at the
head of the Red Sea. See Part I. p. 45.

View of Mount Sinai.

272

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

SIN

It seems probable, from Scripture, that Sinai and Horeb
Were only different heads or peaks of the same mountain ; and
Besides these there is another, now called the Mount of St. Ca
tharine. The monastery of St. Catharine stands at the foot of
Mount Sinai, and is strongly built of stone. On the east side
is a window by which pilgrims and visitors are drawn up into
the monastery in a basket which is let down by a rope and
pulley. By the same means the monks also let down victuals
and alms to the Arabs, to be better secured from outrage ; but
they never suffer them to enter the monastery, the door of
which is only opened to admit their bishop. The Greek
Christians have been in possession of this monastery for a
thousand years ; it having been given to them by the emperor
Justinian. From this building there were formerly steps up
the side of the mountain to its very top, the number of which
was computed at 14,000. At present some of them are bro
ken; but those which remain are well made, and easy to
ascend and descend.
Sinim, a place mentioned in Isaiah xlix. 12. supposed by
learned commentators to mean China.

Idol Worship in China.

The Chinese are remarkable for the pertinacity with which
they adhere to their ancient customs, and are no doubt
essentially the same people which their ancestors were 2000
years ago. In common with other pagans they are gross
idolaters, and have numerous temples dedicated to their still
more numerous deities.

SMY DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE. 278
Among the numerous promises in the Scriptures, there is
one which bears directly upon China, (Isaiah xlix. 12.) " Be
hold, these shall come from far, and lo ! these from the north
and west, and tliese from the land of the Sinim." Great
philologists are agreed that Sinim was the name under which
eastern Asia was known to the inhabitants of western Asia.
The Arabs, Syrians, Malays, and Siamese, to this day, call it
Tsin Chin, or Shin ; and it may well be doubted whether the
Hebrews, who knew the existence of Hindoostan (Esther i.
1.) under the name of Hodu, and of Scythia under the name
of Magog, could be entirely ignorant of the largest and oldest
of empires. Sinim is the Hebrew plural of Sin.
Semites, descendants of Canaan. Gen. x. 17. See Part I.
p. 28.Sion, or Zion, a mountain in Jerusalem, called also the
Mount of the Lord, and the holy mountain.
Siphmoth, a place in Judah. 1 Sam. xxx. 28.
Sirion, a name given by the Sidonians to Mount Hennon,
which the Amorites called Shenir. Deut. iii. 9.
Smyrna, a famous sea-port town of Ionia in Asia Minor,
budt by the iEolians, and afterwards strengthened by a colony
from Ephesus. It is said to have received its name from a
queen of the Amazons, called Smyrna, who took possession of
it. It was afterwards destroyed by the Lydians, and remain
ed almost deserted for 400 years, until Antigonus, one of
Alexander's generals, and after him Lysimachus, restored it
to its ancient splendour. About 180 years after Christ, it
was nearly ruined by an earthquake, but was repaired by
Marcus Aurelius. Having again fallen into decay, about
A. D. 1675, it was restored by the Turks, who erected many
stately buildings, chiefly from the ruins of the ancient city.
Over the gate of a castle on the hill, the Roman eagle con
tinues still engraved, and not far distant is the tomb of Poly-
carp, an early Christian martyr, who suffered death here, and
who is supposed to be the angel, or pastor of the church in
Smyrna, addressed in Rev. ii. 8.
Smyrna is at present a considerable city, and noted for its
extensive commerce. Its port is one of the finest of the Le
vant, and is frequented by ships from nearly all parts of the
world. It is visited by caravans from Persia, and by mer
chants from many eastern countries, who bring here their
merchandise for traffic. A great number of Christians of all
nations, sects, and languages reside here in security, and have
several churches.

274 ,

SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY.

sue

A medal of Smyrna, representing Ceres, the goddess of plenty, with
the inscription, smyrnaion proton asias, Smyrna, the first of Asia ;
i. e. the first of the cities in proconsular Asia. The reverse represents
Jupiter sitting, and holding in his hand Victory. The inscription com
memorates " Philotas, son of Hippicus."
Socoh, or Shocoh, the name of two towns in Judah. Josh.
xv. 35. 48. 1 Sam. xvii. 1. 1 Kings iv. 10. 1 Chron. iv. 18.
2 Chron. xi. 7.
Sodom, one of the five cities of the plain, or vale of Siddim,
which were destroyed for* their wickedness by fire from hea
ven. It seems to have been the most considerable of those
cities, and probably stood near the present southern extremity
of the Dead Sea. See Dead Sea.
Sorek, a brook or valley in the tribe of Dan, near Eshtaol
Judges xvi. 4.
Spain. It is asserted by ancient writers that St. Paul
preached the gospel in Spain ; and he tells us himself, (Rom.
xv. 24. 28.) that he had resolved on going thither. Theo-
doret, and others, tell us that he preached, not only in Spain,
but in other nations, and brought the gospel into the isles of
the sea, by which he probably means Britain. The gospel
was certainly planted in Spain at a very early period, and
many ancient Spanish writers affirm that the apostle James,
the son of Zebedee and the brother of John, was the principal
missionary of the Spaniards. Many Latin and Greek writers
certify that Paul executed his design, and visited Spain after
recovering his liberty at Rome.
Succoth, a place east of Jordan, near the brook Jabbok,
where Jacob dwelt some time, (Gen. xxxiii. 17.) arid where
afterwards was a city belonging to the tribe of Gad. (Josh.
xiii. 27. Judges viii. 5. 1 Kings vii. 46.) Also a station of the
Israelites when preparing to leave Egypt. See Part I. p. 42,

SYR dictionary of the bible. 275
Sukkim, a people probably inhabiting the parts of Africa
adjoining Egypt on the south. 2 Chron. xii. 3.
Sychar, (John iv. 5.) the same as Shechem.
Syene, a city at the southern extremity of Egypt; (Ezek.
xxix. 10.) where it is placed in opposition to Cush, or Arabian
Etiiiopia, to signify the whole extent of Egypt from south to
north. Syracuse, a famous city of Sicily, situated on the east side
of the island, founded by a Corinthian colony about 732 B. C.
It was afterwards under various governments, but became
very powerful ; and in the time of Dionysius, king of Syracuse,
commonly called the tyrant, an army of 100,000 foot, 10,000
horse, and 400 ships were kept in constant pay. It fell into
the hands of the Romans, under Marcellus, after a siege of
three years, B. C. 212. This opulent city had two capacious
harbours, and was well built, with stately and magnificent
houses. Strabo says it was 22 miles in circumference; and
Livy and Plutarch acquaint us that the spoil of it, when taken
by Marcellus, was almost equal to that of Cartilage. Here
Archimedes, the celebrated mathematician, was killed by a
common soldier, while he was intent upon his studies; by
which Marcellus was much grieved. After this, Syracuse in
some measure recovered its former prosperity; but was at
length taken by the Saracens, A. D. 8*84, and razed to the
ground. Some ruins of the ancient city yet remain; near
which stands the modern town, a place of little consequence.
St. Paul, in his voyage to Rome, landed at Syracuse, and
remained there three days. Acts xxviii. 12.
Syria, a country called in the early Scripture writings
Aram, from Aram, the son of Shem, by whose descendants it
was peopled. The name Syria is often applied in a vague
and indeterminate sense, and it is well to state to what differ
ent countries it has been applied.
Syria, in its largest sense, includes all the country lying
from Mount Taurus on the north, to the boundaries of Egypt
and Arabia on the south ; having the Mediterranean on the
west, and the Euphrates, east. In some of the older authors,
indeed, it seems to have also included Mesopotamia, called
Aram naharaim, or Syria of the rivers. Hosea xii. 12.
Syria, thus taken in its largest extent, may he considered
as divided into three parts : 1. Upper Syria, or Syria proper,
the original country of Aram, lying north of Arabia, and ex
tending from the Euphrates on the east, to Phenicia, west.

276 scripture geography. TAB
This was the original Syria, so called before it was conquered
and annexed to Assyria. 2. Ccelo-Syria, or Syria in the vale,
a name generally applied to the country lying between the
mountainous ridges of Libanus and Anti- Libanus ; though
sometimes extended to the region about Damascus. 3. Syria
Palestina, including the Holy Land, and the country on the
north-west of it, called by the Greeks Phenicia.
The term Syria in the New Testament is used in a more
restricted sense, distinct from the Holy Land and from Phe
nicia, merely including the country lying north-east from the
land of Canaan, having the Mediterranean and Phenicia on
the west, and the Euphrates, east In the early ages, Syria
.was divided into a number of small kingdoms, such as Syria
Zobah, Syria of Damascus, Syria of Maacah, Syria of Rehob,
&.c. which were almost constantly at war with the Israelites.
This country, in general, first became subject to Assyria, then
to Babylon, next to Persia, and next to Alexander the Great
After his death, it was the seat of the kingdom of the Seleu-
cidae, which, in its turn, fell before the power of the Romans.
It was next under the dominion of the Saracens, to whom suc
ceeded the Turks, under whose government it exists at pre
sent. The ancient language of this country nearly resembled
the Hebrew and Arabic, but still nearer the Chaldee ; at pre
sent, however, the Arabic is the general language of the
country. Syro-phenicia : this is Phenicia, properly so called, of
which Sidon was the capital; but having by conquest been
united with the Greek kingdom of Syria, it was called Syro-
Phenicia. So we find a woman called by St Mark, a Syro-
phenician, (vii. 26.) because she was of this country, which
was then considered as part of Syria. St. Matthew (xv. 22.)
calls her a woman of Canaan, which she also was, as this
country was peopled by the Canaanites, Sidon being the eld
est son of Canaan. Gen. x. 15.

T.
Taanach, a city of Manasseh, in Issachar, near Megiddo.
Josh. xvii. 11.
Taanath-shiloh, a place in the southern border of Ephraim.
Josh. xvi. 6.
Tabbath, a place near Abel-meholah. Judg. vii. 22.
Taberah, an encampment of the Israelites in the wilder
ness ; north of Mount Sinai. Numb. xi. 3.

TAH

DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE.

277

Tabor, a noted mountain in the tribe of Zebulon. It stands
separate from all others, though there are some near it on the
north, but these are much smaller. Its shape is almost coni
cal ; aud its height about 3000 feet On the summit were
anciently a castle and other fortifications, which were very
strong, and the scene of many sanguinary contests between
the Crusaders and the Saracens. The ruins of these yet re
main, and present stones of a monstrous size, which must have
been carried up the mountain by some art now unknown. It
is believed that on this mountain our Saviour was transfigured,
in the presence of Peter, James, and John, (Matt xvii. 1.
Luke ix. 28.) and there yet remain three contiguous grottoes,
made to represent the three tabernacles which St. Peter pro
posed to erect, in the astonishment that possessed him at the
glory of the transfiguration.

View of Mount Tabor.

Travellers represent the prospect from the summit of Mount
Tabor as singularly beautiful.
Tadmor, a city built by Solomon in the desert of Syria. 1
Kings ix. 18. See Palmyra.
Tahpanhes, Tahapanes, or Taphnes, a city of Egypt, men
tioned frequently by the prophet Jeremiah, (ii. 16. xliii. 7,
&c.) also by Ezekiel, (xxx. 18.) written Hanes in Isaiah.
(xxx. 4.) It is thought to be the city called afterwards
Daphnee Pelusia), and situated not far from Pelusium.
Y

278 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. TAR
Tahath, an encampment of the Israelites in the desert,
near Makheloth. Numb, xxxiii. 26.
Tahtim-hodshi, a tract in Manasseh, lying about lake Se
mechon, east of it, and near the head of the Jordan. 2 Sam.
xxiv. 6.
Tamar, a city supposed to be situated near the southern
shore of the Dead Sea. Ezek. xlvii. 19.
Tanach, the same as Taanach.
Tappuah, a city on the frontier of Manasseh, but belonging
to Ephraim, (Josh. xvii. 8.) probably the same elsewhere call
ed En-tappuah. Another town of this name belonged to the
tribe. of Judah. Josh. xv. 34.
Tarah, an encampment of the Israelites in the desert, near
Tahath. Numb, xxxiii. 27.
Taralah, a city of Benjamin. Josh, xviii. 27.
Tarshish, the original country of this name, or the settle
ment of Tarshish the son of Javan, was probably in Cilicia,
in Asia Minor, in the region where afterwards was built the
city of Tarsus. (See Part I. p. 19.) That this country was
called Tarshish, we have the testimony of Josephus and many
other ancient writers of good authority. The people, being
an enterprising and commercial nation, established colonies in
different countries, and these colonies being also called Tar
shish, after the name of the parent state, it has become diffi
cult to ascertain the situation of the different places mention
ed in Scripture under this name.
Tarshish was a sea-port, from which the best specimens of
ship-building were produced, so that ships built after the same
manner were called ships of Tarshish, though not actually
built there. (Isa. ii. 16. xxiii. 1. Psalm xlviii, 7.) Silver was
the produce of Tarshish, (Jer. x. 9. Ezek. xxvii. 12.) and it
also appears from Ezekiel that iron, lead, and tin were brought
from that place. It was also distant, , and westward, since
Jonah intended to flee thither. But neither silver nor tin
were supplied by Tarsus in Cilicia; and what is said of the
fleets of Solomon and Jehoshaphat, (1 Kings xxii. 49. 2 Chron.
ix. 21. xx. 36.) excludes this from being the Tarshish of these
places; for they would not be likely to build vessels on the
Red Sea to navigate to Cilicia; neither would Jonah quit
Joppa for Tarsus, with the intention of avoiding the road to
Nineveh. The Tarshish to which Jonah thought to flee, was
probably Tartessus in Spain, anciently called Tarshish, and
settled by a colony from the parent state in Cilicia. The ships

TEK

DICTIONARY of the bible.

279

of Solornon and Jehoshaphat were probably called " ships of
Tarshish," from their being built in the same manner as those
of Tarshish ; but the Tarshish to which they sailed is unknown.
Tarsus, the capital of Cilicia, and the native city of St.
Paul. (Acts ix. 11. xxi. 39.) This city was situated on the
river Cydnus, and was probably very ancient It was suc
cessively possessed by the Greeks and Romans, and was cele
brated for the cultivation of learning. In the schools of this
city, St Paul was early imbued with a knowledge of history
and the liberal sciences. Tarsus still survives, under the name
of Tarsous, but it is mostly a heap of ruins.

No. 1. A medal of Tarsus, showing that Minerva, as the goddess of
arts and sciences, was revered in this cily. On the medal she holds a
Victory offering a garland, turning from the goddess. Inscription, Tar
sus the metropolis'; the letters added are obscure in their import
No. 2. This medal contains two circles of heads, each having seven,
male and female ; the heads of the inner circle are divided by spokes
like those of a wheel. The upper head of the outer circle, which is
crowned with laurel, has on each side of it a Victory offering a crown,
with a palm branch in the other hand. The import of all this is ob
scure. Inscription the same as on the former, tarsou metropoleos,
with the same added letters, A. M. K. G. B. which possibly mean Au
tocrator Marcus Ctssar ; the second year.
Taverns, three, a place about 30 miles from Rome, where
St. Paul was met by some Christians on bis way thither. Acts
xxviii. 15.
Tekoa, a city of Judah, nine miles south-east from Bethle-
nem. (2 Chron. xi. 6. xx. 20.) The prophet Amos was a
native of this place. Amos i. 1.

280 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. THY
Tel-abib, a place in Chaldea, to which some of the'captive
Israelites were carried. Ezek. iii. 15.
Telem, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 24.) probably the same
called Telaim, in 1 Sam. xv. 4.
Tel-harsa, and Telmelah, places in Babylonia, situation
unknown. Ezra ii. 59. Nehem. vii. 61.
Teman, a region in Arabia. Jer. xlix. 7. Ezc k. xxv.
Thebez, a city in the tribe of Ephraim, not far from She
chem. Judges ix. 50. 2 Sam. xi. 21.
Thelassar, or Telassar, a place of which tl e exact situa
tion is not known, but it seems to have been in Assyria or
Armenia. (2 Kings xix. 12. Isaiah xxxvii. 12.) lc is thought
to be the same as Ellasar. Gen. xiv. 1. 9.
Thessalonica, ,now called Salonichi, an ancient city of
Macedonia, situated at the head of the Thermaicu.1 Sinus, or
Gulf of Salonichi. It was once a powerful city ; but passing
successively under the dominion of the Greeks, Roiiiyns, Sa
racens, Venetians, and Turks, it gradually declined. Though
now in a state of deca)', it still exhibits some remains of its
ancient greatness ; and, having a noble harbour, is yet a place
of considerable trade. In the times of the apostles, there seem
to have been a number of Jews here, who had a synagogue, in
which Paul preached, and converted some ; but a tumult being
raised against him, he was sent away from the city. Acts xvii.
1, 2, &c.
This place will long be memorable on account of two epis
tles written by St. Paul to the Thessalonians.
Thisbe, the native place of Tobit, (i. 2.) It was in the tribe
of Naphtali, and probably near the city called Kedesh in the
Old Testament.
Thyatira, a city in the north of Lydia, in Asia Minor, on
the small river Lycus, not far from its source. Pliny says its
ancient name was Pelopia, and according to Strabo, it was
founded by a colony of Macedonians. Thyatira has suffered
the satne revolutions and changes of rulers as the other cities
in this country, and, like most of them, now lies in ruins. It
is called at present by the Turks Ak-hisar, or the white castle,
from some cliffs of white marble in its vicinity. Among its
ruins are found inscriptions, commemorating " the most potent
and great city of the Thyatireans." The church of Thyatira
was one of the seven addressed in the Revelations, (ii. 18.)
This place is 26 miles north from Sardis.

riM

dictionary op the bible.

