yf- c), Mark xii, 34 ; and St. Paul counsels Christians to be children in malice, but men in under standing. 1 Cor. xiv, 20. The Old Testament, likewise, connects the religious dispo sition with the understanding (nJ'ia)i Prov. ix, 10, and elsewhere. 38 EELIGION NOT BARE trasts, and penetrates and energizes all things (knowledge of the absolute). Not the dead conception, but the living idea, foi-ms the element in which religion lives. Short-sighted understanding cannot penetrate to the highest ideas of reason. We agree to this : but we question whether reason as here described is innate to the mind, instead of being th© product of the feelings and the under standing — a resultant higher unity of the two. It is a further ques tion whether the grasping of this idea or whatever phrase may be applied to it is itself religion and eternal life, or whether reason as thus conceived is not rather a mere phantom of the mind, so long as it is not the reflex of a profound personal feeling and experience. As the word reason is, with rationalists, often merely a sort of Sunday suit in which ordinary understanding clothes itself, so the same word serves with idealists to conceal an arbitraiy poetizing fancy, which is incapable of satisfying either the feeUngs or the understanding.' That imagination in its proper character is not the source of religion will be universally conceded, although it must be allowed, like every other faculty, to share in the religious life.'' The following general considerations should be brought to bear against the assumption that religion is merely an intellectual affair : — 1. If religion were simply this, it would follow that knowledge Evidence that ^'^'^ right thinking concerning it would determine the rehgion Is not measure of piety. Our own age ought to be more product of the pious than former ages, philosophers than the public, intellect. tc^^sx than women, adults than children. Why was sal vation transmitted through the Jews, rather than through the schools of Greece ? Why did God conceal it from the wise men of this world, and reveal it to babes and sucklings ? Why did the re?iaissa?ice of learning simply prepare the way for the Reforma tion, instead of completing it ? Why is the finely-cultured Erasmus eclipsed by Luther, his inferior in culture ? 2. If knowledge were to constitute religion, the Church (com munion of believers) would possess no value, and must become transformed into a community of the learned, or school. The dif ferent degrees of learning among its members would produce an ' Comp. C. A. Thilo, Die Wissenschaftlichheit der modemen speculativen Theologie in ihren Principien beleuchtet, Leipsic, 1851 — a book that deserves to be noticed, despite its prudish bearing towards all religious speculation, since it urges soberness and watchfulness. ' Ullmann has beautifully developed this idea in Theol. Aphorismen, in Stud. u. Krit., 1844, p. 417, sqq. THINKING OR KNOWLEDGE. 39 esoteric and an exoteric class, so that " many men of many minds " might be said of this community, but not "one heart and one soul." If such descriptions are heard even now, it is the result of the fact simply, that in the Church undue importance has been attached to learning, and theology has been allowed to supplant religion. Sec tarianism and controversial tendencies have their origin chiefly in a false assertion of the claims of knowledge, and in a lack of purity and simplicity of faith.' 3. If thinking and investigation constituted the peculiar organs of religion, their exercise ought to produce religious satisfaction, and religious inspiration ought to reach its highest energy during the process of thinking ; and in like manner religion should decrease in moments when the faculty of thought is impaired or restrained, e. g., in old age,' and upon the sick and dying-bed, while the truth is, that, under precisely such circumstances, it often appears in its highest perfection. The emphasis placed upon thinking is mis placed ; for in the vocabulary of religion the emphasis rests rather upon feeling. When the Quietists asserted that the most perfect prayer is that in which thought has no place, they were guilty of exaggeration verging upon the absurd ; but a profounder truth lies at the basis of the apparent absurdity, which is wholly over looked by those whose views would reduce even prayer to a mere arithmetical example. II. Religion is not merely action. The idea that re- Religion not ligion is altogether a doing, a moral determination of "'^''^^y action. the will, has even more support than that which identifies it with knowledge. " If ye know these things, happy are ye if ye do them " ' A fact stated by an old Reformed Theologian, Keckermann, is genersiUy forgotten (he himself overlooked it occasionally), namely, that theology is not simply a disci- plina contemplatvix, but also operatrix. See Al. Schweizer's Ref. Dogmatik, p. 103. The members of the general synods of Bergen, beginning with A. D. 1680, were, on the same principle, required to pledge themselves to the studium pietatis as well as the studium orthodoxise. The excessive importance attached to the so-called Confessions is evidently owing to the misconception that religion has its seat iu the cavities of the brain instead of the chambers of the heart, or that it may be preserved in formulas, as anatomical subjects are preserved in alcohol. " For a remarkable psychological proof of the fact that religious ideas are capable of being clearly present to the consciousness, independently of other processes of thought, and even under circumstances when the power to think is departing, comp. John Spalding's Life of his Son, G. L. Spalding (Halle, 1804), p. 188, sqq., note, and also the death of Schleiermacher, in W. von Humboldt's Briefe an eine Freundin, ii, p. 259. Schenkel's remark is, therefore, of great force : " The religious consciousness is infinitely greater than the world-consciousness, even as God is infinitely greater than the world ; and it, therefore, contains a fountain of inexhaustible power and perennial comfort." — Dogmatik, i, p. 153. 30 RELIGION IS NOT (,Tphn xiii, 17.) It is sustained also by the expressions nin' iji'^, bSdg Toij KVQLov, mbj7, dprjOKeia, depaneia, epya, Kagir6g, etc., religio (in the sense of conscientiousness), and by popular usage, according to which a pious person is the same as one who is good or upright (SiKaLog), and which conceives of virtue and godliness as being iden tical. There are, however, different methods of conceiving religion as confined to the sphere of action. The lowest view, a counterpart of that which places it in the memory, regards piety altogether Not action in as a work to be outwardly performed (opus operatum), meeha^cai'do- ^ ^-^re dead, mechanical doing. It is evident that this Ing of works, does not deserve the name of religion. It is to be observed, on the other hand, that they who contemplate religion chiefly with the understanding, generally identify it with moral ity (the Kantean, rationalistic view), or, at any rate, regard as essential to religion only such elements as will promote the moral . autonomy of reason. A higher view (corresponding to Identical v7ith the speculative theory, among those who assign religion mora i y. ^^ ^y^^ intellect) makes religion an internal activity, or an action of the spirit in us. If the latter expression be not a mere speculative phrase, behind which moral indifference may hide, it may be understood, in the Christian sense, as a work of the Divine Spirit in us, and therefore as equivalent to "regeneration." The supporters of this opinion add that at bottom piety is concerned to Not Identical bring about the improvement or sanctification of our posed spiritual dispositions and our walk ; so that here rationalism and activity. pietism agree in the practical demand that religion must produce results. To insist upon religious action does not, however, constitute a proof that religion in its last analysis is action. In opposition to this view we present the following: — Thereasonsfor 1. While religion and morality coincide in their high- reir°«ii'^''and ®®* development, so that a true religion without morality morauty. and a true morality without religion are equally incon ceivable,' they are yet clearly distinguished in their details as well 'Rothe (Anfange der Christliohen Kirche, p. 27) remarks: "A complete morality, which is not in its positive aspects substantially religious, does not exist. In the same proportion in which morality should not have acquired the certainty of religion (the certainty of conscious dependence upon God) would its development as morality be deficient." Kym (Die Weltanschauungen und deren Consequenzen, Zurich, 1864, p. 9)': "A religion that should not pass over into morality, and through this into life, would be a centre without circumference, therefore a half, and accordingly untrue unreal reUgion. A morality that should have no connexion with the Deity would be without depth and without a last (?) central point The morality which separates it self from religion is likely to become self -righteousness and self-satisfaction, because it lacks provision for the judgment of self. Hence faith is the creative reason of love." IDENTICAL WITH MORALITY. 31 as their general character. A genuine piety is found to exist in which the moral element leaves much to be desired, but which can not be justly rated as hypocrisy; and there are many poorly- behaved and ill-bred children of God who yet know that God is exercising discipline over them, and submit to his authority. This was true of David and other Old Testament characters. Without this presumption it becomes impossible to understand the Old Test ament as a whole,' and also the Middle Ages, with their profound apprehension of God and their boundless immorality. The period of the Reformation and modern pietism might also furnish illustrations of this point.^ On the other hand. Morality and the piety of many is put to shame by the existence of ^^gn ™ found a praiseworthy and correct morality, which has grown separated. beyond a mere legality, and become moral self-respect and self- control, in a measure compelling approval and admiration, which yet lacks the sanctions and the impulse of religion; i. e., a definite relation towards God and eternity. This applies not only to the stoicism of the ancients, but also to the categorical imperative of Kant, and the morality of cultivated persons in our day. While, therefore, morality and religion belong together, and in their ulti mate development must coincide, they may yet be logically distin guished, and bear a separate character in the lower stages of their development even in actual life. It is, however, the mark of a truly religiotis disposition, that, when moral imperfection or sin is recognized, it should be acknowledged as sin, and as a wrong com mitted against God (" I have sinned against heaven and in thy sight," Luke xv, 21) ; and that the soul should bow before God, and humble itself and repent. Morality without religion knows nothing of sin as suoh, but recognizes only moral deficiency; and it therefore substitutes " self -improvement " for repentance. Sin and repetit- ance are rdigicms-ethicdl ideas. 2. Morality presupposes capacity, developed by practice, and evidencins: itself in a series of moral actions or denials. ., ,. . . ^ -. . ..,..,. . Religion IS orlg- Religion is original power, original spiritual life, and is inai spiritual concentrated upon a single point. It stands related to i'"™''- ' All objections against the moral character of the patriarchs are founded on this misconception. ^ What a contrast exists between the spiritual songs and the passionate polemical writings of Angelas Silesius (Scheffier) ! a contrast so great as to apparently require that two different persons be assumed in explanation of their authorship (comp. Kahl- ert, Ang. Silesius, Breslau, 1853, conclusion). A similar contrast is presented by the Lutheran poet Philip Nicolai, whose hymns breathe a profound piety, while his con troversial works bear witness to a morality by no means refined (comp. Schweizei', Prot. Centraldogmen, p. 584). 32 RELIGION REQUIRES WORSHIP morality as genius to talent in the sphere of art. Men of genius may exist who possess a rich fund of intellectual conceptions, but who nevertheless are exceedingly awkward in the application of technical rules, while others may work in obedience to the highest rules of art to represent utterly commonplace ideas; and a similar distinction holds good between morality and religion. The real master, of course, is he whose talent has become subservient to genius, and impregnated by it. 3. Moral action is determined by the external conditions of life. Moral action and its range is confined within the limits of such con- outward^con- ^7°h XPva/J-oddTat, navaysl^, wpAopoL, VTnjphai, ^eovpyni, SvriTrokoi. Ibid. 14. 'Semler, Introd. to Baumgarten's Glaubenslehre, i, p. 110, sqq. ' See Smith's Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctr., § 25, vol. i. 64 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. versies and in the rise of heresies. The councils, beginning with J ., the fourth century, settled the doctrines of the faith. Origin of form- *" ' al Christian and furnished and prepared the material out of which theology. ^ later age constructed the edifice of church doctrines (Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory Nazi anzen, among Orientals ; and Augustine in the ^'^est). I The contents of theology continued to be Christian; but the form of the various doctrines was influenced by the philosophies (Platonism and Aristotelianism) which had from the first been transplanted from heathen into Christian soil. Various intellectual tendencies made themselves felt even within the orthodox catholic Church; one of these attached more importance to what had come down from previous ages, and contented itself with a simple figura tive phraseology, while the other combined the whole of the material so transmitted into a body of doctrine, (Isidore of Seville and John of Damascus, in the seventh and eighth centuries), and sought to penetrate it intellectually, by means of a speculative apprehension Early relations ^"^^ dialectic treatment of the several dogmas. T'he of phUosophy effort to reconcile theology and philosophy, faith and knowledge, the prescribed and the results of personal thought, revelation and reason, was especially apparent in scholas ticism in various directions (Scotus Erigena in the ninth century, Abelard and Anselm in the eleventh). Philosophy, however, be came more and more dependent on the established teaching of the Church, and filled, while deceiving itself with the appearance of independent action, a servant's place in the house of its mistress. But theology, the mistress, likewise failed to emancipate herself, and continued to bear the fetters of a dialecticism imposed upon it from without. Aristotle ruled the Bible. Exegetical and historical studies, formerly cultivated, were ne- Middie Ages glected in comparison with systematic inquiries in the dogmatic twelfth and thirteenth centuries from Peter Lombard to Thomas Aquinas. Such studies finally degenerated into an in tolerable rage for disputation, and dogmatism gave way to scepti cism. The mystics, however, especially in the fourteenth century. Mysticism the Were inwardly preparing for a regeneration of the the^^Sform^ Christian life and thought, when, in connexion with "on- the so-called humanism, philology, criticism, and his tory again became prominent, and exegetical studies, immediately before the Reformation, resumed their flourishing condition. (Lau rent. Valla, Reuchlin, and Erasmus.) Theology was obliged to renew its youth under the influence of the Protestantism of the sixteenth century (Luther, Zwingle, Calvin), which postulated the THEOLOGY SINCE THE REFORMATION. 65 Scriptures as the only certain rule of faith, and based every thing- upon them. The study of the Bible took a freer range and became more independent, and was made the broad substructure of the body of Protestant doctrine. This body of doctrine was devel oped by the Lutheran and Reformed theologians of Development the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with great aeTrotetaS thoroughness, but not without retaining something of churches. the scholastic spirit and of polemical bitterness. The effort was finally made, from the stand-point of science (Calixtus), and especially from that of practical life (Spener and Pietism), to return to the simple faith of the Scriptures, and to di rect attention to properly religious needs, in contrast with a dead orthodoxy. Wh^n Pietism began to lose its savor at the beginning of the eighteenth century, philosophy gave it polemical support. Wolfianism, having been preceded by Descartes and influenceotthe Leibnitz, brought into theology a new (mathematically ophy on^theot demonstrative) formalism, and though still wearing an ogy. orthodox garb, prepared the way for rationalism, which was still further supported by the critical tendencies of Semler and others in the second half of the eighteenth century. "Dogmatics" was confined within increasingly limited bounds and became more and more undecided in its bearing, while exegetical beginning with Ernesti, and historical theology from the time of Mosheim, acquired a more independent position. Extraordinary changes in the other departments of life (e. g., the awakening of German literature in Lessing, modern pedagogics, philanthropism) exercised both an inciting and enlightening, a levelling and a secu larizing influence upon the life of the Church. The Wolfenbuitel Fragments threatened injury not only to the doctrines The Woifen- of the Church, but also to the historical basis of Chris- Mttei assault ' on historical tianit3^ " Apologetics " showed itself embarrassed, and Christianity. allowed outwork after outwork to be taken. At this juncture Kant appeared and marked out the limits of reason, within which a re ligion that renounced all knowledge of the supersensual and con fined itself to the morality of the categorical imperative was obliged, with its practical ideas of God, liberty, and immortality, to content itself for the time. The speculative pressure of Ger man philosophy, in Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, soon again made that its real object, which others, like Jacobi, reserved for a faith based on the feelings. Schleiermacher was as earnestly en gaged in the work of separating theology from the philosophy of the schools, as in penetrating all its branches with a philosophic glance and in pointing out the germs of their life. From that time 66 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. it has been the task of modern theology, before all else, to compre hend its own nature in the light of history, and to secure a clear idea of its relation to the present age. There is no lack of persons, however, who ignore the whole of the historical development of theology, and believe it necessary to reconstruct every thing anew from the beginning; while others still desire to conjure up the theology of the seventeenth century much rather than that of the sixteenth." SECTION IV. THEOLOGY AS EELATED TO THE PEEPAEATOEY SCIENCES (PEOPJE- DEUTICs). Theology, like every other positive science, presumes a strictly scientific school-training, since it treats the pure sciences as in part preliminary to its work, and on the other hand continually employs them as auxiliaries. A distinction may be made with Bertholdt, between preliminary Distinction be- knowledge (propaedeutics) and auxiliary sciences (boe- tweenthepre- thetics). The former gives to every person the neces- the auxiliary sary qualification, and indicates his fitness for entering sciences. upon One of the university courses ; the latter are, in addition, special aids to the study of theology. A study is fre quently at once preparatory and auxiliary, e. g., Latin, Greek, and history. The Hebrew language — even where it is 'taught in gym nasia — is included among the ordinary branches of the school-cur riculum solely for the sake of theology; we therefore reserve its consideration, in common with that of biblical philology in gen eral, until the discussion of properly theological studies, where auxiliary sciences will receive attention. SECTION V. THE PEEPAEATOEY SCIENCES. Among pure sciences the languages and history hold the first place with regard to their application to theology, and mathematics ' In this historical resume we have had reference primarily to German theology, and more particularly to that of Protestantism. Koman Catholic theology, wherever it ¦was living, passed through the same phases, especially in Germany. All that in other lands (in either the Protestant or the Roman Catholic Church) has acquired reputation as theological science (which alone is here referred to, and not the practical church- life), is more or less closely connected with the course of development in Germany. In recent times a change has certainly taken place. The conflicts of German theology have been shared by other lands more and more fully as time progressed, and the lib eral tendency in particular, or even the negative, has found representatives in England, France, and Holland. With reference to England, comp., among others, Mackay. " The Tiibingen School and its Antecedents of the History and Present Condition of Modern Theology." London, 1868. Also, the "Essays and Reviews," Colenso, etc. DIVISIONS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 67 and the natural sciences the second — and this both in a formal and a material aspect. We therefore observe, that a Theological liberal classical culture forms the only assured basis for on^™"daBsicai a sound, Protestant, Christian theology. basis. " Like him who leaves his country in his youth, so the departing student looks back over the course of studies pursued while in the school.'" Without taking philosophy into consideration for the present (comp. § 7), we may place the remaining mass of empiri cal knowledge in two principal divisions, the one of which presents to us the world of bodies in space, and the other the jjjyisiong of world of spirits, or the moral world as it is developed knowledge— rfi 1 <• T 1 1 1 • • philosophy, na- in time. To the former belong the natural sciences in ture, and ws- their entire extent, together with mathematics, which '°''y- constitutes their formal side; to the latter belong history and its formal medium and organ, language!" While medicine, among the applied sciences, is based upon the conditions of nature, jurispru dence and theology rest upon an ethical and historical basis (comp. § 1). Without desiring to reconcile here the pedagogical dispute about humanism and realism,' we may say, without hesitation, that 'Herder, Anwendung dreier akad. Lehrjahre (Werke zur Rel. u. Theol., x, p. 164). Upon. this entire section comp. vol. i of Noesselt's Anweisung (Niemeyer's ed., 1808, Svo), which, however, leaves much to be modified in accordance with the present con dition of the science. ° The French apply the term sciences ta the so-called exact sciences, but class phi lology and history with "lettres," a distinction that is well-founded, although such designations are misleading, and rest upon too realistic an idea of science. It is, of course, understood that an absolute separation between the different sciences is im possible, because they stand organically connected, and the transitions from one into the field of another are frequent. Thus geography (both physical and mathematical) must be classed with natural sciences, and is seen to be most intimately related to several of them, e. g., geology ; but it forms, at the same time, the basis of history, and is connected with ethnography and statistics. The conditions of nature are, sim ilarly, also the first conditions of language; and orthoepy may be connected with physiology. From this point of view J. Grimm called attention to the mysterious laws that control our organs of speech ; to demonstrate these laws is the office of nat ural science. Comp. the preface to the Deutsches Worterbuch, p. iii. W. Wacker- nagcl, in his preface to his work. Voces Variae Animantium, a contribution to natural science and the history of language, 2d ed., Basle, 1869, likewise refers to this inti mate connection of the sciences with each other. It may be added, too, that history has its mathematical side, in chronology, etc., and that its first beginnings (inquiries respecting the primeval world) are wholly lost in the investigations of natural history, e. g., concerning the lake-dwellings. Nor can even the most recent history be properly comprehended without duly estimating the revolutions in natural science, and their influence upon civilization. ' Comp. F. J. Niethammer, Der Streit des Philanthropismus u. Humanismus in der Theorie des Erziehungsunterrichts unserer Zeit, Jena, 1808 ; A. Rauchenstein, Bem- erkungen iiber den werth der Alterthumstudien, Aarau, 1825 ; F. Thiersch, Ueber ge- 68 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. a classical, liberal culture,' which is of advantage to the medi cal scholar also, is yet of peculiar service to the jurist and the theologian. On a detailed review of the preparatory studies, the first rank Philology the wiU be occupied by philology, which possesses great im- paratory'^studl portance for the cultivation of the mind, irrespective of les. all inherent value. The whole work of instruction is based ujDon the power of the word ; and for this reason the study of the mother-tongue alone is important. The power of language to cultivate the mind does not become manifest, however, until the ability to compare several languages with each other has been acquired. That especially the Greek and Latin, the (by way of eminence) so-called ancient languages, are adapted to perform this service, by reason of their wealth of forms and their definiteness, is conceded by scholars. The style of classical expression reacts upon the mother-tongue to purify and strengthen it;" and it is lehrte Schulen, etc., Stuttgart, 1826, 2 vols.; A. W. Rehberg, Sammtliche Schriften, Hanover, 1828, i, p. 238, sqq.; F. W. Klumpp, Die gelehrten Schulen nach den Grund- satzen des wahren Humanismus u. den Anforderungen der Zeit, Stuttgart, 1829; L. Usteri, Rede am Schulfeste 1829, Berne, 1830; Selections from German Literature, Edwards & Park, Andover, 1839. ' " The humanities, indeed, took a much wider range with ancient Roman writers, and included every kind of science that could contribute to human culture. See the passage in Gellii noctt. Att. xiii, 16, and J.- A. Ernesti, Prol. de finibus humaniorum studiorum regendis. Lips., 1Y38, ^to. But since knowledge among the Romans was' really acquired by the reading and through the influence of good authors, and in more modern times the whole of science was restored and started on its course by the same means, that view gave way to the more limited sense in which polite literature or the humanities is now taken." Noesselt, i, p. 106. ' Luther well illustrates the formal as well as the instrumental value of the ancient languages in the following: "Let us cling to the languages as earnestly as we love the Gospel. . . . And let it be remembered that without the languages we could not well receive the Gospel. The languages are the sheath in which this sword of the Spirit is contained. They are the casket in which this jewel is confined. Should it ever come to pass, which God forbid, that the languages should escape our careless grasp, we should not only lose the Gospel, but finally reach the condition of being able to speak and write in neither Latin nor German. Let us be admonished by the wretched, horrible example of the high schools and monasteries, in which not only has the Gos pel been lost, but also the Latin and German tongues have been corrupted, so that the miserable people have been reduced almost to the level of brute beasts, unable to speak and write either German or Latin correctly, and almost deprived of natural reason itself." " Where the languages are cultivated there is animation and energy, the Scriptures are examined, and faith continually derives new inspiration from other and still other words and works." See the address. An die Rathsherren aller Stadte Dentschlands, dass sie christliche Schulen aufrichten und halten sollen. Werke, Walch's ed., x, p. 638, sqq. Similar passages occur in Zwingle ; see Werke, Usteri Bud Vogeli's ed., Zurich, 1819, 1820, ii, pp. 255, sqq., 268, sqq. THE STUDY OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 69 therefore necessary that the talent for philology should be devel oped and the intellect be strengthened by the study of . the classical models themselves rather than by that, for ancient classic instance, of later ecclesiastical writers. Nothing but ™suages. narrow-mindedness can discover danger to Christianity in this.' Besides a formal value for the cultivation of the mind, however, the theologian finds the languages, and particularly the ancient lan guages, to be of practical utility, a point upon which but little need be said, as it is self-evident. The study of the ancient languages will of itself lead to the study of history, for which reason modern philology combines The study of • in itself both linguistics and historical inquiry.' It be- \^^ f°^l^_ comes absolutely necessary for the theologian to attain ogy. to a clear idea of the ancient world, if it were only to enable him to contrast it with Christianity.' But, in addition, the habits of ' The Church-fathers already questioned how far the reading of heathen authors might be beneficial or injurious to Christians ; comp. the celebrated dream of Jerome (Ep. xxii, ad Eustochium), the oration of Basil, llpof Toiif vLovq, cmug uv tf iUrjviKCiv cKfie^olvTo Uyuv (published separately by Sturz, Gera, 1791 ; in German, by F. G. Ulile- mann in lUgen's Hist, theol. Zeitschr., part ii, p. 88, sqq., and by F. A. Nucszlin, Mann heim, 1830). The monks in the time of the Reformation branded all Greek learning as heretical ; but their opponents likewise doubted whether heathen antiquity could sup ply the Christian theologian with the most healthful food ; comp. the letter of Felix Myconius to Zwingle (Opp. vii, 1, p. 258). In modern times the value of classical studies has also beeu abundantly debated. Comp. E. Eyth, Classiker u. Bibel in den niedern Gelehrtenschulen, Basle, 1838, Svo. Per contra, K. Hirzel, Die Classiker in den niedern Gelehrtenschulen, Stuttgart, 1838. With more direct reference to theol ogy: C. H. Stirm, De Classicis, quos dicunt, scriptoribus in usum theol. christ. legendis, in den Studien der Wiirtemb. Geistlichkeit, Stuttgart, 1838, vol. x, No. 2; L. Baur, Die Classiker u. deren Einfluss auf den Geistlichen, ibid, ii, 1, p. 127, sqq.; J. G. Krabinger, Die Class. Studien u. ihre Gegner, Munich, 1863; K. L. Hundeshagen, Die Natur u. geschichtl. Entwickelung der Humanitatsidee, in ihrem Verhaltniss zu Kirche u. Staat, an oration, Berlin, 1863; J. E. Erdrnann, Das Heidnische im Christenthum, Berlin, 1854; S. Hirsch, Humanitat als Religion, etc., Treves, 1854; J. G. Miiller, Verhaltniss der Classiker zum Heidenthum, in Gelzer's Prot. Monatsbl., 1856 ; E. Voigtherr, Der Humanismus, a synodal oration, Glogau, 1857; F. C. Kirchhoff, Die Christhche Hu manitat, an oration, Altona, 1859; G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des Class. Alter- thums, od. das erste Jahrhundert des Humanismus, Berlin, 1859; A. Boden, Ver- theidigung deutscher Classiker gegen neue Angriffe, Erlangen, 1869. ^ Schiller, What Means and For What Purpose do we Study Universal History ? Works, vol. ii., pp. 346-352, Phila., 1861 ; J. 6. Miiller, Briefe iib. das Studium d. wissenschaften, besonders der Geschichte, Ziirich, 1817; E. B. Riihs, Entwurf einer Propaedeutik des hist. Studiums, Berlin, 1811 ; W. Humboldt, Die Aufgabe des Geschichtschreibers, in werke, 1 841, 1 ; Gervinus, Introduction to History of Nine teenth Century, Lond., 1866; Droysen, Grundziige der Historik, Leips., 1868. ° Christianity is assuredly- appointed to overcome the world, including the heathen world, and therefore what remains in us of pre-Christian culture. This subjugation, how- 70 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. thought presented in the Bible and Christianity, so contrary to those of heathenism, can Only be appreciated by him who has come to understand the spirit of antiquity. It is necessary to have regard, not only to the history of the Greeks and Romans, but also to the history of Oriental peoples in its relation to the Bible ; and likewise to that of the Middle Ages and more recent times, without which Church history cannot be understood. But history and the attention given to it are not only of material value, as making us acquainted with matters of fact ; there is also a for mal, fashioning element, the quickening of the historic sense, which must not be overlooked. History should not, therefore, be consid ered simply as dealing with nations and states, but, in the spirit of Iselin and Herder, as comprehending in its province the entire human race. In harmony with this conception, the history of man's spiritual culture should be made prominent as its subjective feature. While the study of languages and history thus forms the real Uses of mathe- basis for theological study, mathematics and the natural maticaitaowi- ggiences are not without value to its prosecution. The theologian. formative value of mathematics is unquestioned; it af fords the test of the mind's demonstrative power,' and is some times called a practical logic, like the science of language. Its philosophical value 'has, however, been overrated. Mathematical modes of thought are as unsatisfactory in theology as juridical. Mathematics has to do with mensurable and calculable quantities (form and numbers), while the immeasurable nature of ideas cannot be forced into circles and equations. The wonderful blending of spiritual and intellectual life, the numerous and various shaded 'of thought, which often elude the grasp of the most flexible and skil ful language, cannot possibly be compressed into an expression like a-\-b. Not unfrequently that which, when broadly considered, is entirely true, becomes an untruth when the attempt is made to fix it and to grasp it with an unimaginative and ideal-less understand ing. Many misconceptions have arisen in this way. " A notion that ever, is not to be an expulsion, as if of demoniac powers which must be cast out to make way for the Divine Spirit. If we have recognized the connection running through the different stages of development in the human history of the past, we can regard as the ultimate task nothing else than the reconciUation in us of the contrast between the two spiritual powers which may be termed the leading factors in the history of civilization, viz., Hellenism and Christianity." Curtius, in Gelzer's Monatsbl., August, 1858, p. 85. '"Hence,'' says Herder (Sophron., p. 89), "that which Pythagoras inscribed upon a hall of learning, ' Without geometry let none enter here,' might properly be written on the doors of the higher classes in gymnasia." ^ Goethe remarks (Farbenl, ii, p. 168), "A great portion of what is Commonly called superstition haa its origin in an erroneous appUcation of mathematics." Let metaot-y USES OP THE NATURAL SCIENCES. 