281

Apollo represented
m his car, as the god
of day; his head sur
rounded by rays: the
chariot in which he
rides has somewhat
the appearance of a
rainbow. It is drawn
by three lions; and
under each of the ex
terior lions is a bull's
head. This alliance
of the solar light, the
lions and the bull, is
another evidence of
the progress of idola
try from the east ; the
lions being, as Dr.
Wells thinks the em
blem of Mount Cau
casus, and the bull of Mount Taurus ; the subject of the medal being
the representation of the solar light rising behind these mountains.
Tiberias, a city on the western shore of the sea of Galilee,
near its southern extremity ; built by Herod the tetrarch of
Galilee, and named by him in honour of Tiberius Caasar. The
great privileges^granted by Herod to the inhabitants of this
place, made it quickly become one of the principal cities of
these parts. In the time of the Jewish wars, Josephus took
possession of this city, and defended it bravely for some time ;
but being taken by Vespasian, its walls were partly beaten
down, and the city otherwise greatly demolished. In the days
of its prosperity, it had thirteen synagogues and an academy ;
and here was held the last session of the Jewish Sanhedrim.
Here also the Talmud, or body of the Jewish civil and canon
law, was collected.
From this city, the Sea of Galilee is frequently called in
the New Testament the Sea of Tiberias.
Tiehath, a city of Syria, taken and plundered by David,
(1 Chron. xviii. 8.) probably the same called Betah. 2 Sam.
viii. 8.
Timnah, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 10.
Timnath, a city of Dan, in the country of the Philistines.
Josh. xix. 43. Judges xiv. 1.
Timnath-serah, a city in Mount Ephraim given to Joshua,
(Josh. xix. 50.) ealled also Timnath-heres, (Judges ii. 9.)
whence Mount Heres. Judges i. 35.
Y2

282

scripture geography.

TRA

Tiphsah, a city on the Euphrates, which was the frontier
of Solomon's extensive empire, (1 Kings iv. 24.) and probably
the same afterwards called by the Greeks Thapsacus. There
was also a city of this name in the tribe of Ephraim, six
miles from Samaria. 2 Kings xv. 16.
Tirzah, a city of Ephraim. See Part I. p. 61.
Tob, a country in Syria, north-east of the Land of Canaan,
to which Jepbthah retired, (Judg. xi. 3. 5.) and probably the
same called Ish-tob, in 2 Sam. x. 6. 8. It is called Tobie, (1
Mace. y. 13.) and is probably the country of the Tubieni, men
tioned in 2 Mace. xii. 17. A medal of Tob, or Tabe, on
which the inscription demos ta-
benon, the people of Tabe, seems
to infer the existence of a demo
cralic government. This was not
customary in Syria, though there
is an instance of it in Gaza, of
which there is a medal inscribed
demos gazaion. Now we learn
that in Tob " there were gathered vain men to Jephthah, and went out
with him," probably on military expeditions, he being their chief: and
with this agrees the request of the elders of Gilead, that he would be
their captain. Ish-tob signifies Tob of the chief, or leader, and seems
to corroborate the democracy implied by the inscription on our medal
Whether this democratic form originated with Jepjyhah cannot be de
termined ; but that it lasted after his time appears at least probable, and
our medal proves that something like it was extant in the time of Ha
drian, to whose reign this medal is referred.
Toohen, a city of Simeon. 1 Chron. iv. 32.
Togarmah, a son of Gomer. See Part I. p. 17.
Tolad, a eity of Simeon, (1 Chron. iv. 29.) written El-tolad.
Josh. xv. 30- xix. 4.
Tophel, a place in the wilderness, near the Red Sea
Deut. i. 1.
Tophet, the name of a place in the valley of Hinnom, near
Jerusalem, rendered abominable by idolatry. 2 Kings xxiii
10. Jer. vii. 31. s
Trachonitis, a mountainous region lying on the north-east
of Canaan, between Iturea and the country of Damascus,
having Bashan or Batanea on the west, and Arabia Deserta
east; and extending from Iturea to the country of Damascus.
It seems to have been nearly the same as the country of Ar
gob, (Deut. iii. 13.) or the region about Mount Gilead, which,
From its craggy mountains, was called by the Greeks Tra-

TYR dictionary of the bible. 283
rhonitis, i. e. the rough or mountainous country. This region,
togetlier with Iturea, in the time of our Saviour, formed one
tetrarchy. (Luke iii. 1.) In order to understand the mean
ing of the words tetrarch and tetrarchy, it is necessary to
chserve, that on the death of Herod the Great, his dominions
were divided into four parts, which were thence called
tetrarchies, from the Greek tetra, four, and arche, a govern
ment Of these, the tetrarchy of Galilee belonged to Herod
Antipas, that of Iturea and Trachonitis to his brother Philip,
that of Abilene to Lysanias, and the fourth, consisting of
Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, to Archelaus, the eldest son of
Herod the Great, who for some time enjoyed the title of king,
but being afterwards displaced, his kingdom was made a
pnw ince of the Roman empire, and was governed by Pontius
Pilate at the time of our Saviour's crucifixion.
Tripolis, a city of Phenicia, on the Mediterranean, north
of Sidon, and beyond the boundaries of the Holy Land. The
name denotes three cities, and it is said to be so called because
built by the joint expense of the three cities, Tyre, Sidon, and
Aradus. It seems to have been of no great note in early
times, and is mentioned in 2 Mace. xiv. 1. as the place where
Demetrius landed with his forces. In the primitive days of
the church, it was made an Episcopal see by the archbishop
of Tyre, and had become a place of some account in the time
of the crusades, being taken by the Christians, and made the
capital of Phenicia under their government It yet remains
to be one of the principal towns along this coast, being tolera
bly fortified, and the houses neatly built with stone. It has
some trade, and a. French and Italian vice-consul generally
reside here.
Troas, a small country in Asia Minor, lying west of Mysia,
on the sea-coast. It took this name from its principal city,
Troas, built, as it is said, about four miles from the site of
ancient Troy, by Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the
Great, who peopled it from the neighbouring cities, and call
ed it Alexandria, or Troas Alexandri, in honour of Alexander,
who began the work, but did not live to complete it. In
after times it was called simply Troas, which name, in the
sacred writers, denotes the country as well as the city, but
chiefly the latter.
St. Paul repeatedly preached in Troas, and here he left his
cloak, his books, and his parchments. (2 Tim. iv. 13.) Here
also he had a vision, in which the form of a man appeared to

284 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. TYR
him, and invited him to pass over into Macedonia to promote
the work of God there. (Acts xvi. 9.) In this vicinity are yet
seen fallen walls and other ruins, supposed to be the remains
of ancient Troy, so famed by the poets for its ten years' siege
by the Greeks ; and also a number of conical mounds or tu
muli, some of them a hundred feet in diameter at the base,
supposed to be the tombs of Hector, Achilles, Patroclus, Ajax,
and other heroes, slain in the Trojan war. The rivers Sca-
mander and Simois yet meander through the plain of Troy
and near their confluence was the site of the ancient Ilium.
The Scamander has now but little water, and part of its an
cient channel is overgrown with grass.
Trogyllium, a promontory of Mycale, near Samos, at
which was a town where St Paul tarried one day. Acts
xx. 15.
Tyre, a celebrated city of Phenicia, in the north-west of
Canaan, belonging to the tribe of Asher, (Josh. xix. 29.) and
situated on the coast, about 20 miles south of Sidon. It is sup
posed to have been originally built by a colony of Sidonians,
whence it is called by Isaiah (xxiii. 12.) the daughter of Si
don ; and stood at first on a high hill, on the continent, where
its ruins still remain, under the name of Pahe-tyrus; or Old
Tyre. In process of time the city was removed to an adja
cent rocky island, very near the main land, and became a
place of very great trade and wealth, for some time excelling
Sidon itself Hence Isaiah says of Tyre, that her merchants
were princes, and her traffickers were the honourable of the
earth. It was particularly famous for dying purple, said to
have been first discovered by a mere accident, a dog's lips hav
ing been coloured purple by eating of a certain shell-fish.
Tyre was taken and destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar ; but hav
ing recovered from this, it flourished for a considerable time,
until it was again demolished by Alexander the Great, who
had joined it to the main land by a mole or bank of earth, and
took it, after a siege of seven months, B. C. 332. Again
recovering both its beauty and riches, this city became a con
federate of the Romans, and for its fidelity was invested with
the privileges of a Roman city. Under the dominion of the
Christians it was the metropolitan see for the province of
Phenicia ; but in A. D. 636, it was subjected by the Saracens,
and having remained under their dominion 418 years, it was
taken by the Crusaders in 1124. It was finally subdued by
the Turks, A. D. 1289, who still hold it

TYR

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

285

" Tyre is now called Sour, which resembles its ancient He
brew name, Zor, or Tzor, and stands upon a peninsula which
projects into the sea in an oval form. It is a solid rock, cover
ed with brown earth, and is 800 paces long, and 400 broad.
The place is now a miserable village, consisting of forty or
fifty poor families, who subsist on the produce of their few
rods of land, and a trifling fishery. Thus is fulfilled the
prophecy that Tyre, the queen of nations, should be a place
for fishers to spread their nets. (Ezek. xxvi. 5.) The glory
of Tyre is departed, — and instead of the greatness and com
mercial prosperity described by Ezekiel, (xxvi. xxvii. xxviii.)
there now remain but a few poor wretches harbouring amongst
the ruins.

No. 1. A medal of Tyre, representing, as some have supposed, th©
Tyrians in the act of presenting a plan of their city to Dido, afterwards
Queen of Carthage. But there appears no reason why Dido should
wear the sacred measure on her head, as that was restricted to a divinity.
It is therefore probable that this figure is Astarte, to whom the Tyrians
are, as it were, devoting their city, by offering a representation of it
No. 2. Represents a ship, on the acrostolium of which hangs a shield,
a proper emblem of this mercantile and warlike city. On this vessel
stands Astarte, holding a palm branch in her left hand ; with her right
she points with a sceptre, and is directing a boy genius, who is pouring
a vase . of water into the sea, from whence another boy genius appears
to have recently taken two fishes, one of which, a dolphin, he offers to
the goddess. This scene appears to pass on the sea shore, and may be
allied to a custom still extant, which is mentioned by Volney. He says
there is a well on the shore, containing good water, but from some un
known cause it becomes troubled in September, and continues for some
days full of a reddish clay. This season is observed asakind of festival
by the inhabitants, who then come in crowds to the well, and pour into
it a bucket of sea water, which they believe has the virtue of restoring
die clearness of the spring.

286 SCRIPTURE GEOGRAPHY. ZAR
U.
Ulai, a river of Susiana in Persia, which ran by the city
and palace of Shushan, the capital. It is said to have been
the greatest river of the province, and that the Persian kings
used no other water. On the banks of this river Daniel had
a vision, described in Dan. viii. 2, &c.
Ummah, a city of Asher. Josh. xix. 30.
Uphaz, the name of a country producing gold, which some
suppose to be the same as Ophir. Calmet supposes it was the
region about the river Phasis, east of the Euxine or Black Sea.
Ur, a place in the land of the Chaldees, which was the
original residence of Abraham. See Part I. p. 29.
Uz, the country about Damascus, including part cf Arabia
Deserta, and extending to Arabia Petrea on the south. See
Part I. p. 22. This agrees with what is said in the book of
Job, (i. 15. 17.) respecting his cattle being carried off by the
Sabeans, who were a people of Arabia; and also of his having
been robbed of his camels by the Chaldeans, who dwelt on the
east of Uz.
Uzzen-sherah, a city in the tribe of Ephraim, probably near
Beth-horon. 1 Chron. vii. 24.

Z.
Zaanan, a city of Judah, (Micah L 11.) written Zenan in
Josh. xv. 37.
Zaanannim, a city in the limits of the tribe of Naphtali.
Josh. xix. 33.
Zaie, a city of Edom, probably the same as Seir, which is
a name for Edom. 2 Kings viii. 21.
Zalmon, a mount near Shechem. Judges ix. 48.
Zalmonah, an encampment of the Israelites in the wilder
ness, near Mount Hor. Numb, xxxiii. 41.
Zaphon, a city of Gad. Josh. xiii. 27.
' Zamziimmims, a race of giants who inhabited the country
east of Jordan. See Part I. p. 52.
Zanoah, the name of two towns in Judah. Josh, xv\ 34. 56.
Nehem. iii. 13. xi. 30.
Zareo, or Zered, a brook, or valley of Moab, on the east oi
Jordan. Numb. xxi. 12. Deut. ii. 13, 14.
Zarephath, a city in the tribe of Asher, situated on the
coast, between Tyre and Sidon. This was the place where
the prophet Elijah dwelt while there was a famine in the lanf

ZI0 DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE. 287
of Israel. (1 Kings xvii. 9, 10.) It is called Sarepta in the
N?w Testament (Luke iv. 26.) In the time of Jerom they
still showed the place where the prophet dwelt There is
yet a town here, called Saraphan, which consists of but a few
houses on the top of the hills, half a mile from the Mediter
ranean. The ancient town probably stood between these hills
and the sea, as an extent of ruins is now visible there.
Zaretan, a place near the Jordan, (Josh. iii. 16.) called
Zartanah in 1 Kings iv. 12. and Zarthan, vii. 46. The brazen
vessels for the temple were cast in the clay ground between
this place and Succoth.
Zareth-shahar, a city of Reuben. Josh. xiii. 19.
Zeboim, one of the cities of the plain, destroyed by fire
from heaven. See Part I. p. 31.
A valley of this name is mentioned, 1 Sam. xiii. 18. and
also a city in the tribe of Benjamin. Neh. xi. 34.
Zebulon, one of the twelve tribes of Israel. See Part I. p. 66.
Zed ad, a place in the northern border of the land of Ca
naan. Numb, xxxiv. 8. Ezek. xlvii. 15.
Zelah, a city of Benjamin, (Josh, xviii. 28.) where Saul
was buried. 2 Sam. xxi. 14.
Zelzah, a place in the border of Benjamin. 1 Sam. x. 2.
Zemar aim, a town of Benjamin, near the border of Ephraim.
Josh, xviii. 22. 2 Chron. xiii. 4.
Zenan, See Zaanan,
Zephath, and Zephathah, a city and valley in the tribe of
Simeon. Judg. i. 17. 2 Chron. xiv. 10.
Zer, a town of Naphtali. Josh. xix. 35.
Zered, See Zared.
Zered a, the native place of Jeroboam, situated irr the tribe
of Ephraim, (1 Kings xi 26.) probably the same as Zeredatha.
2 Chron. iv. 17.
Zererath, a place in Manasseh. Judg. vii. 22.
Ziddim, a city of Naphtali Josh. xix. 35.
Zidon, See Sidon.
Ziklag, a city of Judah, afterwards given to Simeon.
(Josh. xv. 31. xix. 5.) This was a city of the Philistines, and
was given to David by Achish, king of Gath ; after which it
remained as a domain to the kings of Judah. 1 Sam. xxvii &
Zin, a wilderness near Mount Sinai otherwise called Sin.
See Part I. p. 44.
Zion, a mountain ; the same as Sion,
Zior, a city of Judah. Josh. xv. 54.

288 scripture geography. ZUZ
Ziph, a city of Judah, (Josh. xv. 55.) near Carmel and
Maon, east of Hebron ; near which was the wilderness of
Ziph, to which David retired. (1 Sam. xxiii. 14.) There is
another place of this name mentioned in Josh. xv. 24. as also
belonging to Judah.
Ziphron, a place in the northern limits of the land of the
Israelites. Numb, xxxiv. 9.
Ziz, a cliff. 2 Chron. xx. 16.
Zoan, a very ancient city of Egypt, and probably the first
royal seat of the Pharaohs, or ancient kings of Egypt. That
it was the first built city of Egypt is probable from Numb.
xiii. 22. where we read that Hebron was built seven years
before Zoan, in Egypt. This observation seems to have been
made to show the antiquity of Hebron, which was done by
naming the most ancient city of Egypt. Several of the
miracles wrought before Pharaoh are said to have been done
in the field of Zoan. (Psalm lxxviii. 12.) This city is also
mentioned by the prophets Isaiah and Ezekiel. Zoan was
called Tanis by the Greeks, and was situated on the second
branch or mouth of the Nile, from the east, which was thence
called the Tanitic mouth.
Zoar, one of the five guilty cities of the plain, which was
intended to be consumed with the others, but was saved at
the intercession of Lot. See Part I. p. 31.
Zobah, a kingdom of Syria, in the neighbourhood of Da
mascus. 2 Sam. viii. 3. 1 Chron. xviii. 3.
Zoheleth, a stone by the fountain of En-rogel, near the
walls of Jerusalem. 1 Kings i. 9.
Zorah, a city of Dan; the birth-place of Samson. (Judg.
xiii. 2.) It was near the border of Judah, and was rebuilt or
fortified by Rehoboam. (2 Chron. xi. 10.) It is written
Zoreah in Josh. xv. 33.
Zuzims, a gigantic people, inhabiting the country east of
the Jordan. Gen. xiv. 5.

THE END.

SCRIPTURE
NATURAL HISTORY;

OR,

A CONCISE ACCOUNT

ANIMALS REFERRED TO IN THE BIBLE.

BY
THOMAS T. SMTLKY, A.M. M.D.

WITH NUMEROUS EUOBAVINSS.

PHILADELPHIA:
STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON.

PREFACE

The study of Natural History has always been ranked
amongst the most liberal pursuits, and has engaged the atten
tion and exercised the talents of the learned, both in ancient
and modern times. If, therefore, as a subject of enlightened
study only, it has merited and received deep attention; it
assumes a still more interesting character, when we perceive
that a knowledge of it is so essential to a clear understanding
of many parts of the sacred writings.
Almost every object in nature has been referred to in the
Holy Scriptures, for the purpose of enforcing the sublime
truths contained therein, and the manners, habits, and in
stincts of the animal creation especially, have furnished
abundant materials for the illustration of the different charac
ters and passions found amongst the human race. A know
ledge, therefore, of the manners and habits of the animals
mentioned, becomes indispensable to a proper understanding
of those parts of the Bible which refer to them, and without
it they are obscure at least, if not altogether unintelligible.
It will at once be perceived, that the object of the author
has not been to write a regular treatise on Natural History,
which would have greatly exceeded the limits prescribed to
this work, without adding to the utility of it, so far as relates
303

304 PREFACE.
to the immediate purpose under consideration. His object
has been simply to present in a plain and intelligible manner,
soch an account of the animals mentioned in the Bible, as
would enable every one to feel the force and beauty of the
allusions to them in the sacred text. If he has succeeded in
assisting his readers to obtain a clearer understanding of any
part of the Holy Scriptures, his labour will not have been
in vain.

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HIST0R1.

Adder. The adder is a venomous reptile, supposed by
naturalists to be the same with the Asp. The poison is of
such a rapid operation that it kills almost on the instant the
bite is inflicted, without the possibility of applying any re
medy. The most remarkable mention of it is in Psalm lviii.
4, where the adder or asp is said to " stop its ears, that
it may not hear the voice of the charmer." Some are of
opinion that there is a sort of adder really deaf, which is of
the most dangerous kind, and that the Psalmist here speaks
of this species. Some authors think that the adder when old
becomes deaf; others again, that it, as well as other serpents,
possesses the sense of hearing in an exquisite degree, but that
when any one attempts to charm it, it stops its ears by apply
ing one ear close to the earth and stopping the other with the
end of its tail. The expression is probably taken from actual
observation of nature. That serpents are overcome as if
charmed, so that, while they would bite some persons with
great violence, they are harmless to others, has often been as
serted by travellers in the East.

Ant. The ant, both by
sacred and profane wri
ters, is referred to as a
pattern of industry. " Go
to the ant, thou sluggard,
consider her ways and be
wise," (Prov. vi. 6,) is an
observation made by the
wisest of men. It is said,
(Prov. xxx. 25,) "the
ants are a people not
strong, yet they prepare
their meat in summer." 305

Ant-HUls.

2A2

306

scripture natural history.

APE

In our climate the ants are small in size, and in every re
spect insignificant animals, when compared with those which
inhabit the eastern tropical countries, which are no doubt the
kind referred to by the sacred writer. In the East the ant is
often found three-quarters of an inch in length, and constructs
works which surpass those of the bees, beavers, and other
animals, as much at least as those of the most polished na
tions exceed those of the least cultivated savages. Their
dwellings contain various apartments and galleries, construct
ed on a scale which, compared with the size of the architect,
greatly exceed the labours of man. The height of their
buildings is ten or twelve feet above the ground, and their
galleries and subterraneous passages extend about as many
feet below the surface of the earth. They are built in so
solid a manner, that when half constructed, the wild bulls
stand on the top for the purpose of discovering the approach of
an enemy, and when completed, they support the weight of a
man with perfect safety. Ape. The ape is an animal of
the monkey tribe, and is mentioned
(1 Kings x. 22,) amongst the cu
riosities which Solomon's fleet
brought from Ophir.
4fi '^'^^^^SSJi Thoseof the monkey tribe which
^•^BpStS^Kf nave no ta'*s are termed apes, and
%J11m1I^ £i '^ thosi which have short tails are
called baboons. Of all the kinds
of apes, the ouran outang most re
sembles mankind. This animal
i % grows from six to seven feet high,
and possesses strength as great as
that of several men together. They
build sheds for their accommoda
tion, and make use of clubs for
their defence. Their faces are
broad, noses flat, and their skins
are covered on many parts of their body with tawny-coloured
hair. Anciently, the Egyptians and some other nations worship
ped apes, and they are still an object of adoration in many
countries in the East.

The Ouran Outang.

ASS

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

307

Tbe Ass.
Ass. An animal of the horse kind, with a long head, long
ears, and round body, covered with short, coarse hair. Asses
are generally of a pale dun colour, with a black streak along
the back and another across the shoulders, with the tail hairy
only at the end.
The Eastern asses are bigger and more beautiful than ours,
and on them did even great men, as Abraham, Mo'ses, and
David's family ride. There are wild asses, which were once
very common in Canaan and Arabia, and are still so in Africa;
they are extremely beautiful, of a gray colour, and run so fast
that only the fleetest horses can overtake them ; they are jeal
ous of their liberty, and are usually seen in herds. To the
wild asses the Ishmaelites are compared, to represent their
perpetual freedom and their restless and savage temper.
(Gen. xvi. 12.) On the banks of the river Euphrates were
asses altogether white, and on such the Hebrew princes rode
in the days of Deborah. (Judg. v. 10.)
However honourable asses might be among the Jews be
fore the days of David, or in more modern times among the
lawyers of Persia, yet, in the days of our Saviour, they were
not in much more respect than among us at present, therefore
his riding upon one in his triumphant entry into Jerusalem,
marked him as the debased king of Israel. (Zech. ix. 9. John
xii. 14.)
Under the law, asses were unclean, and their firstlings were

308 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. BEA
to be redeemed with a lamb, or to have their necks broken,
and are emblems of stubborn and wicked men. Of old, the
ass was remarkably honoured bv being made the instrument,
by the miraculous interposition of God, in rebuking the mad
ness of Balaam, when he attempted to urge her forward when
stopped by the fear of the angel. (Numb. xxii. 22.) Nor
ought men to ridicule this story till they demonstrate the in
capacity of infinite power to make this animal speak, or the
impropriety of rebuking a proud diviner, by such a stupid
and contemptible creature.
Baoger. The badger is a four-footed animal which bur
rows in the earth. It is of a greyish colour, with long, stiff
hair, and it feeds on small animals, and on the roots of vege
tables. The uppermost covering of the tabernacle, according
to our translation, was made of badgers' skins, (Ex. xxvi.
14,) and they were also used for shoes, (Ezek. xvi. 10;) but
it is now the general opinion of critics that the original word
refers to the colour, and not to the animal ; at any rate, not
to the animal known to us by that name.
Bat. This animal has often been ranked with birds ; but
it has the mouth of a quadruped, not the beak of a bird : it is
covered with hair, and produces its young alive, and in fact
greatly resembles a mouse. It has no pretensions to be ranked
amongst birds, except that it can fly; but in that respect its
wings are entirely different from birds, being nothing more
than thin, fleshy membranes. \
During the winter, bats cover themselves with their wings
and hang in a torpid state, in caves or old buildings. During
the summer, they hide themselves in the day, and in the night
flutter about, catching flies and other insects. Some bats
have tails and others have none. Some bats, in China and
other countries of the East, are as large as hens. The largo
bats of Brazil, Madagascar, and some other countries, fasten
on persons whom they find sleeping, and suck their blood.
Bats were unclean under the law. (Lev. xi. 19. Isa. ii. 20.)
Bear. The bear is a large four-footed beast of pre}',
covered with a thick, shaggy fur, so as to appear like a shape
less lump. The colour of the bear is generally a blackish
brown, but in cold countries it is white. The feet of
bears are so formed, that in walking they always tread on

BEE

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

309

their heel . They feed on
fruits and flesh, and are
very ravenous, extremely
kind to their young, and
become dreadfully enrag
ed when deprived of them.
Bears are found in most
countries, and they were
common in Palestine.
The Bear David attacked one as he
attended his father's flock,
and two she bears tore in pieces forty-two children, who
mocked the prophet Elisha. (1 Sam. xvii. 34. 2 Kings ii.
23, 24.)
God compares himself to a bear robbed of her whelps, to
mark his anger against his enemies. (Hos. xiii. 8. Lam. iii.
10.) Angry men are compared to bears robbed of their young.
(2 Sam. xvii. 8. Prov. xvii. 12.) The Persian monarchy is
represented by a bpar, (Dan. vii. 5,) and Antichrist is said to
have the feet of a bear. (Rev. xiii. 2.)

Bee. The bee is
a small insect, and
very remarkable for
skill and industry in
gathering honey and
wax from flowers.
Bees have four wings,
and atail pointed with
asting, through which
they emit a poisonous
juice, and wliich,being
barbed, often remains
in the wound.
There are several
kinds of wild bees,
but the common bees
have most attracted
the attention of man.

Hive of Bees.

Their sagacity in collecting their honey and wax, in forming
their combs, in distributing their labours, and in punishing
idlers, is very remarkable. They seldom hurt any one with
their stings unless hurt or provoked. Among the bees are

310

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

BEH

three kinds in the same family or hive ; the queen, the labour
ing bees, and the drones. The queen deposits her eggs in
cells prepared for that purpose, and so brings forth a new
swarm, to the number perhaps of twenty thousand in a year.
There are sometimes two or three queens in the same hive,
and they are much larger than any of the other bees.
The labouring bees are far the most numerous, and collect
the wax and honey, and prepare the combs in which the
honey is deposited. The drones, or males, are larger than
the common working bees, but are not so large as the
queens. The land of Judea was especially noted for the multitude
of bees, and is often denominated a land flowing with milk
and honey. Under the law the bee was unclean, (Lev. xi.
23,) though its honey was not. The armies of the Amorites,
the Assyrians, and David's enemies, are compared to bees.
(Deut. i. 44. Ps. cxviii. 12. Isa. vii. 18.)
In Palestine and the adjoining countries, the bee-hives
are usually made of clay, about four feet long and half a foot
in diameter. They lay ten or twelve of these over one another
and cover them with a little roof.

The Hippopotamus.
Behemoth. To convince Job of his insignificance before
him, God requires him to consider this animal. He represents
him as made with him, or near to his abode, harmlessly feed
ing on the grass of mountains, lying among willows, reeds,
and fens, and as extremely fierce and courageous. The word
Behemoth is Hebrew, and often signifies beasts in general,

BIT SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 311
but in Job xl. 15 — 24, it has a reference to some particular
animal. It is now generally conceded to be the river horse,
or hippopotamus.
The hippopotamus is a quadruped resembling partly the
buffalo and partly the bear, though longer than either. His
length from head to tail is about thirteen feet, his girth about
the same, and his height six feet. His head is large in pro
portion, destitute of horns, and his mouth opens very wide.
His eyes are small, and his ears also small and thin. In the
lower jaw he has two tusks, about a foot long and somewhat
crooked. His teeth are hard as flint, and will strike fire with
steel. His legs resemble those of a bear, are about three feet
round, and three feet and a half in length ; and each foot has a
black hoof, divided into four claws at the end. His tail is
very thick and short, tapering away to the end, and cannot
be twisted, and his skin is very thick and exceedingly tough.
As he is not formed for swimming, he walks on the bottom
of the river as other animals do on land. He feeds on
fish, which he is said to catch with great facility, and also
comes out frequently on the land to feed on rice, clover, and
other vegetables, destroying by his huge feet more than he
eats. When pursued on land, he cannot move fast, and his re
source is to plunge into the water and swim a great distance
before he reappears. He commonly retreats from his pur
suers, but if wounded, he becomes furious, and facing about,
rushes against the boats, seizes them with his teeth, often
tears pieces out of them, and sometimes sinks them under
water. " I have seen," says a traveller, " an hippopotamus open
his mouth, fix one tooth on the side of the boat, and another
to the second plank under the keel, that is, four feet distant
from each other, pierce the side through and through, and in
this manner sink the boat to the hottom."
These animals are only numerous in some parts of the
world; it even appears that the species is confined to particu
lar climates, and is seldom to be met with out of the rivers
of Africa.
Bittern. Of all the sounds produced by the feathered
race, there is none so dismal as that produced by the bittern.
It is described as resembling the interrupted bellowings of a
bull, but louder; and is heard at the distance of a mile, as

312 scripture natural history. BOA
if issuing from some formidable being
that resided at the bottom of the
waters. Considering the dismal sound ut
tered by this bird, there would there
fore be a peculiar propriety, when it
was intended to prophesy the utter
desolation of a city, to say that it
should become " a possession to the
bittern," as in the prophecy against
Babylon, (Isa. xxxiv. 12,) and that
" the cormorant and the bittern shall
lodge" in it, as in the prophecy
against Idumea. (Zeph; ii. 14.)
The bittern is a bird of the heron
The Bittern. kind, but less ; being not over four
inches long. It differs from the heron
chiefly in its colour, which is in general of a palish yellow,
spotted and barred with black. It is a retired, timorous bird,
concealing itself in the midst of reeds and marshy places,
and living upon frogs, insects, and vegetables, and though so
nearly resembling the heron in figure, differing much in man
ners and appetite.
The foregoing description applies to the bird now known
by the name of the bittern, but whether it is the animal to
which the sacred writer referred in the texts quoted, cannot
certainly be determined. The word here translated bittern,
has by some interpreters been rendered the owl, a tortoise,
the beaver ; and Bochart will have it the hedge-hog. Not
withstanding all these conjectures, however, we incline to the
opinion that the word has been correctly rendered by our
translators.

Boar. The wild boar is usually thought to be the parent
of the swine kind. It inhabits Asia as well as Europe, and
retains its character and manners in almost every climate.
It is well known that the flesh of the hog or swine was for
bidden, as food, to the Hebrews, (Lev. xi. 7. Deut. xiv. 8,)
who held its flesh in such detestation that they would not so
much as pronounce its name. Amongst the gross abomina
tions of which the Israelites were guilty in the time of Isaiah,
that of eating swine's flesh is mentioned, (Isa. Ixv. 4,) and
for which punishment is denounced. (Isa. lxvi. 17.)

BUL

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HIST0RV.

313

Bull. Bullock. Ox. The male of the cow kind. The
Jews never mutilated any of their male animals, nor do the
Mahometans, at the present time ; their oxen were, therefore,
bulls, properly so called. Besides the tame kind, whose
strength, fierceness, and pushing with their horns are well
known, there is a wild kind of bulls found in various parts
of the world, which are of great size, exceedingly fierce and
swift, and dwell in extensive forests, chiefly in Europe and
Africa. Another kind of wild bull is called the buffalo, mul
titudes of which run wild in the forests of America, which
is a large, shaggy, fierce animal. There are also a great
number of wild buffalos in the countries of Africa and India,
which are watered with many rivers, and furnished with large
meadows. The bison or American buffalo, is the most remarkable
animal of the ox kind, now found in the wild state. A single
herd is said sometimes to contain ten thousand. These im
mense herds are found on the prairies which border on the
Missouri river. By surrounding and frightening them, the
Indians sometimes drive a whole herd over a precipice, by
which they are destroyed.
With the Hebrews, bulls were clean animals. Bullocks
or young bulls were often sacrificed in burnt-offerings and
peace-offerings, and sometimes in sin-offerings. They re
presented the pure, patient, strong, and laborious Redeemer,
sacrificed for us. (Heb. ix. 13, 14.) The twelve brazen oxen
2B

314 SCRIPTURE HATURAL HISTORY. CAL
which supported Solomon's brazen sea, three of which looked
to every quarter, might represent the twelve Apostles and
their successors in the gospel ministry, who labour to exhibit
Jesus as the great means of purification from sin. (1 Kings,
vii. 25 — 44. Jer. Iii. 20.) Wicked men, chiefly rulers, are
called bulls of Bashan, to denote their strength and fierce
ness. Bashan was a district of country, east of the Jordan,
noted for its rich pastures and fine cattle ; hence the pro
priety of the comparison. A great many similar compari
sons, in relation to this animal, are to be found in the
Scriptures. The cow is the female of the ox kind, and very noted for
her nutritious and wholesome milk. A young cow is called
a heifer. The young of the cow is called a calf. Amongst
the Hebrews, cows and heifers, as well as oxen, were used to
draw the plough. When a man was found slain in the field,
and the murderer could not be found, the magistrates of the
city next to the spot, took a heifer which had never been
yoked, and after striking off her head, they washed their
hands in water, protesting their innocence of the crime, and
ignorance of the murderer, and together with the Levites
present, solemnly begged that God would not lay it to the
charge of their nation. (Deut. xxi. 1 — 9.)
As the Hebrews had seen, and perhaps many of them had
worshipped, the Egyptian god, Apis, which was a living bull,
and sometimes adored in the form of one, or in the form of a
man with a bull's head, they instigated Aaron to make them
a golden calf in the^ wilderness, to which they, on the day
after, observed a solemn festival. _(Ex. xxxii.) When Jero
boam, the son of Nebat, who had resided for a time in Egypt,
got possession of the kingdom of Israel, he made two golden
calves, the one he placed at Bethel, in the south, and the
other at Dan, in the north of his kingdom. These calves, the
ten tribes continued to worship for about two hundred and
sixty years, till the kingdom of Israel was destroyed, and the
people carried into captivity by the Assyrians. (1 Kings xii.
27, 28. Hos. x. 5 ; xiii. 2. 2 Kings xvii.)
C alf. The young of the cow kind. It is generally thought
that the Israelites, in making a golden calf, which they wor
shipped in the wilderness, (Ex. xxxii.,) were imitating the
Egyptians in the worship of Apis, whom they intended to
represent by the image which they constructed, as did Je-

CAM SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 315
roboam also, in setting up the calves at Bethel, 1 Kings, xii.
27—30. See Bull.

The Camel.
Camel. The camel and the dromedary do not include two
different species, but only indicate two distinct breeds, sub
sisting from time immemorial, in the camel species. The
principal, and indeed the only perceptible character in which
they differ, consists in the camel's bearing two bunches or
protuberances on its back, and the dromedary only one. The
dromedary is also less, and not so strong as the camel ; but
they both herd and breed together, and the production from
this cross breed is more vigorous, and of greater value than
the others. The dromedary is, beyond comparison, more
numerous and more universal than the camel; the camel
being seldom found in any other place than Turkey, while
the dromedary is to be found in all the northern parts of
Africa, in Egypt, Persia, in South Tartary, and in all the
northern parts of India.
The camel appears to be a native of Arabia, and his whole
organization fits him for a residence in a sandy and barren
country. His feet are formed for travelling in the sand, and
are broad and flat to prevent him from sinking. He is also
able to live without drink for seven or eight days, and to feed
on the hardest and driest herbage. The Arabs regard the
camel as a present from heaven, without whose assistance
they could neither exist, trade, or travel. With his aid, in a
single day, they can place a tract of desert of fifty miles,
between them and their enemies, and all the armies in the
world would soon perish in pursuit of a troop of Arabs.