71 meets with special favor among cultivated laymen, is that astron omy sustains a near relation to theology, because each is a science of heaven. But the astronomical heaven is not that of Astronomy not theology, nor does " the sublimity we seek " in the world j^^teTto'^theS- of morality and religion, dwell even in infinite space; ogy- for not all the evidences of the stars are able to lead to the star of Bethlehem. This was acknowledged by Lalande when he had measured the entire heavens without finding God. The knowledge of the starry heavens will, nevertheless, adorn the theologian as well as other cultivated persons, and the two sciences, however they may diverge in other respects, may meet in a poetical trans figuration in the symbol of Urania. The natural sciences in their whole extent lie nearer to the theologian than does astronomy as a distinct science. These sciences were formerly considered from a theological point of view as supports to theology; while, in recent times, Acquaintance they are often compelled to do duty as sign-boards of "^ *^oienS infidelity, as though their progress could no longer important. harmonize with the theistic belief in God and immortality, nor yet with the more distinctively Christian faith in the truths of Revela tion. It will be found that they whose understanding of the sub ject is least perfect appeal most frequently to such progress, while many who are ignorant are afraid of ghosts. ' With regard to the Bible it is necessary first of all to comprehend its relation to the natural sciences (which belongs to apologetics), and afterward to secure a thorough understanding of the matter in question, partic- recall, for instance, the mathematical figures with which Gerbert (Sylvester ii) sought to demonstrate the doctrine of transubstantiation in the eucharist. Similar attempts were made in ancient times in connection with the trinity. Franz Baader, and even Hegel, toiled mightily for a time, to apply triangles and squares to the doctrine of the trinity ; comp. Rosenkranz in life of Hegel, pp. 101, 102. " Mathematics," says Bengel, " affords useful aid in certain directions, but it dethrones the understanding in relation to truths that are wholly foreign to its forum. The desire for only definite conceptions is fatal to living ones. There are different organs for different concep tions ; the eyes will not serve for hearing, nor the ears for seeing," etc. Burk, Leben Bengels, p. 71. Comp. also the passage from Melanchthon, infra, § 81, note 10. ' A single word of Goethe's : " Let intellectual culture continue its progress, let the natural sciences increase more and more in extent and depth, and the human intellect expand to the utmost of its desire — they will never pass beyond the sublimity and moral culture of Christianity, as it appears in the Gospel." Eckermann, Conversa tions with Goethe, p. 56S. Fr. Fabri, Briefe gegen den Materialismus, Stuttgart, 1856 ; Bohner, Naturf orschung und culturleben in ihren neuesten Ergebnissen, etc, Hanover, 1S59. A peculiar attempt to illustrate the Bible by the book of nature, and to inter pret the latter by the former, is made by Zockler, in Entwurf einer system. Natur- theol. vom offenbarungsglaubigen Standpuukte aus, Frankfort, 1859. 73 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. ularly with reference to the primeval world and its relation to the Mosaic history of creation. ' SECTION VI. THEOLOGY IN ITS EELATION TO THE AETS AND GENEEAL CULTUEB. An ariis^ic preparation, the habit of regarding life in its ideal aspects, and of engaging in original efforts, particularly in the field of language is required in addition to the preliminary scientific training ; a Christian culture resulting from religious instruction previously imparted, is presupposed. This artistic preparation is still too greatly neglected. More at- usesof Eesthet- tention should be given to stimulating the sense of the ic culture. beautiful in early youth, for an imagination nourished by poetry is as necessary a condition for the theologian as is an understanding practised in history, language, and mathematics." Early practice in written as well as oral expression, and also in free discourse, wHl especially be of inestimable value to the future ' Comp. William Buckland, Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to Natural Theology, London, 1837, 2 eds., 2 vols. ; Philadelphia, 1 vol. 12mo, and in Bohn's Library, 12mo; Fr. Pfaff, Die Schopfungsgeschichte, Frankf. on the Main, 1855; Bohner, Die freiforschende Bibeltheologie u. ihre Gegner, Zurich, 1859 ; the review by P. Kind (in the Swiss Ministerial Association, 1863, and the subsequent discussions); Reusch, Bibel u. Natur, etc., Freiburg, 1870 ; ZoUman, Bibel u. Natur in der Harmonie ihrer Offenbarungen, 3 ed., Homburg, 1871; Jos. Huber, Die Lehre Darwin's, kritisch betrachtet, Munich, 1871 ; and the English and American reviews of Darwinism. The theological works of Paley, Sander, Bonnet, Reimarus, Brougham, and the Bridgewater Treatises, nevertheless contain much that is stimulating ; but far supe rior to these is Humboldt's Cosmos. Bengel, 1. 1., observes : " It is not right that the study of physics is so neglected, and that such a parade should be made of a sublime, metaphysical comprehension of the universe. But it was likewise true of the an cients that the general ideas of philosophers were made a cjoak to conceal their igno rance." In our day the neglect of certain theologians to acquaint themselves with natural science is especially inexcusable. In the face of the ignorance that results, unbelief will be able to appeal more shamelessly and defiantly to the progress of those sciences. To close the eyes against facts, and, Bible in hand, to fight against infidelity, or to meddle in a desultory way with a science which is but superficially understood, can only serve to make theology ridiculous in the eyes of specialists ; and if the attempt result from a well-meant apologetic purpose it will produce more harm than good. " It may be boldly asserted that a lack of poetic apprehension, for which precocious speculation is no substitute, has led to thousands of orthodox and heterodox absurdi ties. The secret of Herder's theology and its refreshing influence lies in this poetic vein, which the most learned minds so often miss. On the pedagogical value of the fine arts comp. Herder, Sophron, pp. 32, sqq., 80, sqq. ; concerning the improvement of the vernacular, ibid., p. 197, sqq. How unjust is the charge of Staudenmaier that Herder pursued theology in the spirit simply of an sesthetioal coquetry ! (Comp. his Dogmatik, vol. i). He was simply no scholastic. PHELOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. 73 theologian. Rhetoric and poetry in the field of art are parallel with philology and history in that of science. A practical acquaintance with the plastic arts may not be required of the theologian, but his mind should not be indifferent to painting, sculpture, and archi tecture, more than it should be closed to the charms of nature. The great importance of art will become apparent in connection with liturgies. Architecture holds the same relation to the theo logian in the domain of art that astronomy does in that of science, without regard to the historical relations sustained by art toward the history of saints and the Church. Music, especially, which stands midway between the oratorical and the formative arts and is closely allied to poetry, is truly theological, and was cultivated by Luther.' The skilful fingering of an instrument is not the principal object to be desired, but much more the cultivation of singing and of acquaintance with the nature of music. Without the latter knowledge the theologian will be debarred from entering on an essential department of Christian worship. Inasmuch, how ever, as all theology stands related to religion, and can school and only be comprehended through that relation, it will be of Teiigiou"'' necessary that the incipient theologian should not only feeling. possess religious feeling in a general way, but that he should have acquired religious culture in the preparatory schools. Much, in this connexion, depends of course upon the character of the religious in struction imparted in such schools, which, though not designed for future theologians alone, may nevertheless be very stimulating and adapted to their needs.'' To these must be added, moreover, the influence of the Christian home, and the impression of Christian fel lowship which is produced by the worship of the sanctuary. How many an excellent theologian, especially among the older men, was first impelled to consecrate himself to this calling by beholding the shining example of some distinguished preacher. The first guiding impulse came from thence, not from the school, which can only for ward the development. ' Luther judged " that next to the word of God nothing is so deserving of esteem and praise as music, for the reason that it is a queen over the heart, able and mighty to control its every movement, though such emotions often rule and control man as if they were his master. ... I therefore desire that this art be commended to all per sons, and especially the young, and that they be admonished to love and cherish this precious, useful, and joyous creature of God." Werke, Walch's ed., part xiv, p. 407. " Music is a beautiful, glorious gift from God, and near to theology " (in Table Talk). " Comp. Hagenbach, Bedeutung des Religiousunterrichts auf hohern Lehranstalten, Ziirich, 1846. 74 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.^DIA. SECTION VIL THE EELATIONS OP THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHT. F. E. Schulz, Selbststandigkeit und Abhanglgkelt, Oder Philosophie und Theologie in ihrem gegenseltigen Verhaltniss betrachtet, Giessen, 1833 ; K. Ph. Fischer, fiber den Begriff der Phi losophic, Tiibingen, 1830, 8; Heinr. Schmid, uber das Verhaltniss der Theologie zur Philosophie, in der Opposltlonsschrift, edited by Schmid, Friesa, u. Schroter, vol. i, 1 ; J. H. Fichte, uber Gegensatz, Wendepunct und Zlel heutlger Philosophie, Heidelberg, 1836 ; A. Gengder, fiber das Verhaltniss der Theologie zur Philosophie, Landshut, 1826 ; G. A. GaWer, de Vera Phllosophiae erga Eellgionem Christianam Pletate, Berl., 1836 ; K. Steffensen, das Mehschllche Herz und die Philosophie fin Gelzer's Protest. MonatsblSttern), 1854, p. 285, sqq. ; L. P. Hickock, Theology and Philosophy in Conflict, American Presb. Eeview, vol. xll, 204 ; E. Hitchcock, The Philoso pher and the Theologian, Bib. Sacra., vol. x, 1C6. Philosophy should be the constant companion of theology, but Philosophy the ^^^^ ^® *o retain, without interchange or confusion, its companion of own peculiar field. Its work does not consist in the eo ogy. merely logical process of connecting thoughts together (arrangement), nor in the exercise of an occasional criticism (rea soning) ; but rather in combining the great variety of matter into a higher unity for the consciousness. This can only be done after the material has been furnished from without, by ex perience and history. Philosophy can neither invent the needed material in the exercise of its own authority, nor destroy or make it other than it is through a pretended transformation or idealizing process. We purposely designate philosophy as the companion of theol ogy, in opposition to the view that the study of philosophy may be finished before that of theology begins, which affords the surest way to disgust the theologian with philosophy. The application of philosophy to theology has been the subject of controversy from the beginning. A warning against false philosophy occurs Eelations of as early as Col. ii, 8. Irenaeus and Tertullian opposed theotogft^ed *^® Gnostic, speculative tendency in theology, while historically. other Church fathers, the Apologists, Alexandrians, and especially Origen made use of it. The quarrel between the schoolmen and the positive theologians, Roscelin, Abelard, with Bernard of Clairvaux, turned especially upon the relations of phi losophy to theology, and the philosophical dispute (realism and nominalism) between the schoolmen themselves likewise reacted on theology. The perversion of philosophy by the scholastics, and the mistaken habit of relying on authorities, which served to poison philosophy in its inmost nature, gradually led from dogmatism to scepticism. A point was reached where it appeared necessary to distinguish between philosophy and theology in such a way as to admit of PHILOSOPHY m GERMANY. 75 truth in either science becoming untruth in the other. It is not surprising that, as the result, philosophy again declined in favour, and that empiricism was opposed to it as being the only trust worthy method of reasoning (Roger Bacon). Philosophy was still in its decline when the Reformation came, and the Reformation did not at all favour what then passed for philosophy; for its own origin was not due to the desire for a better philosophic sys tem, but to the longing to possess the true sources of salvation which were found in the Scriptures. Luther employed ^ .„ , ^ r J Luther s oppo- even violent language to oppose the philosophy of Aris- sition to phiios- totle and "old Madam Weathercock, the reason ;" but °^^^' not so Zwingle, who made use of philosophy in a peculiar manner (his relation to Picus of Mirandola). The dogmatical works of Calvin and Melanchthon give evidence that they, too, were not un acquainted with philosophic thought ; but in the Lutheran Church many, nevertheless, accepted Luther's opinions in opposition to philosophy.' In the Roman Catholic Church the Jansenists opposed and the Jesuits favored philosophy; but which one was the Jesuitical phi losophy? After the Reformation Aristotle was more Philosophy in favorably regarded in the Protestant Church, and at *?" ae^Tefl^ the beginning of the seventeenth century Martini, in mation. his " Vernunftspiegel," defended the use of philosophy against the Magdeburg centuriators.^ When Descartes (1569-1650) appeared, powerful voices were raised against him in the Church, and disputes about this matter took place in the Netherlands. The populace applied the name of " Globenichts " (believe nothing) to the great Leibnitz, and the zealous clergy gave their approval. Spinoza stood alone, identified with no ecclesiastical communion. When, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. Wolf lectured on a modified Leibnitzian philosophy in his strictly demonstrative method, he was opposed in Halle by the Pietists and expelled (in 1723), but afterwards recalled (in 1740). Philosophy now received recognition, at least in its formal a^spects, and its proofs were re garded as supports to orthodoxy, until Kant (1724-1804) de- ' Bugenhagen, too, was accustomed to write in family albums : " Si Christum discis, eatis est, si cetera nescis ;" but he added, " Hoc non est philosophiam et artes liberales ecclesiae et scholis necessarias contemnere, sed sine Christo nihil pro- ' Vernunftspiegel, ;'. e., a statement of what Reason, together with its product Phi losophy, is, its extent, and especially its use in religious matters, in opposition to all assailants of Reason and slanderers of Philosophy, but especially in opposition to some uncouth libels which have gone out of Magdeburg these two years. Wittenb. 1618. 4. 76 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Stroyed these supports. The progress of philosophy could not , henceforth be ignored by theology, without degradation Kant on phi- to its OWU scientific character. The one-sided influence osop y. ^£ ^-^^ Kantian philosophy upon theology was clearly apprehended by men like Herder; but the age, nevertheless, be came rationalistic, possessed neither of a speculative nor of the more profound religious spirit. It was reserved for Fichte's ideal ism, Schelling's doctrine of the absolute, and Hegel's doctrine of the immanent spirit, to exalt the profound life-issues of Christ ianity, which Kant imagined he had disj)osed of by the introduc tion of a one-sided morality, into speculative questions of j)hilos- ophy. Others, as F. Jacobi, Fries, etc, who laid stress upon the distinction between faith and knowledge, assigned to subjective feeling what the philosophers already named (particularly Hegel) sought to elevate into demonstration through the energetic action of thought; while Herbert and his followers assumed indifference toward theology. Schleiermacher, who was by no means er's aim as to averse to really profound speculation, and who was the p 1 osop y. most skilful dialectician of his day, yet desired that philosophy and theology should remain distinct, though he applied philosophy to the treatment of theological questions. His simple object was that theology should no more be lost in speculation, than religion, which he regarded as an affair of the feelings, should be The di • ^°®* ^^ thinking. The Hegelian school was divided into of the Hegeii- two wings after the master's death, one of which (the c 00 . right) took sides with Christianity, and the other against it, sinking even to the level of common freethinking (nihilism).' The speculative tendency served, on the other hand, to stimulate certain parties to attempt an independent philosophy of Christianity and to seek its reconciliation with theology. A period of exhaust ion and suspicion with reference to speculative thought was, how ever, gradually introduced among theologians, which, in the end, resulted in the serious alienation of the two connected sciences from each other, ^ if not in placing a gulf between them. Under the influence of the natural sciences a systematic scepticism was developed, which, on its religious side, passed over into Buddhism (Arthur Schopenhauer). In England, the Deism which appeared in the time of Charles I., and was represented by a succession of writers until Hume (1776), profoundly affected the development of apologetic theology. Hobbes (1588-1679) resolved all politics into absolutism and rehg ion into statecraft. He held it to be the business of the king to ' Comp. J. W. Hanne, Der Modeme Nihilismus, Bielefeld, 1842. PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY. '77 prescribe the religious faith of his subjects. His atheistic opinions were attacked by Cudworth (1617-1688), particularly his denial of free-will and the immutability of moral distinctions. Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1648) attempted to fix the principles of univer sal religion, which he made to be five, and denied all of Christianity not included under these. Locke's (1632-1704) "Essay on the Hu man Understanding " confirmed the disposition to apply the so-called principles of reason to the judgment of Christianity; he remained himself a devout believer. Toland (1669-1722) carried the devel opment of rationalism still further in his " Christianity not Myste rious." He denies that there is any mystery in Christianity. An thony CoUins (1676-1729) in his "Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion," is the first English writer to accept the title of Free-thinker. He examines the historic founda tions of Christianity, aud asserts, as Strauss has asserted in our day, that Christianity is only ideally true. Lord Shaftesbury (1671- 1713) argued from his doctrine of innate ideas (in opposition to Locke) and the disinterestedness of virtuous conduct that a super natural revelation is superfluous. Matthew Tindal (1657-1733) in his " Christianity as Old as the Creation; or. The Gospel a Republi cation of the Religion of Nature," tried to show that natural relig ion is complete in itself and has, therefore, no need of supernatural additions. Thomas Morgan (f 1743) in his "Moral Philosopher" makes moral law the test of religion, and finds reason therefrom for rejecting Christianity. These philosophers of the deistical school were thoroughly met by numerous Christian apologists. Dr. Samuel Clarke (1675-1729), besides his attempted d priori demon stration of the being of God, wrote on the " Truth and Certainty of the Christian Revelation." Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753) used his system of philosophic idealism as a means of establishing the truth of the existence of God. Bishop Butler (1692-1752) summed up the replies of the Christian apologists to the deistical writers of his age in his immortal Analogy. This work still holds its place as one of the most complete defences of Christianity ever written. Hume (1711-1776) by his essay on "Miracles" and his "Dia logues concerning Natural Religion " gave the sceptical philosophy a new impulse. His objections to miracles received more replies than can be here named; his objection to the idea of causality, as usually received by philosophers, awakened the mind of Kant, and led the latter to work out his " Critique of the Pure Reason." Philosophic thought, as applied to Christianity, in our time has been greatly in fluenced by James Mills and Coleridge, the one a representative of 78 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.EDIA. the sensational, the other of the intuitional school. Each has had numerous successors. In America speculation received its first impulse from Jonathan _, Edwards (1703-1758), who framed a theory of the Philosophic ^ ¦" . . •' . speculation to human will as a philosophic basis for the Calvinistic America. theology. His principles were further developed by his son, Jonathan Edwards the younger (1745-1801), Samuel Hop kins (1721-1803), Nathanael Emmons (1745-1840), and Timothy Dwight (1752-1817). Some of these followers pushed the opinions of their master to extreme conclusions. Among the opponents of Edwards's theory of the will may be named Henry P. Tappan (Review of Edwards' Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will), and D. D. Whedon (The Freedom of the Will). Dr. James M'Cosh has applied the inductive method to the examination of the divine government with a view to the reconciliation of nature and revela tion (The Method of the Divine Government, Physical and Moral). Theodore Parker elaborated an absolute religion, intuitional in its character, but subversive of historical Christianity. The denial of Theism has been combated by various writers, among whom may be named Laurens P. Hickock (Creator and Creation), Asa Mahan (Natural Theology), and Borden P.' Bowne (The Philosophy of Her bert Spencer; Theism). The denial of all philosophy by Comte has also received much attention from metaphysicians in the United States. Thus far the historical review. It shows that theology has never Fact demon- been able to separate itself from philosophy, but that, hSorfca^^ re- °" *^^ Other hand, no lasting union between the two, or view. rather, between theology and any particular philosophy, has been practicable. To give no attention to philosophy would be the simplest expedient, but also the most objectionable, and impossible; for in this age no one can have the hardihood to pur sue a theological (dogmatical) discussion without a preUminary training in philosophy, which, moreover, must not be confined to the ancient and wholly formal logic of the schools. The necessity of formal logic has always been understood, although its scien tific value has been variously estimated; but the conviction has been reached that the arrangement of a system and the line of evi dence to be adopted, are themselves dependent on the intellectual point of view from whence the system is controlled. The main matter is to secure the point of view. The reliance upon so-called sound common sense, with which, no doubt, many seek to supply the lack of philosophical acquirements, is likewise misplaced in the field of science ; eclecticism is of little benefit to the student who LIMITATIONS OF PHILOSOPHY. 79 is misinformed about the things among which he is to choose. ' It thus becomes absolutely necessary to undertake the study of phi losophy; and since it can rarely be reached in the preparatory schools, it is desirable that students of theology should begin phi losophy in the first period of their course, in order to be nourished by it into strength, before they approach dogmatics, the heart of theology." Philosophy is simply a clear recognition by. the mind of its own constitution, and all sound philosophy should take its rise in that recognition, or, in other words, in legitimate The object of thinking upori the ultimate grounds of all thought.^ It ^' philosophy. should aid every student in attaining to a clear understanding of his own nature, and thus place him in a position to easily comprehend the organic connection of the different departments of knowledge, which is the objective goal of philosophy.* Unfortunately, many students are more confused at the end of a course in philosophy than they were at its beginning ; like the pupil before Mephistopheles, they feel as if a mill-wheel were revolving in their heads. In view of this danger, the choice of a teacher and the method to be adopted are deserving of consideration. At this point the ' " Philosophy is most of all opposed to that intellectual barrenness, which general ly ventures to assume the name of enlightenment. The elevation of the ordinary ¦understanding to the position of arbiter in matters of the reason, will, as its necessary consequence, bring about an ochlocracy in the domain of the sciences, and, sooner or later, the further consequence of a general revolt on the part of the rabble." Schelling, Methode des akadem. Studiums (comp. Anthologie aus Schelling's Werke, p. 112.) ^ Schleiermacher (Ueber Universitaten, p. 78) held that all students, even the non- theological, should be engaged simply with philosophy during the first year of their university career. What he exacts of all is demanded at least of theologians by Rosenkranz, Encykl., Pref., xx: "The student of medicine or law, if thorough in other matters pertaining to his specialty, may be pardoned for indifference or aversion to the study of philosophy ; but it is required of the theologian that, in addition to his special studies, he should pursue as thorough a course in philosophy as may be practicable." Similarly Schenkel, Christi. Dogmatik, ii, p. 3 : "A thorough philo sophical training is certainly essential to the theologian, and the punishment for its neglect will be the more bitter, as great effort becomes necessary to recover in later years what has been lightly regarded before." ' " The recognition of self," says the younger Fichte, " is the sole substance of all (philosophical) perception, and its highest perfection is accordingly the real goal of every philosophy that understands itself, and that has thereby attained to maturity." Idee d. Personhchkeit u. d. Individ. Fortdauer, Elb., 1834, p. 42. ' " Every person who aims to understand a particular science in its connexion with the whole of knowledge and in its ultimate grounds, is engaged in philosophical in vestigation, whether he be called a student of nature or a theologian, or be employed more especially upon the works of man. Every question that proceeds beyond the presumptions postulated by the several sciences, leads him who pursues it into the domain of philosophy." Steffensen, p. 303. 80 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENGYCLOP.a;DIA. incomprehensible terminology, which can scarcely be avoided un- The hard terms der the existing methods of treating philosophy, should °h ?d"°ot'*be ii^iths^ dazzle nor alarm the beginner. The leading ob- f eared. ject in the study of philosophy is, not so much the acquisition of finished results, as of readiness in the art of philosophizing .^ The philosophical jargon which is especially patronized by persons who seek to cover the confusion of their minds with cheap fineries, should above all things be avoided.' Let the student endeavor to express in his own language what he has heard. It would be no unprofitable exercise to engage in philosophical disputations from which certain catch words (e. g. subject, object, etc.) should be banished at the outset. But let there be an equal unwillingness to stamp as nonsense whatever is incomprehensible by reason of the student's insufficient preparation or practice, or worse still, to repeat the childish dictum that men like Hegel failed to understand them selves. Let philosojDhy not receive exclusive attention, without Philosophy providing real and positive food for the mind, espe- shouid be pur- cially through the continuous pursuit of historical and sued in con- "" . . ° -^ . -r>iii nexion with linguistic studies. The counsel given by Pelt, that other studies, .