316 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. CAM
Camels are covered with fine hair, which they cast in the
spring, and from which a fine kind of stuff is made. Their
necks and legs are long and slender, and when they lift up
their head it is very high. Their ears are short, and their
tail about a foot long. Though camels chew the cud, yet, as
the division of their hoof is not complete, they were marked
out by the law as unclean.
The camel, in ancient times, formed a large part of the
wealth of great men. Abraham, (Gen. xii. 16,) Jacob, (Gen.
xxx. 43,) and especially Job, had large numbers of them.
The Midianites and Amalekites, (Judg. vi. 5 ; vii. 12,) had
camels without number. The Reubenites took fifty thousand
from the Hagarites. (1 Chron. v. 21.) The clothing of John
the Baptist' was of camel's hair. (Matt. iii. 4.) In the re
ference to this animal by our Saviour, (Matt. xix. 24, and
xxiii. 24,) the expressions are no doubt proverbial.
Camelion or Chamelion. This animal is a kind of lizard,
with a long flat tail, and usually of a greenish yellow colour.
On each of its four feet it has five toes, two or three of which
adhere together. Its snout is long, and it has two small
openings for its nostrils ; its eyes move in every direction,
and often with a contrary motion. To catch flies it can dart
out its tongue to the length of its whole body, and instantly
contract it again. Some camelions, in Egypt, including the
tail, are a foot in length. The camelion was once, very un-
philosophically, believed to live on air. Its principal food is
flies, which it catches with great facility, by darting out its
tongue in the manner already described. Like the croco
dile, this animal proceeds from an egg, and in its form, bears
a strong resemblance to that animal.
The colour of this animal, in the shade, is a bluish gray,
inclining in some places to a pale red and yellow. But when
it is removed into the sun, then comes the wonderful part of
its history. At first it appears to suffer no change of colour,
but the whole surface soon seems tb imbibe the Tays of light,
and the simple colouring of the body changes into a variety
of beautiful hues. Wherever the light comes on the body, it
is of a tawny brown, but that part of the skin on which the
sun does not shine, changes into several brighter colours,
pale yellow, or vivid crimson, which forms spots of the size
of half one's finger; some of these descend from the spine
halfway down the back, and others appear on the sides, arms,

CHA SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

317

and tail. Sometimes the animal becomes all over spotted
with brown spots of a greenish cast. The camelion is found
in all warm countries, both of the old and new world.
According to the Levitical Law, (Lev. xi. 30,) the came
lion was ranked among the unclean animals.
Caterpillar. When the sun calls up vegetation, and
vivifies the various eggs of insects, the caterpillars are the
first that are seen to make their appearance. All this class
have eight feet, at least, and some sixteen, which may serve
to distinguish them from the worm kind, which never have
so many.
When the caterpillar first bursts from its egg, it is weak
and feeble, and its appetites are in proportion to its size; but
in its adult caterpillar state, it becomes the most ravenous
of all animals, and will eat twice its own weight of leaves
in a day. What would mankind do if their oxen or horses
were equally voracious ?
The body of the caterpillar, when anatomically examined,
is found composed of rings, whose circumference is pretty
near circular or oval. They are generally twelve in number,
and are all membranous, by which this animal may he dis
tinguished from any other insect that nearly resembles it in
form. Caterpillars also, with regard to their external figure,
are either smooth or hairy. The skin of the fiTSt kind is soft
to the touch, or hard, like shagreen. The skin of the latter,
is hairy, and, as it were, thorny, and generally, if handled,
stings like nettles.
The life of the caterpillar is almost one continued change ;
it undergoes eight or ten transformations before it assumes
the last, or butterfly state.
When caterpillars are mentioned in the Holy Scriptures, it
is either in reference to their immense numbers, or to their
destructive and voracious habits, and they are considered as
instruments, in the hands of the Almighty, for inflicting his
vengeance against the ungodly. By caterpillars, the Lord
plagued the Egyptians and wicked Jews. (Ps. lxxviii. 46.
Joel i. 4; ii. 25.)
Chamelion. The chamelion, of which there are two or
three species, like other animals of the lizard tribe, much
resembles the crocodile in form, but differs greatly in size,
being about ten inches long from the tip of the nose to the
2 B 2

318

SCH'OTURF. NATURVL HISTORY.

coc

end of the tail. This creature is chiefly remarkable for the
change of its colour to the colour of the objects with which
it comes in contact. See Camelion.
Chamois. The chamois is only
found on the most craggy places of
the highest mountains. The Alps,
the Pyrenees, the mountains of
Greece, and those of the Archipe
lago, are almost the only places '
where it is to be met with.
The chamois is a wild animal, but'l
easily tamed, and very docile. It is The Chamois.
about the size of a domestic goat, and resembles one in many
respects. It is very agreeable, lively, and active, beyond
expression. Its hair is short, like that of the doe. In spring
it is of an ash colour, and in winter, of a blackish brown.
As they bound from rock to rock, they have rather the ap
pearance of flying than leaping. The chamois feeds upon the
best herbage, drinks but very little, and ruminates, like the
goat, in the intervals of feeding. Its head is crowned with
two small horns of about half a foot long, of a beautiful black
colour, and rising from the forehead, almost betwixt the eyes.
The hides of these animals are very strong and supple, and
food warm waistcoats and gloves are made of them. The
unting of the chamois is very laborious, as well as exceed
ingly difficult and dangerous.
Thh animal, by the Hebrew law, (Deut. xiv. 5,) was de
clared to be unclean ; but it is disputed whether the Hebrew
word, so translated, was really intended to be applied to the
animal which now bears this name.
Cock. A well known domestic
fowl, which has his head orna
mented with a long fleshy crest,
or comb, and has two wattles,
lengthwise, under his throat. He
is a robust and beautiful animal,
whose feathers are often variegated
with a number of elegant colours.
He usually crows at two different
times of the night ; the first time, a
little after midnight, and a second^
time, about break of day. This last The Cock.

COR SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 319
is usually called cock-crowing, and at this time the cock crew
for the second time, after Peter had thrice denied his Master.
(Mark xiv. 68—72.)
The hen, the female of the fowl kind, is so well known for
her great care and tenderness of her young, that it is unne
cessary to do any thing more than refer to it. Our Lord, in
his pathetic lamentation over Jerusalem, represents himself as
having felt all the solicitude of a hen for her brood, but it
would not accept his kindness and protection. (Matt.xxiii.37.)
Cockatrice. It does not appear that any such creature
exists. The word so translated in our Bibles, ought to be
rendered serpent. It appears to have been a most venomous
serpent which lurked in the holes of the earth. (Isa. xi. 8 ;
xiv. 29 ; lix. 5. Jer. viii. 17.)
Colt. The young of the horse kind. The ass on which
our Saviour rode on his entry into Jerusalem had a colt with
her. (Matt. xxi. 4, 5.) See Horse.
Coney. The coney is believed to have been a species of
the rabbit or hare ; but by the expressions in the Scriptures
would seem to have been of a smaller size. Some have
thought that the jerboa or jumping mouse, which is very
common in Palestine, was the animal intended. (Deut. xiv. 7.
Ps. civ. 18. Prov. xxx. 26.)
Cormorant. This is an aquatic bird of the pelican kind,
about the size of a large muscovy duck, and may be distin
guished by its four toes being united by membranes together,
and by the middle toe being toothed or notched, like a saw,
to assist in holding its fishy prey. The head and neck of this
bird are of a sooty blackness, and the body thick and heavy,
more inclining, in figure, to that of the goose than the gull.
They are remarkably voracious, and have a most sudden
digestion. Their appetite is forever craving and never satis
fied. This bird has the most rank and disagreeable smell, and is
more fetid than even carrion, in its most healthful state. It
is seen as well by land as sea ; it fishes in fresh water lakes,
as well as m the depths of the ocean. It builds in the cliffs
of the rocks as well as on trees, and preys not only in the day
tune, but at night. Its power of catching fish has induced

320 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. CRA
some nations, as the Chinese, to breed this bird up tame, for
that purpose.
According to the Hebrew law, the cormorant was among
the unclean birds. (Lev. xi. 17. Deut. xiv. 17.) It is re
ferred to in the prophecies against Idumea, (Isa. xxxiv. 11,)
and Nineveh, (Zeph. ii. 14,) as an emblem of desolation.
Cow or Kine. The female of the ox kind. The milk
of the cow is celebrated over the whole world for its whole
some and nutritious qualities. See Bull.
Crane. This is a tall, slender
bird, with a long neck and long
legs. The top of the head is co
vered with black bristles, and the
back of it is bald and red, which
sufficiently distinguishes this bird
from the stork, to -which it is
nearly allied in size and figure.
The plumage, in general, is ash
coloured, and there are two large
tufts that spring from the pinionf
of each wing. These bear a re
semblance to hair, finely curled at The Crane.
the end, and the bird has the power of erecting or depressing
them at pleasure. The height of the common crane is about
thTee feet, and its length four feet, though the body is not
heavier than that of a turkey.
Besides the species above described, there are two other
varieties of the crane. The crowned or Belearic, and gigan
tic crane. The Belearic crane comes from the coast of Afri
ca and the Cape Verd Islands, and is about four feet high.
The gigantic crane is much larger than the other species,
measuring, from tip to tip of the wings, fifteen feet, and in
height, seven feet and a half, when standing erect. The
gigantic crane is an inhabitant of Bengal, and is sometimes
found on the coast of Guinea.
The crane is a very social bird, and is seldom seen alone.
Their usual method of flying or sitting, is in flocks of -fifty or
sixty together, and while a part feed, the rest stand as senti
nels on duty. -For the most part, it subsists upon vegetables,
and frequently makes great destruction in the fields of com.
As they are birds of passage, they are seen to depart and re-

DEE SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 321
turn regularly, at those seasons when their provision invites
or repels them. In their migrations, it is amazing to conceive
the heights to which they ascend when they fly. Their note
is the loudest of all birds, and is often heard in the cloudSj
when the bird itself is entirely beyond the sight.
The cold Arctic region seems to be the favourite abode of
these birds, and they come down into the more southern
climates, rather as visiters than as inhabitants.
Hezekiah compares his cries of pain and distress, during his
sickness, to the notes of this bird, (Isa. xxxviii. 14,) and the
Jews were more stupid than cranes, storks, and turtles,
because they knew not the proper season of duty. (Jer.
viii. 7.)
Cuckoo. This is a solitary bfrd, whose beak is smooth,
its nostrils hang a little forward, and its tongue is shaped
somewhat like an. arrow. It has four toes ; two before and
two behind, and its bulk is nearly equal to that of the sparrow
hawk. Though this bird cannot boast much of its plumage,
yet it is conspicuous for the lightness of its form and for its
peculiar habits. It is about fourteen inches in length, shaped
somewhat like a magpie, and distinguished from all other
birds by its round, prominent nostrils. The head, neck,
back, and wings, are of a dove colour; the throat is pale
gray, and the breast and belly white, crossed with wavy
lines of black. The legs are of a yellow colour, and the
claws white. It was once doubted whether this bird was
carnivorous, but it has been found that their favourite food
consists of insects and flesh.
The female cuckoo is said to make no nest of her own, but
to deposit a single egg in the nest of some other bird, by whom
it is hatched, and the young reared.
The cuckoo is mentioned among the unclean birds, (Lev.
xi. 16;) but it is very doubtful whether the bird now known
by that name, is intended. Bochart, and some others, have
thought the Hebrew word should have been rendered the
sea-mew, or gull, but it is impossible to determine this point
with certainty.
Deer. This is the name of a race of quadrupeds which
includes" several species ; as the stag, or red deer, fallow
deer, roebuck, reindeer, elk, moose, and some others.
All the deer kind have branchy horns, which at first are

322 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. DOG
rough, but become smooth, and fall off yearly, and the female
seldom has any horns.
The stag is one of those mild, tranquil, and innocent ani
mals which seem as if they were formed solely to adorn and
animate the solitude of the forests, and enjoy, remote from
man, the peaceful retreats of nature.
The horns of the stag continue to increase in bulk and
height every year ; from the second to the eighth, they remain
beautiful, and much the same during the vigour of life; but
as their body declines with age, their horns decline also. The
horns of all the kinds of deer are, strictly, a bone, which
sprouts from the bone of the forehead, and falling off every
year, is again renewed. The annual shedding of the horns
forms an important distinction between the deer and goat
kind, as animals of the goat kind never shed their horns.
The stag, or red deer, is about four feet high. The male
is called a hart, the female, a hind. The most common co
lour of the stag is yellow, though there are many found of a
tawny red colour.
The stag and fallow deer, though of different species, have
a very close resemblance to each other.
The roebuck is much smaller than the stag, with horns
much less spreading and elegant. The female is called
the roe.
The food of the deer is entirely vegetable, consisting
chiefly of the tender shoots of trees, buds, and moss. The
deer is a thirsty animal, drinking frequently, and in warm
weather, plunging into the stream. The deer were allowed
to be eaten, by the ceremonial law. (Lev. xi. 3. Deut. xiv. 5.)
The deer is frequently mentioned in Scripture; but gene
rally under the name of hart and hind.
Dog. This is a well known domestic animal, consisting
of a great number of varieties, differing greatly in character
and appearance. The dog, amongst the Jews, (and at the
present time, in the east,) was held in great contempt. The
condition of the dogs amongst the Jews, probably did not
differ much from that which now exists in the east, where
they run about in troops, without any distinct owners, and
procure food as they can best obtain it. That they were
numerous and voracious in Jezreel, appears evidently by the
history of Jezebel. By the ceremonial law, all the dog kind
were unclean. (Deut. xxiii. 18.)

DOV

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

323

The Dog.
To compare a person to a dog, living or dead, was a most
degrading expression. So David uses it. " After whom
is the king of Israel come out? after a dead dog !" (1 Sam.
xxiv. 14.) The name of dog is sometimes applied to one
who has lost all modesty, and prostitutes himself to vile
actions, and also to greedy, voracious, and sordid persons.

The Dove.

Dote. The dove includes all the birds of the pigeon kind.
There are several varieties, as the common pigeon, the ring
dove, turtle dove, wood pigeon, &c. All doves were, by the

324 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. EAG
law, legally clean, and pigeons and turtle doves were the
appointed offerings of the poor. (Lev. i. 14; xiv. 6 — 8.)
As it was difficult for all those who came from a distance
to bring doves with them, the priests permitted the sale of
these birds in the courts of the temple. Our Lord, one day,
entered the temple, and with a scourge of rods, drove out
those who traded in doves.
The dove is used as a symbol of simplicity and innocence.
(Matt. iii. 16; a. 16. Hos. vii. 11.) Noah sent the dove
out of the ark to discover whether the waters were abated,
and she returned bearing an olive branch in her mouth.
(Gen. viii. 8. 10.)
Draoon. This word frequently occurs in the English Bi
ble, but there is much difficulty in ascertaining the precise
animal referred to, as the same original word is elsewhere
rendered serpents, sea-monsters, or whales The animal now
called a dragon, by naturalists, is a harmless sort of lizard;
but it is evident that this cannot be the animal intended in
the Scriptures, as it is generally referred to as possessing great
strength and venom. It is most probable that the large ser
pent called the boa constrictor, which is the largest of the
serpent tribe, and which, it is affirmed, is sometimes found in
the hot countries of the East, fifty feet in length, is that which
is intended by the sacred writers. The dragon is mentioned
as an emblsm of desolation, and to foretell that a city should
become the habitation of dragons, was equivalent to devoting
it to utter destruction. (Isa. xiii. 22 ; xxxiv. 13. Jer. ix. 11.)
Satan is called a dragon ; because of his power, practice, and
hurtfulness. (Rev. xx. 2.) And the heathen empire of Rome
is likened to a great red dragon, because it, in a cruel manner,
wasted the nations, and persecuted the church.
Dromedary. The Arabian camel or dromedary, is that
variety which has only one hump on its hack, whereas the
Bactrian camel has two humps. The dromedary is noted for
its swiftness. See Camel.
Eagle. There are several varieties of eagles, as the
golden eagle, the osprey, or sea eagle, the bald eagle, and
some others.
Of all the varieties, the golden eagle is the largest, and
when full grown, measures eight feet and a half from the tip

ELE SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 325
of one wing to the tip of the other. Its bill is three inches
lonn, of a deep blue colour, and the eye of a brilliant hazel
colour. The sight and sense of smelling are very acute. The
head and neck are covered with sharp pointed feathers, of a
deep brown colour; but those on the crown of the head, in
very old birds, turn gray. The whole body, above as well
as beneath, is of a dark brown, and the feathers of the back
are finely clouded with a deeper shade of the same.
Of all birds, the eagle flies the highest. When M. Ray
mond ascended .Mount Perdu, in the Pyrenees, nearly three
miles above the level of the sea, he saw an eagle, far above
him, flying rapidly against a strong gale. Of all birds, also,
the eagle has the quickest eye ; but his sense of smelling is
far inferior to that of the vulture. Though his wing is very
powerful, yet, as he has but little suppleness in the joints of
his legs, he finds it difficult to rise from the ground, when
down; however, if not instantly pursued, he finds no diffi
culty in carrying off geese, hares, lambs, and kids.
An instance is recorded, in Scotland, of two children being
carried off by eagles, but fortunately, they received no hurt
by the way, and being instantly pursued, the children were
restored, unhurt, out of the nests, to their affrighted parents.
The eagle is said to live to a great age, and, like other birds,
sheds his feathers in the beginning of spring. After this, he
appears with fresh strength and vigour, and his old age as
sumes the appearance of youth. To this David alludes when
he says, "so that thy youth is renewed like the eagle's."
(Ps. ciii. 5. Also, Isa. xl. 31.) The eagle is usually referred
to as an emblem of swiftness, cruelty and oppression.
Elephant. In the book of Maccabees, we have an account
of the manner in which these gigantic creatures were employed
in the field of battle, and also of the method adopted for the
purpose of exciting them to a furious contest with the enemy.
But though the animal itself is nowhere else expressly men
tioned, yet it must have been well known to the Hebrews,
because ivory, which is procured from the tusks of the animal,
is mentioned, (1 Kings x. 22, and 2 Chron. ix. 21,) and it
abounded in the countries bordering on Judea.
The elephant has been considered, by naturalists, the noblest
quadruped in nature, and not less remarkable for its size, than
for its docility and understanding. It is exceedingly difficult
to convey a correct idea of this animal, by a description. In
2C

326

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

ELE

Tiger attacking the Elephant and Hunters.
general, it may be said, that the elephant is seen from seven
to fifteen feet high ; that the forehead is high and rising ; the
ears very large and pendent ; the eyes extremely small ; the
trunk three or four feet long; the body round and full ; the
back rising in an arch, and the whole animal rather short in
proportion to its height. The feet are round at the bottom ;
on each foot there are five flat, horny risings, which seem to
be the extremities of the toes; but they do not appear out
wardly. The hide is without hair, but at the extremity of
the tail there is a tuft of hair a foot and a half long.
Of all quadrupeds, the elephant is the strongest, as well as
the largest; and yet, in a state of nature, it is neither fierce
nor formidable. Mild, peaceful, and brave, it never abuses
its power or its strength; and only uses its force for the pro
tection of itself or its community. When offended, however,
it goes forward directly against him who has offered the
insult; strikes him with its tusks, seizes him with its trunk,
flings him into the air, and then tramples him to pieces with
its feet.
In its natural state, it delights to live along the sides of
rivers, and to refresh itself in the most shady forests and
watery places. It often fills its trunk with water, and spurts
't out again, like a fountain.