(.j^g g^udent should thoroughly examine some system of philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Leibnitz, Kant, Hegel), if possible in its original sources, is likewise greatly to be commended. The mind should accustom itself to regard each system in its rela tion to its own time, and the current tendency of that time, as well as in the relation of its parts to each other. Care should be taken from the first that the judgment be not biased by the influence of some one system, when matters of fact are under discussion, or when the exegetical or historical investigation of some fact is in progress, or when it is sought to comprehend some doctrine that "This was Kant's desire, comp. Anthropologie, p. 167: "He insisted, again and again, in his lectures to his students, that they were not to learn philosophy of him, but how to philosophize." Kuno Fischer, Kant's Leben, p. 25. ' "It is childish to wear the ornamental rags and patches of others while we are able and expected to provide an entire garment of our own and fitted to our person. It is madness to destroy the eye or impair its vision for the purpose of learning to look through the glass of others." Herder, Sophron., p. 213. The Frenchman, Edgar Quinet, addresses a similar warning to his countrymen who are not in other respects unduly speculative ; " Empechez une nouvelle scolastique de naJtre. J'entends par \k les embCiches de mots, dans les^quels I'instinct de la vie reelle, de la verite politique est sacrifie k une logomachie puerile qui n'a que I'apparence et point de corps. Com bien d'ames droites sont deja dupes de cette scolastique et s'y embarassent A plaisir ! Combien surtout d'araes serviles s'abritent aujourd'hui sous ce masque. (Revolution rehgieuse au 19 siecle. 1857, p. 113). ' Eneyclopadie, p. 40. PHILOSOPHY CANNOT ORIGINATE DOCTRINE. 81 has come down from former generations. Philosophy can invent nothing ; could it hear the grass grow, it would yet be phiiosophycan- unable to produce a single blade. As natural philos- ^eoioScaidoo^ ophy is incompetent to originate an order of plants or trine. a gas, so the philosophy of history is unable to necessarily deduce an historical fact.' It is true that reason contains the general laws by which a substance surrounded by contingencies is freed from its accidental elements and raised into the category of the universal ; but in this regard also care is needed, in order that the very pe culiarity of the concrete phenomenon, and the fragrance resting upon it, be not destroyed in the process of generalization. Let an illustration suflice. A profound speculation seeks to apprehend the idea of the God-man as a necessary one. The inability of and as required for the completion of both the ideas o^nate^do^ God and lymn, since God most effectively demonstrates ma illustrated. his Divinity in man, and man attains his true manhood only in God;, but the truth that the Divine life has been manifested and actuaUzed in a human form, in the determinate person Jesus of Nazareth, is not derived from philosophy. It cannot prove that precisely this person was needed for the most perfect manifestation of God in human nature ; nor can it employ authoritative dicta, such as that nature does not usually lavish all her gifts upon a single person, to destroy an historical fact which is necessary to explain the existence of the Church. In like manner philosophy may be permitted to show that the abstract idea of unity is not Another lUus- adequate for the more profound recognition of the na- tratiou. ture of God, and that only a God who knows himself as God in God, and is known by God as God (the Being that loves, the Being that is loved, and the love that forms the bond of union between them=God), can satisfy the religious consciousness.^ The Christ- ' Luther called reason (philosophy) the old weather-maker ; it cannot, however, make, but only observe, or at the most, foretell the weather; and, even in this, it is often wrong. "The philosopher should know that without theology he can know nothing of the ' city of gold and precious stones,' and of the ' pure river of the water of life,' which St. John saw. A system of truths that must seem necessary to the nat ural mind, can never wash away the fear of death from the heart or beget heavenly affections in the place of beastly lusts, more than it can remedy a nervous fever, or remove the smell of decaying matter from the atmosphere of a death-chamber." Steffensen, We also adduce the maxim of Picus of Mirandola, "Philosophia.quaerit, theologia invenit, religio possidet veritatem.'' ^ Thus: Augustine- and aU the more profound Christian thinkers. It is to be ques tioned; however, whether the speculative development of the Trinity is the proper task of philosophy. " We cannot, upon the whole," says J. H. Fichte (Idee d. Person hchkeit, p. 86), " avoid the confession that the introduction into philosophy of this Christian dogma, which has become almost the favourite question of the day, particu- 6 82 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. ian doctrine of, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is not to be con ceived as a mere actualizing of the speculative idea, but rather as the historical development of the Christian revelation, from which, in connexion with ideas previously extant in the world, the specu lative conception was itself developed, and to which it now assumes a relation similar to that of the philosophy of art to an actual work of art, or of natural philosophy to one of the products of nature. This consideration will indicate the measure of truth in the state ment that philosophy stands outside of or above religion (Schleier macher, § 38). The above is not to signify superiority, but simply the objective character of its point of view.' SECTION VIII. THEOLOGY NOT BOUND TO ANY ONE PHILOSOPHY. The diversity of philosophical systems should not be permitted to mislead us. The truth is, that despite such diversity, every sys tem of philosophy, which in any way permits a distinction between God and the world, spirit and matter, freedom and necessity, may be applied to theology. larly at this time, has produced no little confusion, not only by destroying the bound aries between the mere a priori knowledge of God and a positive revelation, but even more by giving rise to* the thoroughly inopportune appearance of a superficial coinci dence of Christianity with the prevalent philosophy of any particular time." " To combine metaphysical and theological arguments with each other for the purpose of demonstrating that a religious tradition is metaphysical truth, or that speculative de velopments have a Christian or orthodox character, is a deceitful process. In this way many now attempt to construct a metaphysical trinity out of three attributes of the Divine nature, and to substitute this arbitrary union of three such attributes for the original Christian docjtrine of Father, Son, and Spirit." Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, p. 281. ' Lord Bacon expresses himself strongly against the confounding of philosophy and theology with each other, De augment, scientiae, ix, 487 : Quemadmodum enim theo- logiam in philosophia quaerere perinde est ac si vivos quaeras inter mortuos, ita e contra philosophiam in theologia quaerere non aliud est quam mortuos quaerere inter vivos. On the impropriety of subordinating either philosophy or theology to each other, and on the necessity for making them co-ordinates, see Rosenkranz, Encykl., p. 12. Comp. Fritze, Ideen zur Umgestalt. d. evang. Kirche, Magdeb., 1844, p. 11 ; "Theology is not the mistress of philosophy, nor ought it to become the servant of any particular philosophical system." Kym, Weltanschauungen, p. 33: "Although philosophy serves as the handmaid of a particular science, e. g. theology, it is not in the way of supporting the train of some gracious lady, but in the way of going before it to afford a light that shall conduct the science home, to its origin.'' On the rela tion of religion to philosophy and its several branches comp. Steffensen, in Gelzer, 1853, p. 109 : " They who fancy that religion will ever prostrate itself before philosophy and transfer to it the keys of the kingdom of heaven, are certainly very silly. Nor would philosophy accept the office if it were offered. . . . But it is equally certain that the spectacle will not be seen in our age, of philosophers subordinating their thinking to authorities in whose behalf the pious people of different denominations demand faith." THEOLOGY INDEPENDENT OF PHILOSOPHY. 83 The objection to philosophy derived from the variety of systems is as shallow as an attempt to argue against revelation -^^ ^^^^^^ „{,„ on the ground of the number of positive religions.' lection to phi- Nor do we mean that all philosophies are equally valu- the variety of able, so that one or another may be preferred at pleas- "'® systems. ure. Only a single one can be the true philosophy, and to it, the absolute truth, all should strive to attain; but the more genuine the desire to attain to the truth the less hasty will the mind be in coming to a conclusion. Inasmuch too, as any particular system can present only relative truth, it will always be necessary to com bine the truths of different systems into a higher truth, and to avoid their errors. Such an undertaking is not, however, adapted to the powers of a single mind, and should therefore be entered upon in and with the school, rather than outside and irrespective of it. Until the student has become a master, he will attach himself with preference to some particular school. Which one he shall select is not without importance with respect to both philosophy and theology; but it is a less serious matter in its bear- ^jjeoiogy does ings upon the latter, for the reason that theology is not not stand or fan so dependent on any system of philosophy as to stand system of pM- or fall -with it. A theologian of the Kantian school, for losophy. instance, might give evidence of more thorough theological acquire ments, having grown beyond the limits of his system, than one belonging to the school of Hegel, for this, among other reasons, that the Christian consciousness, which is independent of all philo sophical systems, is the principal qualification for a theologian. While, therefore, allowing freedom to speculation, we direct at tention to the breakers, which threaten to shipwreck faith unless a competent hand is at the helm. It is self-evident that a philos ophy which annihilates God, and denies the existence of spirit and moral freedom, a bald materialism, in short, (sensation- Both sensation alism), must be excluded." But the spiritualistic philos- ^^ uncitsl ophy (idealism), which stands opposed to materialism, tian. which regards God and spirit as the only realities, and accordingly denies the existence of matter and the world, and which teaches an unbounded, absolute liberty by deifying the Ego, is likewise ' Thus, it is well known that Schiller would identify himself with no religion out of re gard for religion, and with none of all the philosophies out of regard for philosophy; but the polemical point of an epigram cannot serve as the foundation of a solid edifice. " In opposition to the materialism of modern times, against which theology is called to contend, and whose representatives are Moleschott, Karl Vogt, and Biichner, comp. the works of Jul Schaller, F. W. Tittmann, J. Frohschammer, J. G. Fichte, and F. Fabri, the last named in Herzog., Encykl., ix, s. v., Materialismus. 84 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. planted in an untheological position. A god without a world is not the God of thcQlogy; a spirit without fiesh to subjugate is not the Christian spirit ; liberty that does not involve the feeling of dependence is not the liberty of the children of God. The Bible everywhere presupposes a dualism, or rather parallelism, of God and the world, heaven and earth, spirit and flesh, etc., not as rigid and irremediable, but yet as an actual contrast to be overcome by the might of Christianity. In this, -way two other tendencies are obviated, the one of which regards such contrasts as rigidly immovable and out of all relation to each other, while the other, instead of reconciling them in thought, simply destroys them by an authoritative decision, while aiming to remove them. Deismandpan- The former tendency is deistic, the latter pantlieistic. theism antago- -pj^ former was the current adversary of an earlier asre, nlstlc to Christ- . , i iin theology, the latter IS the antagonist ot the theology ot to-day. The term deism is applied to a conception of the world which not only distinguishes between it and God, but separates God from the world, holding that the only God who exists is an extra: and supramundane Being, who once created the world, but has now left it to the operation of its established laws. This God enters into no vital relations with man ; he stands over against him, in deed, as lawgiver -and judge, but does not enter into human na ture, nor communicate himself thereto. The deistic conception of the relation between spirit and matter, as resembling that of two laths glued together,' is in harmony with the separation of God from the world, and equally rigid. Nature, too, is considered a, lifeless mechanism; and the tendency of deistic morality is to make every thing promote the self-glorification of the reason. This phi losophy denies the power of the inclinations, the profound influ ences of natural conditions on the one hand, and the vital connexion, of the spirit with God oh the other; it is therefore unable to appre hend the nature of sin or of redemption and grace, the Deism mcapa- . '^ ' . .„ bieof christran mysteries of religious communion, or the significance '^^' of prayer, the sacraments^ etc. Over against Deism stands the philoscyphy of identities, which unites the contrasts in question. It has much that is attractive to the imagination and natural feeling, but is unable to afford durable satisfaction;" for ' Following an expression that is applied by the Formula Cpncordiae to the two na tures in Christ, Carri^re appropriately remarks that " spirit and matter should neither be separated nor identified, but distinguished and combined.'' " Tzschirner's Briefe on the confessions of Reinhard (Leips., 1811), are instructive upon this point. Comp. p. 47 sqq., where the author speaks o^ the impressions made on himself by the then current nature-philosophy of; Sc^elUftg. IJhe hideous charac- WHAT IS A CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHY? %5 inasmuch as it assumes the character of pantheism with reference to the relation of God to the world, it either loses God in the world and sinks into materialism, or it resolves the world into God and becomes idealism. In the same way spirit is 1-educed „,,,_,, ., •' ^ Theological and to matter (emancipation of the flesh) or matter is con- moral outcoihe sumedby spirit (false asceticism), while inoral freedom °' P'i''"'S'sm. becomes a mere phantom- Upon this teaching sin becomes a nat ural necessity, and redemption ia divinely contrived ingenious drahiia, while the deity attains to consciousness only through the evolutions of the human mind, and exhausts itself in time, through the endless process of the immanent development of thought. It follows that only thAt philosophy can make a league with the ology which recognizes a living personal God,' who is neither ter of pantheism is admirably described by Lainartine (Dernier chant du pelerinage a'Harold, p. 18):— Le Dieu, qu'adore Harold, est cet agent supr^ine,- Ce Pan mysterieux, insoluble probleme. Grand, borne, bon, mauvais, que ce vastc univers Revele a ses regards sous mille aspects divers; Etre sans atributs, force saus providence, Exergant au hasard une aveugle puissance; Vrai Saturne, enfantant, devorant tour a tour, Faisant le mal sans haine et le bien sans amour ; N'ayaiit pour dessein qu'uu eternel caprice, Ni commandant ni foi, ni loi, ni sacrifice ; Livrant le faible au fort et le juste au tr^pas, Et dont la raison dit : Est-il ? ou n'est-il pas ? With this comp. a poem by Schelling, published in the Zeitschrift fiir spec. Physik, 1800, and continued in the Anthologie aus Schelling's Werke. (Berl., 1844), p. 98. Much, however, may seem to be pantheism from the stand-point of abstract deism, that is not so in reality. Bunsen remarks : " The immanence of God in the world is by no means equivalent to pantheism ; for the life of God and his continuance in it may be conceived without excluding the self-origination of God as the idea and will of the world, and the independence of the self-centred blessed Deity, as a necessary result." Gott in der Geschichte, p. 5. ' The word " personal " may, of course, be erroneously explained, so as to involve the nature of God in human limitations ; but it has become one of the tasks of modern philosophy to settle this very idea of personality. It is of primary importance that the distinction between the ideas person and individual should be preserved. God is not an individual (though so eminent a thinker of former years as Hamann employed this designation) but person — not a person, but person in the eminent sense — absolute personality. The historical development of the doctrine of the Trinity in unity, illus trates, though in hieroglyphics, the difficulty of the problem to be solved. An idea is not to be rejected as unthinkable, simply because it is involved in difficulties to our thought ; precisely the inexpressible demands the most energetic efforts of the noblest of our powers and thought. Comp. (in addition to the younger Fichte) the treatise of 86 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP^ilDIA. excluded from the world nor included in it, and who both transcends the world and is immanent in it; and which furthermore The conditions . „ , , i t i n • n ot a Christian conceives of the human soul and body as organically philosophy. related, refusing to make of spirit merely sublimated m'atter, or of matter the precipitate of spirit, and acknowledging both personal freedom and a free personality created for eternal ends. We designate such a philosophy as theistic,^ in contrast with both the deistic and the pantheistic, and accordingly observe that the only system that may be applied to Christian theology is tlmt The only pos- of pure theism. Whether philosophy can of itself for- phuosophylhe" mulate this theism, or, renouncing the attempt, whether istic. it shall devolve the task upon the practical reason with Kant and Herbart, or upon feeling with Jacobi, or upon faith and presentiment with Fries, is a matter of little consequence ; for we are not concerned to clearly demonstrate the idea of person ality in a scientific light, which task may be properly reserved for philosophy. But theology can never strike friendly hands with a philosophical conception of the world, which eliminates man's per sonal relation to God and consequently destroys religion, the basis of all theology itself.^ Nor would we venture to assert, withr/ut a ]>reliminary understanding, that the philosophy must be "Christ ian." How is the word to be understood? If in a historical sense. The sense In it appears that all modem philosophy, having come ophrmust'be i°*° being through the infinence of Christian ideas, is Christian. Christian; and this is true of such philosophies as are unchristian in their results, in so far as they have passed through a Christian development. But if it be made to signify that the doc trines of Christianity should constitute the subject-matter of the philosophy, that, for instance, it should undertake to develop the atonement or the person of Christ, the result is that a demand is made upon philosophy for which its power is inadequate.^ Finally, Deinhardt, Begrift' der Personhchkeit mit Riicksicht auf Strauss (in Beitriige, p. 85 sqq.) and Schenkel, Idee der Personlichkeit in ihrer Zeitbedeutung fiir d. theoi. Wis senschaft, etc. Schaffh., 1850, and also id., Dogmatik, i, p. 29 sqq. ' It must be conceded that these terms are arbitrarily applied ; but they are em ployed iu harmony with the current usage. Comp. Deinhardt, Kategorie des cdrist- lichen Theismus, in Beitriige, p. 67 sqq. The word theism is still used, however, as synonymous with deism, by some authors (as Kym, I. c). ^ Lotze somewhere makes the appropriate remark, that " the truly real, which is and is to be, is not matter and still less idea, but the living and personal Spirit of God and the world of personal spirits which he has created." Theology will doubtless be able to content itself with this philosophical result. ' Van Oosterzee presents the distinction between the material of philosophy and that of theology in a very satisfactory manner. This distinction once accepted, the SUBDIVISIONS OP PHILOSOPHY. 87 if its ideas are to be derived from other sources, e. g., from tlie Bible (the thought has expression in talk about a Biblical philos- "P^y)> it must cease to be philosophy and lose itself in dogmatics. A different judgment must be formed of the so-called philosophy of Christianity, which does not attempt an a priori explanation of the Christian Revelation, but regards it as existing, and seeks to comprehend it in harmony with the fundamental principles of rea son. It is accordingly a part of the general philosophy of religion, or also of the philosophy of history, and may as readily be under taken from an unchristian as a Christian point of view.' SECTION IX. VALUE OF THE SEVERAL BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY. No single department of philosophical inquiry can be made at will to possess special prominence for the theologian, since philosophy is an organic whole; but the field of ethics — moral philosophy and the philosophy of religion — will more particularly come into relations with theology, in addition to the formal elements of philosophy (logic, dialectics) and its general bases (psychology, anthropology). In recent times the encyclopedia of philosophy has been included among the subjects usually presented in academical Brauches of phi- lectures; and its study should be urged upon the the- fre^'^fmpOTtaS ologian, as of primary importance." Ordinary logic, as to theology. it was occasionally taught in preparatory schools or more generally in the first stages of the university course, had temporarily lost much of its significance for many students, in view of the entire confusion of philosophy and theology is readily avoided : " Theology is distinguished from speculative philosophy in this, that while the latter takes the pure human con sciousness as its starting point, theology, on the contrary, must, 'above all, take ac count with an historical fact, with the belief of the community in a divine revelation. It makes the subject and ground of this belief the material for its investigation, in order to purify the idea, to develop it, and when necessary to defend it. It is 'une philosophie, dont la base est donnee ' (Vinet), and thus, as a science, sustains a two fold character. It proceeds from that which is given, not in order to leave it as it is given; it reasons and philosophizes, but not in the abstract. Its material is an his torical product, but it must treat this in a Christian philosophical (really critical) method." (Christian Dogmatics, Amer. ed., v. i, p. 2). ' Comp., however. Pelt, Encykl., p. 541 sqq., and J. P. Lange, Phil. Dogmatik. * Herbart, Troxler, and Hegel published philosophical encyclopaedias. Oppermann, Encykl. d. Philosophie, Hanover, 1 844 ; F. C. Calhsen, Propaedeutik d. Phil., Schleswig, 1846 ; K. Ph. Fischer, Grundziige des Systems d. Philosophie u. Encykl. d. Phil. Wis senschaften, Erlangen, 1848-52 and 55, 3 vols. ; K. Rosenkranz, System d. Wissen schaften, etc., Konigsberg, 1850; H. Ritter, Encykl. d. phil. Wissenschaften, 3 vols, Gottingen, 1862-64. Comp. L. Tobler, Phil. Propaedeutik auf Gymnasien in tha Neue Schweiz. Museum of Kibbeck, Kochly and Fischer, 1861, No. 4. 88 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. transformation of philosophy ; but as the paroxysm wore off, the reaction caused a more zealous return to logical sobriety, without which all philosophizing becomes simply a tumultuous confusion. Psychology, which for a period of considerable length had been moving in abstract categories, presenting the life of the soul apart from the conditions of physical life, was, after the return from this exclusive spiritualism, drawn more and more into the field of the physical sciences and brought into connexion with physiology — as suredly an advantageous change for science. This change involved the danger, however, of losing the soul-life in that of the body, and Importance to of thereby passing from spiritualism into materialism. phiiosophyof a ^ ^^.^^ philosophy of religion will always be dependent ogy. on a thorough psychology, a genuine philosophical ex position of the nature of the soul and its various manifestations (anthropology). An illustration is found in the relation between faith and knowledge, to determine which is the ofiice of philosophy, but whose demonstration depends essentially upon psychological pos tulates. The old, Socratic maxim, " Know thyself," forms the under lying basis of all knowledge. A further question arises, however, concerning the extent to which even an objective apprehension of " the thing in itself " is possible to speculative philosophy — the great question to which various answers have continued to be returned since the days of Kant. This leads into fields which are often des ignated by the names of ontology and metaphysics. The names have been exchanged for others, indeed ; but the departments to which they apply will constitute the field of so-called speculative philosophy . If we recur to the ancient Platonic and Aristotelian division of philosophy into physics, ethics, and dialectics, we obtain an anar logue to the different branches of study treated of in § 5, which are also designated as philosophical studies in the broad sense. Logic (dialectics) will correspond to philology and mathematics, physics to the natural sciences, and ethics to history. If we apply the modern terminology, we have on the one hand a phenom- Phiiosophy di- enology of nature, and on the other a phenomenology ornatire°'and *^^ ™'"'^ ' ^^ *^® '^^^ ^^°*^ natural philosophy, on the that of mind, other moral philosophy (the metaphysics of morality) and the philosophy of law (natural justice), of religion, and of his tory. It must be left to philosophy itself to determine the relation sustained by the philosophy of nature to empirical natural science, or by the philosophy of religion to religion and its historical mani festation in actual life. We likewise referred to the arts, in addi tion to the sciences ; and we here find available a philosophy of the beautiful also — aesthetics the philosophy of art. PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION— LITERATURE. 89 The history of philosophy is necessary to the study of philosophy itself ; but as an auxiliary to the history of religion. Church, and doctrine, its consideration is referred to another place. PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. GERMAN LITEKAXmiB. J. G. Fichte, Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung. 2. Aufl. Konigsb., 1793. Imm. Kant, die Eeligion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft. Konigsb., 1793. F. W. J. V. Schelling, Philosophie und Eeligion. Tiib., 1804. J. G. Fichte, Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder die Eeligionslehre. Berl., 1806 ; n. Aufl., 1828. F. Schleiermacher, fiber die Religion ; Eeden an die Gebildeten unter ihren Veraeh- tern, Berlin, 1799. Successive editions in 1806, 1821, etc. ; sixth, 1859. "^F. H. Jacobi, von den gottl. Dingen u. ihrer Offenbarung, Lpz., 1811 ; also in his collected works (Lpz., 1812, f. 6 Bde). F. W. J. V. Schelling, Denkmal der Schrift von den gottlichen Dingen. Tiib., 1813. F. Koppen, Philosophie des Christenthums, Lpz., 1813-15 ; 2d ed., 1825. 2 vols. C. A. V. Eschenmayer, Eeligionsphilosophie. Tiib., 1818. G. W. Gerlach, Grundriss der Eeligionsphilosophie. Halle, 1818. W. Tr. Krug, philosoph. Eeligionslehre. Konigsb., 1819. X. MoUer, Specul. Darstellung des Christenthums. Lpz., 1819. G. F. W. Hinrichs, die Eeligion in ihrem Verhaltnisse zur Wissenschaft, etc. (Mit Vorrede von Hegel). Heidelb., 1822. F. Bouterwek, die Eeligion der Vernunft ; Ideen zur Beschleunigung der Fortschritte einer haltbaren Eehgionsphilosophie. Gott., 1824. Benj. Constant, de la religion, consideree dans sa source, ses formes et ses developpe- ments. Par., 1825. 3 vols. (Incomplete). L. J. Euckert, christi. Philosophie. Lpz., 1825. 2 Bde. Is. Bust, Philosophie und Christenthum, oder Wissen und Glauben. Mannh., 1825, 2 Ed., 1833. W. M. L. de Wette, Vorlesungen fiber die Eeligion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform- en und ihren Einfluss aufs Leben. Berl., 1827. ¦f A. Giinther, Vorschule zur speculativen Theologie des positiven Christenthums. Vienna, 1828-29, 2 Bde. E. F. G. Goschel, Aphorismen iiber Nichtwissen und absolutes Wissen im Verhaltniss zur Christi. Glaubenserkenntniss. Berl., 1829. Chr. Herm. Weise, iiber den gegenwartigen Standpunkt philos. Wissenschaft. Lpz., 1829. Kasim. Conradi, Selbstbewusstsein und Offenbarung oder Entwicklung des religiosen Bewusstseins. Mainz, 1831. D. Th. A. Suabedissen, Grundziige der philosophischen Eeligionslehre. Marb., 1831. Jac. F. Fries, Handbuch der Eeligionsphilosophie. Heidelb., 1832. G. W. F. Hegel, Vorlesung iiber die Philosophie der Eehgion, herausgeb. vou Mar heineke (in his collected works, vols. 11, 12). Beri., 1832, 2d ed., 1840. J. H. Fichte, Religion und Philosophie in ihrem gegenseltigen Verhaltnisse. Heidelb., 1834. fiber die Bedingungen eines speculativen Theismus. Elberf., 1835. A L. J. Ohlert, Keligionsphilosophie in ihrer Uebereinstimmung mit Vernunft, Ge schichte und Offenbarung. Lpz., 1835. ro . GENERAL TKEOLOGiCAL Els CYCLOPEDIA. C. II. Weisse, Grundziige der Metaphysik. Ilamb., 1835. J. H. Fichte, Satze der Vorschule und Theologie. Tiib., 1836. H. Eitter, iiber die Erkenntniss Gottes in der Welt. Hamb., 1836. J. G. F. Billroth, Vorlesungen iiber Eeligionsphilosophie; herausg. von Erdmann. Halle, 1837, 2 Aufl., 1842. J. E. Erdmann, Vorlesungen iiber Glauben und Wissen, als Einleitung in die Dogmatik und Religion. Beri., 1837. K. Ph. Fischer, die Idee der Gottheit ; ein Versuch, den Theismus speculativ zu be- griinden und zu entwickeln. Stuttg., 1839. Heinr. Steffens, christi. Eeligionsphilosophie. Bresl., 1839, 2 Bde. M. W. Drobisch, Grundlehren der Eeligionsphilosophie. Lpz., 1840. G. F. Taute, Eeligionsphilosophie. Vom Standpuukte der Philosophie Herbarts. El- bing, 1840, 2d ed. Lpz., 1852, 2' vols. K. F. E. Trahndorff, wie kann der Supranaturalismus sein Eecht gegen Hegels Eelig ionsphilosophie behaupten ? Eine Lebens- und Gewissensfrage an uiisere Zeit. Beri., 1840. E. Schmidt, Vernimftreligion und Glaube, oder der Gott der Philosophie und der Gott des Christenthums. Eostock, 1842. P. Feldmann, Eeligionsphilosophie. Kirchliche Zeit- und Lebensfrage. Gottb., 1843. A. E. Biedermann, die freie Theologie, oder Philosophie und Christenthum in Streit und Frieden. Tiib., 1844. L. Noack, der Eeligionsbegriff Hegels. Darmst., 1845. K. Sederholm, die ewigen Thatsachen. Grundziige einer durchgef iihrten Einigung des Christenthums und der Pliilosophie. Lpz., 1845; new ed., 1851. E. Rheinhold, das Wesen der Eeligion und sein Ausdruck im evang. Christenthum. Jena, 1846. J. Frauenstadt, tiber das wahre Verhaltniss der Vernunft zur Offenbarung; Prolego mena zu jeder kunftigen Philosophie des Christenthums. Darmst., 1848. E. A. V. Schaden, iiber den Gegensatz des theistischen und pantheistischen Stand- punktes. Sendschr. an L. Feuerbach. Erl., 1848. J. P. Eomang, der neueste Pantheismus und die junghegel'sche Weltanschauung nach ihren theoretischen Grundlagen und praktischen Consequenzen. Berne, 1848. A. E. Biedermann, unsere junghegel'sche Weltanschauung, oder der sog. Pantheismus. Ziirich, 1849. J. P. Lange, philos. Dogmatik (f. unten Dogmatik). Ludw. Fiirst Solms, zehn Gesprache fiber Philosophie und Eeligion. Hamb., 1850. A. Gladisch, Eeligion und Philosophie in ihrer Stellung zu einander. Bresl., 1852. ¦|- L. V. Beckedorff, Offenbarung und Vernunft. Eegensb., 1863. H. M. Chalybaus, Philosophie und Christenthum. Kiel, 1853. L. Noack, die Theologie als Eeligionsphilosophie. Liib., 1853. K. Ph. Fischer, Grundziige des Systems der speculativen Theologie. Frankf., 1855. * A. Carlblom, das Gefiihl in seiner Bedeutung fiir den Glauben, im Gegensatz zu dem Intellectualisraus innerhalb der kircMichen Theologie unserer Zeit. Berl., 1857. J. Stovesand, das Mysterium der Sprache Gottes im Menschen oder der Glaube in seiner Wahrheit. Gotha, 1857. Ch. C. J. Bunsen, Gott in der Geschichte oder der Fortschritt des Glaubens an eine sittliche Weltordnung. 