ELE SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 327
Their food is exclusively of the vegetable kind. When
one of them has discovered a good spot of pasture, it calls
the rest, and they continue feeding till they have trod down
or devoured whatever came in their way ; when they retire
in an orderly and regular manner.
With a very awkward appearance, the elephant possesses
all the senses in great perfection. The eyes, though small,
when compared with the size of the head, are seen to exhibit
a great variety of expression, and to discover the various sen
sations with which it is moved. It is also remarkable for the
excellence of its hearing. Its ears are extremely large, and
usually pendent; but it can easily raise and move them. It
appears to be delighted with music, and very readily learns
to beat time, and move in measure with the sound of the drum
and trumpet. Its sense of smelling is also exquisite, and in
its sense of touch it excels all others of the brute creation,
and perhaps even man himself. The sense of touch lies in
the trunk, which is an instrument peculiar to -this animal ;
and is, properly speaking, only a snout lengthened to a great
extent, and ending in two openings or nostrils, like those of a
hog. At the very point of the trunk there is an extension of
the skin, about five inches long, in the form of a finger; and
which, in fact, answers all the purposes of one ; and with it
the animal can pick up a pin from the ground ; untie knots
of a rope; unlock a door; uncork a bottle, and even write
with a pen.
In many respects, however, the elephant is unwieldy and
helpless. The neck is so short, that it can scarcely turn the
head. The legs are. exceedingly stiff and inflexible; and as
it must wheel round in order to discover an enemy from be
hind, the hunters who attack it from the rear have generally
time to mike their escape. The tusks are often enormous,
being somed:nes eight or'ten feet in length, and only servicea
ble as weapons of defence. It is from the tusks that ivory is
obtained. The tusks grow from the upper jaw, and are never
shed. The elpphant, from lime immemorial, has been employed
by man in labour or war, or to increase the grandeur and
ostnntition of the eastern princes. It is a native of Asia and
Africa, but is not found eithpr in Europe or America. When
once tamed, it becomes the most gentle and docile of all
animals. It suffers itself to be arrayed in harness, and seems
to take pleasure with the finery of its trappings.

325 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HtSTORV. FOX
In the East Indies the services of the elephant appear to
be universal; and it is as essential to an Indian sportsman,
as a good horse is to an English fox-hunter. A favourite
sport is hunting the tiger, mounted on an elephant; an occu
pation, however, which is far from being unattended with
danger. Ferret. A small four-footed animal of tne weasel kind,
and in size betwen a pole-cat and a weasel. It was original
ly a native of Africa, but is now common in many other
countries. Its upper teeth are straight, distinct, and short,
and the lower, obtuse and clustered. It is used for taking
rabbits, which it follows into their burrows in the ground.
Under the law it was an unclean animal. (Lev. xi. 30.)
Flea. A well known insect, troublesome to a variety of
animals, and of which, one kind is much given to haunt
beds that are occupied in the summer season. David likens
himself to one, importing that it would cost Saul much
trouble to take him, and he would -obtain little profit by it,
(1 Sam. xxiv. 14.)
Fly. A class of insects, some of which have two, and
some four wings ; some have teeth and others not. Flies
chiefly abound in moist and warm countries, and were one
of the plagues of Egypt. (Ex. viii. 24.)
Fox. An animal of the dog kind.
Chiefly distinguished by its long and
straight tail. It is a native of most
countries, and is remarkable for its
cunning, its winding motions, and
rank smell. It cannot be tamed so
as to become harmless, and is more
fond of feeding on poultry, and other
domestic animals, than on the wild. The Fox-
Foxes are very numerous in Palestine. The foxes caught
by Samson are, by some, thought to have been the jackal,
which is still sometimes called the eastern fox. Foxes are
referred to in the Scriptures, as emblems of craft, mischief,
and cruelty. (Judg. xv. 4. Luke xii. 32.)

GOA

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 399

The Frog.
Frog. This is a well known amphibious animal, which
lives partly in the water, and partly on the land. It has a
short body, and four legs, the hind ones very long, for leap
ing with. They delight in pools of stagnant water, and are
much given to croaking. Sometimes, during wet weather,
they wander a considerable distance from their usual place
of abode. When they were sent as a plague to the Egyp
tians, they appeared in such numbers as to cover the whole
land ; and after they were destroyed, were gathered together
in heaps, and the whole country was affected by the putrefy
ing smell. (Ex. viii. 5.) Frogs weTe unclean animals. (Lev.
xi. 9.)
Gnat. A very small, troublesome insect, which often
flutters about lighted candles till it burns itself. Those who
are very zealous about trifles, while they indulge themselves
in things evidently and heinously sinful, are said to strain at
a gnat and swallow a camel. (Matt, xxiii. 24.)
Goat. The goat is an animal about the size of the sheep,
which it greatly resembles in its external structure, and in its
general habits. They have hollow horns, which stand erect,
and lean a little backwards, and which they do not shed, which
serve to distinguish them from animals of the deer kind.
They have not wool, like the sheep, but long, shaggy hair.
The beard grows very long. The species of the wild goat
are very numerous; they have generally larger horns than
tame ones, and are remarkable for the facility wilh which
they are able to climb precipices ; they can run on the sides
of rocks, and leap from one to another.
Under the law, goats were classed amongst the clean ani
mals, and were used for offerings, and especially for sin-of-
2 C 2

330

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

GRA

tJ^jSw'Y'M

te^fC"

UHlpltlikw
ItMiSlkIBB
ferings. (Num. vi. 29.) The Greeks, who were likewise
called Egeans, that is, goatish people, are likened to a he-goat
with one horn, that, without touching the earth, ran against,
and trode down a pushing ram. Under Alexander, they,
with incredible speed, marched into Asia and overthrew the
Persian empire. (Dan. viii. 5.) Devils and wicked men are
likened to goats ; how vile, hurtful, and disposed to climb
in pride and self-conceit. (Lev. xvii. 3. Matt. xxv. 33.)
The Grasshopper.
Grasshopper. An insect of the Locust kind, which it
considerably resembles, but smaller. They are often abun
dant in meadows, and sometimes multitudes destroy the fruits
of the earth. (Amos vi. 1.) Some years ago, prodio-ious
swarms of them destroyed, for several years in succession,
the harvests in Languedoc, in France. Flocks of them
covered the earth four or five inches deep. Grasshoppers,
IIAR

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

331

under the law, were clean. (Lev. xi. 22.) The grasshop
per is said to be a burden to the aged man. (Eccl. xii. 5.)
That is, the slightest thing, annoys, troubles, and vexes him.
They are often referred to as representing a great army, or
multitude. (Judg. vi. 5. Jer. xlvi. 32.)
Greyhound. A species of dog remarkable for beauty and
lightness of motion. In rrov. xxx. 31, four animals are
mentioned as comely- in going, and among them, according
te our translation, one of those is the greyhound ; but there
is a great variety of opinion amongst critics, with respect to
the animal intended.

The Hare.
Hare. The hare is a well known animal, with a short tail,
black eyes, double foreteeth, single under teeth, and no tusks.
It has long ears, whereby it hears exceedingly well. It sleeps
much, but always with its eyes open. Its feet are formed for
swift running, especially up hill, as its hind legs are much
longer than the fore ones. It is a very timorous animal, and
multiplies exceedingly fast. It was unclean under the law,
because, though it chewed the cud, it did not divide the hoof,
(Lev. xi. 6. Deut. xiv. 7.)
Hares live about seven or eight years, and in a natural
state, pass their lives in solitude and silence, and are never
known to exert their voice unless they are forcibly laid hold
of, tormented, or wounded.
Hart. The hart, which is the stag or male deer, is one
of those innocent and peaceable animals, that seem made to
embellish the forests and animate the solitudes of nature.
The female is called the hind. See Deer.

332 scripture natural history. HER
Hawk. The hawk is a bird of prey,
of which there are many species ; as
the falcon, goshawk, sparrowhawk.
This bird has a short, strong, curved
bill, notched at the point, eyes bright
and piercing, thighs covered with long
feathers, and crooked, strong claws, i
The colour is different, in the different!
species, and at different ages. The '
usual colour is brownish, and more or _ „
less striped with black and white. It
lives upon small quadrupeds, and birds, or fish, which its
rapid flight, keen vision, great fierceness and courage, enables
it to pursue with success. It builds its nest in lonely situa
tions, either in the crevices of rocks, or in hollow trees.
Amongst the Egyptians and some other ancient nations,
the hawk was held in high veneration, and was even an
object of religious worship.
Amongst civilized nations, the art of falconry, in the mid
dle ages, was held in great estimation, and a person of rank
hardly ever went abroad without his hawk on his hand.
In the Bible, all the different species are thought to be
included under the name of hawk, and it, as well as all the
other birds of prey, was unclean by the Jewish law. (Lev.
vi. 16. Deut. xiv. 15.)
Heifer. A young cow, so called until three years old.
Under the law, a red heifer was directed to be offered as a
kind of sin-offering, to purify from certain legal defilements.
See Bull.
Hen. The female of the poultry kind, remarkable for the
strong affection and tender care which she displays for hei
young. To these qualities in the character of the domestic
hen, our Lord alludes in his pathetic address to the once
" holy city." (Matt, xxiii. 37, 38.) See Cock.
Heron. Of the heron there are a great many species, all
differing in size, plumage, and figure, with talents adapted to
their place of residence and peculiar pursuits, though they all
possess the same general character of cowardice, rapacity,
indolence, and insatiable hunger; and though in the midst of
the greatest plenty, and constantly devouring, are ever found

HOR scripture natural history. 333
lean and almost destitute of flesh. Though scarcely weighing
three pounds, it measures five feet from tip to tip of its wings.
Its bill is five inches long, and sharp at the point. The mid
dle claw of each foot is notched, to assist in holding its prey.
Its nest, which consists of sticks laid across, and lined with
moss, grass, or some other soft substance, is generally built
on a lofty tree, near the water.
The heron lives on eels, fish, lizards, and such like articles
of food, of which, especially in stormy weather, it finds it
difficult to obtain a sufficient supply. By the Jewish law,
the heron was placed among the unclean birds. (Lev. xi. 19.
Deut. xiv. 18.)
Hind. The hind or female stag is a beautiful creature
and of an elegant shape, though she is more feeble than the
hart and is destitute of horns. She is frequently referred to
in the Scriptures. See Hart.
Hornet. An insect of the wasp kind, and considerably
larger than the bee. The hornet is very troublesome and
mischievous, and the sting is attended with much pain and
inflammation. Great swarms of these plagued the Canaan
ites, in the days of Joshua. (Deut. vii. 20. Josh. xxiv. 12.)
Elian tells us that the Phasaelites, who dwelt about the
mountains of Solyma, were driven out of their native coun
try by wasps. As these Phasaelites were Phoenicians, or
Canaanites, it is probable this event is the same as took
place in the days of Joshua.
Horse. This animal is one of the noblest of the brute
creation, and noted for his gracefulness, swiftness, docility,
strength, and fitness for burden, draught, or war. (Job xxxix.
19 — 25.) Among the people of the East, in ancient times,
horses were reckoned a grand present, (Eccl. x. 7,) and some
will now scarcely allow Europeans to ride on them in their
territories, except on their becoming proselytes to the Maho
metan faith. God prohibited the Hebrews from multiplying
horses. He ordered Joshua to hough, hamstring, or cut
the sinews of all the horses taken from the Canaanites, and
to burn their chariots with fire, which direction was designed,
no doubt, to prevent their correspondence with foreigners,
or trusting, in war, to their chariots or horsemen. (Deut.
xvii. 16. Josh. xi. 6.) In this manner David served the

334

scripture natural history.

HOR

The Horse.
horses of Hadadezer, king of Syria. (2 Sam. viii. 4, 5.) So
lomon married the daughter of Pharaoh, and procured a fine
breed of horses from Egypt. He, first of the Hebrews, con
trary to the divine command, began to multiply horses, and
had four thousand stables, forty thousand stalls, and twelve
thousand horsemen. (1 Kings iv. 26. 2 Chron. ix. 25.)
As the Eastprn heathen, who worshipped the sun, imagined
that he rode along the sky in a chariot, drawn by fleet horses,
to communicate his light and warmth to mankind, they con
secrated to him the finest horses and chariots, and in these,
they either rode to the eastern gate of the city, when the sun
rose, or held them so sacred that none might ride on them.
Josiah removed from the temple the horses, or images of
horses, which his father or grandfather had consecrated to
the sun. (2 Kings xxiii. 11.)
In the Scriptures, white horses denote the gospel ; red
horses represent cruel and bloody wars ; pale horses denote
famine ; black horses may represent fearful judgments and
death; and grizzled, speckled, or bay horses, mingled scenes
of mercy and judgment. (Rev. vi. 2, 3 ; xix. 11 — 14. Zech.
vi. 2, 3.)
Horse Leech. The leech is a sort of worm which lives
in the water, and they have the power of drawing blood from
any animal to which they attach themselves.
This animal is only mentioned in one place in the Bible,
(Prov. xxx. 15,) where, on account of its thirst for blood, it
is made the emblem of avarice and cruelty.

LEO scripture natural history. 335
"The horse leech hath two daughters crying, give, give,"
by which are probably meant the two evil dispositions of
avarice and cruelty, as mentioned above.
Kid. The young of the goat. The Israelites were for
bidden to boil the flesh of the kid in the milk of its mother,
(Ex. xxxiii. 19.) See Goat.
Kine. This word was formerly used for the plural of cow,
and is found in several places in the Bible. See Bull.
Lapwing. Calmet thinks by the
lapwing, (Deut. xiv. 18. Lev.xi.19,)
is intended the bird now known by
the name of the hoopoe, which is
about the size of a thrush. Its beak
is long, black, thin, and a little hook
ed. It has a tuft of feathers on its
head, which it raises and lowers at
pleasure. Its legs are gray and sh ort,
its neck and stomach of a reddish
colour, and its wings and tail black, oopo
with white streaks. Its form is beautiful, but its voice is
hoarse and unmusical. It generally builds its nest in old
ruins, and is mentioned among the unclean birds.

The Leopard.
Leopard. This formidable and sanguinary species of the
cat tribe, is found nearly throughout the whole of Africa, and
in Eastern and Southern Asia. He usually measures about
three feet in length, exclusive of the tail, but sometimes
reaches four feet. In rapacity, agility, and precision of mo-

Viii

scripture natural history.

LEO

tion, he is unrivalled by any other animal, even of the cat
species. 1 1 is prey, on which he darts from his hiding places,
and even pursues up trees, consists of antelopes, monkeys,
and the smaller quadrupeds. He is well distinguished from
all other animals of his race by the vividness of his colouring,
and the ue.iutv of his markings. Th.ese consist of numerous
rows' of rose-like spots, passing along his sides. His tail is
equal in length to the body, exclusive of the head, and is
marked by a continuation of the spots on its sides.
In captivity, the leopard is sometimes brought to a consi
derable degree of taineness, but it is not very safe to trust him,
as the innate treachery of his race is now and then unexpect
edly displayed.

Hunting with Leopards.
In Persia, and some other countries in Asia, there is a kind
of leopard called the chetah, which is used in hunting by the
higher classes. He does not, however, fellow the chase like
the dog, but steals on his prey after the manner of the cat,
and other animals of the tribe to which he belongs.
The leopard is frequently referred to in the Scriptures,
sometimes with reference to his patience in waitino- for his
prey : sometimes with reference to his swiftness, and at others
in reference to his fierceness and cruelty. (Isa. xi. 6. Hab.
i. 8. Dan. viii. 6.)