3 Thie. Lpz., 1857, 1858. X. Schmidt, christliche Eeligionsphilosophie. Nordl., 1857. H. Eitter, die christi. Philosophie nach ihrem Begriff, ihren aussern Verhaltnissen u. in ihrer Geschichte bis auf die neueste Zeit. Giitt., 1858, 2 Bde. MORAL PHILOSOPHY— LITERATURE. 91 Ad. Biihler, Theokrisis, Ideen iiber Gott u. Welt. Zur Versiihnuug des Theismus und Pantheismus. Berl., 1861. II. Ulrici, Gott in die Natur. Lpz., 1862 ; 2d ed., 1866. J. W. Hanne, die Idee der absoluten Personlichkeit, oder Gott und sein Verhaltniss zur Welt, insonderheit zur menschlichen Personlichkeit; eine speculativtheolo- gische Untersuchung iiber Wesen, Entwicklung und Ziel des christi. Theismus, 2d ed. Hanover, 1865, 2 vols. C. W. Opzoomer, die Religion. Aus d. Holland, von Fr. Mook. Elberfeld, 1868. J. P. Eomang, fiber wichtigere Fragen der Eeligion, Eeden an die Gebildeten unter dem Volk. Heidelb., 1870. D. Pfleiderer, die deutsche Eeligionsphilosophie in ihrer Bedeutung fiir die Theol. der Gegenwart. Berl. 1875. ¦ Eeligionsphilosophie auf geschichtl. Gruudlage. Berl., 1878. A. Lasson, iiber Gegenstand und Behandlungsart der Eeligionsphilosophie. Lpz., 1879. A. Peip, Eeligionsphilosophie. Edited by Th. Hoppe. Giitersl. 1879. W. Herrmann, die Eel. in Verhaltniss zum Welterkennen und zur SittUchkeit. Halle, 1879. B. Piinjer, Geschichte der christi. Eeligionsphilosophie seit der Reformation. 1 Bd. Braunschw., 1880. MOBAL PHILOSOPHY. Imm. Kant, Kritik der prakt. Vernunft, Eiga, 1788, 8 ; new ed., Lpz., 1827. Anfangsgriinde der Tugendlehre, Eiga, 1792; new ed., Konigsb., 1797. K. Ch. E. Schmid, Versuch einer Moralphilosophie, Jena, 1790; 4th ed., 1802. 3 vols. (Of the school of Kant). J. G. Fichte, System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre. Jena, 1798. J. H. Tieftrunk, Philos. Untersuchungen iiber die Tugendlehre. Halle, 1798-1801. 2 Bde. (Of the school of Kant). F. Schleiermacher, Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre. Berl., 1803; 2d ed., 1834. C. A. V. Eschenmayer, System der Moralphilosophie. Stuttg., 1818. W. Tr. Krug, Tugendlehre. Konigsb., 1819. G. W. Gerlach, Grundriss der philosoph. Tugendlehre. Halle, 1820. L. Henning, Principien der Ethik. Berl., 1824. f Jac. Salat, Giundlinieni der Moralphilosophie. Munich, 1827. P. J. Elvenich, die Moralphilosophie. Bonn, 1830. 2 vols. F. Schleiermacher, Entwurf eines Systems der Sittenlehre; aus dessen handschr. Nachlasse von AL Schweizer. Berl., 1835. (Third vol. of his philosophical works). J. C. A Heinroth, Orthobiotik oder die Lehre vom richtigen Leben. Lpz., 1839. f J. N. Jager, Moralphilosophie. Vienna, 1839. D. Th. A. Suabedissen, Grundziige der philos. Tugend- und Eechtslehre. Marb., 1839. J. U. Wirth, System der speculativen Ethik. Heidelb., 1841-42. 2 vols. fV. Gioberti, Grundziige eines Systems der Ethik. Aus dem Ital. von Sudhoff. Mainz, 1844. Gust. Hartenstein, die Grund-begriffe der ethischen Wissenschaften. Lpz., 1844. L. Striimpell, die Vorschule der Ethik. Mitau, 1844. H. Martensen, Grundriss des Systems der Moralphilosophie Kiel, 1845. J. H. Fichte, System der Ethik. Lpz., 1850-52. 2 vols. Arthur Schopenhauer, Grundprobleme der Ethik. 2. Aufl. Lpz., 1860. 92 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Theod. AUihn, die Grundlinien der allgemeinen Ethik. Lpz., 1861. C. Aeger, Moralphilosophie nach Christi. Principien. Schaff., 1873. M. Carriere, die sittl. Weltordnung. Lpz., 1877. Landau, System der gesammten Ethik. Berlin, 1877, 1878. 2 vols. J. Bauman, Handb. der Moral nebst Abr. der Rechts-philosoph. Lpz., 1879. ENGLISH AND AMEEICAN LlTEEATUEE. 1. The Philosophy of Religion in its strict sense. Balfour, Arthur James. A Defence of Philosophic Doubt. Pp. 355. London, lS79. Caird, John. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Eeligion. 8to, pp. xii, 358. New York, 1880. Clarke, James Freeman. Ten Great Religions. An essay ill Comparative Theology. Sth ed., Svo, pp. 528. Boston, 1871. Gould, S. B. The Origin and Development of Eeligious Belief. New York, 1S70. (Ascribes religious beliefs to a process of natural evolution.) Hardwicke, Charles. Christ and other Masters. The chief Parallelisms between Christianity and the Eeligious Systems of the Ancient World. London and Cam bridge, 1863. 2 vols., pp. 383, 461. (A Contribution to Comparative Theology.) Also, Svo, pp. xviii, 892. London, 1875. Hedge, Frederick Henry. Efeason in Religion. Boston, 1875. (Makes all the argu ment for religion intuitional as distinguished irom historical.) Svo, pp. iv, 458. Mansell, H. L. The Limits of Eeligious Thought. 12mo, pp. 364. Boston, New York, and Cincinnati, 1860. Moffatt, James C. A Comparative History of Eeligions. Parts I and II. 2 vols. 12mo. New York, 1874. Morell, J. D. The Philosophy of Eeligion. 12mo, pp. 359. New York, 1849. Mulford, Elisha. The Eepublic of God. An Institute of Theology. Svo, pp. viii, 261 Boston, 1881. Miiller, F. Max Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Eeligion, as illustrated in the Eeligions of India. 12mo, pp. 382. New York, 1879. (Holds that religion is a natural growth.) Miiller, Max. Lectures on the Science of Eeligion. With a paper on Buddhist Nihil. ism. 12mo, pp. 300. New York, 1872. (Bejects revelation and finds the prim itive religion in man's nature.) Chips from a German Workship. 4 vols. 12mo. New York, 1S69. (The first vol. treats of the " Science of Eeligion.") Eenouf, P. Le Page. The Origin and Growth of Eeligion, as illustrated by the Re ligion of Ancient Egypt. Hibbert Lectures for 1879. (Holds that religion is o natural growth.) 12mo, pp. 270. New York, 1880. Smyth, Newman. The Eeligious Feeling. 12mo. New York, 1877, pp. vii, 191. Old Faiths in New Lights. 12mo. New York, 1880. Upham, Thos. C. Absolute Eeligion. A view based on Philosophical Principles and Doctrines of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 312. New York, 1873. Whedon, D. D. The Freedom of the Will as a basis of Human Eesponsibility and a, Divine Government. 12mo, pp. 438. New York, 1869. (Argues that the "doc trine of Necessity is incompatible with any valid theory of religion.") 2. Theknv—Tlie Proof of tlie £ein,g and Attributes of God— Natural Theology. Ackermann, C. The Christian Element in Plato and the Platonic Philosophy. 8vo, pp.280. Edinburgh, 1861. NATURAL THEOLOGY— LITERATURE. 93 AUiott, Richard. Psychology and Theology ; or. Psychology Applied to the Investiga tion of Questions relating to Eeligion, Natural Theology, and Eevelation. 12mo, London, 1855. Aigyll, The Duke of. The Beign of Law. Fifth ed. 12mo, pp. xxvii, 462. London, 1868. (A Contribution to the Argument for Theism.) Auberlen, Carl A. The Divine Revelation ; an Essay in Defence of the Faith. To which is Prefixed a Brief Memoir of the Author. Translated by A. P. Paton. Svo, pp. 441. Edinburgh, 1877. Aydelott, B. P. The Great Question. The Sceptical Philosophy Examined. 16mo. Cincinnati, 1868. Bell, Sir Charles. The Hand : Its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as Evincing Design. 7th ed., revised, Svo, pp. xxxv, 260. London, 1860. Berkeley, George. Principles of Human Knowledge. With Prolegomena, and with Annotations, select, translated, and original, by Charles P. Krauth. Philadelphia, 1874. Svo. Elackie, John Stuart. The Natural History of Atheism. 12mo. New York, 1882. Boston Lectures. Christianity and Scepticism. 12mo. Boston, 1870. Bowen, Francis. Application of Metaphysical and Ethical Science to the Evidences of Eeligion. Lowell Lectures pp. 465. Boston, 1849. (Lectures VIII and IX present the argument from Design.) Bowne, Borden P. Studies in Theism. New York and Cincinnati. 12mo, pp. vi, 4^4. 1879. (A Eefutation of Atheism.) The Philosophy of Herbert Spencer. Being an Examination of the First Prin ciples of his System. New York aud Cincinnati. 12mo, pp. 283. 1874. (Deals vigorously with Spencer's Atheism.) Bradin, Clark. The Problem of Problems; or, Atheism, Darwinism, and Theism. Cincinnati, 1877. 12mo, pp. 480. Breckinridge, E. J. The Knowledge of God. 2 vols. Svo. Vol. I. : Objectively Con sidered. Vol. II. ; Subjectively Considered. New York, 1858-59. Bremen Lectures, (The,) on Fundamental, Living, Eeligious Questions, by Various Eminent European Divines. Translated by D. Heagle. With an introduction by Alvah Hovey. 12mo. Boston, 1871. Brown, John. A Compendious View of Natural and Eevealed Eeligion. Svo. Lon don, 1817. Brown, Robert. The Gospel of Common Sense ; or. Mental, Moral, and Social Science in Harmony with Scriptural Christianity. 12mo. London, 1864. Buchanan, James. Analogy as a Guide to Truth and as an Aid to Faith. Pp. 126. Edinburgh, 1864. (Part III discusses ihe Natural Proofs of Theism.) Modern Atheism under its forms of Pantheism, Materialism, Secularism, Devel opment, and Natural Laws. 12mo. Boston, 1867. Pp. iv, 423. Faith in God and Modern Atheism, Compared in their Essential Nature, TheoretiQ Grounds, and Practical Influence. 2 vols. Svo. London, 1857. Burr, E. F. Pater Mundi ; or, the Doctrine of Evolution. First and Second Series. Boston. Second Series, 1S73. Calderwood, Henry. Philosophy of the Infinite. A Treatise on Man's Knowledge of the Infinite Being. In Answer to Sir WiUiam Hamilton and Dr. Mansel. 2d ed., enlarged. Svo, pp. 539. London, 1872. Candlish, Robert S. Season and Eevelation. 12mo. London, 1867. Chadbourne, P. W. Natural Theology. Lectures before the Lowell Institute. 12mo. New York, 1867. Chalmers, Thomas. Natural Theology. 2 vols. 12mo. New York. 94 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Chalmers, Thomas. The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man. 12mo. New York, 1880. Child, G. C. Benedicite. Illustrations of the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as Manifested in his Works. 12mo. New York, 1870. Christianity and Modern Thought. 12mo, pp. 394. Boston, 1881. (Essays of Mar- tineau. Hedges, etc.) Christlieb, Theo. Modern Doubt and Christian Belief. A Series of Apologetic Lect ures addressed to Earnest Seekers after Truth. Svo, pp. 549. New York, 1874. Clarke, James Freeman. Steps of Unbelief; or. Rational Christianity maintained against Atheism, Free Religion, and Eomanism. 12mo, pp. 311. Boston, 1870. Cocker, B. F. Christianity and Greek Philosophy ; or, the Eolation between Spon taneous and Eeflective Thought in Greece and the Positive teachings of Christ, and his Aoostles. Svo, pp. 531. New York, 1870. (An argument for Theism.) The Theistic Conception of the World. An essay in opposition to certain tendencies of modern thought. New York and Cincinnati, 1875. Svo, pp. X, 426. Cook, Joseph. Transcendentalism. 12mo. Boston, 1880. Cooke, Josiah P. Eeligion and Chemistry ; or. Proofs of God's Plan in the Atmosphere and its Elements. Svo, pp. 348. New York, 1864. (A Contribution to Natural Theology.) Cudworth, Ralph. The True Intellectual System of the Universe ; wherein all the Beason and Philosophy of Atheism is Confuted. 2 vols. Svo, Andover ; New York, 1837. Cunningham, William. Theological Lectures on subjects connected with Natural Theology, etc. Svo, pp. 625. New York, 1876. Diman, J. Lewis. The Theistic Argument, as affected by Eecent Theories. A Course of Lectures delivered at the Lowell Institute in Boston. Pp. 390. Boston, 1882. Dix, Morgan. Lectures on the Pantheistic Idea of an Impersonal Substance — Deity as Contrasted with the Christian Faith concerning Almighty God. 12mo. New York, 1864, Dodge, Ebenezer. The Evidences of Christianity ; with an Introduction on the Exist ence of God and the Immortality of the Soul. 12mo, pp. 244. Boston, 1869. Dove, P. E. The Logic of Christian Faith. Being a Dissertation on Scepticism, Pantheism, etc. Svo. Edinburgh, 1856. Dyer, David. Tests of Truth. Eeplies to Letters of a Sceptical Friend on the Teachings of Natural and Eevealed Eeligion. 12mo. New York, 1866. Ecce Coelum. A Parish Astronomy. Six Lectures by a Connecticut Pastor. Boston, 1857. (The last lecture is on the question : " Is there an Author of Nature ? ") Ferrier, James F. Institutes of Metaphysics. The Theory of knowing and Being. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1856. Fisher, G. P. Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief. New York, 1883. Flint, Eobert. Anti-Theistic Theories. Baird Lectures for 1877. Edinburgh and London, 1879. 12mo, pp. 555. . Gillespie, William Honyman. The Argument a jonon for the Being and the Attributes of the Absolute One, etc. Fifth ed. 12mo, pp. 166. London, 1871. Gillett, E. H. God in Human Thought ; or. Natural Theology traced in Literature, Ancient and Modern, to the time of Bishop Butler. 2 vols. Svo, pp. 416, 418. New York, 1874. The Moral System, with an Historical and Critical Introduction. New York, 1874. 12mo. Goodwin, B. Lectures on the Atheistic Controversy. 12mo. Boston, 1836. NATURAL THEOLOGY— LITERATURE. 95 Guizot, M. Meditations on the Actual State of Christianity. 12mo, pp. 390. New York, 1867. (Examines the attacks of modern unbelief upon Christianity.) Hamilton, Sir William. Lectures on Metaphysics. Svo, pp. xx, 718. Boston, 1859. Harris, Samuel. The Philosophic Basis of Theism. Svo, pp. 564. New York, 1 883. Haven, Jcseph. Studies in Philosophy and Theology. 12mo, pp. 512. Andover, 1869. (Contains an Essay on Natural Theology.) Hedge, Frederick Henry. Ways of the Spirit, and other Essays. ]2mo, pp. 367. Bos ton, 1877. (Essay VI is a Critique of proofs of the Being of God.) Hickok, Laurens P. Creation and Creator. 12mo, pp. 360. Boston, 1872. (A Theistic Account of Creation.) Rational Cosmology ; or, the Eternal Principles and Necessary Laws of the Universe. Svo. New York, 1871. The Logic of Reason, Universal and Eternal. Svo, pp. 192. Boston, 1874. Hicks, L. E. A Critique of Design Arguments. A Historical Review and Examination of the Methods of Eeasoning in Natural Theology. Crown Svo. New York, Scribners, 1883. (Classifies the design arguments and shows their respective provinces.) Hill, Thomas. A Statement of the Natural Sources of Theology ; with a discussion of Modern Sceptical objections. Pp. 139. Andover, 1877. Hinton, James. Philosophy and Eeligion. Selections from the Manuscripts of the late James Hinton, edited by Caroline Haddon. 12mo, pp. xix, 288. London, ISSl. Ingham Lectures. (R. S. Foster, A. Mahan, and others.) On the Evidences of Natural and Eevealed Eeligion. 12mo, pp. 365 New York and Cincinnati, 1873. Jackson, William. The Philosophy of Natural Theology, etc. Prize Essay. Pp. xviii and 398. New York, 1875. Janet, Paul. Final Causes. Translated from the French by Wm. Afleck, with a preface by Robert Flint, of Edinburgh University. Svo, pp. 508. (A restatement of the teleological proof for the Being of God against modern Atheism.) Edin burgh, 1879. Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. 12mo. New York, 1880. Kidd, J. On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man. Svo, pp. xvi, 332. New York, 1833. Lange, F. H. History of Materialism, and Criticism of its Present Importance. 3 vols. Svo. Second edition. Boston, 1880. Vols. I and II, pp. xx, 830, and viii, 397. Lee, Luther. Natural Theology. The Existence of God demonstrated by arguments drawn from the Phenomena of Nature. 24mo, pp. 186. Syracuse, 1866. Leitoh, Alexander. Ethics of Theism. A Criticism and its Vindications. Svo. Edinburgh, 1868. Lewis Tayler. Plato against the Atheists ; or, the Tenth Book of the Dialogues on Laws.' With Critical Notes, etc. New York, 1859. Lord, Charles E. Evidences of Natural and Eevealed Theology. Svo. Philadelphia, 1869. M'Cosh, James. Christianity and Positivism. A Series of Lectures on Natural Theology and Apologetics. 12mo, pp. 369. New York, 1871. (A Eeply to Spencer and Darwin.) Energy, Efficient and Final Cause. Pp. 55. New York, 1883. an(j Dickie, George. Typical Forms and Special Ends in Creation. (An argument for Theism, drawn from the evidences of design in Creation.) Svo, pp. viii, 639. New York, last ed., 1881. 96 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Mahan, Asa. The Science of Natural Theology ; or, God the Unconditioned Cause as revealed in Creation. Boston, 1867. 12mo, pp. 399. Manning, J. M. Half Truths and the Truth. Lectures on the prevailing forms of Unbelief. 12mo, pp. 398. Boston, 1872. (Traces Modern Unbelief to Spinoza.) Martineau, James. Essays, Philosophical and Theological. 12mo, pp. 424. Boston, 1866. Masson, David. Eecent British Philosophy. A Eeview with Criticisms. 12mo, pp. 335, New York, 1866. (The Criticism is Antitheistic.) Mill, John Stuart. Three Essays on Eeligion. (The third essay is on Theism, and admits, with qualifications, the argument from design.) New York, 1874. Svo, pp. xii, 302. Modern Scepticism. A Course of Lectures Delivered at the Bequest of the Christian Evidence Society. With an Explanatory Paper, by C. J. EUicott. 1 2mo. New York, 1871. Murphy, Joseph J. The Scientific Basis of Faith. Svo. London, 1873. Naville, Ernst. The Heavenly Father. Lectures on Modern Atheism, translated from the French by Henry Downton. 12mo, pp. x, 375. Boston, 1866. The Life Eternal. From the French. 12mo, pp. 253. London, 1867. (An argu ment against materialism.) Paine, Martyn. Physiology of the Soul and Instinct, as Distinguished from Material ism. Svo. New York, 1872. Paley, William. Natural Theology. London and New York. Many editions. Parsons, Theophilus. The Infinite and the Finite. 12mo. Boston, 1872. Physicus. A Candid Examination of Theism. Crown Svo. Boston, ISSO. Pirie, W. B. Natural Theology. An Inquiry into the Fundamental Principles of Re ligious, Moral, and Political Science. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1867. Porter, Noah. The Human Intellect. Pp. 693. New York, 1869. (Chapter V, Part iv, treats of Design or Final Cause.) Potter, Alonzo. Eeligious Philosophy ; or. Nature, Man, and the Bible Witnessing to God and to Eeligious Truth. Lowell Institute Lecture? for 1845 and 1853. Svo. Philadelphia. Questions of Modern Thought ; or, Lectures on the Bible and Infidelity, by Drs. M'Cosh, Thompson, and others. Svo. Philadelphia. 1871. Baby, William. Natural Theology. New York, 1824, and often. Eogers, Henry, The Eclipse of Faith; or, a Visit to a Eeligious Sceptic. 12mo. Boston, 1860. — — A Defence of the Same. 12mo. Boston, 1854. Saisset, M. Emile. Essay on Eeligious Philosophy (with essay by the English trans lator.) Edinburgh, 1863. 2 vols. 12mo, pp. vi, 310, 273. Samuelson, James. Views of the Deity. Traditional and Scientific. A Contribution to the Study of Theological Science. 12mo. London, 1871. Schmid, Eudolph. The Theories of Darwin and their Eelation to Philosophy, Eelig ion, and Morality, translated by G. A. Zimmerman, Ph.D. 12mo, pp. 410. Chi cago, 1883. (Holds that revealed religion and theories of development may be harmonized.) Sexton, George. Theistic Problems. Being Essays on the Existence of God and his Relationship to Man. Shairp, J. C. Culture and Religion in Some of their Eelations. 16mo, pp. 197. New York, 1871. Somerset, (The Duke of.) Christian Theology, and Modern Scepticism. 16mo. New York, 1872. NATURAL THEOLOGY— LITERATURE. 97 Spinoza, Benedict de. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. A Theological and Political Treatise. Showing under a series of Heads that Freedom of Thought and of Dis cussion may not only be granted with safety to Eeligion and the peace of the State, etc. From the Latin. 2d ed., Svo, pp. viii, 360. London, 1868. Stillingfleet, Bishop Edward. Origines Sacrse ; or, a Rational Account of the Grounds of Natural and Eevealed Eeligion. 2 vols. Svo. Oxford, 1836. Taylor, George. The Indications of the Creator ; or, the Natural Evidences of Final Cause. 12mo. New York, 1851. Thompson, Eobert A. Christian Theism. The Testimony of Reason and Eevelation to the Existence and Character of the Supreme Being. 12mo, pp. xxii, 477. New York, 1855. Wharton, Francis. A Treatise on Theism and on the Modern Sceptical Theories. Phila delphia and London, 1859. 12mo, pp. 395. (A discussion by a distinguished lawyer.) Wilson, A. Chapters on Evolution. With 259 Illustrations. Svo, pp. 370. Lon don, 1882. Wright, G. Frederic. The Logic of the Christian Evidences. (Second part discusses the Evidences of Theism.) Andover, 1880. Young, John. The Province of Beason ; a Criticism of the Bampton Lecture on " The Limits of Eeligious Thought." Pp. 306. 3. Tlie Philosophy of the Christian Religion. Bowen, Francis. Modern Philosophy, from Descartes to Schopenhauer. New York, 1877. (Treats modern philosophy both historically and analytically from the orthodox Christian point of view.) Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural as Together Constituting the one System of God. New ed., Svo,' pp. 534. New York, 1867. Butler, Bishop. Analogy of Eeligion, Natural and Eevealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature, edited, with an analysis, by J. T. Champlin. 12mo, pp. 194. Boston, 1860. Delitzsch, Franz. A System of Biblical Psychology, revised by Eobert Ernest Wallis. Svo, pp. 585. Edinburgh, 1S67. (Aims to show the harmony of the psychology of the Bible with modern science and philosophy.) Huntington, F. D. The Fitness of Christianity to Man. Bohlen Lectures. 12mo, pp. 127. New York, 1878. Liefchild, John B. The Higher Ministry of Nature Viewed in the Light of Modern Science, and as an Aid to Advanced Christian Philosophy. Svo, London, 1872. Peabody, A. P. Christianity the Religion of Nature. 12mo, pp. 256. Boston, 1864. (Aims to show that Christianity has a foundation in the human constitution.) Reid, Rev. John. Voices of the Soul answered in God. 12mo, pp. 374. New York, 1865. (A philosophy of Christianity.) Smith, Henry B. Faith and Philosophy, edited by George L. Prentiss. Svo, pp. 496. New York, 1S77. (The first essay is upon the reconciliation of philosophy with Christian faith. Shuttleworth, Philip W. The Consistency of Revelation with Itself and with Human Beason. 18mo, New York, 1856. Walker, James Barr. Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. With Introduction by Calvin E. Stowe. 12mo. Chicago, 1874. Doctrine of the Holy Spirit ; or. Philosophy of the Divine Operations in the Re demption of Man. 12mo. Chicago, 1873. 7 C8 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. SECTION X. THE PEBV AILING TENDENCIES OF THEOLOGICAL THOUGHT. The estimate to be formed of the various theological tendencies and the choice of a position with regard to them, are naturally con nected with the detei-mination of the relation of philosophy to the ology, though not dependent on it alone. A characterization of these tendencies becomes necessary at this point, because their in fluence makes itself felt throughout the entire science; but this is by no means designed to lead to a definite conclusion, which is rather to be attained through the medium of theological study itself. The history of the subject enables us to recognize in the eafly „,,,., Church two tendencies which came into frequent con- Theological ten- , ,> ^ mi dencies In the flict with each Other (comp. § 3). The one was more eariy Church, particularly inclined to hold fast to the legal, literal, traditional; the other, more independent, tended to pass beyond these limits. A Petrine and a Pauline tendency were manifest even among the primitive Christians. The earliest heresies took the form of Ebioiiitism on the one hand, and of Gnosticism on tbe other; but transitions from the one to the other (Clementines), or modifications of them (Montanism as a modification of Ebionitism?), took place even at this stage. The same contrast. was repeated within the pale of the catholic orthodox Church, Justin, Irenseus, and Tertullian being on the one side, and Clement and Origen on the other. The succeeding controversies in the Church likewise presented the two opposing tendencies, though yet undeveloped and unconscious, in contrast with each other, until in a later day they assumed the forms of rationalism and supernaturalism. The strict Arians (Eunomius), for instance, insisted that Divine things could be comprehended, while the great defenders of orthodoxy in that age sought to guard their incomprehensible and mysterious character by the development of awe-inspiring formulas. In like manner, Nestorius, and with him the school of Antioch, represented a sober, intelligently discriminating tendency, pervaded by the breath of a mild piety, while Cyril of Alexandria and his party comprehended religious ideas in compact forms of expression cal culated to challenge contradiction oh the part of reason, e. g., God has died, and similar expressions. The same contrast appears in the practical field, where Pelagius gave the first place to human liberty, while Augustine assigned the first place to the grace of God. In the domain of ethics, the former is an atomist, and the latter THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE REFORMATION. 99' a dynamist. Farther on, in the Middle Ages, the sacramental con troversy shows an inclination on the part of some (Ra- Theological tramnus, Berengarius) toward intelligent reflection, tendencies m while others (Paschasius Radbertus, Lanfranc) hold fast Ages. the transcendental and incomprehensible even in outward things, and endeavor to embody it to the senses. John Scotus Erigena, a phe nomenal character, but isolated and unappreciated, combined in himself both rationalistic and mystical elements. Among scho lastics, Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Roscelin, although not absolute rationalists, yet belong to the class of rational theologians, while Anselm emphasizes faith, at the same time, however, striving to apprehend it by the reason. Bernard of Clairvaux supported strictly the positive doctrines of the Church by the weight of his personal influence. The mystics sought to intensify and give dejith to the doctrines of the Church, but in their hands the positive was often transformed into the ideal, and history, as in the case of Origen, became a symbol and an allegory. They were thus uncon sciously borne in the direction of rationalism. It is worthy of note that in the last period of scholasticism the prevalent nominalism introduced a sceptical spirit, which was counterbalanced by a pure ly external supernaturalism, based, however, on authority. The relation between faith and knowledge thus became unnatural, the renunciation of scientific apprehension on the part of faith resulting- in blind credulity, while irreverent thought and speculation degen erated into frivolous unbelief. The Reformation cannot be regarded as exclusively the precursor" of rationalism or the founder of supernaturalism. Least of all was^ it the precursor of rationalism in its broad manifesta- Theoiogieai tion and its immediate results. Luther was decidedly spirit ot the opposed to all subtleties (comp. § 7). Erasmus mani fested far more rationalistic tendencies. Many have attempted to class Zwingle with the founders of rationahsm, but certainly with out cause, if the language is employed in the absolute or even the popular sense. It cannot be denied, however, that Zwingle, who combined soberness of judgment, with all his impulsive energy, and sympathized with the classical humanism of the Erasmian school,, stands, at first sight, more nearly related to rationalism, than the' realistic and positive Calvin, with his leaning toward strict super naturalism ; but the latter was, at the same time, by no means in ferior to his opponents in the critical spirit, nor even averse to the employment of such weapons as rationahsm subsequently used in its conflict with the orthodoxy of the Church (comp. his dispute on the Lord's Supper with Westphal). The rationalistic principle 100 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. was clearly manifested, on the other hand, by the antitrinitarians and their open and concealed friends, and it finally became settled, although as yet ijot fully developed, and combmed with a formal supernaturalism, in Socinianism. Seb. Franck, Schwenkfeld, and Theobald Thamer, the latter especially, combined rationalistic ele ments with their mystical and theosophic tendencies. In the Reformed Church Arminianism broke through the limits Theological of strict orthodoxy in the seventeenth century; and the tenaencies of influence of Enfflish Deism soon after the beginning of the l7th cen- ^ „ . . , . . tury. the eighteenth, led Christian apologists to grant many concessions to the spirit of the age. A system of natural (rational) theology took root beside the revealed (positive, Scripturally eccle siastical), while the demonstrative method (beginning with Wolf, comp. § 7). drew the meshes of rationaUstic categories through the substance of orthodoxy. Pietism, which had formerly been at odds with orthodoxy, now entered into a league with it for the defence of Biblical supernaturalism, which was being shattered by the at- Theoiogyinthe tacks of Criticism (Lessing, Semler). This continued 18th century, ^ntji ^^e appearance of Kant, who unravelled all that had hitherto been woven, discharged the pure reason from all par ticipation in theology while assigning to the practical reason the in herited doctrines of God and immortality, and assigned to morality the categorical imperative as its basis. The more definite use of the terms rationalism and supernaturalism dates form that period (more particularly from the issue of the work. Die Religion inner halb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft, 1793). Kant makes a sharp distinction between rationalism and naturalism, which should always be observed.' German rationalism, as it was developed Chi f traits ot t^''**'^g^ ^he tendencies of that age, though not through modern ration- the direct influence of Kant, is, in its formal character, * ""¦ distinguished from supernaturalism chiefly in that it considers as identical with the demands of reason, what the latter conceives to be a supernatural revelation, and in that it consequent ly endeavors to explain away by tricks of interpretation all that is ' A distinction similar to that between radicalism and liberalism in the field of politics, although they often pass into each other. Comp. Kant, Rel. innerhalb d. Grrenz. d. bloss. Vernunft, p. 216 sq. The designation "rationalist" is, however, of earlier date. The terms Rationistse and Eatiocinistse were employed as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century, during a controversy at Helmstedt between the orthodox and the humanists (comp. Henke, Georg Cal'ixt, p. 248). A sect whose ad herents denominated themselves "rationalists," existed in England in 1646; and Sucre, during a disputation in A. D. 1706, classed " BationalistsB, Naturalistse, Liber- tini, Sceptici, quin imo Athei " together. Comp. Lechler, Gesch. des englischen Deis- mus, p. 61, and Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, ii, p. 26. INFLUENCE OF HERDER AND SCHLEIERMACHER. 101 supernatural in the Scriptures, or else seeks to obviate its force as be ing merely the opinion of the time and people in question. It holds fast chiefly to the ethicsof Christianity. This formal difference nat urally implies the material, with reference to the specifically Christian doctrines of the person of Christ, the Trinity, original sin, the merits of Christ, redemption, eschatology, etc. Frequent approximations of the two systems to each other became apparent, however. Approaches of at an early day. Biblical supernaturalism departed in 'upeTnalu" nsm many respects from the ancient orthodox doctrine of to each other. the Church, and often agreed with Socinianism in simply retaining the merely formal idea of a revelation, so that the controversy turned not so much upon the contents of doctrine as upon the way by which it had been reached. Rationalism, on the other hand, sought to demonstrate its agreement with the Bible in essential points, and established itself as Biblical rationalism, in opposition to doctrines of the Church as developed beyond the Scriptures, as well as to the more recent speculations. Mutual concessions led to a rational supernaturalism and a supernatural rationalism. Meanwhile, the active intellect of theologians like Herder, had already j^^^ direction solved the contradiction in the last century, by regarding given to theoi- -r-.,. 