LEV

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

337

The Crocodile.
Leviathan. This word, in the original, occurs four times
in the Old Testament, and is variously translated whale, dra
gon, serpent, and sea monster, and perhaps not improperly, as
all these may be intended, though one description of animal
only appears to be marked out in the book of Job, where the
word, in our Bibles is not translated. (Job xii.)
It was formerly supposed by commentators, that the whale
was the animal described under the name of leviathan, but
as the natural history of that animal became better known, it
was apparent that the description could not, with any pro
priety, be applied to the whale, while Bochart and others
showed that the description did apply, with great exactness,
to the crocodile ; and the identity of the leviathan and the
crocodile is now generally admitted.
The crocodile is the largest animal of the lizard kind, and
grows to a great length ; being sometimes found thirty feet
long, from the tip of the snout to the end of the tail ; its most
usual length, however, is eighteen feet. Like other animals
of the lizard kind, it has four legs, and feet bearing some
resemblance to those of man. It is covered with a tough,
scaly skin, which is very difficult to penetrate. The jaws
seem to shut upon each other; but contrary to the general
opinion, the lower jaw alone is moveable, the upper one being
immoveahly fixed to the scull. The distance to which the
jaws open, is about a foot and a half, so that it could easily
take in the body of a man.
They are seen, in some places, lying for whole hours and
even days, stretched in the sun, and motionless, so that one
2D

338 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. LIO
not accustomed to them, might take them for trunks of trees,
covered with rough and dry bark ; but the mistake would soon
be fatal, if not prevented ; for the torpid animal, at the near
approach of any living-thing, darts upon it, and instantly
drags it into the water, and dives to the bottom.
The strength of the crocodile is very great, and though not
so powerful on land as in the water, yet it is very terrible, even
there. Except pressed by hunger, or with a view of depo
siting its eggs, it seldom leaves the water. Its usual method
is to float upon the surface, and seize upon whatever comes
within its reach ; but when this method fails, it then goes
closer to the bank. Disappointed of its fishy prey, it there
waits in patient expectation of some land animal, that may
come to drink, the dog, the bull, the tiger, or man himself.
Striking the animal suddenly, with its tail, in a direction
towards its mouth, it is instantly caught by its ponderous
jaws, and, dragging it into the water, the victim, if not
already killed, is soon drowned.
Desperate and bloody combats frequently occur between
the crocodile and the tiger. All creatures of the cat kind
are continually tormented with a parching thirst, which
compels them to keep within the vicinity of rivers, to which
they often resort to drink. It is on these oeeasions that they
are seized by the crocodile, and they die not unrevenged.
The instant the tiger is seized upon, he darts his claws, with
great force, into the crocodile's eyes, while he plunges with
his fierce antagonist into the river. There they continue to
struggle for some time, but in the end, the tiger is generally
drowned. The crocodile is a native of most warm climates, both in
the old and new world. In the Nile, and other great rivers
of Africa, he abounds, as well as in the rivers of Southern
Asia, and the hot climates of America. In many countries,
they are eaten by the savage inhabitants ; but their flesh has
a strong, musky odour, and is far from being palatable food.
The king of Egypt is called a leviathan, (Ps. lxxiv. 14,)
and Satan himself is so denominated by the prophet Isaiah,
who predicts his destruction and the downfall of his king
dom. (Isa. xxvii. 1.)
Lion. This is the largest animal of the feline, or cat race.
The largest lions are about eight or nine feet in length, from
the snout to the insertion of the tail, which is, of itself, four

LIO SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 339

feet long, and these large lions are four or five feet in height.
In all her dimensions, the lioness is about one-third less than
the lion.
The lion is furnished with a mane, which becomes longer
in proportion as he advances in age. The lioness, however,
is without this appendage at every age, which causes so great
a difference in her appearance, that at first view, she appears
to belong to a different species.
The lion, when hungry, boldly attacks all animals that come
in his way ; but as they all seek to avoid him, he is often
obliged to hide in order to take them by surprise. For this
purpose, he crouches in some thicket, where, in patient ex
pectation, he waits the approach of his prey, until it comes
within a proper distance, and he then springs after it with
such force, that he often seizes it with a single bound. His
teeth are so strong that he easily breaks the bones of an
animal, and swallows them as well, as the flesh. He bears
hunger for a long time, but is a very thirsty animal, drinking
often, by lapping, after the manner of a dog. He generally
lies quiet in the day time, and goes abroad at night, in search
of food, as his sight, like all others of the cat tribe, is fitted
for seeing best at night.
The outward form of the lion seems to speak the superiority
of his internal qualities, and his figure is striking, his look
bold and confident, his gait proud and majestic, and his roar
ing terrible. His stature is not overgrown, like the elephant
or rhinoceros, nor is the shape clumsy, like the hippopotamus.

340

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

LIZ

He is, in every respect, compact and well proportioned, and
a perfect model of strength joined with agility.

Hunting the Lion.
Hunting the lion, in the countries where he abounds, is
generally undertaken by parties of armed men, with dogs,
who, when his retreat has been discovered, generally succeed
in destroying him ; but it may readily be supposed that an
attack on such an adversary, is not unattended by danger.
Lions abounded not only in Lebanon, but also in the
thickets of Jordan, and in other places in Canaan where
there were woods. Samson tore a lion to pieces with his
hands, (Judges xiv,) and David killed both a lion and a
bear. (1 Sam. xvii. 34.) Daniel was cast into the den of
lions, and was miraculously preserved from destruction.
(Dan. vi. 27.)
The lion is very frequently referred to in Scripture, and ii
is not surprising that an animal possessing such remarkable
qualities, should have afforded frequent occasion for suita
ble comparison, under many circumstances. His strength,
courage, and power to conquer, however, are the qualities
more frequently referred to, and it is in these respects, that
our Saviour is denominated the " Lion of the tribe of Judah."
(Rev. v. 5.)
Lizard. These are animals which live partly on the land,
and partly in the water, or at least, in moist, damp places.

LOC

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

341

The Lizard.

Their body is oblong,
and roundish, and
they have four legs,
and hinder parts ter
minating in a long
and tapering tail. Li
zards are of many
different kinds ; some
very small, and others of great size, as the crocodile, which
is the largest of the lizard kind, and though they all preserve
a great similarity as it regards" their shape and general con
formation, no elass of animals differ so widely from each
other in size and colour. Lizards were unclean animals
under the law. (Lev. xi. 30.) All the varieties of lizards
are found, in great numbers, in Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, and
in most other warm countries.

Locust. This is an insect of the grasshopper species,
which, in man}7 respects, it closely resembles. The quantity
of grass which a few grasshopers, that sport in the fields,
could destroy, is trifling; but when a swarm of locusts, two
or three miles long, and several yards deep, settle on a field,
the consequences are frightful. \
This insect is about three inches long, and has two horns,
or feelers, an inch in length. The head and horns afe of a
brownish colour, and it is blue about the mouth, as also on the
inside of the larger legs. The shield that covers the back is
greenish, and the upper side of the body brown, spotted with
black, and the under side purple. The upper wing3 are brown,
with small dusky spots, with one larger at the tips, and un
der the wings they are more transparent, and of a light brown,
tinctured with green ; but there is a dark cloud of spots near
the tips. There is no animal in creation which multiplies so
fast as these, if the sun be warm, and the soil in which their
eggs are deposited, be dry.
The Scriptures having been written in a country where
the locust made a distinguished figure in the picture of nature,
have given us several striking images of this animal's num
bers and rapacity. They compare an army, where the num
bers are almost infinite, to a swarm of locusts. (Isa. xxxiii.
4, 5. Nah. iii. 15 — 17.) They describe them as rising out
of the earth, where they are produced, as pursuing a settled
2D2

342 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. MOL
march to destroy the fruits of the earth, and co-operate with
divine indignation.
When locusts take the field, we are assured they have a
leader at their head, whose flight they observe, and pay strict
attention to all his motions. They appear, at a distance, like
a black cloud, which, as it approaches, gathers upon the
horizon, and almost hides the light of day. Wretched is the
district upon which they settle. They ravage the meadow
and the pasture ground, strip the trees of their leaves, and
the garden of its beauty ; the visitation of a few minutes
destroys the expectations of a year, and a famine but too
frequently ensues. ™
According to the Jewish law, the locust was a clean ani'
ma), (Lev. xi. 22,) and might be used for food. The food
Of John the Baptist was locusts and wild honey. (Matt. iii. 4.)
They are still eaten by most Eastern nations, and among
them are considered a delicacy, being boiled and eaten with
salt, or dried in the sun.
These dreadful insects, in prodigious numbers, formed the
eighth plague of Egypt, and were, by a strong wind, driven
away into the Red Sea. (Ex. x. 14 — 19.)
Louse. A well knowji insect, with which most ani*
mals are infested, not excepting man himself, where proper
attention is not paid to personal cleanliness. Swarms of lice
Were one of the plagues of Egypt; nor could the magicians
produce any. (Ex. viii. 16 — 19.)
Mole. This animal, without being blind, has such small
eyes, and these so concealed, that at first view, it might be
supposed, as formerly, that it was altogether destitute of the
sense of vision; but it is now ascertained that it possesses
the power of seeing in a degree well suited to its habitation,
and the kind of life which it leads. Its skin is as soft as
silk, and its little paws, which are furnished with five claws,
are almost like the hands of a human being. Its strength,
for its size, is very great, and it possesses the mild habitudes
of repose and confidence. As these animals very seldom
come above ground, they have few enemies, and, were it not
that they are often destroyed by an inundation of the low
grounds, where they usually fix their habitations, they would
soon be multiplied to a very injurious extent. It feeds on
roots, worms, and insects. It always skins a worm before

MUL SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 343
eating it, and in this operation displays an exquisite degree
of skill.
By the Jewish law, the mole was classed among the un
clean animals. To cast idols to the moles and the bats, is to
abandon their worship, and to throw them away with con
tempt and neglect. (Isa. ii. 20.)
Moth. An insect of the butterfly kind, which, like that
insect, is produced from the caterpillar, and differs chiefly in
its going abroad by night, instead of going abroad by day.
See Butterfly.
Secret curses, or judgments, that insensibly consume, are
likened t-> a moth. (Isa. 1. 9; li. 8.) The wicked man
buildeth his house as a moth — he builds it with anxious care.
(Job xxvii. 18.) Man's beauty, glory, and wealth, waste
like a moth, are secretly, insensibly, but certainly consumed.
(Ps. xxxix. 11.)
Mouse. This is a well known,
four-footed little animal, whose fore
teeth are sharp, its feet divided, and
its ears and tail naked of hair. Un
der the Mosaic law, (Lev. xi. 29,)
they were declared unclean; but
they were used as food by the an
cient Romans. In some parts of
Palestine, they were so plentiful, Tne Mou
that had it not been for the birds
which devoured them, they had destroyed the whole seed ot
crop of corn; and it seems they had exceedingly injured the
Philistines' crop, that year in which the ark of God was a
captive in the country. (1 Sam. vi. 5.) By some, it is
thought that the jerboa, or jumping mouse, which also
abounds in that country, was the animal referred to.
Mule. This is a mongrel animal, of a mixed kind, be
tween the horse and the ass. The Jewish law prohibited
every attempt to confound the species of animals, and yet it
is certain that there were plenty of mules in the time of
David, as he and his sons roije on them, and they appear to
have been held in great esteem. (2 Sam. xiii. 29; xviii. 9.)
Solomon rode upon one at his coronation, and procured a
considerable number of them. (1 Kings i. 33; x. 25.) The
Persians used them for their posts to ride on. (Esth. viii. 10.)

344

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY-.

MUL

They are still much used in various countries, where the ways
are mountainous and rocky. Great numbers of them are
kept about the Alps, on the north of Italy, and about the
Pyrenean mountains, between France and Spain. These
mules are black, well limbed, and fifteen or sixteen hands
high. They are much stronger, hardier, and more sure of
foot than the horse,'and will live and work to double his age.

mm

SM

w

:m

mm

Spanish Muleteers.
For travelling over wild and mountainous tracts of coun
try, the mule is much better than the horse, being much more
sure-footed, which was doubtless one reason for the estima
tion in which mules were held in Palestine. Their manner
of descending the Alps, Andes, and other mountainous re
gions, is very extraordinary. In these passages, on one side
are steep eminences, and on the other, frightful abysses; and
the road frequently forms steep declivities of several hundred
yards downwards. These can only be descended by the
mule, and the animal itself seems sensible of the danger and
the caution to be used in such descents. When they come
to the edge of one of the precipices, they stop without being
checked by the rider, and if he attempts to spur them on
they continue immovable. They seem all this time rumi
nating on the peril that lies before them. They not onlj
attentively view the road, but tremble and snort at the dan
ger. They then place their forefeet in a posture as if thej

OST SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 345
were stopping themselves, and put their hindfeet together,
and a little forward, as if they were about to lie down. They
then slide down with the swiftness of an arrow. At this
time,. all the rider has to do is to keep himself fast on the
saddle, without checking the reins, for the least motion would
disturb the equilibrium of the mule, in which case both he
and his rider would be dashed to pieces. Some mules, after
riving been long used in these perilous descents, acquire a
reputation for safety, and their value rises in proportion to
their celebrity.
Night Hawk. The night hawk is mentioned amongst
the list of unclean birds. (Lev. xi. 16 ; Deut. xiv. 15.) The
bird usually called by that name amongst us, has no relation
to the hawk in its manners and habits, though it somewhat
resembles a small hawk in appearance. Its habits are those
of the swallow tribe, except that it flies abroad at the ap
proach of night, and seldom during the day. It is probable
that a species of owl is the bird referred to in this place.
Ossifrage. This is thought to be a bird of the eagle
kind, so called from breaking the bones of its prey after it
has eaten its flesh . See Eagle.
Ospray. This is probably the black eagle, which, although
among the smallest of the kind, is one of the strongest and
swiftest. It is mentioned in Lev. xi. 13. See Eagle.
Ostrich. This bird has furnished the sacred writers with
some of their most beautiful imagery, and its flesh was, even
previous to the days of Moses, apparently a common article
of food, as we find it interdicted, amongst other unclean ani
mals, by the Jewish legislator.
The ostrich is considered to be the largest of birds, and the
connecting link between quadrupeds and fowls. Its head
and bill somewhat resemble those of a duck, and the neck
may be compared to that of a swan, but that it is much longer;
the legs and thighs resemble those of a hen, but are very
fleshy and large. The end of the foot is cloven, and has two
very large toes, which, like the leg, are covered with scales.
These toes are of unequal sizes ; the largest of which is on
the inside, being seven inches long, including the claw. The
height of the ostrich is usually seven feet from the head to

346 scripture natural history. OST
the ground, but from the back it is only four, so that the head
and neck are above three feet long. From the head to the
end of the tail, when the neck is stretched in a right line, it
is seven feet long. One of the wings, with the feathers
stretched out, is three feet long. The plumage is generally
white and black, though some of them are said to be gray.
There are no feathers on the sides of the thighs, or under the
wings. At the end of each wing, there is a kind of spur,
resembling the quill of a porciipine, about an inch long; and
about a foot lower down, another, though smaller. -

The Ostrich.
The ostrich has not, like most other birds, feathers of dif
ferent kinds; they are all bearded with detached hairs, or
filaments, without resistance or reciprocal adherence. They
cannot, therefore, be of any utility in flying, or directing the
flight. Besides the peculiar structure of its wings, the
ostrich is rendered incapable of flight by its enormous size,
weighing seventy-five oreighty pounds,aweight which would
require an immense power of wing to elevate in the air.
Sly and timorous, in no common degree, the ostrich retires
from the cultivated field, where it is disturbed by the Arabian
shepherds and husbandmen, into the deepest recesses of the
Sahara. In these dreary wastes it is reduced to subsist on a
few tufts of coarse grass, which here and there languish on
their surface, or a few other solitary plants, equally destitute
of nourishment, and, in the Psalmist's phrase, even "withered
before they are grown up." To this dry and parched food
may perhaps be added, the great variety of land snails, which

OST scripture natural history. 347
occasionally cover these plants. Nor is it improbable that
its sometimes devours lizards and snakes, for, in fact, no
kind of food appears to come amiss, how coarse and indi
gestible soever it may appear. Still, considering the vo
racity and size of this camel bird, as it is called in the East,
it is surprising how it is able to obtain a sufficient supply
of food.
When the ostrich is provoked, it sometimes makes a fierce,
angry, and hissing noise, with its throat inflated, and its
mouth open, and sometimes it cackles, like a hen. But in
the silent hours of the night, it assumes quite a different tone,
and makes a very doleful and hideous noise, which sometimes
resembles the roaring of a lion, and sometimes the bull, or
the ox. It frequently groans, as if it were in the greatest
agonies, to which the prophet beautifully alludes, " I will
make a mourning like the ostriches," or owls, as our version
reads. (Micah i. 8.)
The ostrich lays very large eggs ; some of them are above
five inches in diameter, and weigh fifteen pounds. It has
been commonly reported that the female deposits them in the
sand, and then covering them up, leaves them to Be hatched
by the heat of the climate, and then permits the young to
shift for themselves. Very little of this, however, is true ; no
bird has a stronger affection for her young than the ostrich,
and none watches her eggs with greater assiduity, though,
in those hot climates, there is less necessity for continued
incubation during the day, but at night she uniformly returns
to prevent the eggs from being chilled by the evening air.
The young ones cannot walk for several days after their ex
clusion from the shell, during which time, the old ones attend
them, and supply them with food very carefully.
The ostrich inhabits only the deserts of Africa and Asia,
and from its frequenting the more solitary and deserted
places, it is, in several places in Scripture, made an emblem
of solitude and desolation. (Job xxx. 29. Isa. xiii. 21; xxxiv.
13. Jer. i. 39.) In these texts, our translation reads owls;
but it is believed by learned men generally, that they should
have been rendered ostriches.
In the book of Job (ch. xxxix. 13 — 18) this bird is referred
to, and some of her peculiarities described. It has been said
that the ostrich is a very timid bird, and easily frightened
from her nest by the approach of an enemy, and the expres
sion, therefore, " She leaveth her -eggs in the sand, and

348

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORYi

OST

warmeth them in the dust, and forgetteth that the foot may
crush them, or that the wild beast may break them," refeTS,
first, to her leaving her eggs during the day, to the sun's
warmth, voluntarily ; and, in the second place, to her leaving
her nest at the approach of an enemy, without any resistance,
contrary to the habits of most other birds.

Hunting the Ostrich.
Their nests are large, and made upon the ground, in exposed
situations, and it is affirmed that several females deposit their
eggs in the same nest. In verse sixteenth, there is an ex
pression which would seem to imply a want of natural affec
tion for her young. " She is hardened against her young
ones, as though they were not hers, her labour is in vain,
without fear." When she is disturbed by danger, or wanders
after food, leaving her young ones without fear or concern
for them, it may be said that her labour in rearing them so
far, is in vain.
Her great swiftness is referred to — " What time she lifteth
up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his rider." It
is affirmed that the ostrich is able to leave the fleetest horses
far behind, and did she run in a straight line, could not be
taken; but as she runs in circles, the horseman, by taking
the shortest course, is able, finally, to overtake her. When

OWL

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

349

exhausted, she hides her head, and foolishly supposes, that,
by doing so, she is hid from her pursuers.