1 1- T 1 \. ¦ r °Sy by Herder Revelation, not as an abstractly imparted doctrine Irom and schieier- God to men, but as a Divine and human fact, to which ^acher. the Bible gives a living testimony, without attempting to place in the hands of the systematic theologian a finished corpus doc- trirm. Kleuker, too, insisted upon the recognition of the divine ly given facts, while entertaining freer views respecting the inspir ation of the Scriptures which had been identified with revelation itself.' But it was reserved for Schleiermacher, more than all others, to allay the conflict between rationalism and supernaturalism," by making the historical manifestation of Christ, and acknowl edgment of him as the Saviour of the world, the criterion by which to judge. The contrast between sin and grace, which had received a superficial treatment at the hands even of many Biblical supernaturalists, was again apprehended in its profound significance, ' Compare S. Ratjen, Johann Friedrich Kleuker und Briefe seiner Freunde, Gottin gen, 1842. ' " I, for my poor part," says Schleiermacher, " begin to feel uncomfortable as soon as 1 listen to the on-rush of the 'ra-, irra-, and supra-,' because to my mind this ter minology simply serves to increase the tangle of the confusion," (Zugabe zu Schreiben an Herrn Ammon, Beriin, 1818, p. 14). Concerning the influence of Schleiermacher on the development of modern theology, comp. K. Schwarz Gesch. d. neuesten Theol ogie, p. 29 sqq., 1st ed J02 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. and the. proper manifestation of God was seen to be his manifesta tion in Christ for the redemption of the world. Subsequent specu lation likewise rendered material aid to the introduction of a more spiritual conception of the idea of revelation, and the whole of recent theology — to whose development, in addition to tives of the re- Schleiermacher, de Wette, Marheineke, Daub, Nitzsch, cent theology, twesten, Hase, Ullmann, Jul. Muller, Dorner, Al. Schweizer, Schenkel, Liebner, Martensen, Rothe, and Lange con tributed, though occupying very different points of view — must be considered as having passed beyond the ancient controversy be tween rationalism and supernaturalism. It does not follow, how ever, that the antagonism has been removed, but merely that it has entered on a new stage. For, 1. The more modern tendency, generally speculatively mediat- The old strife ^^^' ^® susjjected by both the older rationalistic and the in its newer older supematuralist schools of imposing a new sense on the ancient teachings of the Church, and of using words to conceal dishonest practices. At this point everything depends upon a correct apprehension of the relation of the undevel oped to the developed, the immediate contents of the Scriptures to what has been historically and intellectually inferred, as also upon a proper distinction between the religious element and the ever- changing forms of scientific expression. 2. It cannot be denied that the pantheistic spirit has often donned the garb of superior orthodoxy In-ah insufting compar ison of itself with rationalism, although the latter honestly de nied what it believed itself compelled to deny, while, at the same time, it decisively retained a belief in God and immortality ac cording to the theisi;ic view.' The reproaches of pantheism do not apply in every case, however; and, for itself, rationalism has often found it difficult while opposing pantheism, to deny the charge of sheer deism and naturalism. The vulgar ¦ rationalism, having fallen behind in the march of progress, is, with all its understand ing and practical thoroughness, deficient in intellectual mobility when engaged upon details, and is deficient also in a profound ap- ' "It should be credited to the memory of rationalism, that it did not reject the Idea of personality, nor teach an impersonal God, an impersonal Christ, an impersonal human soul, ». e., one incapable of existing after death. In its more noble representa tives, at least, the disciples and successors of Kant, it displays the praiseworthy am bition to secure dogmatic recognition for an absolutely perfect, personal God, who governs the worid in the interests of moral ends, an ethically perfect Christ, who is educating the worid for moral purposes, and a human personal soul, which is capable ot endless moral perfection, and is being trained on earth by Christianity for the here after. Schenkel, Idee der Personlichkeit, p. 6. THE POSITION OF PIETISM. 103 prehension of the nature of religion and Christianity, while, despite its praiseworthy morality, it also lacks the devout disposition in which all religious inspiration has its rise. This applies also, though in a different manner, to the older Biblical supernaturalism, which rests upon a more solid foundation, indeed, but without deriving an adequate benefit from this advantage. In the current conflict modern pietism has taken the place of the older supernaturalism. The earlier pietism' contrasted with the orthodoxy of its tune, in that it represented ??etism1rthe the independent, active prmciple in the Church, and ''™"'='- the interests of practical Christianity (Spener, Francke). It as sumed a weaker position after the days of the Wolfian philosophy, and often assailed science at improper points (the pietistic opposi tion at Halle agamst Wolf). Pietism joins the older supernatural ism in holdmg strongly to the Scriptures; but what was a dead form with the latter, has become a living body with the former. It regards the Bible as the word of life, and like the later theology, It attaches great importance to the contrast between sin and grace, with the difference that it rejects the speculative element and con fines itself wholly to the practical. It is only too prone, however, to commit the error of confounding dogmatic Christianity with practical, in its zealous defense of the letter, or to be led astray, while striving to be piously intelligent, into insipidity and arbitrari ness. To this must be added a fondness for dabbling with philos ophy and natural science without honestly examining their claims, or, in case it renounces every pretence to scientific character, a dis position to vaunt itself in pious phraseology, which naturally assumes the appearance of cant. ' The name, as is well known, came into current use in the time of Spener and Francke. At that time the pietists (as liberals) stood opposed to the strictly orthodox. Their buoyant and pious spiritual life soon, however, gave way to ascetic formalism. This was pietism on its practical side (affected piety) ; our concern is with dogmatic pietism. The latter clings emphatically to the fundamental doctrines of Protestant ism, both the formal, as involved in the principle of the authority of the Scriptures, and the material, of sin and justification, in which connexion it strongly emphasizes the natural corruption of man and his moral inability when not aided by grace (comp. von Colin and Bretschneider in the passages cited below). In these respects it can not be justly charged with sectarianism ; it has, on the contrary, always appealed to its orthodoxy, when brought into comparison with rationalism. But its devotion to the letter is not yet a proof of the Protestant spirit; and the words will apply here, "Duo cum faciunt idem, non est idem," and, "C'est le ton, qui fait la musique." Luther's energetic nature certainly wrought out the doctrine internally with different results, and gave to it a different outward bearing, from what a sickly languishing pietism is able to furnish. The entire life-conception of the Reformation was sound ly pious, but far from being morbidly pietistic. 104 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.^DIA. Mysticism,' which has been improperly confounded with pietism, presents a more attractive appearance. It is more an- Themystlcten- ^. , . . , . , - ,, ^, , , dencyin theol- cicut than pietism, being as old as tne Onurcn, and osy- even older. It is really religion itself in the exact sense, as the latter appears when restricted to its immediate self and not aided by intelligent knowledge, or when, guided by the im agination, it wanders off into the labyrinths of theosophy, while in the practical field it either gives way to the contemplative inactivity of quietism or manifests itself as enthusiasm. Mysticism is super naturalism, inasmuch as it rests on the assumption of an immediate enlightening influence from above and of an actual communion of the Divine with the human; it can never, therefore, come to terms with the vulgar rationalism.'' But it differs from the formal Bibli cal supernaturalism in not limiting revelation entirely to the writ ten word, listening rather to the internal word, and evincing a strong inclination to convert the positive features into allegory, and the historical facts into ideal vagaries. It has this tendency in com mon with the idealistic rationalism, as may be seen, e. g., in Swe- denborg. Another new form of supernaturalism is the ecclesiastical posi- Ecciesiasticai tivism and confessipnaHsm, which again asserts itself confessionausm. .yjrjth power. TMs tendency, not content with Bibli cal orthodoxy, lays stress upon assent to the teachings of symbol ical books as the necessary criterion of a correct belief, and aims ' The derivation is from ^ia, fivciTric, fivoTr/piov, fivoTLKo^. The examination of what is mysterious involves neither praise nor blame, aside from other considerations. Inasmuch as religion is itself the mystery of godliness, it will involve a mystical char acter to the apprehension of the average human understanding ; and it was not, there fore, wholly an error, to distinguish between a true and a false mysticism, as some have done. The corruption of mysticism has been designated by many as fanaticism (from f anum, fanaticus) ; but there are fanatics of every kind, even rationalistic ones. The characteristic traits of a fanatic are a cold heart and a hot head. Enthusiasm is sometimes substituted for this term; but common usage attaches a more innocent idea to that word. The enthusiast is capable of martyrdom in the defense of his principles ; the fanatic erects the stake. (Bretschneider describes fanaticism as the paroxysm of enthusiasm). Nitzsch remarks, in entire correspondence with our view, that " fanaticism is, in its inner nature, unqualifiedly cold ; every fanatic is, in his in most being, a cold nature ; whatever heat he has is superficial ; a passionate bearing ' within the limits of the external and the empirical, is cultivated as a compensation for his coldness and indifference." Akadem. Vortrage iiber Christi. Glaubenslehre, p. 28. '^ " In the meantime," says Hase (Theol. Streitschriften, No. 3, page 90), " it would not harm rationalism, if it were to receive into itself as much of mystical unction as it could contain without injury to its sound common sense ; and mysticism likewise would not necessarily suffer the loss of its vessel of grace, were it to receive on board a measure of good seuse, as ballast, if not as a compass." COURSE OF THEOLOGY IN ENGLAND. 105 in Germany to destroy the existing union between Protestant denominations. England in the latter part of the seventeenth century was pro foundly stirred by the Trinitarian controversy, which began with the publication of tracts on the Unitarian side, by Thomas Firmin, a wealthy London merchant. Dr. John Wallis defended the Atha- nasian Creed, in his Letters on the Trinity (1690). In the same year Dean Sherlock contributed A Vindication of the Doctrine of the Holy and Ever-blessed Trinity, in which he approached tritheism, and was answered by Dr. South (1693) and Dr. Wallis. Bishop Bull's Defensio Fidei Niceanae (1685), collected the testimonies of the Fathers to the pre-existence of Christ and his divinity. In 1694 appeared his Judgment of the Catholic Church, in which he justified the anathema of the Nicene Creed. In Primitive Chris tianity Revived (1711), and the Council of Nice Vindicated from the Athanasian Heresy (1713), Professor Whiston, of Cambridge, set forth semi-Arianism. Whitby's Disquisitions criticised Bishop Bull's argument from the ante-Nicene Fathers. Dr. Samuel Clarke followed in the same line of argument, although he refused to be called an Arian. These works elicited Waterland's Vindication of Christ's Divinity; Defence of the Divinity of Christ ; Critical His tory of the Athanasian Creed, etc. (1719-1724). After this contro versy had run its course the attention of English theologians was directed to the Deistic controversy, already noticed (pp. 76, 77). A marked change in the tendencies of theological opinion in England may be dated from the middle of the eighteenth cen tury. The Wesleyan revival led to a concentration of theological thought upon the atonement, justification by faith, tendencies in and the work of the Holy Spirit in the heart of ^'^^^'i- man. The effects of the revival were felt throughout the Eng lish Church in the rise of the evangelical party, and beyond the Church in the general diffusion of Wesleyan theological ideas. At the same time the attack upon the internal contents of Christianity passed on to its external evidences and called forth a corresponding apologetic literature. In this literature Lardner (1684-1768), Leland (1691-1766), Paley (1743-1805), and Lyttleton (1709-1773), became conspicuous. Towards the close of the cen tury EngUsh Deism became infected with the French spirit, of which Gibbon, the historian, and Thomas Paine are striking exam ples. The evangelical movement having relaxed church principles and prepared the way for political liberalism, awakened a counter movement, which announced itself in 1833 in the issue of the first "Tract for the Times." From this series, which was finished in 106 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 1840, the movement has taken the name of Tractarian. It maintains the regenerative efiicacy of the sacraments, and the absolute au thority of the Church over the individual. At the same time the penetration of the English mind by German culture has produced a rationalism which has run parallel with that of Germany. Liter ary Rationalism has found a brilliant representative in Thomas Carlyle, who, while urging his countrymen to give heed to the moral order of the universe, seems to deny the possibility of at taining to distinct theological conceptions. The disciples of Cole ridge have endeavored to adjust modern philosojjhical thought and the creed of the Church of England to each other, and have produced a Broad Church party. The critical rationalistic spirit in the State Church is represented in the "Essays and Reviews," and the attacks of Bishop Colenso on the Credibility of the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua. Two of the theological tendencies of the age are well typified by the lives of the brothers, John Henry and Francis William Newman, one of whom passed from the evan gelical school, through Tractarianism to Rome, and the other, from the same starting-point, through Unitarianism to a religious idealism which denies all historic Christianity. During the past few years a call has been made among the Non-conformists of England and Scotland for a revision of Church standards. In the United States the Wesleyan revival spread more widely than in England, and created a theological tendency corresponding ¦ with its distinctive religious ideas. The Unitarian movement, which dates from the time of Stoddard's proposal of a "half-way covenant," obtained fresh importance under the leadership of Will iam Ellery Channing (1780-1842). Since the time of Channing it has shown both a conservative and a radical tendency, the radical ism going to the length of wholly destructive criticism (Theodore Parker and O. B. Frothingham). The Tractarian movement has also been repeated in the United States, but without the vigor which has marked its progress in England. The Churches of the Reformed faith, under the leadership of the American Presbyte rians, have formed an alliance, which has secured a collation of all the Reformed creeds. As one extreme, however, always calls forth the other, rational- The modern ism, which was suppOsed to have been forever buried, rationalism. ijas again arisen, but in a different form, and, in conse quence, assumes the designation "modern." It is remarkable that the same philosophical school to which the defenders of modern supernaturahsm belong, originated the speculative rationalism, which agrees with its older brother in denying the supernatural and the THE STUDENT'S RELATION TO DOUBT. 107 miraculous, but in other respects is materially different, inasmuch as it denies with emphasis the veiy doctrines which the earlier ra tionalism energetically maintained, viz., the doctrines of a personal God and a personal immortality, to which it adds incessant effort to undermine the historical basis of Christianity. Although this rationalism considers spirit a reality only as it attains to conscious ness in man, it has yet often been confounded — by both friend and foe, and not always without its own fault — with the other tendency which ends with wholly denying the existence of spirit, and passes over into bald materialism and nihilism, theories which manifestly constitute the negation of all theology. SECTION XL EELATIOK OF THE STUDENT TO THESE TENDENCIES. The pupil will find no scientific charm, by the use of which he may avoid these opposing influences, and escape the mental conflict they naturally excite. On the other hand, let none who are con scious of being governed by upright intentions in the sight of God, permit mere theoretical doubts to frighten them from the study of theology. A pious disposition will be strengthened by ,^^ ^.^^^ j^ the continued study of the Holy Scriptures as con- which, these . , n ^, , T •¦ 1 • , T • , connictmgten- nected with the Church and its history, by acquaint- dencies should ance with the great heroes who stood for the truth, be met. and who, in the midst of the most diverse complications, strove to secure the one thing needful, by sincere prayer to God. Love, which knows how to bear with divergent tendencies and how to ap propriate to itself all that is good in any form, will increase with the growth of faith, and faith will hold fast the truth which has been secured; and wherever a living faith and love are found, hope in the full triumph of the truth will not be wanting. Many approach theology with false expectations; either they have retained an unthinking faith, or they are affected by doubts conceived in the course of their preluninary studies. The former are easily disturbed in this study, when its critical processes threat en to destroy what they have hitherto cherished with devoted love. The latter become impatient when knotty doubts become still more involved, instead of giving way. Shall hard questions be concealed from sight, and the untenable be represented as admitting of de fense? Shame on the science which would lend its aid ^^^^ ^^^j^^^ to the attempt! Others advise, on the contrary, that of dealing with persons who cannot keep from doubting should leave the study of theology untouched. They urge that believing theo logians are needed, particularly in this age. The latter is certain- 108 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. >\ly true; but we prefer a faith that has been tested in the conflict, to the dullness of spirit which is often confounded with a believing disposition. Accordingly, eminent theologians, possessing the most loyal faith, have always valued courage in youthful aspirants. So Testimonies of ^^'^S^^>' '^^^ expresses the idea that "all doctrinal ten- great theoiogi- ets must needs pass through a conflict, and their truth ^°^' be won afresh." Harms, the man of robust faith, re marked while standing by the grave of a rationalistic student, " He who doubts religiously, has the true religion." ° Neander is said to have expressed an analogous sentiment, with reference to a young theologian who died before the age of youthful doubts had passed, to the effect that he died in his calling, and that to die thus is to die well. But let the questioning be in a religious spirit, and with a holy determination of heart which consents to part with every thing for the sake of securing a single pearl of truth. An earnestly religious character, even if it exists only in its most Sound theoiog- general form, will assuredly become more positively ical study will Christian under the influence of a sound course of the ological study. A vivid apprehension of Christ, even in his human nature alone, will, if joined with enthusiasm for the ideal, erelong beget in the heart faith in his Divine character, al though the intellect may yet be struggling to find a, satisfactory expression of its views. Such idealism ' is at all events, better than the dry prosaic disposition of a mind wholly given up to the influ ence of ordinary outward realities, which, precisely because of un belief, demands that every thing shall he signed and sealed and trebly hypothecated, and which prefers to confine its attention to what lies on the surface, to the end that its sleep may be undis- ' See Leben Bengel's, by Burk, p. iV, and comp. the Gottingen Memorial, Ueber die gegenwartige Krisis des kirchlichen Lebens (Gott., 1854), p. 18: "As in the field of morals importance attaches not simply to what is done, but even more to the reasons, purposes, and motives of our action; so in the religious field the great question is in no wise chiefly, w/jo believes, but more especially how and why he believes;" and page 20: "Inasmuch as the spiritual office, however important its relation to the or- ganism of the Church may be, does not ask to be considered a talisman before whose very appearance the diseases of our age must fly, it follows, that theological faculties will be required still further to impress upon the future servants of the Church, en trusted to their guidance and care, to the utmost of their ability, the necessity for in ward religious and moral culture rather than the mere memorizing of the tenets of the creed, in order that they may not merely attain to a correct belief, but also come to hold it in a, correct manner, and that thus a clergy firmly established in the faith of our Church be perpetuated among us." "See Eheinwald's Eepertorium, xxx, p. B4. = Comp. Kahler, Christi. Sittenlehre, p. 23, where genuine ideaUty is emphasized, as against a mere giddiness of ideas. THE LITERATURE OP RATIONALISM. 109 turbed. Let, therefore, the picture of a living Christ, adapted to compel the attention of every human soul struggling after God, be made the central feature of the theological school. It will then be come speedily apparent that " to love Jesus is the true supernatur alism, to comprehend Jesus the true rationalism, and to' illustrate Jesus in personal character the true mysticism; and that these three constitute true Christianity." ' Let the student remember, too, that the question of ration alism is largely a question of method. He who has, through a Christian experience, attained a clear Christian consciousness, is fixed upon a rock, from which he cannot easily be moved. Anselm has taught us that we must believe in order to understand, and has also reminded us that we are negligent if, " after we are established in the faith, we do not seek to understand what we believe." " We may be rational and yet not rationalistic; inquiring and yet thor oughly believing; philosophical and yet not unchristian. In the spirit of Anselm Coleridge has pointed out that "in order to an efficient belief in Christianity, a man must have been a Christian ; that this is the seeming argumentum in circulo incident to all spiritual truths, to every subject not presentable under the forms of time and space, as long as we attempt to master by the reflex acts of the understanding what we can only know by the act of becoming."" Christ's words will furnish the student a sure clue through the tangled thicket of rationalism : " If any man will do his will, he shall know of the doctrine whether it be of God." Respecting the extent to which the theological school may con tribute to the cultivation of a right disposition, comp. § 22. THE LITERATURE OF THl5 CONFLICT. Compare K. G. Bretschneider, Systematlsche Entwicklung aller In der Dogmatik vorkommen- den Begriffe, etc. (vol. 4, Lpz., 1841, p. 189) ; and die Literatur uber Eeligionsphilosophie, p. 75. I. ON RATIONALISM AND SUPEENATUEALISM. a. ON THE SIDE OF RATIONALISM. J. F. Eohr, Briefe fiber den Eationalismus. Aachen (Zeitz.), 1813. J. Schulthess und J. K. v. Orelli, Eationalismus und Supranaturalismus ; Kanon, Tra dition, und Scription. Ziirich, 1822. J. P. Eohr, Grund- und Glauben ssatze, der evang. -protest. Kirche. 1832-34. (Vgl. Bretschn. a. a. 0. S. 194.) 3. Aufl. Neustadt a. d. 0. 1843. Ch. F. Fritzsche, de rationalismo commentat. II ; in den opuscul. academ. (Tur., 1846) p. 8S ss. L. J. Euckert, der Eationalismus. Lpz., 1859. • Kahler, infra, p. 334. ' Cur Deus Homo ? book i, chap. ii. ' Biographia Literaria, chap, xxiv, p. 349. no GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Mzponents of the Extreme Modern Rationalism : — Kradolfer, iiber Glauben und Unglauben. Bremen, 1868. Schwalb, der alte und neue Glaube und Christus. Ebend. (In reply : Zahn, der alte und der neue Christus, oder Glaube und Unglaube. Sendsohreiben an Schwalb. Bremen,' 1868.) The best known organ of the older rationalistic tendency for a long time was Eohr's Predigerbibhothek (Neustadt a. d. Oria), 1820-1848, twenty-eight volumes and some pamphlets, continued by L. Lange until 1851 in nearly two volumes. Earher still were Schulthess' Annalen, Paulus' Sophronizon, der Denkglaubige, and other periodicals ; also die Darmstadter Kirchenzeitung, under the editorship of Bretschneider. A product of the vulgar Eationali'sm (which is partly mixed with pantheistic young He gelian ideas) is the so-called Deutsch-Katholicismus, and the Lichtfreundthum. Com pare the writings of Eonge, Uhlich, Wislicenus, Konig, Eupp (Brun's Eepertor. 1845, vol. iv, page 26). Organs of the same tendency are : HofEerichter und Kampe : Fiir freies religiiises Leben, Breslau, 1848; Blatter fiir christi. Erbauung, by E. Fischer and afterwards by Zille ; Lucifer, Fliegende Blatter fiir Kirchen- und Schulreform by C. Schaffer. Much different from the above-named tendency is the Eationalism which, more or less connecting itself with the results of the Hegelian philosophy and Tii bingen criticism, adopted as its highest standard "the modem consciousness." Its organs were the Zeitstimmen aus der ref. Kirche der Schweiz (from 1859), and the (Berne) Eeformblatter (from 1866), both published since 1872 as Reform, Zeitstim men aus der Schweizerischen Kirche. See also § 69. b. ON THE SIDE OF SUPEENATUEALISM. J. A. H. Tittman, fiber Supranatur., Eational., und Atheismus. Lpz., 1816. Cl. Harms, Thesen Luthers mit andern 95 Satzen. Kiel, 1817. (For the controversy arising therefrom, see in Deegen's Jahrbuch der Litera., ii, p. 139, and iii, p. 73.) dass es mit der Vernimftreligion nichts ist. Kiel, 1819. Ch. T. ZoUich, Briefe fiber den Supranaturalismus, eine gegenschrift zu den briefen fiber den Eational. Sondershausen, 1821. (In reply thereto Gebhard, die letzten Grfinde des Eationalismus. Arnst., 1822.) T. F. Kleuker, fiber das Ja und Nein der bibl.-christl., und der reinen Vernunfttheol- ogie. Hamburg, 1819. (Compare also fiber die Altonaer Bibel, 1818.) H. StefCens, von der f alschen Theologie und dem wahren Glauben ; eine Stimme aus der Gemeinde. Breslau, 1831. E. Sartorius, die Eeligion ausserhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft. Marburg, 1822. fiber die Uuwissenschaftlichkeit und innere Verwandtschaft des Eationalismus und Eomanismus in den Erkenntnissprincipien und Heilslehren des Christenthums. (Beitrage zur Vertheidigung der evangclischen Eechtglaubigkeit. Heidelberg, 1825.) A. Hahn, de rationalismi, qui dicitur, vera indole et qua cum naturalismo contineatur ratione. Lips., 1827. (Compare also the polemical treatises which were called forth by it from Hase, Krug, Eichter, Clemen, and others. Bretschneider, Syst. Entw., p. 192.) fiber die Lage des Christenthums in unserer Zeit, und das Verhaltniss des christ liohen Theologie zur Wissenschaft, flberhaupt. Lpz., 1832. T. A. Voigtlander, der Eationalismus nach seinen philosophischen Hauptformen und in seiner historischen Gestalt. Lpz., 1830. W. Steiger, Kritik des Eationalismus in Wegsoheiders Dogmatik. Berlin, 1830. LITERATURE OF THE MEDIATING THEOLOGY. Ill "With Sharp Antagonism to the Modern Tendencies : — Agenor de Gasparin, les dcoles du doute et I'ecole de la foi. Paris, 1853. Vilmar, die Theologie der Thatsachen wider die Theologie der Rhetorik. 4th edit. Marburg, 1876. Scheele, die trunkene Wissenschaft und ihr Erbe an die evangelische Kirche. Ber lin, 1867. Periodical Organs of Supernaturalism : — Hengstenberg's Evangel. Kirchenzeitung (Beriin, 1827); since 1869 by L. H. Tausch- er ; earlier, Bengel's Archiv (continued by Steudel) ; Heidenreich's and Hfiffell's Zeitschrift ; Schwarz's Jahrbucher ; Tholuck's Literar. Anzeiger. Organs of the Extreme Orthodox (Lutherans) ; — The Erianger Zeitsohriften by Hariess, Rudelbach, and Guericke (Guericke and De litzsch to the end of 1878) ; by DieckhofE (eariier, Meyer) and Kliefoth ; Luthardt's Allgem. evang. luth. K. Z. (Lpz., 1868). An organ of the extreme reformed tendency is, die Evang. Ref. Kirchenzeitung, by Thelemann (Detmold, 1851); in place of which has appeared lately the Elber- felder Eeform. K. Z. As an organ of the now so-called " positive Union," the Neue evang. K. Z., by H. Messner and others (Berl., 1859), may be consulted. C. THE MEDIATIN& THEOLOGY. 1. Prom tlie Standpoint of Rationalism. H. G. Tzschirner, dass die Verschiedenhcit der dogmatischen Systeme kein Hinderniss des Zwecks der Kirche sei. (Vgl. Bretschneider S. 191.) Ch. F. Bohme, christi. Henotikon. Halle, 1827. K. G. Bretschneider, fiber die grundprincipien der evangel. Theologie. Altenburg, 1832. (The same author's two letters to a statesman. Lpz., 1830.) C. G. W. Theile, Christus und die Vernunft. Lpz., 1830. Aphorismen zur Verstandigung fiber den sogenannten alten und neuen Glauben. Lpz., 1839. D. G. K. V. Colin and Dav. Schulz, fiber theologische Lehrfreiheit auf. den evangcl ischen Universitaten. Breslau, 1830. 2. Prom the Standpoint of Supernaturalism,. E. L. Nitzsch, fiber das Heil der Theologie durch Unterscheidung der Offenbarung und Eeligion als Mittel und Zweck. Wittenb., 1830. L. Hfiffell, Friedensvorsehlage zur Beendigung des Streits zwischen bibl. christlichen Theologen und Eationalisten (Zeitschrift fur Predigerwissenschaften, vol. II). K. Euthenus, der formale Supernaturalismus oder der einzig mogliche weg zu einer Ausgleichung der streitenden theol. Parteien. Lpz., 1834. von der Goltz, die Grenzen der Lehrfreiheit in Theol. u. Kirche. Bonn, 1873. 3. From the Speculative Standpoi-nt. de Wette, Eeligion und Theologie. Beri., 1817; 2. 1821. fiber den Verfall der protestantischen Kirche in Deutschland und die Mittel, ihr wieder aufzuheUen (Reformationsalm. 1817. Pp. 296 ff.). Theodor oder des Zweiflers Weihe. Berlin, 1822, 28. 2 Bde. L. A. Kahler, Supernaturalismus und Eationalismus in ihrem gemeinschaftl. Ur- sprunge, ihrer Zwietracht und hohern Einheit. Lpz., 1818. K. Ullmann, theoiog. Bedenken, auf Veranlassung des AngrifEs der evang. Kirchen zeitung auf den Hallischen Rationalismus. Halle, 1830. 112 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP..«DIA. Alex. Schweizer, Kritik des Gegensatzes zwischen Eationalismus und Supranaturalis- mus. Zurich, 1833. Nach Eechts und nach Links. Lpz., 1876. K. Hase, theoiog. Streitschriften. Lpz., 1834-37. 3 vols. Jul. Wiggers, kirchlioher oder rein biblischer Supernaturalismus ? Lpz., 1S42. K. E. Hagenbach, fiber die sog. Vermittlungstheologie, zur Abwehr und Verstand igung. Zfir., 1858. fiber Glauben und Unglauben ; two lectures dehvered at Basel. Berne, 1872. * E. Eothe, zur Dogmatik. Gotha, 1863. 