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The Owl.
Owl. All birds of the owl kind, have one common mark
by which they are distinguished from others. Their eyes,
like those of the eat tribe, are formed for seeing better in the
dusk than in the broad glare of the sunshine, so that it lies
quiet in its retreat, of some old ruin, or hollow tree, during
the day, and on the approach of evening, ventures out in
quest of food. The nights when the moon shines, are the
times of their most successful plunder; for when it is wholly
dark, they are the less qualified to pursue the animals on
which they prey.
Birds of the owl kind may be divided into two sorts ; those
which have horns, and those which have not. These, horns
2E
350 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. PAR
are nothing more than two or three feathers, that stand up on
each side of the head, over the ear, and give this animal a
kind of horned appearance. There are a great many species
of the owl, but they differ little, except in size and colour,
from each other, and in their habits and manners, the whole
tribe are almost exactly alike. The large horned owl, is
almost as large as the eagle, while some of the smaller kinds
are not larger than a pigeon.
The note, or hooting of the owl, which is usually heard
about the time he comes from his hiding-place, is singularly
prolonged and doleful, and fills many persons with a super
stitious dread.
Amongst the ancients, the owl was the emblem of wisdom,
and was consecrated to Minerva ; for which reason, it was
held in high honour by the Athenians, who represented it on
their medals. No such honour, however, is bestowed on it
in the Scriptures. In the Jewish law, it is found amongst the
unclean birds, (Lev. xi. 17; Deut. xiv. 15,) and is used as
an emblem of desolation. When Isaiah speaks of Babylon
as reduced to a wilderness, he says, the owls shall answer
one another there. (Isa. xiii. 21.) And the Psalmist: says,
that in his affliction he was as the owl, sitting alone in the
housetop. (Ps. cii. 6.)
Ox. A general name for a well known domestic animal,
meaning, more strictly, one which is used for the plough or
draught. The ox is almost always referred to, in the Scrip
tures, as an emblem of patience and labour. See Bull.
Partridge. This bird is of the
poultry kind, and there are more
than twenty species known, though
they may be all arranged under two
divisions, the gray and the red.
The Ted is the larger, and often
perches on trees ; the gray always
keeps on the ground.
This bird is about thirteen inches The Partridge.'
in length, the plumage, brown and ash colour, beautifully
mixed with black. The tail is short, the legs of a greenish
white, and the bill is of a light brown.
The partridge seems to be a bird well known all over the
world, as it is found, as well in the frozen regions about the

PEA SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 351
pole, as in the torrid tracts, under the equator. It even seems
to adapt itself to the nature of the climate where it resides.
In Greenland, the partridge, which is brown in summer, as the
winter begins to set in, like most other animals and birds of
those regions, becomes white, and continues to wear the
livery suitable to the snows with which it is surrounded, till
the return of spring.
In manners and habits, the partridge nearly resembles the
other poultry kind ; but its cunning and instinct seem supe
rior to the larger birds of that race.
This bird is twice mentioned in the Scriptures. The first
occurs in the history of David, (1 Sam. xvi. 20,) where he
expostulates with Saul concerning his unjust and foolish
pursuit. " The king of Israel is come out to seek a flea, as
when one doth hunt a partridge on the mountains." The
other passage is, " As the partridge sitteth on eggs and
hatcheth them not, so he that getteth riches, and not by rio-ht,
shall leave them in the midst of his days." (Jer. xvii. 11.)
It is said that the partridge, finding the nest of some other
bird, will take possession of it, and sit on the eggs till the
real owner of the nest comes and drives her away, and it is
to this peculiarity that the above text is supposed to refer.

The Peacock.
Peacock. To describe, in adequate terms, the dazzling
beauties of this elegant bird, would be a task of no small
difficulty. His head is adorned with a tuft, consisting of
twenty-four feathers, painted with the most exquisite green,
mixed with gold. The head, throat, neck, and breast, are of

352 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. PEL
a deep blue, glossed with green and gold; but the distin
guishing character of this singular bird is its train, which,
when erected, forms a fan of the most resplendent hues.
The voice is very hoarse and disagreeable, and its feet by no
means in correspondence with the beauty of its plumage.
The peacock has, in some countries, been esteemed an
article of luxury ; but whatever there may be of delicacy in
the flesh of a young peacock, it is certain an old one is very
indifferent eating. Peacocks were highly esteemed among
the Romans, and they are mentioned, (1 Kings x. 22,) as
among Solomon's importations from the East. Our peacocks
were also brought from the East Indies, and we are assured
that there are still vast flocks of them, in a wild state, in the
islands of Java and Ceylon.
Pelican. This bird is much larger than the swan, and
somewhat resembles it in shape and colour, and that which
distinguishes.it from all other birds, is its enormous bill, and
extraordinary pouch. From the point of the bill to the open
ing of the mouth, there is the distance of fifteen inches, and
under the lower chop is a bag, reaching the entire length of
the bill to the neck. When empty, this bag or pouch con
tracts so as scarcely to be perceived ; but when filled, its
great bulk and singular appearance may easily be conceived.
This bag, it is said, is capable of holding fifteen quarts of
water. Tetre affirms that this pouch will hold as many fish
as will serve sixty hungry men for a meal. Such is the for
mation of this extraordinary bird, which is a native of Africa
and America. The pelican is a torpid, inactive bird, and
nothing can exceed its indolence but its gluttony. It is only
from the stimulations of hunger that they are excited to
labour ; otherwise they would always remain in a state of
fixed repose. Their lives are spent between sleepirrg and
eating, and they are as foul as they are voracious.
It was once believed that the pelican fed her young with
her own blood. The fact is, that the parent bird feeds its
young by pressing its full pouch against its breast, and thus
expelling a portion of the contents. The appearance of the
bird, in this attitude, with the blood red spot at the end of its
bill, closely pressed against its breast, may readily account
for the prevalence of such an idea, in the minds of superfi
cial observers.
The pelican, being a solitary and torpid bird, is used as an

RAV SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 353
emblem of desolation. It was unclean under the law. (Lev.
xi. 18. Deut. xiv. 17.) David, in his distress, was like a
pelican of the wilderness ; that is, in a very lonely and
mournful condition. (Ps. cii. 6.)
Pigeon. In accordance with the ceremonial law, any per
son who was too poor to afford a lamb for an offering, was
permitted to bring two turtle doves, or two young pigeons.
(Lev. v. 7; xii. 8.) As this was the offering made by the
parents of our Lord, (Luke ii. 24,) it was an evidence of
their poverty. See Dove.
Quail. This bird bears a great resemblance to the par
tridge in appearance, except that it is not more than half the
size. Its flesh is a great delicacy. The feathers of the head
are black, edged with a rusty brown ; the breast is of a pale
yellowish Ted, spotted with black ; the feathers on the back
are marked with lines of pale yellow, and the legs are of a
pale hue.
The oriental quail is a bird of passage. Hasselquist says
it is plentiful near the shores of the Red Sea and the Jordan,
and in the deserts of Arabia; and Diodorus asserts that it is
caught, in immense numbers, about Rhinocolura, countries
through which the Israelites passed on their way to the pro
mised land.
On two occasions, the murmuring Hebrews were supplied
with quails, and on each occasion, the event is distinctly re-
ferredtothe miraculous interposition of God. (Ex. xvi. 12,13;
Numb. xi. 31.) On the first occasion, they were scattered
about the camp, only for a single day ; on the second, they
continued for the space of an entire month.
Raven. This bird is about two feet in length, and four
feet between the tips of the wings. The blackness of the
raven is proverbial. (Cant. v. 11.) He is strong and hardy,
and is found in every region of the globe. Cold and hot
climates are alike indifferent to him, and he is equally active
in both. The raven may be trained up to almost any purpose,
for which birds of prey may be used. He may be taught the
art of fowling, like the hawk; to fetch and carry, like a spa
niel, and to talk, like the parrot, and also to sing. In his
tame state, he is very amusing, but is a mischievous and
-pilfering bird. 2 -Ei a

354 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. SCO
Under the law, the raven was classed among the unclean
birds. (Lev. xi. 15.) When Noah sent the raven out of the
ark to see if the waters were abated, it did not return to him.
(Gen. viii. 6, 7.) When the prophet Elijah retired, by the
direction of God, near the brook Cherith, he was fed for some
time by ravens, who brought him bread and flesh, morning
and evening. (1 Kings xvii. 6.)
Roe. It is thought that the Hebrew word, translated roe,
in our Bibles, is the-gazelle, or antelope. See Deer.
Satyrs. Wild men, or imaginary animals, half man and
half goat, poetically introduced by Isaiah, (xiii. 21 ; xxxiv. 14,)
as dancing among the ruins of Babylon. It is remarkable,
that the inhabitants of that country still believe in the exist
ence there of satyrs. It is probable that the idea of the ex
istence of such an animal, may have been received from the
ape, or, as it is sometimes called, the wild man of the woods,
or satyr.

The Scorpion.
Scorpion. This is one of the largest of the insect tribe,
and not less terrible from its size than its malignity. It bears
a close resemblance to a lobster in shape, but is much more
hideous in appearance. There are several kinds of scorpions,
differing in size and colour.
There are four principal parts in the scorpion ; the head,
the breast, the belly, and the tail. The head seems as if it
were joined to the breast, in the middle of which are seen
two eyes, and a little more forward, two eyes more, placed in
the fore part of the head ; these eyes are so small that they
are scarcely perceptible, and it is probable that this animal has

SHE

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

355

little occasion for seeing. The mouth is furnished with two
jaws, with which it breaks its food, and thrusts it into its
mouth. On each side of the head are two arms, each com
posed of four joints, like the claws of a lobster. Besides these
arms it has eight legs, four on each side. The body is divided
into seven little rings, from the lowest of which is continued
a tail, composed of six joints, the last being armed with a
crooked sting. This sting is the instrument which renders
the insect so formidable, and with which it inflicts a poison
ous, and often fatal wound. The scorpion found in the south
ern countries of Europe, is about four inches long; but in
the tropical climates of the East, it is often found twelve
inches in length.
Scorpions are mentioned as amongst the dangers of the
Israelites, in the wilderness. (Deut. viii. 15.) This animal is
always mentioned in the Scriptures, as an emblem of venom
and malignity. (Ezek. ii. 6. Luke xi. 11, 12; x. 19. Rev.
ix. 3—10.)
Serpent. The craft and
subtlety of this class of
animals, which includes a
very numerous race, differ
ing greatly from each other
in size and malignity, are
frequently dwelt on in the
sacred writings, as quali
ties for which it is emi
nently distinguished. Moses says it was more subtle than any
beast of the field which the Lord had made ; (Gen. iii. 1;) and
our Saviour refers to its wisdom, as affording a model for
imitation to his disciples. (Matt. x. 16.)
Sheep. In its present domestic state, the sheep is, of all
animals, the most defenceless and inoffensive. With its
liberty, it appears to have been deprived of its swiftness and
cunning. Without swiftness, it endeavours to fly, and with
out strength, sometimes makes a useless opposition. In its
wild state, however, it isa hardy, active animal, and in every
way fitted to defend itself, or escape from those dangers by
which it is surrounded.
In Syria, there are two kinds of sheep ; the one differing
in no respect from those among us, except that their tails are

The Serpent.

356 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. SNA
somewhat longer and thicker ; the other kind js that which
has been so frequently mentioned by travellers, on account
of the extraordinary size of the tail ; and this species is by
far the most numerous. The tail 'of this kind of sheep is
affirmed by travellers to weigh from fifteen to fifty pounds.
In a domesticated state, the sheep, as already noticed, is a
weak and defenceless animal, and dependent altogether on
the care of man for its protection and support; but, notwith
standing its imbecility, it is nevertheless prone to stray from
the care of its keeper ; and on this character of the sheep,
almost all the allusions to this animal, in the Scriptures, are
founded. David confesses that he had imitated their foolish
conduct. "I have gone astray like a lost sheep," and,
conscious that he was disposed, like them, to wander still
further from the fold, he adds, 'seek thy servant." (Ps.
cxix. 176.)
The sheep-folds, among the Israelites, appear to have been
generally houses, or enclosures, walled round, to guard the
sheep from beasts of prey by night, and the scorching heat
by day. To this kind of sheep-fold our Saviour, doubtless,
refers. " He that entereth not by the door into the sheep-
fold, but climbeth up some other way, the same is a thief
and a robber." (John x. 1 — 11.)
Snail. The wise Author of nature having denied feet and
claws, to enable snails to creep and climb, has made amends
to them, in a way more commodious for their state of life, by
the broad skin along each side of their belly, and the undu
lating motion observable there. By this motion they creep ;
by the broad skin, assisted by the glutinous slime emitted
from the body, they adhere firmly and securely to the surface
of any object, partly by the tenacity of their slime, and partly
by the pressure of the atmosphere. Thus the snail wastes
itself by its own motion, every undulation leaving some of
its moisture behind; and, in the same manner, the actions of
wicked men prove their destruction. They may, like the
snail, carry their defence along with them, and retire into it,
as the snail does into its shell, on every appearance of
danger; they may confidently trust in their own resources,
and banish far away the fear of evil ; but the principles of
ruin are at work within them, and though the progress may
be slow, the result is certain. The Psalmist prayed, "As a
snail that melteth, let every one of them pass away;" and

STO SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 357
Jehovah answered, " The wicked shall be turned into hell,
and all the nations that forget God." (Ps. lviii. 8. Lev. xi. 30.)
Sparrow. The Hebrew word translated sparrow, is also
used for all sorts of clean birds, or those whose use was not
forbidden in the law, and especially for the smaller birds;
and in most of the passages where a sparrow is mentioned,
we may understand a bird of any kind. A very small kind
of bird is no doubt understood, which was sold five for two
farthings, or two for a farthing. (Matt. x. 29. Luke xii. 6.)
To" mark his afflicted and sorrowful condition, David com
pares himself to a sparrow alone upon the house top. (Ps.
lxxxiv. 3.)
Spider. A well known insect, remarkable for the thread
which it spins, and with which it forms a web of curious
texture, but so frail, that it is exposed to be broken and de
stroyed by the slightest accident. To the slenderness of this
filmy workmanship, Job compares the hope of the wicked.
(viii. 14.) This comparison is so exquisite that nothing can
he conceived which so fully describes the utter vanity of
their hopes and prosperity. Isaiah says, also, " they weave
the web of the spider, of their webs no garment shall be
made, neither shall they cover themselves with their works."
(lix. 5.) The greater number of commentators suppose the
spider to he referred to by Solomon, when he says, she taketh
hold with her hands ; (Prov. xxx. 28;) but as the usual word
for that insect is not used in the original, in this place, it has
been, by others, believed to refer to the newt, a small kind of
lizard. The natural history of the spider is exceedingly curious
in all its details; but our limits forbid us from pursuing it
further. Stork. This bird is one of the crane kind, and has the
long beak and legs which characterize that species. The
most remarkable of the storks is the white one, the length
of which is above three feet. The bill is nearly eight inches
long, and of a fine red colour. The skin of the legs and
bare part of the thighs, is also red.
The white stork is semi-domestic, haunting towns and
cities, in many countries, and stalking about the streets un
concernedly, from which they remove the filth, and clear the

358 scripture natural history. SWA
fields of serpents and reptiles. On this account they are
protected in Holland, held in high veneration by the Ma
hometans, and so greatly were they respected, in times of
old, by the Thessalonians, that to kill one of these birds,
was a crime expiable only by death. The ancients, indeed,
describe it as a pattern of conjugal fidelity, and of filial and
paternal piety.
Moses places the stork amongst the unclean birds. (Lev.
xi. 19. Deut. xiv. 18.) The Psalmist says, (civ. 17,) as for
the stork, the fir trees are her house. The low houses in
Palestine did not afford so favourable a situation for the stork
to build in, as the houses of Europe, and she, doubtless for
that reason, resorted to the pine trees. Profane writers speak
much of the piety of the stork, and of its gratitude to its
parents. Swallow. There are many species of the swallow ; all
of them have bills which are broad, small at the point, and
slightly curved. The wings are long, and the tail forked, the
legs short and slender. Their voice is a peculiar twittering
noise, and they fly with great rapidity.
The only mention of the swallow, in Scripture, is in Isaiah
xxxviii. 14, and JeremiaR viii. 7. Hezekiah, referring to his
recent affliction, says, as a swallow, or a crane, so did I chat
ter. The note of swallows being quick and mournful, the
allusion of the king is supposed to be to his prayers, which
were so interrupted by groans, as to be like the quick twitter
ings of the swallow. The passage in Jeremiah refers to the
well known migration of this bird, from which the prophet
takes occasion to reprove the ingratitude of the favoured
tribes. " The turtle, and the crane, and the swallow, observe
the time of their coming, but my people know not the judg
ment of the Lord."
Swan. So much difference exists between this bird when
on land and in the water, that it hardly appears like the same
creature. When it ascends from the water, its favourite element, its
motions are awkward, and its neck is stretched forward with
an air of stupidity; but when seen smoothly gliding along
the water, displaying a thousand graceful attitudes, and
moving at pleasure, without the smallest apparent effort,
there is not a more beautiful figure in all nature. It is

SWA SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 359
able to swim faster than a man
can walk.
This beautiful bird is as deli
cate in its .appetites, as it is
elegant in its form. Its chief
food is corn, herbs growing in
the water, and roots and seeds
which are found near the margin.
At the time of incubation, it pre
pares a nest in some retired part
of the bank, and chiefly where
there is a small island in the
The Swan. stream. The swan lays seven
or eight eggs, white, and much
larger than that of the goose. A female has been known to
attack and drown a fox, which was swimming towards her
nest, and an old swan can break the leg of a man with his
wing. The swan is a long-lived bird, and sometimes attains
the age of more than a hundred years.
The wild, or whistling swan, though so strongly resembling
the tame one in colour and form, yet differs considerably from
it, especially in its internal structure. It is also less, by a
fourth, in size; the tame swan weighing about twenty, and
the wild about fifteen pounds. The wild species is found in
most of the northern regions, in America, and probably in the
East Indies. The tame swan makes no noise, except a hiss ;
the wild one has a sharp, loud cry, particularly while flying.
The song, ascribed to this bird, when dying, by the ancients,
is a mere fable. The colour of the tame swan, is all over
white; the wild one, along the back, and tips of the wing,
inclines to an ash colour.
The black swan, of New Holland, that country of animal
wonders, presents us with a bird, which the ancients imagined
could not possibly have an existence. The black swan is ex
actly similar in its form to the same bird found in other
countries, but is somewhat less in size. Every part of the
plumage is perfectly black, except a few of the longest quill
feathers, which are white. The bill is bright-red, and the
legs and feet ash-coloured. They are extremely shy, and
when disturbed,, fly off, one after another, like wild geese.
The swan is amongst the birds declared unclean, by the
Levitical law, and is only twice mentioned in the Bible, (Lev.