2. ed., 1869. A. E. Krauss, die Lehre von der Offenbarung. Gotha, 1868. Dan. Schenkel, Christenthum und Kirche im Einklang mit der Culturentwicklung. Wiesbaden, 1867. ' J. W. Hanne, der Geist des Christenthums, seine Entwickelung und sein Verhaltniss zu Kirche und Cultur der Gegenwart. Elberf., 1867. Periodical Organs of the Mediating Theology: — Theoiog. Studien und Kritiken, by Ullmann and Umbreit, with the co-operation of Gies- eler, Lucke, and Nitzsch, now conducted by Eiehm, Kostlin, and Beyschlag (Ham burg, now Gotha); also the Deutsche Zeitschrift ffir christi. Wissenschaft und christi. Leben, conducted by K. T. Th. Schneider, with the co-operation of Jul. Mfiller, Aug. Neander, K. I. Nitzsch, later by W. HoUenberg. Other organs are : die Jahrbficher ffir deutsche Theologie, by Liebner and others (1858 until the end of 1878); die Jahrbficher ffir protest. Theologie (Lpz., 1875), by Hase, Lipsius, Pfleiderer, and Schrader ; Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift fur wissensch. Theologie (Lpz., 1858). An organ of the freest critical tendency is the famous Tijdschrift of Leyden by A. Kuenen and others (1867); on the other hand there are the alike famous Tijd schrift of Groeningen (1876) ; also Kalkar's Danish Tidskrift (Copenhagen, 1871), belonging more to the mediating tendency. The more practical tendencies are represented by the Allg. Kirchl. Zeitschrift, by Schenkel and others (1860-72), and lately as the Protest. K. Z., the chief organ of the Protestant Union. The Protest. Kirchenzeitung ffir das evang. Deutschland, was founded in 1854 by Jonas, Sydom, Krause, Pischon, and others. It opposed reactionary tendencies, but held fast to the results won since Schleiermacher (yet disposed more to the left than to the right). A mediating position was held also by the Kirchenblatt ffir die ref. Schweiz, which ceased at the end of 1868 ; com pare among others the treatise Zur Orientirung fiber die gegenwartigen theol. Par teien. (Jahrg., 1859. Nos. 22-25.) Holding the same position, yet still more popular, i.s, at Berne, the Volksblatt ffir die ref. Kirche der Schweiz (since 1872). Historical : — E. F. Staudlin, Geschichte des Rationalismus und Supranaturalismus. Gott., 1826. Amand Saintes, krit. Geschichte des Eationalismus in Deutschland. Lpz., 1845-47. In English, London, 1849. Schenkel, die religiosen Zeitkampfe. Hamb., 1847. Tholuck, Gescli. des Eationalismus. Gotha, 1865. J. F. Hurst, History of Ra tionalism. New York, 1865; London, 1867. G. Frank, Gesch. des Ration, und seiner Gegensatze. Lpz., 1875. n. ON MYSTICISM, PIETISM, ETC. J. Spalding, fiber den Werth der GefUhle im Christenthume. Lpz., 1764 u. 5. J. L. Ewald, Briefe fib. die alte Mystik u. den neueren Mysticismus. Lpz., 1822. ENGLISH LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 113 E. A. Borger, disputatio de mysticismo. Hague, 1820. From the Latin by Stange, with preface by Gurlitt. Altona, 1826. Dn. von Colin, histor. Beitrage zur Erlauterung und Berichtigung der Begriffe Pietis- mus, Mysticismus und Fanaticismus. Halberst., 1830. G. Chr. R. Matthai, der Mysticismus nach seinem Begriffe, Ursprung und Unwerth. Gott., 1832. Mad. de Stael, de la mysticite. Ed. ster. Paris, 1816. In her work on Germany, vol. iii, p. 290. A. Liebner, Hugo von St. Victor. Lpz., 1832. Pp. 222. K. G. Bretschneider, die Grundlage des evang. Pietismua. Lpz., 1833. J. H. V. Wessenberg, fiber Schwarmerei. Heilbroim, 1834. 2. ed., 184S. G. Binder, der Pietismus und die moderne Bildung. Stuttg., 1838. Chr. Merklin, Darstellung und Kritik des modemen Pietismua. Stuttg., 1839. J. A. Dorner, der Pietismus, insbes. in Wfirtemb., und seine speculativen Gegner, Binder, und Marklin. Hamb., 1846. L. Hfiffell, der Pietismus, geschichtl. und kirchl. beleuchtet. Heidelb., 1846. K Ullmann, das Wesen des Christenthums und die Mystik (against Gasparin) ; theol. Stud. u. Krit., 1852. Heft 3. Pp. 535-614. J. P. Romang, fiber Unglauben, Pietismus, u. Wissenschaft. Bern u. Zfirich, 1859. H. Schmid, Geschichte des Pietismus. Nordlingen, 1863. H. L. J. Heppe, Gesch. der quietistischen Mystik in der kath Kirche. Berlin, 1875. F. Nippold, zur geschichtl. Wfirdigung des Quietismus (Jahrb. f. protest. Theologie. 1877, 2). A. Eitschl, Prolegomena zu einer Gesch. des Pietismus (Zeitschr. f. Kirchengeach., 1877, 1). EWGLISH AND AMEEICAN LITEKATUEE. 1. On the side of Rationalism. Arnold, Matthew. Literature and Dogma. An Essay toward a better appreciation of the Bible. 12mo. New York, 1874. God and the Bible. Review of objections to Literature and Dogma. 12mo. New York, 1875. Bellows, Henry W. Restatements of Christian Doctrine. In Twenty-five Sermons. 12mo, pp. 434. Boston, 1882. Channing, W. E. Works. 3 vols. Boston, 1874. Clarke, James Freeman. Orthodoxy: Its Truths and Errors. 12mo, pp. xi, 512. Boston, 1866. Common Sense in Religion. A Series of Essays. 12mo. Boston, 1880 Essentials and Non-Essentials in Eelipon. Boston, 1878. Colenso, John William. The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, Critically -examined. 12mo, pp. 229. New York, 1863. (For answers to Colenso, see (2.) and alao Hurst's History of Rationalism, pp. 599, 602.) Dewey, OrviUe. Discourses in Defence of Unitarianism. Works. 3 vols. New York, 1876. Why I am a Unitarian. In Pitts St. Chapel Lectures. 12mo, pp. 366. Boston, 1858. Eliot, Wm. 6. Doctrines of Christianity. 12mo, pp. 168. Boston, 1S82. Farley, Frederick A. Unitarianism Defined. The Scripture Doctrine of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. 12mo, pp. 272. Boston, 1SS2. Froude, John Anthony. Short Studies on Great Subjecta. 12mo, pp. 534. New York, 1868. (Takes the rationalistic view of the authenticity of the gospels.) 8 114 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Furness, W. H. Jesus and his Biographers. Boston, 1838. Greg, W. E. Enigmas of Life. 12mo, pp. xix, 332. Boston, 1S73. The Creed of Christendom. Its Foundation Contrasted with its Superstructure. 2 vols., Svo. Boston. Hedge, Frederick Henry. Eeason in Eeligion. 12mo, pp. 458. Boston, 1865. and Associates. Unitarian Afiirmations : Seven Discourses given in Wash ington, by Unitarian Ministers. 12mo, pp. 175. Boston, 1879. Lamson, Alvan. The Church of the First Three Centuries ; or, Notices of the Lives and Opinions of some of the Early Fathers, with special reference to the Doctrine of the Trinity. Svo, pp. 352. Boston, 1860. Martineau, James. Eationale of Eeligious Inquiry. 12mo. London, 1839. And Svo. 1845. Lectures : part of a series in answer to Lectures against Unitarianism by thir teen Clergymen of the Church of England. Svo. London. Metcalf, Eichard. Letter and Spirit. Winchester Lectures. 16mo, pp. 198. Bos ton, 1882. Miller, John. Questions awakened by the Bible. I. Are Souls Immortal ? II. Was Christ in Adam? III. Is God a Trinity? Philadelphia, 1877. Newman, Francis Wm. Phases of Faith; or. Passages from the History of my Creed. 12mo, pp. 234. London, 1850. The Soul : Her Sorrows and Aspirations. An Easay towarda the Natural Hia- tory of the Soul, as the basia of Theology. 12mo. London. Norton, Prof. Andrewa. Statement of Eeaaona for not Believing the Doctrines of Trinitarians Concerning the Nature of God and the Person of Christ. 12mo, pp. 650. Boston, 1882. Parker, Theodore. Discourses of Matters pertaining to Eeligion. 12mo. Boston, 1853. Sermons on Theism, Atheism, and Popular Theology. 12mo. Boston, 1853. Speeches, Addresses, and Occasional Sermons, 3 vols. 12mo. Boston. Powell, Baden. The Order of Nature Considered in Eeference to the Claims of Eevelation, Svo. London, 1S60. Smith, G. Vance. The Bible and Popular Theology. A Restatement of Truths and Principles, with special Eeference to recent works of Dr. Liddon, Lord Hatherly, the Eight Hon. W. E. Gladstone, and others. 12mo, pp. 340. Boston, 1882. Strauss, David Friedrich. The Old Faith and the New Faith. A Confession, From the German. 12mo. New York, 1874. Temple, Frederick, and Associates. Eecent Inquiries in Theology: being Essays and Eeviews. 2d Am. ed., with Introduction by F. H. Hedge. 12mo, pp. xiv, 498. Boston, 1861. Ware, Henry. Letters to Unitarians and Calvinists. 12mo. Cambridge, 1820. Wilson, John. Unitarian Principles Confirmed by Trinitarian Testimonies. 12mo, pp. 520. Boston, 1882. Worcester, Noah. Bible News ; or. Sacred Truths relating to the living God, His Only Son and Holy Spirit. 12mo. Concord, 1810. 1812, and 1825. 2. Against Rationaliim. Auberlen, Carl August. The Divine Eevelation. An Essay in Defence of the Faith . From the German. Svo, pp. 441. Edinburgh, 1867. Bushnell, Horace. God in Christ. Three Discourses delivered at New Haven, Cam bridge, and Andover. (Properly a mediating work ; the second essay offers Sabeilianism as a ground of union between Unitarianism and Trinitarianism.) ENGLISH LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 115 Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural aa together constituting the one system of God. 12mo, pp. 528. New York, 1864. Cairns, John. Romanism and Eationalism, as opposed to Pure Christianity. 12mo. London, 1866. Christlieb, Theodore. Modem Doubt and Christian Belief. A Series of Apologetic Lectures. From the German. Svo, pp. 649. New York, 1874. Dorchester, Daniel. Concessions of Liberalists to Orthodoxy. 16mo, pp. 343. Boston, 1878. Fisher, Geo. P. Faith and Eationalism, with short supplementary essays on related topics. 12mo, pp. ISS. New York, 1879. The Supernatural Origin of Christianity etc. Svo, pp. 686. New York, 1866. Hare, Edward. The Principal Doctrines of Christianity defended against the Errors of Socinianism. 12mo, pp. 396. New York, 1S37. Maurice, F. D., and Associates. Tracts for Priests and People. By Various Writefs. 12mo, pp. 372. Am. ed. Boston, 1862. (A Broad-School Eeply to Essays and Reviews.) Oxford, the Lord Biahop, Editor. Eeplies to Essays and Eeviews, with a Pref ace by the Lord Bishop of Oxford. Am. ed. 12mo, pp. 443. New York, 1862. Parkinson, Richard. Rationalism and Eevelation ; or, the Testimony of Moral Philosophy, the System of Nature, and the Constitution of Man to the Truth of the Doctrine of Scripture. Hulsean Lectures for 1837. Svo, pp. 223. London, 1838. Scott, W. A. The Christ of the Apostle's Creed : the Voice of the Church against Arianism, Strauss and Eenan, with an Appendix. 12mo, pp. 432. New York, 1867. Thompson, William, Editor. Aids to Faith. A Series of Theological Essays by sev eral writers, being a reply to Essays and Eeviews. Am. ed. 12mo, pp. 638. New York, 1862. Ulrici, Herman. Strauss as a Philosophical Thinker. A Eeview of "the Old Faith and the New Faith." From the German. 16mo, pp. 167. Philadelphia, _^1S74. Woods, Leonard. Letters to Unitarians, occasioned by the Sermon of Eev. W. E. Channing, etc. Svo. Andover, 1820, 1822. Worcester, Samuel. Letters to the Eev. W. E. Channing, on Unitarianism. Svo. Boston, 1816. Although Strauss, in his life of Jesus, first demolishes the rationalistic interpre tation of the gospels in order to prepare the way for his mythical theory, he has yet been the occasion of the writing of lives of Christ in which the supernatural view of the person and work of our Lord is maintained, and which are therefore directed against rationalism. Among these are : Alexander, Wm. Lindsay. Christ and Christianity. A Vindication of the Chris tian Eeligion, founded on the historical events of the life of Christ. 12mo, pp. 314. New York, 1864. Bayne, Peter. The Testimony of Christ to Christianity. 12mo, pp. 195. Boston, 1862. Neander, Augustus. The Life of Jesus Christ in its historical connexion and histor ical development. From the German by John M'Clintock, and Chas. E. Blumen- thal. Svo, pp. 460. New York, 1848. 116 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. Pressense, E. D. Jesus Christ: His Times, Life, and Work. From the French. 12mo, pp. 496. New York, 1868. (The first chapter discusses the objections to the supernatural in the gospels.) Schaff, Philip. The Person of Christ: The Miracle of History: with a reply to Strauss and Renan, and a collection of testimonies of Unbelievers. 16mo, pp. 376. New York, 1876. Tulloch, John. The Christ of the Gospels and the Christ of Modern Criticism. 16mo, pp. 266. Cincinnati, 1865. (See for other titles, p. 282.) Some replies to Colenso : Benisch, A. Bishop Colenso's Objections to the Pentateuch and Book of Joshua critically examined. London, 1863. Briggs, F. W. The Two Testimonies. Being a reply to Bishop Colenso's Pentateuch and Book of Joshua. London, 1863. Fowler, C. H. Fallacies of Colenso Eeviewed. Cincinnati. Green, Wm. Henry. The Pentateuch Vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso. 12mo, pp. 195. New York, 1863. Mahan, M. Spiritual Point of View ; or, the Glass Reversed. Answer to Bishop Colenso. New York. See also Hurst's History of Eationalism. Pp. 699, 602. See Harman's Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture. Pp. 216-219. 3. Mysticism. Tulloch, John. Henry More. Christian Theosophy and Mysticism : Chap. V of Eational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England, in the Seventeenth Century. Vol. II, Svo. London, 1872. (See also Poole's Index to Periodical Literature, p. 890, for review articles on several branches of the subject.) Vaughn, Eobert Alfred. Hours with the Mystics. A Contribution to the History of Eeligious Opinion. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 372, 383. London. 4. History of Rationalism. Allen, Joseph Henry. Our Liberal Movement in Theology, chiefly aa shown in EecoUections of the History of Unitarianism in New England. 16mo, pp. 220. Boston, 1882. Cairns, John. Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century as Contrasted with its earlier and later history. (Lect. V treats of Eationalism in Germany.) 12mo, pp. 216. New York, 1881. Ellis, Geo. E. Half-Century of the Unitarian Controversy, with particular refer ence to its Origin, etc., Svo, pp. 536. Boston, 1867. Farrar, Adam Storey. A Critical History of Free Thought in Eeference to the Christian Religion. Bampton Lectures for 1862. 12mo, pp. 487. New York, 1863. Hagenbach, K. E. German Eationalism. Its Else, Progress, and Decline. From the German. Svo, pp. 405. Edinburgh, 1865. Hurst, John P. History of Eationalism. Embracing the Present State of Prot estant Theology. Svo, pp. 643. New York, 1865. Lecky, W. E. H. History of the Else and Influence of the Spirit of Eationalism in Europe. Svo, 2 vols. New York, 1873. Leland, John. A View of the Principal Deistical Writers that have appeared in England in the Last and Present Century. Svo. London, 1836. Saintes, Amand. A Critical History of Eationalism in Germany, from its Origin to the Present Time. Svo, pp. x, 379. London, 1849. Saisset, Emile. Manual of Modern Pantheism. Essay on Eeligious Philosophy. 2 vols., Svo, pp. vi, 310, 273. Edinburgh, 1862. ENGLISH LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM. 117 Tulloch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the Seventeenth Century. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 463, 500. Vol. I. Liberal Churchmen. Vol. II. The Cambridge Platonists. Edinburgh and London, 1872. For an account of the Dodwell Controversy on the Natural Immortality of the Human Soul, and also the Literature of the Controversy, see Dr. Noah Porter's Appen dix to Ueberweg's History of Philosophy. Vol. II, pp. 371-875. See also Dr. Ezra Abbott's Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life, Titles 2114-2129 m- clusive. For the Bibliography of the Unitarian Controversy in New England, see the Appendix to H. M. Dexter's Congregationalism as seen in its Literature. The list of the titles extends to the year 1879. Chap. VI of 0. B. Frothingham's Transcen dentalism in New Englsind contains a brief account of the rise of New England Unitarianism. See also " Historical Introduction " in Sprague's Annals of the Unitarian Pulpit, and, for review articles on both sides, Poole's Index, pp. 1340, 1341. On the Trinitarian Controversy in England during the last years of the Seventeenth Century, and the first years of the Eighteenth, see Hunt's History of Religious Thought in England from the Reformation etc. Vol. II, pp. 200-221, and Vol. Ill, pp. 20-23. 118 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. APPENDIX TO PART FIRST OF THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA. THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. r. Zyro, Revision der christl.-theologisch. Encycklopadlk, in Stud. u. Krit., 1837, No. 3, p. 689, and Hagenbach's art. In Herzog, Eucykl., vol. Iv. The encyclopaedia of a science as a whole can only come into being after the science has been rounded into a KVKXog ; and Theo logical Encyclopaedia, accordingly, could not originate before the ology had been an organism of various departments. The begin nings of this science were apparent in the Church,_ however, at quite an early period, though rather in connexion with other branches of theological study, than as a distinct subject of inquiry. Their most natural expression was found in connexion with practical theology. The installation of a clergyman in his oifice, would involve, in ad dition to remarks relating to its particular duties, the necessity of pointing out the kinds of knowledge and ability required. Chry- Beginnings of sostom (TTspt lepuavvrjg) already furnishes hints as to TcioDSaS ^ta "^^^t would be proper qualifications for the servant of cbrysostom. God, in the matter of scientific acquirements, as well as with respect to his religious and moral character, adding many beautiful reflections on the manifold gifts required for a worthy administration of the spiritual ofiice (Books v and vi).' Augustine likewise (De doctrina Christiana) indicates the scientific acquire ments needed for the exposition of the Scriptures and the duties Quaiiflcations of the pulpit, among which he already places a knowl- a'a^rtS™ ^^S^ °^ ^^^ languages in which the Bible was originally Augustine. written; and he recommends, as helps, the use of the Septuagint and the old Latin (Itala) versions. He also insists that natural sciences, e. g., natural history, botany, etc., should be ad mitted into the course of study, but only so far as they can aid in ex- ' The passage in v, 5, is remarkable, as already distinguishing between the empiric and the cultivated minister, and between the different degrees of obligation devolving on them, 'Qare rotf aoixjTepoi^ /ia)i,Xov fj Toif a/ia-d-eaTrpoig /lei^uv 6 -kovoc. OiiSi yap vKsp TUP avTuv 7j Cijfita afieXovai tovtol^ Kufcelvocg, aXXa tooo-Otov avT-q irXeluv, bnov Ka\ T^c xTT/aeuf inaTipac to jiiaov. KaKsivoic liiv oiicS' uv hyKaXeaeii rif, pr/Siv uftoi; Tioyov vapixovaiv ovtoi d'e ci (it; /lei^ova Trjg 6d^7i<;, j^f airavTSf exovai nepl avrov, aei irpnAepoiev, noUa napa irdvruv frrerai to kyKK-fifiaTa, (ed. Tauchn., p. 66). Comp. Neander, Der heil. Chrysost., i, 67, sqq. ENCYCLOPAEDIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 119 plaining the Scriptures. The writings of the Greeks and Romans should receive judicious attention, and dialectics should be mas tered. Rhetoric, and its employment in sacred eloquence are con sidered in Book iv, which may be regarded as an essay on Christian homiletics. The work of Ambrose (De Olficiis Ministrorum), is, on the contrary, rather morally edifying than scientific. The work, De Disciplina Scholarium, which is attributed to Boethius (the pupil of Augustine, f 525), belongs to a later age ; but the De Institutione Divinarum Literarum of M. Aurelius Cas siodorus, which follows the precedent of Augustine in urging the study of the Scriptures, and indicating a method for that work, is deserving of attention (Opp., ed. Garet, Rouen, 1679, and Venice, 1729, 2 vols, fol., p. 537, sqq.). It also recommends the study of the Church Fathers, the decisions of oecumenical councils, and Jo sephus and Eusebius, and attaches importance to a knowledge of natural science. A sort of general (real) eneyclopsedia, in which a place was as signed to theology, was undertaken by Isidore of Seville ^^^ Encycio- (sixth and seventh centuries), in the work, Originum psedia of isi- sive Etymologiarum libri xx. He also wrote instruc tions for monks and clergymen, which, however, are, like those of Ambrose, of a more practical than scientific character. More, though still a very moderate, stress, is laid upon the scientific ele ment, by Rabanus (Hrabanus) Maurus, the abbot of Fulda, in his work, De Clericorum Institutione, (in the first half of the ninth century); but even he was far in advance of his age.' In the third book he urges the study of the Scriptures, and especially of their hidden meaning, and also familiarity with the liberal arts and with preaching, generally in harmony with Augustine. In the Middle Ages the mystic and schoolman, Hugo of St. Victor, (f 1141), published the Didascalion (Eruditio didascalica), a work ,^^ jj.^^^^_ which obtained for him the honourable epithet of Did- lionofHugost. ascalus. The work was designed to embrace an outline of the whole circle of studies preparatory to the higher theology, and fell into two principal parts, the first of which (books i-iii) contained a methodology of the secular sciences (propaedeutics), and the second (iv-vi) an historical introduction to the books of the Bible and the ecclesiastical writmgs, besides a methodology of Scripture study." The Dominican sub-prior, Vincent of Beauvais, (Bellovacensis, f about 1264), did meritorious work for encyclo- ' Comp. the biography by Kunstmann (Mayence, 1841), p. 56, sqq. Opp., ed. Col- venerius, 6 vols., fol., Cologne, 1627. " See Liebner, Hugo von St. Victor, p. 96, sqq. 120 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENOYCLOPJSDIA. psedia and methodology as a whole, in his Speculum Doctrinale, and added useful hints for the study of theology, generally agreeing with Augustine and the school of St. Victor.' Toward the close of the Middle Ages John Gerson (De Reformatione Theologiae) '^ and Nicholas of Clemange (De Studio Theologico) ' furnished practical hints on the study of theology. While encyclopaedia thus connected itself with practical theol ogy, it could readily combine with the Introduction to the Study of the Bible. When, therefore, the latter regained hi the tune of the Reformation the independence of which the influence of scholasticism had long deprived it, the opportunity was given for discussing the new culture needed to adapt theologians to the character of the age. It was improved by Erasmus, in con nexion with the publication of his New Testament. He pref- Erasmus'spref- aced the second edition of 1519 with his Ratio seu ace to his edi- Methodus Compendio perveniendi ad veram Theolo- tionoftheNew , r r ,. , t) i \ ¦ Testament. giam, an essay which was soon after (1522, Basle) given to the public, in a somewhat enlarged form, as an independent work,* and which after subsequent republications and revisions,' be came the basis of similar undertakings. Erasmus determines the proper aim of theological study to be that the learning acquired in a pious spirit and with prayer should exercise influence upon the student's personal experience, and, so to speak, be moulded and transformed into life, hence, that the Christian and moral cul ture should keep pace in all respects with the scientific. He speci fies as particularly important the study of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, the latter of which had seemed necessary even to Augus tine, though he was not personally well acquainted with it. Dia lectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, and music are considered useful to the theologian; but also, for interpreting the Scriptures, natural phi losophy, cosmography, and astronomy. On the other hand, he cen sures an excessive regard for Aristotle and scholastic philosophy, however useful such studies might be for preparatory practice. With reference to dogmatic studies, he recommends that the student should personally make a collection of passages from the ' Comp. Schlosser, Vincenz von Beauvais, Frankfort, 1819, vol. ii, p. 240. The teachings of Vincent esp., p. 267, sqq. " Opp., T. I., with which comp. Epp. duae ad Studentes CoUegii Navarrae, etc. ° In d'Aoherii Spic, i, 473, sq. (Staudlin, Gesch. der theoL Wissenschaften, i, pp. 9-14). * See vol. V of his collected works, Basle, 1540. » By Halbauer (1724) and Semler (1782). The work of Jacob Latomus of Lieven (De trium linguarum et studii theologici ratione, 1519), written against Erasmus, ex perienced no such revivifications. THE ENCY0LOP.^DIA OP THE REFORMATION. 131 Scriptures and the Fathers, and arrange them into a definite sys tem. The theologian should be thoroughly familiar with the Scrip tures, so as even to be able to repeat them from memory; but this result will not be attained by a parrot-like rehearsing of passages; a living acquaintance with the Word and a profound penetration of its mj'steries are necessary to this end. Many correct and sensible thoughts are added, relating to the method of study, the use of commentaries and other books, etc. He gives the first place among the Christian Fathers to Origen. The love of fruitless disputation is to be avoided; for it is "not merely from the syllogism, but rather from the Ufe, that the theologian receives his attestation." The work of Erasmus, however, is no longer adequate to the demands made upon encyclopaedia in the present age, „ .^^ beautiful and appropriate as much of its matter is work ot Eras- found to be. It is impossible that it should be adequate, ""^' for the theology of which it furnishes a sketch, was itself only be ginning to emerge from chaos and assume a definite shape. Under such circumstances the scholarly author named much that is no longer included in encyclopaedia, being relegated to the history of the canon, to patristics, to the life of Christ, to exegesis, dogmatics, or ethics. But despite this fact, the little book may still be read with profit. Among the reformers the learned Melanchthon would naturally be the first to feel moved by his own inclinations and the obligations of his station, to direct the adherents of the new school into the right course of study. His Brevis ratio discendse theologiae, ,j^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ limited to three folio pages,' breathes the Protestant of Meianch- spirit in recommending an intimate acquaintance with the Bible as of primary importance. With an almost undue preference Melanchthon places the Epistle to the Romans at the head of the list of exegetical studies, assigning to it "the service of introducing the theologian to the body of St. Paul's teaching, which, in turn, is to conduct the learner back to the teachings of our Lord. The Gospel by St. John is to close the cycle as the Epistle to the Romans be gins it, so that the doctrines of faith and justification may constitute the beginning and the end of the scriptural theology of Christianity. The New Testament is to be completed and its loci communes to be systematized, in order to throw light upon the contents of the Old Testament, the study of which is to follow. Melanchthon also recommends the study of the Fathers with that of the Bible, but assigns to Origen, whose allegorical mode of interpretation he con demns, a much lower place than is allowed him by Erasmus, while ' In the Basle ed. of his works (1641), vol. iii. pp. 287-89. 13.3 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. he exalts Augustine with a certain degree of favoritism. He de mands, however, and with entire propriety, that practice shall be added to study, and makes the cultivation of style obligatory on the religious teacher, to which end the study of the classics is above all recommended. Nor should philosophy be slighted, as is customary with many who are ignorant of its character ; but care is to be taken that worldly wisdom be not substituted for the teachings of Christ, or the ethics of society (politics) for the ethics of Chris tianity. Although the outward form of such guides gave them but little claim to the name of scientific encycloj)8edias, they yet contained indications of a newly awakened scientific spirit, and involved the elements of an encyclopasdia which should be adequate for its needs. Accordingly, a pupil of Melanchthon, Theobald Thamer, who subse quently separated from the evangelical Church, published an Adhor- The Adh t t^tio ad theologiae studium in academia Marburgensi, tio of Theobald 1543, in which he welcomes the theology of Protestant ism as a glorious product of the times, in contrast with the earlier fiaTaioXoyia, and particularly recommends the study of the Bible, of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, and of the vernacular as well, the latter for the sake of preaching. To these he adds natural science, in order that the Bible may be correctly understood and applied, when it treats of the works of God in nature ; and eth ics, rhetoric, dialectics, and history. He characterizes the study of theology as difficult, but encourages students not to be repelled from it on that account, but rather to make greater effort. (Com pare A. Neander, Theobald Thamer, der Reprasentant und Vor- ganger moderner Geistesrichtung in dem Reformationszeitalter. Berlin, 1842.) The age immediately following the Reformation contented it self with mechanically recapitulating, and constructing far-fetched expositions of, what its predecessor had provided, or with reviv ing the former scholasticism, instead of seeking to rear an organic intellectual edifice upon the given basis and out of the existing materials. David Chytraeus at Rostock," a disciple of Melanchthon, and Jerome Weller," a pupil of Luther and inmate of his home, pub lished instructions closely harmonizing with those of their great ' Orat. de studio theol. recte inchoando, (1557,) and Regulae studiorum seu de ratione discendi in praecipuis artibus recte instituenda. Lips., 1565. Comp. Schuetiii Vita Dav. Chytraei, (Hamb., 1720-28, 3 vols.,) lib. i, p. 171, sq. ; Pelt, Encykl., p. 51; Krabbe Chytraeus, pp. 50, 51. ' Consilium de theologiae studio recte constituendo, Norimb., 1565. LUTHERAN AND REFORMED ENCYCLOPEDIA. 133 masters. In the seventeenth century the great dogmatical Johann Gerhard published au encyclopaedia, entitled Methodus ^ ^ studii theologici publicis praelectionibus in acad. Je- p«dia of John nensi a 1617 exposita, (1st ed., 1620, 2d ed., 1622, 3d '^^''"^''i- ed., posthumous, Jena, 1654.) He demands adequate preliminary studies in language and philosophy (Aristotle's especially), and af terwards a theological course of five years, three of which should be devoted almost exclusively to the Holy Scriptures. In the third year attention should be directed to questions in controversy be tween Roman Catholics and the Reformed, while the fourth should be divided between such studies and practice in preaching ; and not before the fifth (!) year were Church History and the writings of the fathers, the schoolmen, and Luther, to receive attention.' In the Reformed Church," Bullinger (f 1575) wrote a Ratio studii theologici, which is distinguished by sound practical judg ment, and affords admirable methodological hints, reaching to the minutest details — among other things, to the diet of the student. The nataralist and man of multifarious learning, Conrad Gessner, published a general encyclopaedia, the last book of which is devoted to theology." Andrew Gerhard, of Ypres (Hyperius), professor at Marburg, also wrote a Theologus seu de ratione studii ,^^ xheoiogus theologici (libri iv)." The latter work affords the first of Andrew indications of a future division into departments, the ^^ " * book treating first of exegetical, next of systematic, and finally of practical theology, the last in connexion with historical ; but no attempt is made to clearly distinguish the several branches from each other or give them suitable names, nor yet to apprehend and describe them in their relations to each other. The material already ' Pelt Encykl., p. 52. Among Lutheran writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the following deserve mention : J. Andreae, Oratt. de studio sacrarum lite rarum. Lips., 1567 ; N. Selnekker, Notatio de studio theol. et ratione discendi doctrinam coelestem. Lips., 1579. Abr. Calov, Isagoge ad s. theol, Vitemb., 1662, 86; Das gute Leben eines rechtschaffenen Dieners Gottes von J. V. Andreae, (copied as a poetical supplement in Herder's Briefe.) A closer examination of the above works is found in Pelt, p. 63, sg. " Many elements are scattered through the works of Zwingle, (the very history of his life is a living encyclopaedia.) Comp. his work, Der Hirt, etc., 1524, (ed. Schul thess and Schuler, vol. i. p. 631.) Respecting Bullinger, comp. his letters to his son Henry (on the study of theology) in Pestalozzi, Heinrich Bullinger, p. 594, sqq. * Pandectarum universalium Conr. Gessneri liber ultimus de theologia, (Tiguri, 1549.) Comp. Hanhart, Conr. Gessner, (Winterthiir, 1824,) p. 160, sqq. * Balse 1572, 82. The first ed. (Basle, 1556) bears the title De recte formando theologiae studio. It should not be confounded with Methodus theologiae, etc., Basle, 1667, the latter being a systematic theology and by no means a methodology, as the title would suggest. 