360 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.
xi. IS. Deut. xiv. IG ;) and some authors have doubted Whether
this bird is that really intended by the word so translated.
Swine. This word was formerly used in the singular, as
well as the plural number, but it is now generally used for
hogs, in the plural. See Boar.
Tortoise. Tortoises are usually divided into those which
live upon land, and those that live in the water; and use has
made a distinction in the name, the one being called tortoises,
and the other turtles. It has been proved, however, that they
are all able to live in either element, and, upon examination,
there will be less variety found among them, than amongst
birds that live upon land, and those that swim in the water.

Catching Turtle.
All tortoises, in their external form, much resemble each
other, their outward covering being composed of two great
shells, the one laid upon the other, and only touching at' the
edges. There are two holes at either edge of this°vaulted
body, one for a very small head, shoulders, and arms to peep
through, the other at the opposite edge, for the feet and the .
tail. These shells the animal is never disengaged from, and
they serve for its defence against every creature, except man.
When alarmed, it draws in its feet and head, and closes the
shell, in such a manner as to afford it complete protection.
It has no teeth, but its mouth is armed with a hard, bony rim.
Its tail is strong and scaly, like the lizard.

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 361
The land tortoise is a long-lived animal, and, with respect
to injuries, may be considered as almost endowed with im
mortality. The loss of a limb is a trifling matter, and it seems
as though nothing could kill it. It will live with its brain
taken out, and even with its head cutoff. They have fre
quently been known to live for eighty years, and sometimes
more than a hundred.
The sea tortoise, or turtle, as it is usually called, is much
larger than the land tortoise. The great Mediterranean tur
tle is the largest of the kind. It is found from five to eight
feet long, and from six to nine hundred pounds weight; but
these are a formidable and useless kind, compared with those
of the South Seas. They are of different kinds, not only
unlike each other in form, but furnishing man with different
advantages. The imbricated turtle supplies the tortoise shell
which is so extensively used, and the green turtle is not less
noted for the delicacy and nutritive qualities of its flesh. This
last kind is generally found to weigh about two hundred weight,
though some are found much larger. Dampier mentions one
so large, that a boy of ten years of age, the son of Captain
Rock, used the shell as a boat, and went from the shore in it,
to his father's ship. Both the land and sea tortoise feed
chiefly on vegetable substances.
The tortoise is classed amongst reptiles, is a cold blooded
animal, and is mentioned as unclean in the ceremonial law.
(Lev. xi. 29.) Some learned men, however, think a kind of
lizard is intended. If the tortoise was the animal referred to,
it was no doubt the land tortoise.
Unicorn. Much difference of opinion has existed among
learned men, as to the animal referred to by the original word,
by our translators rendered unicorn. Did the original word,
in itself, denote, as in our translation, an animal having only
one horn, much of this uncertainty would cease; but as this
is not the case, it affords a much wider scope than otherwise
would exist, for the exercise of the imagination of biblical
critics. The first allusion to this animal, is in the reply of Balaam
to Balak, when importuned by the terrified king to curse the
invading armies of Israel — " God brought them out of Egypt,
ne hath, as it were, the strength of an unicorn." (Numb, xxiii.
22; xxiv. 8.) From this it is evident that the animal was con
sidered as possessing considerable power. Isaiah associates
2 V

362 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.
him with other powerful animals, to symbolize the leaders and
princes of the hostile nations, that were destined to invade his
country. " And the unicorns shall come down with them,
and the bullocks with the bulls." (Isa. xxxiv. 7.) From the
book of Job, we learn that he was not only an animal of con
siderable strength, but also possessed of a very intractable dis
position. "Will the unicorn be willing to serve thee, or
abide by thy crib V (Job xxxix. 9 — 12.) This animal is also
referred to in two or three other passages in the Scriptures,
but without any very particular allusion to its manners or
habits. (Deut.xxxiii. 17. Ps. xxii. 21; xxix. 6.) From these
passages, chiefly, we are to form our opinion with respect to
the animal intended by the sacred writers.
The name of unicorn was anciently given to an animal de
scribed as having legs like the deer, the head, mane, and tail
like the horse, and in the middle of its forehead, a single horn,
from which it took its name. Whether such an animal now
exists, or ever did exist, has been doubted. Most learned
men have considered the existence of such an animal as alto
gether fabulous, and have, consequently, endeavoured to find,
amongst those animals whose existence and character are Well
determined, one whose description best corresponds with that
referred to in the Scriptures ; and the two which have princi
pally divided the opinions of learned men are, the rhinoceros,
and wild buffalo.
Those writers who prefer the rhinoceros, as the representa
tive of the unicorn, depend on the name given in the trans
lations, as signifying an animal with only one horn, and as
corresponding, in his character, with the description given of
that animal. Those who prefer the wild buffalo as represent
ing the unicorn, deny that the original word has any reference
to an animal with one horn, and they argue that the buffalo
agrees, in character, with the scriptural account of the unicorn.
It is objected, also, that though the rhinoceros in some coun
tries has only one horn, yet in those parts where the animal
is found nearest to Palestine, it has two horns, and those not
as the unicorn is described, having the horn projecting from
the forehead, but one above the other on the snout. The ob
jections against those who advocate the wild buffalo as the
animal intended, arise from his having two horns; and though
acknowledged to be exceedingly fierce, not fully meeting the
description of the animal under consideration.
On the whole, between the claims of the rhinoceros and

UNI

SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY.

363

the wild buffalo, to be considered the unicorn of Scripture,
we should have no difficulty in deciding in favour of the
rhinoceros, as best agreeing with the description of that
animal ; and will, therefore, give a somewhat more minute
account of it. Next to the elephant, the rhinoceros is said
to be the most powerful of animals. When full grown, it is
twelve feet long, from the tip of the nose to the insertion of
the tail ; from six to seven feet high; and the circumference of
Its body is nearly equal to its length. It is, therefore, equal
to the elephant in bulk; and the reason of its appearing so
much smaller to the eye than that animal, is, that its legs are
shorter. But for its horn, its head would have the appear
ance of that of a hog. The skin is naked, rough, knotty,
and lying on the body in folds in a very peculiar manner, and
so thick, as to turn the edge of a scimitar, and to resist a
musket ball.

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W&&HMH

Battle between the Rhinoceros and Tiger.
Such are the general characteristics of an animal that ap
pears chiefly formidable from the horn growing out of its snout,
and from that circumstance, rendered irresistible to nearly
every inhabitant of the forest. The elephant, the boar, and
the buffalo, are obliged to strike transversely with their
weapons; but the rhinoceros, from the situation of its horn,
employs all its force with every blow; so that the tiger wili

364 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. UNI
rather attack any other animal, though dreadful battles fre
quently take place between them, in which the tiger is almost
uniformly destroyed. In combats with the elephant also, the
rhinoceros frequently comes off victorious, as its lowness
of stature enables it to get under the elephant, and pierce a
vital part with its horn. Travellers assure us, that the
elephant is often found dead in the forests, pierced with the
horn of the rhinoceros.
The great diversity of opinion which has prevailed amongst
learned men as to these animals, affords a strong ground for
inference, that neither of them was intended ; on the contrary,
we believe quite as strong;, or even stronger testimony can be
produced in favour of the existence of an animal, formerly
and at the present time, which is no doubt the true represen
tative of the unicorn described by the ancients.
Niebuhr, the celebrated traveller, relates, that in the ruins of
Persepolis, he found, on almost every staircase, the figure of
a unicorn depicted in various attitudes; and Pliny, in speak
ing of the wild beasts of India says, with respect to this ani
mal — " The unicorn is an exceeding fierce animal, resembling
a horse as to the rest of his body, but having the head like a
stag, the feet like an elephant, and the tail like a wild boar ;
its roaring is loud, and it has a black horn of about two cubits
projecting from the middle of the forehead." These seem to
be the chief ancient testimony in relation to this animal.
In more recent times, we have further traces of this animal
in Southern Africa, and also in Central Asia, in both of which
places it has been asserted, on authority which appears to be
altogether worthy of confidence, that it has been seen ; and
when we consider that the giraffe or cameleopard has only a
short time since been rediscovered, after having been known
to the ancients, and long considered fabulous by the moderns,
and that a large part of Africa and Central Asia is still en
tirely unexplored by Europeans, it is by no means improbable
that the unicorn now exists in those remote regions, and that
it will ere long be rediscovered, and its existence placed be
yond a doubt.
The gnu or horned horse, which has been, within a short
time since, brought from the Cape of Good Hope, possesses
characteristics quite as extraordinary as those which have
been assigned to the unicorn ; and if it possessed one straight
instead of two crooked horns, would bear a strong resem
blance to the description of that animal.

VUL SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. 365
Viper. This is a kind of serpent of which there are
several species, all of which are venomous, and some of
them produce death in a short time. It is usually two or
three feet in length, and is a slow moving kind of serpent.
The poison is infused into the wound by a canal in the fangs,
by which it is inflicted.

The Vulture.

Vulture. The first rank amongst birds of prey, has been
assigned to the eagle, not because it is larger than the vul
ture, but because it is more noble and courageous, and pos
sesses at least as great an inclination for war, as an appetite
for prey. The vulture is deficient in all the more respectable
qualities of the eagle, and only rivals it in size, strength, and
rapacity. Vultures may readily be distinguished from all those of the
eagle kind, by the nakedness of their heads and necks, which
are without feathers, and only covered by a very slight down,
or a few scattered hairs ; the eyes are more prominent, the
claws are shorter and less hooked, and the flight more diffi
cult and heavy. All the vulture tribe are cruel, uncleanly,
and indolent.
This bird is found in almost all the countries of the Eastern
and Western continent. In Egypt, indeed, it seems to be of
sino-ular service. There are great flocks of them in the
neighbourhood of Grand Cairo, which no person is permitted
to destroy, because they devour all the carrion and filth, which
J 2F2

366 scripture natural history. WHA
has so great a tendency to corrupt and putrefy the air. In
South America they are found in great abundance, and when
they light upon a carcass, which they have liberty to feed on
at their ease, they so gorge themselves that they are unable
to fly, but keep hopping along on the ground when pursued.
At all times it is a bird of slow flight, and when thoroughly
gorged, is utterly helpless.
There are several varieties of the vulture, all of which so
closely resemble each other in manners and habits, as to
require no particular notice. The condor, however, which
belongs to the vulture tribe, is remarkable for its immense
size, and is doubtless much the largest of all birds that are
capable of flight. It also possesses all the qualities which
render it formidable to other animals, and even to man him
self. It is said to be eighteen feet across the wings, its beak
is so strong as to pierce the body of a cow, and two of them
are able to devour her at a meal. It is supposed that the '
great bird called the roc, described by the Arabian writers,
and so much exaggerated by fable, is but a species of the
condor. The vulture is mentioned in the ceremonial law as among
the unclean birds, (Lev. xi. 14. Deut. xiv. 13,) and is also
referred to by the prophet Isaiah, as an emblem of desola
tion, (Isa. xxxiv. 15/)
Whale. Of the whale, properly so ealled, there are
several different species, but the two principal divisions are
the common or Greenland whale, and the spermaceti whale-
The great Greenland whale is the animal, for the taking
of which such extensive preparations are made in the dif
ferent ports of Europe and America. It is a large heavy
animal, and the head is a third part of its bulk. It is usually
found from sixty to seventy feet long. The tail is about
twenty-four feet broad, and when it lies on one side, a blow
from it is tremendous. The skin is smooth and black, and
in some places marbled with white and yellow, which, run
ning over the surface, has a very beautiful effect. The clefs
of the mouth is above twenty feet long, which is about one-
third of the animal's whole length, and the upper jaw is fur
nished with barbs that lie like the pipes of an organ, the
greatest in the middle, and the smallest on the sides: these
compose the whalebone, the longest of which are not less
than eighteen feet. The eyes are not larger than those of an

WHA

scripture natural history.

307

ox, and placed towards the back of the head, which enables
them to see both before and behind, and they' appear to be
very sharp-sighted.
As these animals breathe the air, it is obvious that they
cannot remain a great length of time under water. They are
constrained, tlierefore, every tuo or three minutes, to come up
to the surface to take breath, as well as to spout out through
their nostril (for they have but one) the water they have sucked
in while gaping for their prey.
The cachalot, or spermaceti whale, is not of such enormous
size as the Greenland whale; it does not exceed sixty feet in
length, and sixteen in depth, and being more slender, is also
more active than the common whale. The head of the
spermaceti is even larger than the common whale, being
equal to one-half the bulk of the animal. This species of
whale is the most sought after, and is by far the most valua
ble, as it contains two important drugs, spermaceti and
ambergris.

Whale Fishery.
To enter into a detail of the mode in which these animals
are captured, or to give a minute account of the whale fishery,
though very interesting, does not comport with our object;
we would only notice, therefore, that when the ships which
are fitted out for this purpose, arrive at the proper location,

368 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. WOL
the whale is pursued by boats, containing a number of men,
armed with harpoons, to which a rope is attached, and being
struck as often as it comes up to breathe, it at length expires
under repeated wounds.
It may readily be supposed, that the pursuit of such a huge
and powerful animal is often attended with extreme danger.
The whale is several times mentioned in the Scriptures.
In the account of the creation, it is said that " God created
great whales" on the fifth day. (Gen. i. 21.) When Job,
during his distress and great affliction, addressed the Almighty,
he says, " am I a sea or a whale, that thou settest a watch
over me 1" (Job vii. 12.) Ezekiel compares the powerful
and cruel king of Egypt, to a young lion, and a whale.
(Ezek. xxxii. 2.)
It is generally believed, that the great fish by which Jonah
was so miraculously preserved was a whale, (Jonah i. 17,)
and our Lord, in speaking of this event, (Matt. xii. 40,) calls
it so. It has been disputed, however, whether the "great
fish" was really a whale or not, and is denied by some, be
cause there are no whales in the Mediterranean sea, where
this event occurred, and because the throat of a whale is too
small to swallow a man. To us neither of these reasons
present the least difficulty, as it is altogether probable that
whales did frequent the Mediterranean in the early periods
of the worid, before so many great ships were constantly
ploughing its surface, and though the throat of the whale is
too small to swallow a man, yet when we consider that the
head, and consequently the mouth, in some species of the
whale, is equal to half the animal, it would certainly be no
great stretch of words to say that the whale swallowed
Jonah, though he did not actually pass into the stomach of
the animal.
Wolf. This is one of those animals whose appetite for
animal food is the most vehement, and whose means of satis
fying that appetite are the most various. Nature has fur
nished him with strength, with cunning, with agility, and
all those requisites, in a word, which fit an animal for pursu
ing, overtaking, and conquering its prey; and yet with all
these the wolf not unfrequently dies of hunger, for he is the
declared enemy of man. Being long proscribed, and a re
ward offered for his head, he is obliged to fly from the habita
tions of man. and to live in the forest, where the few wild

WOL SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. SC9
animals to be found, escape him either by their swiftness or
their art, or are supplied in too small a proportion to satisfy
his rapacity. When pressed with hunger, however, he braves
danger, and attacks those animals which are under the pro
tection of man, particularly lambs and sheep, which are its
favourite prey.
The wolf, both externally and internally, so nearly re
sembles the dog, that they seem formed on the same plan,
but in their dispositions they are entirely unlike ; the wolf,
when tamed, seldom show ing any of that attachment and
devotedness to his master, which so strongly characterizes
the other faithful animal.
The wolf is usually, when full grown, above two and a
half feet iu height, and three and a half from the nose to-
the tail. The head is long, and more pointed than the dog,
the ears erect, and the eyes lively and fierce. The tail is
long and bushy, and bends down towards the legs, the hair
is of a grayish yellow colour, with a dark stripe on the fore
legs, but in some climates the colour is nearly black.
When driven by hunger, wolves will not hesitate to attack
human beings. The following circumstance is said to have
occurred in Russia, some years ago. A poor woman and
three children were in a sledge, when they were pursued by
a number of wolves. On this, she drove towards her home,
which was not far distant, with all possible speed. The
ferocious animals, however, gained on her, when, for the
preservation of her own life, and the lives of her two other
children, she threw out her babe, to her bloodthirsty pursu
ers. This, however, only stopped their career for a moment,
and on their approach the second and third times, Use other
children were successively thrown out to them.
Soon after the last child had been devoured, the wretched
woman reached ber home, and ralated what had happened,
endeavouring to excuse her conduct, by describing the dread
ful condition to which she had been reduced. A peasant,
however, who was amongst the by-standers, took up an axe,
and with one blow killed her, saying, that a woman who
could thus sacrifice her own offspring, was no longer fit to
live. The peasant was imprisoned, but afterwards par
doned by the emperor.
The allusions to the wolf in the Scriptures, correspond
with the history given of him by naturalists. His fierceness
and cruelty are the dispositions chiefly referred to. He is

370 SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY. WOR
frequently mentioned in the Scriptures, arid appears to have
abounded in Palestine and the neighbouring countries. (Gen.
xlix. 27. Matt. vii. 15.)
Worm. Animals of the worm kind, are placed by scien
tific writers, as the first in the class of zoophytes ; but as,
like serpents, they have a creeping motion, so both, in gener
al, go under the common appellation of reptiles. But, though
worms as well as serpents, are mostly without feet, and have
been doomed to creep along the earth, yet their motions are
very different. The serpent, having a back bone, bends its
body into the form of a bow, and then shoots forward from
the tail ; but the worm has the power of lengthening or con
tracting itself, at will.
There is no phenomenon in all natural history, more asto
nishing, than what is sometimes seen in creatures of the worm
kind. Some of them will live without their limbs, and often
are seen to reproduce thern. Some continue to exist, though
cut in two, their principal parts preserving life, while the
others perish; but the earth worm, and all the zoophyte tribe,
continue to live in separate parts, and one animal, by means
of cutting, is divided into two distinct existences, perhaps
into a thousand. The earth worm, for instance, when cut
in two in the middle, will become two perfect animals, the
head will reproduce a tail, and the tail part will reproduce a
head, and forming two equally perfect and distinct animals.
Wonderful as this fact may appear, repeated experiments
have verified it beyond all question.
There are four kinds of worms spoken of in Scripture.
those which breed in* putrefied bodies; those which cut
woollen garments ; those which perforate the leaves and
Dark of trees, and those which are destructive to the vines
referred to in Deut. xxxiii. 39. Job xxv. 6. Ps. xxii. 6.

THE END.

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