124 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. becomes unmanageable because of its abundance, the whole of bibli cal and ecclesiastical dogmatics being discussed in the limited com pass of the book, and likewise other matters, which belong more properly to criticism and hermeneutics. The work is, however, characterized by sound judgment, which looks upon learning as an aid to true piety, and directs attention to the connexion between theology and the Church. The dogmatist Joh. Heinr. Alsted, wrote a work in eight books entitled, Methodus sacrosanctae theologiae (Hanov., The Methodus ' , . , /. , -n •..•.. u i of John Henry 1623, 4) ; to this he prefixed Praecognita in two books, Alsted. -which afford a noteworthy review of the science, as wholly governed by a new scholasticism.' The second book (De theologiae studio recte formando) alone demands notice in this connexion, as treating of the object of theological study, which is made to consist in the promotion of the glory of the triune God, and in the working out of man's salvation, together with the perfecting of his nature. A distinction is made between the the ology of the schools and the practical theology of the Church, and the advice is given to students, " Scholasticam theologiam ex pro fesso et semper evolves, et auctores, qui illam scriptis comprehend- erunt, tibi reddes quam familiarissimos." The period of study should be neither too extended nor too brief (although no limit is fixed), and special attention should be given to prayer, the study of the Scriptures, and a godly walk. Detailed prescriptions concern ing this militia Christi are given. Among the requisite natural qualifications the author includes sound health, a clear and flexible voice, a well-organized brain, and a good bodily constitution, to which a good memory, etc., must be added. Among preparatory requisites he reckons acquaintance with the vernacular (" dicunt theoiogi nostri : a preacher should not make use of town-clerks' German") for the study of which he recom mends, with assured judgment, Luther's version of the Bible ; and to the mother-tongue he adds Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The re lation between philosophy and theology is stated to be such that they can never reasonably come into conflict with each other. Logic is considered a prime necessity, and after it physics and mathemat ics (which are included under philosophy), and also metaphysics and practical philosophy ; nor should the theologian be ignorant of ju- ' Mention is made, for instance, in the first book, in addition to the theologia falsa, of a theologia archetypa, (quae est sapientia indubitata rerum divinarum,) theologia eetypa, (in which the archetypa is actualized,) theologia unionis in Christo, theologia visionis in coelis, (which includes the theologia angelorum,) theoligia viatorum, (the theology of the present world,) etc. SCHOOLS OP SAUMUR AND BASLE. 135 risprudence and medical science. Upon this follow a guide to the study of the Scriptures and a tabular view of the contents of the several books, together with the entire dogmatic locus de scriptura sacra ; farther, a grammar of the Bible, hermeneutics, and rhetoric (on the figurative language of the Scriptures), the whole in a very prolix and artificial style ; also history of the canon and other mat ters pertaining to the science of Introduction, biblical topography, archaeology, chronology, and mingled with typology, a brief char acterization of the different books of Scripture, and, finally, a few additional words on dogmatics (loci communes) and practical the ology (paedia theologica, declamatio, disputatio theologica, and ex- ercitatio ecclesiastica). An Encyclopaedia philosophise (Herborn, 1630, 2 vols, fol.) and an Encyclopaedia omnium scientiarum (ibid., 1630, and Lugd. Bat., 1640, 4 vols, fol.) by the same author are in existence, in which vol. ii. p. 1555, sqq., is devoted to theological (real) encyclopaedia (theologia naturalis, catechetica, didactica polemica, theoL casuum, theol. prophetica, and moralis). The school of Saumur was distinguished in the Reformed Church by the mildness of its spirit and its unbiassed judgment ,^^ Theoiotri- in theological matters, as compared with the rigid dog- ans of saumur matism and formalism of which Alsted was a represent ative.' It produced the dissertations of Stephen Gaussen,^ in which we occasionally observe an active, youthful disposition, joined to a manly energy sharpened by the salt of a biting wit ; mental quali ties which render more enjoyable the heart-felt, childlike piety which is apparent. Much that is here laid down would still be ap plicable in our day. The writings of the theologians J. L. Frei and Samuel Werenf els of Basle, in the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eight eenth centuries, breathe a spirit kindred to that of the above work. The Meletemata de officio doctoris Christiani (1711-15, four disser tations that deserve to be better known) by the former resolve the activity of the Christian teacher, both academical and parochial, into the three functions of interpreting the Scriptures, explaining the creed, and confuting opponents, thus dividing theological science into exegesis, dogmatics, and polemics. This work contains many correct ideas concerning the exposition of Scripture, the employ- ' Comp. J. H. Heidegger, De ratione studiorum theol. Tur., 1690, 12mo., a mere reprint of Bullinger and of works on Introduction by various authors. ' Stephan. Gausseni dissertationes : 1. De studii theologici ratione ; 2. De natura theologiae ; 3. De ratione concionandi ; 4. De utihtate phllosophiae in theologia ; 6. De recto use clavium. Ultraj., 1678 ; 6 ed. cur. J. J. Eambach, Hal. 1726. 126 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. ment of reason on theological questions,' the relation of dogmatics to ethics, etc. The Opuscula. of Werenf els," though he did not write an encyclopaedia in the proper sense, likewise present much that is adapted to lead the young theologian into the right way. This is especially true of the sixteenth dissertation, De scopo doc toris theoiogi, which contains many a golden counsel, not only for the future teacher of theological science, but also for ministers of the word. Within the bounds of the Lutheran Church a twofold opposition was brousht to bear upon the scholastic spirit which Encyclopaedia " \ , i -i j- in- the Luther- had again become powerful — on the one hand trom the an Church. practically pious tendency of Spener, and on the other from the liberal scientific spirit whose representative was George Ca lixtus. Both tendencies aided in introducing a new period for the ological learning, and, accordingly, for theological encyclopaedia. In the Aj)paratus theologicus,^ which was designed to be a great theological dictionary covering the whole ground of the science, Calixtus leads theological study back to its exegetical and historical basis, from which it had again gradually removed, and endeavours to compose the quarrel of the humanists and the realists (gramma rians and barbarians). Philip Jac. Spener wrote several works which come under our notice. The Pia desideria and the Theologische Bedenken frequently refer to the needs of the young theologian ; but his views upon this question are principally found in the preface to the tables compiled by him from Danhauer's Hodosophie, written in 1690, and published under the title De impedimentis studii theologici.'' Among preparatory sciences, philosophy is rated far lower by spener's con- Spener than by other theologians, a prejudice that may tributions to be excused in view of the spirit that pervaded the phi- theological en- , , . mi • cyclopaedia. losopiiy ot the time. This prejudice subsequently be- ' Comp. Smith's Hagenbach : Hist. Doctrines, ii, p. 464. Pelt. Encykl., p. 53, calls attention to the fact that the Reformed theologians especially discussed the application of philosophy to theology, and in that connexion elucidated many questions of import ance to theological encyclopaedia. Comp. also Al. Schweizer, Glaubenslehre der evang. -ref. Kirche, Ziirich, 1844. 2 Sam. Werenf elsii Opuscula theoiog., philosoph. et philologica. Balse, 1728, 2 vols., 4to. ; 1782, 3 vols., Svo. Also J. Ch. Beck (t 1785), who prefaces his Synop sis institutionum universae Theologiae, Basle, 1765, with a brief encyclopajdia and methodology. 3 Helmst., 1628, and by his son, enlarged from the MS., 1661, 4. Comp. Henke, Georg Calixt, und seine Zeit, p. 420, sqq. * Comp. Hossbaoh, Ph. J. Spener u. seine Zeit, i, p. 290, sqq. New ed. (Berlin, 1861), by Schweder, p. 211, sqq. THE "WORK OP SPENER. 137 came more apparent, in connexion with a pietistic empiricism, which falsely based itself on the authority of Spener. Philology, too, although its utility was recognized, was regarded by him from a too restricted point of view, in consequence of which he would not allow so wide and unrestrained a range to the study of so-called profane writers as was conceded by Erasmus and Melanchthon. Sa cred philology alone, in its immediate bearing upon exegesis, received the recognition it deserved as an important auxiliary to theological science. He termed exegesis the "architect, who ar ranges all the remaining parts, and from whom they derive nearly all their ground and material." Upon the basis of exegesis dogmatics should be reared ; but in harmony with his mild practi cal tendency he was less partial to scholastic quibbling and harsh polemics. He did full justice to Church history, though he recom mended the thorough examination of its sources only to such stu dents as might intend to reach the higher grades of learning. Ethics, which he regarded as having the same importance as dog matics, in this agreeing with Calixtus, should in like manner, he thought, be drawn from the holy Scriptures. Homiletics, on the other hand, whose deep foundations he suspected from the scriptural teaching, but which he was unable to clearly api^reheud in a scien tific way, seemed to him " one of the chief hindrances to theological study," while catechetics held a higher place in his estimation. At all events, to Spener belongs the inestimable honour of having not only restored to the science the union with the conditions of actual life, from which it had been separated, but also of hav- value of spe- ing led the way to a new state of the science itself, ¦"''''^ ^<"'''- through his efforts to secure a connected course of exegetical study, which, contrary to the spirit of the Reformation, had again been ne glected during an extended period.' J. J. Breithaupt,'' A. H. Francke,' and Joachim Lange,* followed in the footsteps of Spener. Of these, the first especially " combined genuine piety with elegant culture" (Pelt., p. 55), while the horta tory element predominated with Francke, and a certain confusion ' " Such exegetical lectures as were still sustained in the universities of that period, confined themselves simply to the philological or polemical treatment of the more dif ficult or controverted passages." Hossbach, p. 304. , ' Exercitationes de studio theol. Hall., 1702. ^ 1. Definitio studii theologici, etc. Halle, 1708 ; 2. Idea studiosi theologiae oder Abbildung eines der Theologie Beflissenen, ibid., 1717; 3. Methodus studii theologici, ibid., 1723 ; Timotheus, zum Furbilde alien studiosis theologiae. Comp. Guericke, A. H. Francke (Halle, 1827), p. 290, sqq. * Institutiones studii theologici literariae. Hal., 1723, and De genuina studii theoiog. praecipue thetici indole ac methodo, ibid. 1712, 4to. Comp. Staudlin ii, p. 309. 138 GENER.\L THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. of ideas is manifest in Lange. On the other hand the two able Encyclopaedia men, Christ. Matthias Pfaff, chancellor at Tubingen, and as treated by j^j^ Franz Buddaeus, at Jena, occupied an intermediate Pfaff and Bud- . t-.. . i n i n i i » daeus. position between Pietism and the learned theology of the schools, and their works present a more definite arrangement of the several branches, in their outward structure. Exegetical, dog matic, historical and practical theology, and the subdivisions, polem ical, thetioal, patristic, etc., were distinguished by name, and then- nature and relation to the whole of the science were described, though the order in which they are arranged is not the same with the two writers. Pfaff ' correctly assigns the first place to exeget ical theology, while Buddaeus ''' places immediately after the pre paratory studies, dogmatics, symbolics, patristics, ethics, ecclesias tical law. Church-history, and polemics, and introduces exegesis at the end. The feature is common to both, however, that they com bine with encyclopaedia an extended history of the literature which is stated on the title-page of Pfaff, certainly a meritorious feature, since it provided for an existing want. But encyclopaedia itself was thereby exposed to the danger of becoming a mere bibliographical guide, or at least of being so largely bibliographic that its leading object could no longer be conveniently accomplished; this, too, at a time when encyclopaedia had scarcely attained to a measure of in dependence, after dissolving its accidental connexion with other branches of learning. The excessive importance attached to the department of literary history manifested itself, as was to be ex pected, in the Einleitung in die Theologischen Wissenschaften, by J. G. Walch (Jena, 1753), and evidences of its presence have not been wanting in several valuable works of more recent times. The history of science reveals certain highly endowed spirits, whose rays stream forth in different directions in order to throw light upon the fields that lie extended to the view. Such was the Contributions Chancellor Lorenz von Mosheim,' who became eminent of Mosneimaud in the development of ethics and homiletics, no less than Semler to en- . ^i i i . , , , , . , , cyclopaedia. m Church history, though less so with regard to ency- ' Introductio in historiam theol. literariam, Ttibing., 1724, 3 vols., 4to. ^ Isagoge historico-theol. ad theologiam universam singulasque ejus partes. Lips., 1727, 2 vols., 4to. Hossbach, p. 382, says that this work "is the product of profound and comprehensive learning, and of enlightened and tolerant theological views, and far superior to all former works of this character." Comp. also Danz, p. 129; Staudlin, p. 311. ' F. Lucke, Narratio de Jo. Laur. Moshemio, Gott., 1837, 4to. It is to be observed that Mosheim, with his sound historical judgment, was the flrst to draw the line of distinction between the work of the scientific theologian and that of the preacher, though he may have gone too far in demanding a separate training for the two (p. 29). THE INFLUENCE OF HERDER. 139 clopaedia. The Kurze Anweisung, die Gottesgelahrtheit Verniinf- tig zu Erlernen (published by his son-in-law, Windheim, Helmst., 1756, 63) illustrates the clear, benevolent, gentle mind of its author, but bears the marks of too great haste. In the arrangement of the several branches (e. g., in placing dogmatics at the head), it rests too little upon thoroughly comprehended principles, to possess great importance in comparison with such predecessors as have already been mentioned. The higher merit of having introduced a new. ele ment, the critical, into theological science, and of having thereby put new life into encyclopaedia, which might otherwise have become a mere dead aggregate of bibliographical knowledge, belongs to John Solomon Semler. His criticism frequently degenerated into hyper- criticism, and his questioning spirit into scepticism; but it is certain ly unjust to charge him with entertaining hostility to religion and Christianity. Theology is indebted to him for much of stimulating infinence, if for but little of assured results. His works, encyclo paedic and methodological, as well as others,' failed to receive a cor dial reception however, because of their involved descriptions, and the author's difficult and heavy style in the use of both German and Latin. The essence of Semler's writirtgs should be extracted into a monograph, and thus a correct estimate of his merits might be brought into a convenient form, within the reach of a frequently ungrateful posterity. A similar want of arrangement is apparent in the work of the Reformed theologian, S. Mursinna (f 1795),' who first introduced the term " encyclopaedia " into theology, although it had been previously employed by jurists (Putter) and medical scholars (Boerhave) in connexion with their respective sciences. It was reserved, however, for the broadly cultured and versatile J. Gottfried Herder, to impress himself with incalculable ^.^.^at influence enerev upon, the theological youth and the earnest men of Herder upon ,„ 1,1 • £ -a theology. of his own and future ages, by the exercise of an influ ence which was stimulating in manifold directions, exciting to both in- teUect and feeling, every-where urging the attainment of the high est ends, and as exalted above all meanness as it was free from the control of timid prejudice. A genuine supematuralist and also rationalist, both orthodox and heterodox, or, if it be preferred, ' Versuch einer nahern Anleitung zu niitzlichem Fleisse in der ganzen Gottesgelehr- samkeit, etc., Halle, 1857; Institutio brevior ad liberalem eruditionem theologicam, ibid., 1765, 2 vols. ; Institutio ad doctrinam Christianam liberaliter discendam, ibid., 1774 (rather a systematic theology than an encyclopaedia); Versuch einer freiern theologischen Lehrart, ibid., 1777. The title " Encyclopasdia and Methodology " came into currency at this time. It appears in an anonymous work (Leips., 1778) cited by Danz, p. 134, and somewhat earlier inthe works of Mursinna, Eobert, Vogel ; comp. ibid. ' Prima lines encyclopffidiffi theol., Halle, 1784, ed. 2, 1798 ; comp. Pelt, p. 57. 9 130 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. neither, versed in Oriental mysticism and likewise in the mysteries of human nature and of human history, grasping, with a magnifi cent enthusiasm, every thing in which the genius of a pure human ity is portrayed, and punishing with noble indignation all that is shameful, deceitful, vapid, or sickly — he was thoroughly fitted to aid the struggling and ambitious mind in reaching the path over which, with trusty staff in hand, it must pass. The remark has frequently been.made that Herder's efforts were rather stimulating to others, than productive of assured gains which might be stored in everlasting garners. But this is precisely what was needed; and if much that, with too venturous courage, he sought to establish has been already overthrown, it is to be hoped that, God willing, the spirit of profound investigation, and the clear, independent habit of thought belonging to that more beautiful age — the fiourish ing period of " German manners and German art " — which he aided, in connexion with others, to introduce, shall nevermore be lost.' It must be confessed that the Letters upon the Study of Theol- DefectsotHer- Ogy (Weimar, 1780; 2d ed., 1785, 4 vols.)," by no der's Briefe. means fulfil the scientific purpose of a theological en cyclopaedia in the strict sense. They adopt the light tone of social intercourse and friendly conversation; and the author enters too largely into the discussion of the different subjects themselves (e. g., of his favorite theme, Hebrew poetry), to admit of a clear demon stration of the formal inter-connexion of the various branches. All that he says, however, tends toward that connexion, and serves to illuminate with color the picture which a stricter method places be fore us in bare outlines. The smaller work by Herder, Anwendung dreier akademischer Lehrjahre, has more of the form of a proper methodology and introduction; and with this should be connected his Theophron, and his Gutachten iiber die Vorbereitung junger Geistlichen, as also the Provinzialblatter.' In 1791, soon after the first publication of Herder's Letters (1785), Nosseifs Intro- ^"^ ^^^® ^^^ thorough work by the judicious J. A. Nos- ductiontoThe- selt appeared, which has been improved by A. H. Nie- ° °^^' meyer, and put into the form of a text-book, that still ¦ Comp. J. G. Muller, in the Herder Album (Weimar, 1846), and Bunsen, Hippoly tus, i, p. 264: "Herder made the transition from Romanic negation to Germanic af firmation, and began to build anew. Himself n theologian, he generalized Semitic tradition and inspiration into Japhetic science and philosophy. Eeligion and language are to him the original manifestations of the Divine life in man." Comp. also the work by Werner, adduced below (among the monographs). ^ In the Sammtliche Werke zur Eeligion u. Theologie (original ed. by Cotta, Tiib., 1808), vols, ix and x. ^ The whole in vol. x of the Eeligion u. Theologie. SUCCESSORS OP HERDER. 131 renders useful service.' The Einleitung in die theologischen Wis senschaften (Leips., 1794, 2 vols.), from the pen of the learned G. J. Planck, is likewise still esteemed, because of its historical matter and good judgment, altliough its methodological value is but small.'' In like manner, the encyclopaedias which have since appeared in considerable number deserve notice, rather because of single obser vations of value, or because of the soundness of view displayed in them, than because of a clear presentation of the edifice of theolog ical science, or of the connexion existing between its parts. J. Fr. Kleuker, who was first inspired by Herder, but was afterwards alien ated from him through a dislike of the rationalizing tendencies of the century, with which Herder was in sympathy, wrote a Grundriss einer Eneyclopadie (Hamb., 1800, 1801, 2 vols.), in which he sought to promote the restoration of a theology possessed of vigorous faith. The strange forms of expression in which he often clothed his ideas (in other works as well as this) gave him widespread notoriety as a " foggy brain;" but he must be credited with having energetically uttered many profound ideas Avhich were subsequently brought to greater clearness by other minds. ^ A higher and more ideal point of view from which to compre hend theology and eneyclopsedia, is occupied by K. Daub in an ar ticle in the Studien, published by Kreuzer and himself." To crude empiricism he opposes a holy enthusiasm for the things of God, and to mere learning a childlike, contemplative disposition, which alone is able to penetrate into the mysteries of religious faith. The writer, influenced by his speculative views, does not, however, " Anweisung zur Bildung angehender Theologen, 3d ed., Halle, 1818, 19, 3 vols. Niemeyer has expressed his own views relating to theological studies and methods of instruction in the Anti-Wilibald (a memorial, issued in connexion with the jubilee ot G. Ch. Knapp), Halle, 1825 ; in the Zuschrift an Theologie Studierende iiber die Vor bereitung des theol. .Examens u. die Benutzung d. Candidaten-jahre, Halle, 1801; in Grundriss d. unmittelbaren Vorbereitungswissenschafteu zur Fuhrung des Predigt amtes, Halle, 1803; and in the Bibliothek fiir Prediger, which he published in con nexion with Wagnitz. = His smaller work, Grundriss der theol. Encyklopaedie, Gott., 1813, is (although antiquated) better adapted to beginners. Among Encyclopaedias of this period comp L. Wachler, Grundriss einer Encykl. d. theol. Wissenschaften, Lemgo, 1795; J. F. 'ft Thym, Theol. Encykl. u. Methodologie, Halle, 1797; J. A. H. Tittmann, Encykl. d. theol. Wissenschaften, Leips., 1798. With regard to these works comp. Pelt, p. 61. K. Ch. E. Schmidt, Grundriss, Jena, 1810 (Kantian); Sim. Erhardt, Voriesungen fiber Theologie, Eriangen, 1810 (pervaded by Schelling's philosophy) ; J. E. Ch. Schmidt, Theol. Encykl., Giessen, 1811. = Comp. H. Ratjen, J. H. Kleuker, Gott., 1842, Svo. * Theologie u. ihre Encykl. im Verhaltniss zum akadem. Studium bolder, etc., in Studien, vol. ii, pp. 1-69. 133 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. regard faith simply as belief, but as an objective apprehension of matters that are too high for ordinary sense. With moral ear nestness he combats both the clumsiness of obstinate bigotry and the fickleness of a trifling disposition, and draws with steady hand the portraiture of the true theologian; but he treats the necessity for a regeneration of theology by drawing prophetic outlines indic ative of its future accomplishment, rather than by presenting an accurate survey of the actual state of the science. To perform this duty was the work of another mind. Friedrich Encyciopffidia Schleiermacher was the first to raise encyclopaedia to madeindepend- independent position, and deliver it from the extra- ent by Schleier- r r ' , ., ,. i • i i macher. neous material, historical, and bibliographical elements in which it was involved, as well as to impress upon it the mark of the peculiar spirit which began to pervade theological science as a whole. This work was accomplished in the few pages of the Dar stellung des theologischen Studiums (Berlin, 1811; Outline of the Study of Theology, Edinburgh, 1850). The purely formal charac ter of the book attests an artistic spirit. It is a cartoon drawn by a steady hand, which only needs the pencil of a Herder to render it a grand and beautiful picture. While lacking this, it is matter for gratitude that the later and revised edition of 1830 contains hints, though few, for an easier understanding of a book which has the additional importance of having become the key to the entire sys tem of Schleiermacher's theology. Encyclopaedia continued to be written in the usua. way, however. Encyclopedia even after the Darstellung had appeared. Leonhard partioTtbe'^mh Bertholdt's Theologische Wissenschaftskunde, at any century. rate (Erlangen, 1821-22, 2 vols.), is no model of "archi tectonic " procedure, however much importance the author may at tach to that phrase, and however strongly he may urge the correct principle that " a science should be restricted to itself and not em brace too much of foreign matter." Preliminary and auxiliary sci ences occupy two thirds of the space in a work glutted with learned stuff, while its proper subject is discussed in the remaining third. The unfinished Encyclopaedia of G. S. Francke, (Altona, 1819,) gives evidence of greater regard for an organic arrangement of the dif ferent branches of study; but a "really scientific arrangement" seems to have been an undefined thought with the author, which was never clearly developed (Pelt, p. 65). K. F. Staudlin's Ency- klopaediaund Methodologie (Hanover, 1821) is combined with a his tory of the different theological sciences, and is more especially a work of historical reference. This is also true of the Encyklop^dia und Methodologie by J. T. L. Danz (Weimar, 1832), in which a SCHLEIERMACHER AND HIS METHOD. 138 new arrangement of the contents and new appellations give evidence of a reorganizing purpose, but nevertheless suggest the question, "Did the author understand his ground and object? " It might bo difficult for a stranger to find his way through "the labyrinth'^of lit erary wealth " ' The author of the present work," incited thereto by Schleier macher, sought in its first edition (Leips., 1833) to so The present develop the principles of Schleiermacher, with not unim- '"°^^ protapt- portant modifications, that a somewhat empirical mind ma^he??"'^""^' might comprehend them, though not as yet familiar with logical discriminations— which is the case with most persons who approach the study of theology. His object was to lead on a transition from the method of the past to that which should be followed in the future. He sought to combine the practical aim of stimulating and encouraging with the scientific spirit, in following out which plan the point and connexion of ideas were not infrequently sacrificed to perspicuity,' and the entire book received a subjective colouring that can only be understood from the immediate surroundings of the author, and from the design with which he taught. He was more concerned to convey a knowledge of the science than to aid mate rially toward its further development. But on the first appearance. of his book he saw himself overtaken by the advance of a new period in the form of an Eucyolopffidia of the Theological Sciences, by K. Rosenkranz, Halle, 1831. This work Theological indicated the fact, which subsequent history has illus- encyciopasdia trated, that the Hegelian tendency considered itself spintofHegei- entitled to the privilege enjoyed by that of Schleier- ia-nism. macher, of opening for itself a victorious way through the newly cultivated regions of theology, and also that speculative philosophy, which Schleiermacher had separated from theology, was inclined to involve the latter in the mighty transformation of its character. The formal work of encyclopaedia was of inferior importance to the purpose of Rosenkranz however. He was more particularly con cerned with the contents of theology, especially its speculative cour tents; and these he discussed in the spirit of that school, with life ' Other works are, L. S. Jaspis, Hodegetik, Dresden, 1831 ; E. Konig, Versuch einer kurzen Anleitung zum Studium der Theologie, Berne, 1830; A. F. Unger, Reden an kiinstige Geistliche, Leips., 1834; G. K. P. Hessenmiiller, Theol. Propaedeutik, ibid., 1838, etc. " The original German work of Hagenbach. ° This probably explains the charge of " rhetorical indefiniteness " raised by Harless, p. 20, and that of "lack of system," by Pelt, p. 69; but it likewise explains the en comium spoken by others, and emphasized by Pelt, that it is "a perfect book for students." 134 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. and energy, so that he must be considered a skillful representative of the Hegelian tendency. In the second thoroughly revised edi tion (Halle, 1845) Rosenkranz declares that "he has not hesitated to sacrifice even such developments of thought in the old edition, as had, by their novelty and also by the freshness of his youthful enthusiasm, secured no little favor for the book in its time." In the language of its author, the work "was written in the consciousness 1) that the Christian religion, as being the religion of truth and lib erty, is the absolute religion; 2) that Protestantism is not the dis solving of religion into nihilism, but rather its development into an affirmative self -consciousness of its rational character; and 3) that the reconciliation of Christian theology with philosophy is possible." Other tendencies also became gradually apparent, as, the strictly Encyclopaedia orthodox on the basis of the confessions, in G. C. A. Harless! Lan!^^ Harless' Theologischc Encycloptedia und Methodologie, and Pelt. etc. (Niiremburg, 1837, Lutheran), which contains many excellent ideas, but allows too much of its limited space to the his torical element; the contrary, rationalistic tendency, in Lobegott Lange's Anleitung zum Studium der christi. Theologie nach den Grundsatzen des biblischen (!) RationaUsmus, Jena, 1841; and the mediating tendency, which found a worthy organ in A. F. L. Pelt's Theologische Encyclopaedia als System, im Zusammenhange mit der Geschichte der theoiog. Wissenschaft und ihrer einzelnen Zweige, Hamb., 1843. A rich material, which has been judiciously selected and intelligently handled, a constant effort to combine the variety of matter into a systematic whole (to which, however, the dry de velopment of the plan in the department of dogmatics, extending down to the Hebrew alphabet, would hardly seem to be an aid), a keen eye for the artistic element in the theological profession, a warm interest in Christianity, and a sound and liberal judgment, are advantages to the book that deserve recognition, though they would unquestionably be heightened by being forced into a nar rower compass. While it must be acknowledged that the literature of German Protestantism is in advance of others, in this as in the other de- Theoiogicai partments of theology, it cannot be said that the encyciop^^dm Protestants of other lands, and even less the Roman France, ° swe- Catholics of Germany, have fallen behind in the march land '""* '^°'^' °^ '¦®°^"* progress. The Encyclopffidife theologicffi epi tome, by J. Clarisse of Holland (Lugd., Bat., 1832, 1835), still bears the stamp of the age before Schleiermacher; but the Encyclopaedia of Hofstede de Groot, on the other hand, represents THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA IN ENGLAND. 135 the more modern tendency of the so-called Groningen school.' An excellent preliminary work in French was published by H. G. Kien- len (a German) : Encyclopedic des Sciences de la Theologie Chre- tienne, Strasburg, 1842. It followed Schleiermacher in the main, and was afterward republished, with additions, iu German, with the title, Encykl. der Wissenschaften der Protestantischen Theologie, Darmstadt, 1845. A Swedish Encyclopaedia by the provost H. Reuterdahl of Lund (1837), likewise follows the principles of Schleiermacher. The English, however, have hitherto paid very little attention to theological encyclopaedia. So little has been done in this de partment that M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia says Theological with truth that " No book professing to be called En- f "l^gJa^n^/and cyclopaedia of Theology has appeared in English, and America. no book is more needed, as the English theological literature is al most wholly neglected by the Germans." (Article Encyclopaedia.) Since this statement was made, however, a volume on Theological Enoyclopffidia, compiled from the lectures of Dr. M'Clintock to his students, has been published (New York and Cincinnati, 1873). It is a posthumous work, and necessarily incomplete. Dr. Henry B. Smith also had begun, before his death, an Encyclopaedia and Meth odology, but did not live to carry out his purpose. In English lit erature instruction of this kind is usually found in treatises on pastoral theology. Thus handled encyclopaedia holds a very sub ordinate position. In Bishop Marsh's Course of Lectures on Divin ity (Cambridge, 1809; London, 1838) an encyclopedic outUne is given. Bickersteth's Christian Student (London, 1832, 4th edition, 1844) is characterized by a devout spirit, but is unscientific in form." Doddridge's Lectures on Preaching and the Ministerial Office (Lon don, 1830, and Andover, 1833) are wholly practical The earliest American work of this type was by Cotton Mather: The Student and Preacher; Manductio ad Ministerium, etc. (Pub hshed in London only; 2d ed., 1781.) Some of Tholuck's Lectures on Encyclopedia and Methodology are translated by Professor E. A. Park, in the first volume of the Bibliotheca Sacra. Professor Shedd, of the Union Theological Seminary, New York, has pub lished an essay on the Method and Influence of Theological Studies (New York, 2d ed., 1878). J. W. Alexander's Thoughts on Preach- ' Eneyclopsedia Theoiogi christiani a Hofstede de Groot et L, G. Pareau, Groningae, 1851, 3d ed. ' Bickersteth conceived of theology as a Divine science. Page 20 : " Theology is, like the heavens, full of stars, which appear not to the careless spectator, but a dili gent contemplator, with suitable helps, will find new worlds of glory in every part." 136 GENERAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOP.povdv in Arrian's Epict.), and the petition in w^ds. the Lord's prayer, d(()eg rnuv to, dpa). For addi tional information see J. G. Miiller, Die Semiten in ihrem Verhaltniss zu Chamiten und Japhetiten, Gotha, 1872. ' In strictness, the extreme western limit would be the ancient Tarshish (Tartessus); but this appears only as an isolated point. 12 178 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. of his modes of preparing the raw materials provided by nature for his use (dwellings, clothing, ornaments, food, utensils, handicrafts, navigation, etc.) ; and (2) man's relations to society (social customs, marriage, domestic life, general intercourse ; journeys, hospitality, relations with strangers, war, and slavery).' Inasmuch, however, as such relations of ordinary life were, among the Hebrews, regu lated by the law of the Theocracy, it becomes necessary to examine: 4. The Biblical (Mosaic) legislation and political constitution ot t,™ <¦»>,.. '^it^ which the codes of laws and the constitutions of Hebrew com- the Other nations embraced within the range of the monwea . Scriptural records are to be compared (the Roman law, consequently, in connexion with the New Testament). The consti tution of the theocratic State and its laws, were, moreover, intimately connected with the system of worship, so that in this point of view also the religious feature forms the central object of theological study ; and Biblical archaeology must accordingly give a prominent place to; — 5. The sacred institutions of the Hebrews (sacra) in comparison The reUgious ^^^^ *^^ Other religions of antiquity as mentioned in institutions of the Bible. Many writers have limited the idea of Bib lical archaeology wholly to this branch of antiquities. It is usually subdivided into (1) The sacred places (the tabernacle, the temple, and, later, the synagogue); (2) the sacred seasons (the Sabbath, the new moons, the Hebrew feasts); (3) sacred and theocratic persons, the judges, prophets, priests, Levites, scribes; and (4) sacred usages, circumcision, sacrifice, anointings, purifica tions, ceremonies, etc. The religions of non-Israelitish peoples and their polytheistic and nature- worship (worship of animals in Egypt, the worship of Baal, Astarte, and Moloch, Avitchcraft and divina tion) must receive special attention inasmuch as the Israelites were constantly exposed to their influence. For the study of the New Testament the Graeco-Roman mythology is likewise important. Finally, the worship having taken art into its service (music and poetry among the Hebrews) and the religion having developed a theology, it becomes necessary to give attention to: — 6. The sciences and arts of the Hebrews and the nations with Art and science whom they Came into contact. For the interpretation and"* '^related °* *^^ poetical Sections of the Bible it is especially im- peopies. portant that the nature of Hebrew poetry and music be ' For this inquiry also travels are especially valuable. " You will find the reading of travels in the East, in which the Ufe, manners, and customs of the nomads are de scribed, and from which conclusions respecting these earlier times of innocence and strength may be drawn, to be the best commentary." Herder, Briefe, No. 3, p. 42. HISTORY OP BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 179 understood. The development of theology among the later Jews into Phariseeism and Sadduceeism, and into the Alexandrian phi losophy of religion (Philo),' belongs more appropriately to the history of Bible doctrines, but is nevertheless entitled to a place in this department also." The real task of the Biblical archaeologist will be to combine all these threads into an organic whole, through which runs the prin ciple of a higher intelligent life ; to represent the Biblical matter both in its development in time and in its extension in space, as contrasted with contemporary ethnical facts, and thus to bring be fore the mind of the inquirer a living picture in which the lights and shadows are accurately disposed.'' HISTORICAL SKETCH. The history of archaeology is rooted in the science itself. A circle _. . , _,. is involved at this point. The Bible is the most ancient History of Bib- r- ¦ c Ileal archaeoi- source for Hebrew and the related archaeologies of the °^' East, and yet the exposition of the Bible requires ar-, chaeological knowledge. We become acquainted with the Bible 'Opp. ed. Mangey (Lond., 1742), 2 Tom. ; Pfeiifer (Eri., 1785-92, 1820) 6 Tom.; Ed. Tauchnitziana (Lips., 1861-63), 8 Tom. English version in Bohn's Ecclesiastical Library (Lond., 1854). Comp. J. G. Miiller, Textkritik der Schriften des Philo, Basle, 1839, 4to. ' The Talmud (from ID?, the doctrine), a collection of Jewish traditions, becomes a rich, though confused, source at this point. It consists of two parts, the Mishna, dat ing in the second century A.D., and the Gemara, formed in the third century. The Babylonian Talmud, which was completed as late as the sixth century, must be dis tinguished from the Jerusalem. On the editions comp. Winer, Handb. der Lit. i, p. 523, and M. Pinner, Compend. des hierosolym. u. babyl. Talmud, with preface by Bel lermann, Berl., 1832. Lightfoot, Schoettgen, Surenhusius, Wetstein, Menschen, Danz, and others, have made extracts from the mass of the rabbinical literature. Comp. Winer, Chrestomathia talmudica et rabbinica, Leips., 1822 ; F. Nork, Rabbin. Quellen u. Parallelen zu N. T. Scriftstellern, Leips., 1839. Concerning the later Judaism see J. A. Eisenmenger, Entdecktes Judenthum, Frankf., 1700, 2 vols., 4to, ; A. F. Gfriirer,' das Jahrhundert des Hells, Stuttg., 1838, 2 vols. ; S. Griiuwald, Glaubens und Sitten- Lehre des Talmud. Heilbronn, 1854. ° George remarks, in his work. Die Jiidischen Feste, pp. xii-xiv (see below. Litera ture), " The tendency still prevails to regard Biblical Archseology as a garner into which the separate grains may be brought, ivithout attemping to combine them into a scientific whole, to which every individual object will sustain a definite and necessary relation. . . . Archseology is the science which first opens to our view the real Ufe of a people, by placing before our eyes its conditions in all the different periods and sit uations of its history. Its oifice is to point out all the features in that life in their nepeSr sary connexion, and thereby to explain one in the light of the others and each one in its principles. It is, so to speak, the interior of the various phenomena, which spring from it as from a root. It is the complement of history, to which it stands related as. the soul to its body, since it presents to view the conditions from which may be de duced the phenomena in the life of a people recorded by history." 160 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. through the Bible. In addition to the Bible, mention must be made of Josephus, the son of a Jewish priest (born A. D. ,j^^ ^^^^^^^ 37) and a Pharisee, an eye-witness and participant in writers on ar- the Jewish war (A.D. 70). He wrote a history of his <=''*'"°sy- nation, extending down to the close of Nero's reign, in twenty books — Antiquitates Judaicae ; and also described the Jewish wars in seven books, besides treating of other matters.' For acquiring a knowledge of the country the study of Herodotus, Strabo (ii, 16), Ptolemy, Dio Cassius, Pliny (Hist. Nat., v, 13-19), Diodorus Sicu- lus, and others, is also useful. The beginnings of Bible geography were laid by the Christian Church historian Eusebius (in ^ . , J ^ ^ ^ Eusebius the the fourth century) in his work Ilept Torrt kwv 'Ovoiidruv first of BibUcai ev T'Q ¦&eia Tpatpy. This work was known only in the geographers. translation by Jerome: Onomastieon urbium et locorum Scripturae Sacrae, until the Jesuit Bonfrere published it in 1659 (later editions by Clericus, 1707, Larsow and Parthey, 1862, Lagarde, 1870). The itineraries of Christian pilgrims are not without historical import ance, though they contain much fabulous matter (the oldest is the Itinerarium Burdigalense, dating since 333), and this is especially true of the statements by crusaders, e. g., William of Tyre, James de Vitri, etc. (the whole published in Bongars. Gesta Dei per Francos, Hanover, 1611, 2 vols.). The journey of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela (1160-1173), a Spanish Jew, has again commanded at tention in recent times (published in Hebrew and English by A. Asher, London and Berlin, 2 vols.). A more critical character be longs to works of the sixteenth century. The Roman Catholic priest Chr. Adrichomius (f 1585), among others, published a description of Jerusalem in the time of Christ and a Theatrum terrae sanctae, with maps (Col. 1590), and the Reformed theologian S. Bochart (f 1667) laid the beginnings for a Bible geography in his Phaleg et Canaan, (1646, 1674) and of a Biblical natural history in his Hiero- zoicon (Lond., 1663, 1690). These were followed by the works of H. Reland (f 1718), Antiquitates sacrae veterum He- Geographical braeorum (Traj., 1708 and often), and Palaestina (1714); ^^J^^l^ "-^ J. D. Michaelis, Spicilegium geographiae Hebr. (1769, isth century. 1780), Mosaisches Recht (1770-1775, 6 vols.) and others. The numerous and predominantly scientific Travels, begun more than a century ago and still continued, have afforded much valuable in formation. Of such works those by Berggren, Buckingham, Cha- ' Editions by Havercamp (Amst., 1726, 2 vols., fol.), Oberthiir (Leips., 1782-85, 3 vols.), Richter (Leips., 1825-27), Dindorf (Par., 1845-47, 2 vols., ed. Tauchnitziana Leips., 1850), Bekker (Leips., 1865-66, 6 vols.); also translated into EngUsh by Whiston, various editions. LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 181 teaubriand, Clarke, Hasselquist, Joliffe, Maundrell, Niebuhr, Po cocke, Prokesch, Richardson, Seetzen, Shaw, Volney,' etc., belong Writers on sa- more Or less to an earlier period. Of more recent works oUbfSen- "^^ 'i*'*i<'®' J- ^- Burckhardt, Reisen in Syrien u. Palaes- tury. tina (with notes by Gesenius, Weimar, 1822-24,2 vols.); A. Lamartine, Voyage en Orient, 1832-33 (Paris, 1835); G. H. v. Schubert, Reise in d. Morgenland (Erl., 1838-40, 3 vols.); E. Rob inson, Biblical Researches, etc. (2d ed., 1856, 2 vols.). Physical Ge ography of the Holy Land (1865); Tischendorf, Reise in den Orient (Leips., 1846, 2 vols.); Lynch, Narrative of Exploring Expe dition to the Dead Sea (1849; 9th ed., 1854); and Official Report of expedition (1852, 4to.); Ph. Wolflf, Reise, etc. (Stuttgart, 1849); F. A. Neale, Eight Years in Syria and Palestine (Lond., 1851, 2 vols.). G. H. van Senden, Het heilige Land, (Gorinch., 1851); Gossler, Pil- gerreise nach Jerusalem (Paderb., 1852); J. S. Schiferle, Reise ins h. Land (Augsb., 1852, 2 vols.); F. J. Gehlen, Wanderung n. Jerusa lem, (Milnst., 1853); J. Hilber, Pilgerreise ins heil. Land (Inn- spruch, 1853); Plitt, Skizzen einer Reise n. d. heil. Lande (Carls ruhe, 1853); Schulz, Reise ins gel. Land 3 ed., Milhlheim, 1855); F. A. Strauss, Sinai u. Golgatha, etc. (7 ed., Berl., 1857); Tobler, Denkblatter aus Jerus. (St. Gall, 1853) and Dritte Wanderung n. Palaest. (1859); K. Graul, Reise n. Ostindien, Part i, • Palestine (Leips., 1854); de Saulcy, Voyage autour de la mer morte (Par., 1853, 2 vols.); Delessert, Voyage aux villes maudites, etc. (Par., 1853); M. Sachs, Stimmen vom Jordan (Berl., 1854); Leibetrut, Reisen. d. Morgenl, etc. (Hamb., 1854, new ed., 1858); Thomson, The Land and Book (1880 ; new ed., revised) ; Van de Velde, Journey through Syria and Palest. (1854, 2 vols.); Roroff, Reise n. Palaest. (Leips., 1862, 2 vols.); Bovet, Voyage en terre Sainte (4 ed.. Par., 1864); Furrer, Wanderungen durch Palaest. (Ziirich, 1865); Lud- wig, Bethlehem in the Summer of 1864 (Berne, 1865); Petermann, Reisen in den Orient (Leips., 1865); Macedo, Pelerinage aux lieux saints (Paris, 1867); Riggenbach (Balse, 1873); Dean Stanley, Sinai and Palestine (London, 1853; New York, 1870); E. H. Palmer, The Desert of the Exodus (London; also New York, 1872); J. L. Por ter, Handbook for Syria and Palestine, (last London ed., 1875); Lieuts. Conder and Hitchen, Survey of Western Palestine: Memoirs of its Topography, Orography, Hydrography, and Archaeology; ' Comp. Paulus, Sammlung der merkwiirdigsten Reisen in den Orien., Jena, 1792-94,' 7 vols. Continued by Rink (Konigsberg, 1801) ; Winer, Handb. d. theol. Lit, p. 151. For New Test, times see the imaginary journey, Helens Wallfart nach Jerusalem, 109 Jahre vor der Geburt des Herrn, by Fr. Strauss, Elberfeld, 1820-23, 4 vols — an imi tation of the Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Greoe. 182 SPEgiAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 6 vols., 4to; 3 vols, yet to appear (London, 1881). See also Quar terly Statements of Palestine Exploration Fund, London ; also the Egyptological and Assyriological researches of Bonomi, Botta, Bun sen, Brugsch, Fergusson, Grotefend, Layard, Lepsius, Rawlinson, Reinisch, Unger, Seyffarth, Vaux, Geo. Ebers (Aegypten u. d. Btich- er Mosis, etc. (vol. i, Leips., 1868), Schrader, Die Keilschriften u. d. Alte Testament (Giessen, 1872), Smith, and others. The Phoenician studies of Movers, Renan (1864), and others, and the numerous re ports by missionaries stationed in the East, are likewise valuable in many respects. (Comp., too, the Ausland and the different geo graphical magazines). Concerning the recently discovered " Moabite stone " recording the triumphs of the Moabite king Mesha (ninth century B.C.) comp. the works by Noldeke, Schlottmann, Kampf, Ginsburg, and others. 1. Archaological works on the Bible of a general character.^ J. J. Bellermann, Handbuch der biblischen Literatur, comprising BibUcal Archsepl- ogy. Chronology, Genealogy, History, Natural PhUosophy and History, Mythology and History of Idolatries, Antiquities, History of Art, and Sketches of the Script ural Writers. Erfurt, 1787-99, 4 vols. (Also published with separate titles.) f J. Jahn, Bibl. Archaologie. Wien, 1796-1805. 3 Bde., L Bd., 2. Aufl., 1818. 2. Bd., 2. Aufl., 1825. Archaeologia biblica in compe nd. redacta. Ib. 1806,1814. ¦f F. Ackermann, Archaeologia biblica breviter exposita. Vienna, 1826. E. F. K. Rosenmiiller, Das alte und neue Morgenland oder Eriauterungen der helL Schrift aus der natiirlichen Beschaffenheit, den Sagen, Sitten und Gebrauchen des Morgenlandes. Lpz., 1818-20. 4 Bde., (in 6 Abth). Handbuch der bibl. Alterthumskunde. Lpz., 1823-31. 4 Bde. • G. B. Winer, Bibl. Realworterbuch, zum Handgebrauche fiir Studierende Candidaten, Gymnasiallehrer und Prediger. 3. Aufl. 1847, 1848. 2 Bde. E. W. Lohn, Bibl. Sachworterbuch zum Handgebrauch. 1834. C. G. Haupt, Bibl. Real- und Verbal-Encyklopadie. Quedlinb., 1823-27. 2 Bde. K. F. KeU, Handbuch der biblischen Archaologie. Frankf., 1859. f Scholz, Die heiligen Alterthiimer des Volkes Israel. Regensb., 1868. • f Bonif. Haneberg, Die religiosen Alterthiimer der Bibel. Miinchen, 1869. ' * Bibellexikon, Realworterbuch zum Handgebrauch fiir Geistliche und Gemeinde, publ. by Dan. Schenkel, in connexion with Bruch, Diestel, u. Dillmann. Bd. 1-4. Lpz., 1869-72. Hamburger, Real-Encylopadie fiir Bibel und Talmud. 1. Abth. Die Biblischen Arti- kel. In 6 Heften. 1866-70. Herzog's Real-Encyklopaedie, contains a multitude of articles belonging to this de partment (by Arnold, Kurtz, Riietschi, Oehler, Vaihinger, and others). For popu lar use we recommend H. Zeller, Biblisches Worterbuch fiir das christliche Volk ; an alphabetical handbook ' Older works : A. Calmet, dictionnaire historique, critique, chronolog., gfograph. et littoral de ta Bible. Par., 1730. 4 voll. f. F. W. Hezel, bibl. Reallexlcon. Lpz., 1783-85. Bias. tJgo- Unl, thesaurus antlqultatt. sacrar. 1744-68. 34 voll. f . LITERATURE OP SACRED GEOGRAPHY. 183 for the promotion of a knowledge of the Scriptures among all readers of the Bible. 2d ed., Gotha, 1865-67, 2 vols. ; and also Biblische Alterthiimer, published by the Calwer Publication Society. New series, 187L 2. Hebrew Antiquities.^ H. E. Warnekros, Entwurf der Hebr. Alterth. Weim., 1792-94 ; 3d revised ed., by A. G. Hofmann. Weim., 1832. G. L. Bauer, kurzes Lehrbuch der Hebraischen Alterthiimer d. A. und N. T. Lpz., 1797. * W. M. L. de Wette, Lehrbuch der Hebr.-jiid. Archaologie, nebst einem Grundriss der Hebr.-jiid. Geschichte. Lpz., 1814; 4. sehr verm. u. verb. Aufl. 1864. J. H Pareau, Antiquit. Hebr. breviter descriptae. Traj. ad Rhen. 1817. 1823. f J. M. A. Scholz, Handbuch der BibUschen Archaologie. Bonn, 1834. t J. M. A. Lohnis, Das Land und Volk der alten Hebraer. Regensb., 1844. H. Ewald, Die Alterthiimer des Volkes Israel. (Appendix to vol. 2 of the Gesch. des Volkes Israel.) Gott., 1844. 2d ed. ibid. 1864. Comp. the review by Mezger in Stud, und Krit., 1863. 1. S. 133-204. J. L. Saalschiitz, Archaologie der Hebraer, fiir Freunde des Alterthums und zum Ge- brauche bei akadem. Vorl. Konigsb., 1856, 1856. 2 Bde. K. F. KeU, Handbuch der Bibl. Archaologie. 2d ed. Frankf., 1876. 3. Sacred Antiquities (connected with church and religion in particular).^ G. L. Bauer, Beschreibung der GottesdienstUchen Verfassung der alten Hebraer. Lpz., 1805, 1806. 2 Bde. * K. Ch. W. Bahr, SymboUk des Hebraischen Cultus. Heidelb., 1837-39. 2 Bde. J. F. L. George, Die altern jiidischen Feste ; mit einer Kritik der Gesetzgebung des Pentateuch. Berl., 1836. Casar von Lengerke, Kanaan, Yolks- und Religionsgesohichte Israels. 1. Thl. Konigsb., 1844. E. W. Hengstenberg, Die Opfer der h. Schrift. Berl., 1862. (Reprinted from the Evang. KZ.) J. H. Kurtz, Beitrage zur Symbolik des alttest. Cultus. Lpz., 1851.' B. Scholz, die Bib. Alterth. des Volkes Israel. Regensb., 1868. B. Haneberg, die relig. Alterth. der Bibel. Miinchen, 1869. B. Schafer, die relig. Alterth. der Bibel. Miinster, 1878. With reference to the Mosaic Tabernacle, consult the works of Friederich (1841), Knobel (1868), KeU und Delitzsch (1861), Kamphausen und Fries (Stud, und Krit., 1868-59), * W. Neumann (1861), and Riggenbach (1862; 2d ed. 1867); and with ref erence to the Synagogues (in addition to Vitringa, infra, note '), Zunz, der Ritus des synagogischen Gottesdienstes geschichtl. entwickelt. Berl., 1869. 4. Sacred Geography.^ E. F. K. Rosenmiiller, Bibl. Erd- und Landerkunde (Part 1 of the Handb.). K. Ritter, Erdkunde (Beri., 1832-49). 15. Thl 1. Abth. ' Older works by Waehner (1743, 2 vols.), Carpzov (1748), Iken (1732, 1764), Reland (1708.) " Older works : Goodwin (Moses et Aaron, 1618), Spencer (1686-1727), Vitringa (de synag. vet-. Itbri III., 1696, 1726), Ran (1726). ^ On non-Israelitish religions : F. 0. Movers, die Religion der Phonicler. Bonn, 1841. 2 Bde. r. Mflnter, die Religion der Karthager. Kopenh., 1821. 4. Ibid., die Religion der Babylonier. Same, 1827. (Comp. the History of Religion, appended to our paragraph on Church History.) * With reference to the older geographical works and to Oriental Travels, comp. the historical matter given above, and the Art. PalHstina (by Arnold) in Herzog's Encykl., xi, p. 1 sqq. Tbe fullest statement of tbe literature is given in Tobler, Bibliographla geographioa Palestinae. Lips., 1867. 184 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. C. F. K16den,Landeskunde von Paiastina. Berl., 1817. * Karl von Raumer, Paiastina. Lpz., 1836. (To which is added, Der Zug der Israel- iten aus Aegypten nach Kanaan, 1837. With a map and contributions on the Geography of the Bible, 1843.) 4th ed., 1860. Comp. the review by Gross in Stud. u. Krit., 1845. M. Bussel u. J. B. Fraser, Landergemalde des Orients ; a. d. Engl, von A. Diezmann u. J. Sporschill. Pesth, 1840. 6 Bde. (Bd. 3, 4, das h. Land.) F. A. Arnold, Paiastina. Halle, 1845. A. Knobel, Die Volkertafel der Genesis. Giessen, 1850. Ludw. Volter, Das heU. Land und das Land der Israelitischen Wanderung. (With a map of Palestine and Arabia Petrasa.) Stuttg., 1855. 2d ed., 1864. Briim, Israels Wanderung von Gosen bis zum Sinai. Elberfeld, 1859. Unruh, Zug der Israeliten aus Aegypten nach Kanaan. 1860. G. Ebers, Durch Gosen zum Sinai. Lpz., 1872. D. Korioth, Geogr. von Paiastina. 2d ed. Freib., 1874. A. Driow, Jerusalem et la Terre Sainte. Limoges, 1877. Popular works: F. Bassler, Das heil. Land (Merseb., 1846; new ed., Lpz., 1856); P. W. Behrends, Kurze Beschreibung des h. Landes (Helmst, 1829) ; 0. Belling, Der christi. Fiihrer in das h. Land (Landsh., 1854) ; A. Bram, Beschreibung des h. Landes (2d ed., Meurs., 1838); F. Gessert, Paiastina bis auf Christi Zeit (Essen; 3d ed., 1835); H. V. Gerstenbergk, Paiastina (Eisenb., 1860); Hornung, Handb. zur Erlauter ung der bibl. Geschichte und Geogr. (Lpz., 1825-27); S. Lowisohn, Bibl. Geographic (Wien, 1821); J. G. Melos, Beschreibung des jiid. Landes (Weim., 1822-30); A. Rath- geber, Paiastina, Land und Volk (Langens., 1853; 4th ed., 1861); J. F. Rohr, Hist.- geographische Beschr. des jiid. Landes (Zeits, 1816 ; Sth ed., Lpz., 1851) ; R. J. Schwarz Das heil. Land nach seiner ehemaligen und jetzigen Beschaffenheit (Frankf. a. M., 1862); Karl Ritter, Ein Blick auf Paiastina u. seine christ. Bevolkerung (Berl., 1852), L. Th. Westhaus, Paiastina oder das h. Land zur Zeit Jesu (Soest, 1866) ; F. A. und 0. Strauss, Die Lander und Statten der heiUgen Schrift, in ausgewahlten Bildern (Stuttg., 1861); \ J. R. Sepp, Jerusalem u. das heil. Land, oder PUgerbuch nach Paiastina, Syrien und Aegypten (Schaffh., 1862; 2. Aufl., 1872); Dixon, W. H., Das heilige Land, from the English by J. E. A. Martin, with woodcuts and two steel plates (Jena, 1870). Scarcely any of these works are unprovided with means of some sort for illustrat ing their subject (maps, plans, etc.), and in this regard the following possess dis tinguished merit : J. M. Bernatz, Bilder aus dem h. Lande, mit Text von G. H. v. Schubert (Stuttg., 1842), und Bernatz, Album des heil. Landes, 60 ausgew. Orig.-Ansichten bibl. wichtiger Orte nach der natur gez., mit Text von G. H. v. Schubert (Stuttg., 1855) ; A. Eltzner, Das bibl. Jerusalem aus der Vogelschau (3d ed., Lpz., 1863). Charts of Syria and Palestine in the Atlases of d'Anville and Reichardt, * Berghaus ; single, by Kloden (1817), Grimm (1836), Rosenmiiller (1830), Mayr (1842), * Kiepert, publ. by Ritter (1842), *Karl Zimmermann, Karte von Syrien und Paiastina (15 maps, Berl., 1850); Riess, Karte von Paiastina (1861), Altmiiller, Aegypten, Sinai-Halbinsel und Paiastina (1861). Manuals: C. Ackermann und C. F. Weiland, Bibel- Atlas, nach den neuesten und besten Hiilfsmitteln Weimar, 1832; 3d unchanged ed.; 1855 (where see additional literature on p. 1 sq.); * Kiepert, Bibel- Atlas; 3d unchanged ed., Beri., 1857, with 8 charts and 3 tabular illustrat. (to accompany Peter's Uebersichtskarten der Reisen Jesu nach den 4 Evangelisten) ; new revision by Lionnet, 1864 ; * Van de Velde, Map of the Holy Land. 8 leaves. (Gotha, 1858.) 2d ed., ibid., (1866.) Menke, Bibel- atlas in 8 Blattern. (Gotha, 1868.) LITERATURE OP BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 185 ENGLISH AND AMEEICAN LITERATURE. 1. Hebrew Antiquities. Benisch, A. Judaism Surveyed ; a Sketch of the Rise and Development of Judaism from Moses to our Days. 12mo. London, 1874. Cox, F. A. The Manners and Customs of the Israelites in relation to their Religion and Civil Polity. 12mo. London, 1852. DeCosta, B. F. The Moabite Stone. Svo. New York, 1871. Ewald, Heinrich. The Antiquities of Israel. From the German. Svo, pp. 398. London, 1876. Freeman, James M. Hand Book of Bible Manners and Customs. 12mo, pp. 515. New York, 1874. Ginsburg, C. D. The Moabite Stone ; a Fac-simile of the Original Inscription, with an English Translation, and an Historical and Critical Commentary. 4to. London, 1871. Jahn, John. Biblical Archaeology. From the Latin. 6th ed., Svo, pp xii, 573. New York, 1859^ Jamieson, Robert. Eastern Manners, Old and New Testament. New ed., 2 vols., 12mo. Edinburgh, 1859. Josephus, Flavins, Works of. Translated by Wm. Whiston, A.M. Many editions. King, J. Moab's Partriarchal Stone ; being an account of the Moabite Stone. Svo. London, 1878. Madden, F. W. History of Jewish Coinage and of Money in the Old and New Testa ments. With 264 Engravings of all the Jewish Coins mentioned in the Bible. Svo, pp. 373.1 London, 1864. Maimonides, Rabbi. The laws of the Hebrews relating to the Poor and the Stranger. Translated by James W. Peppercorn. Svo. London, 1841. Michaelis, J. D. Commentaries on the Law of Moses. Four vols., Svo. London, 1814. Pierotti, E. Customs and Traditions ot Palestine, illustrating the Manners of the An cient Hebrews. Translated by T. G. Bonney. Svo, pp. 288. London, 1864. RawUnson, G. Historical Illustrations of the Old Testament. With Additions by Prof. H. B. Hackett. Boston, 1874. Snowden, J. R. The Coins of the Bible and its Money Terms. ISmo. Philadelphia, 1864. The History of the Hebrew Commonwealth, from the Earliest Times to the Destruc tion of Jerusalem, A. D. 72. With a continuation to the time of Adrian. 3d ed., Svo, pp. xvi, 692. Oxford, 1840. Townley, James. The Reason of the Law of Moses. With Notes, Dissertations, and a Life of the Author. Svo, pp. 451. London, 1827. Warburton, William. The Divine Legation of Moses Demonstrated. Three vols., Svo, pp. 526, 518, 612. London, 1846. Wines, E. C. Commentaries on the Laws of Ancient Hebrews. Svo, pp. 640. New York, 1862. 2. Biblical Natural History. Abbott, Gorham. Scripture Natural History. 12mo. Boston. Calcott, Maria. Scripture Herbal. Svo, pp. 568. London, 1842. Harris, T. M. The Natural History of the Bible. Svo. London, 1820. Kurtz, J. H. The Bible and Astronomy. An Exposition of the Biblical Cosmology and its Relations to Natural Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1861. 186 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Mitchell, 0. M. Astronomy of the Bible. 12mo, pp. 322. New York, 1863. Natural History of the Bible; being a review of the Physical Geography, Geology, and Meteorology of the Holy Land. 12mo, pp. 526. London, 1867. Osborn, Henry S. Plants of the Holy Land, with their Fruits and Flowers. Svo. Philadelphia, 1860. Tristram, H. B. The Land of Israel, a Journal of Travels in Palestine undertaken with special Reference to its Physical Character. 2d ed., Svo, pp. 671. London, 1866. Wood, J. G. Bible Animals ; being a Description of every Living Creature mentioned in the Scriptures. Svo, pp. 652. New York, 1869. 3. Biblical Geography. Arabia. Lowth, Geo. T. The Wanderer in Arabia ; or, Western Footsteps in Eastern Tracks. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 724. London, 1866. Palgrave, W. G. Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia. 2 vols., Svo. Lon don, 1869. Stephens, J. L. Travels in Egypt, Arabia Petrsea, and the Holy Land. 2 vols., 12mo. New York, 1861. Taylor, B. Travels in Arabia. New York, 1874. Armenia. Curzou, Robert. Armenia ; a, Year at Erzeroum. 12mo, pp. xiv, 226. New York, 1864. Smith, Eli, and Dwight, H. G. 0. Researches in Armenia, with a visit to the Nestori- an and Chaldean Christians of Oroomiah. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 679. Boston, 1830. Wheeler, C. H. Ten Years on the Euphrates ; or. Primitive Missionary PoUcy IUus trated. 12mo. Boston. Asia Minor. Fellows, Charles. A Journal written during an Excursion in Asia Minor, 1838. Royal Svo, pp. 368. London, 1839. New ed., 1862. Hamilton, William J. Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 1069. London, 1842. Leake, W. M. A Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, with Comparative Remarks on the Ancient and Modern Geography of that Country. Svo, pp. 391. London, 1824. Van Lennep, H. J. Travels in Little-Known Parts of Asia Minor. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1870. Assyria. Assyrian Discoveries ; an Account of Explorations and Discoveries on the site of Nineveh, during 1873 and 1874, with Illustrations. Svo, pp. xvi, 461. New York, 1875. Smith, George. The Chaldean Account of Genesis. Svo, pp. xvi, 319. New York, 1876. Babylon. Newman, John P. Thrones and Palaces of Babylon from Sea to Sea. Svo, pp. 465. New York, 1876. Chaldea. Loftus, WUliam K. Travels m Chaldea and Susiana. Svo, pp. 436. New York, 1857. LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 187 Crete. Postlethwaite, E. Tour in Crete. 12mo. London, 1868. Skinner, J. B. H. Roughing it in Crete in 1867. Svo. London, 1867. Cyprus. Di Cesnola, Louis P. Cyprus : its Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples. A Narra tive of Researches and Excavations during Ten Years' Residence in that Island. Svo, pp. xix, 456. New York, 1878. Loher, Franz von. Cyprus. Historical and Descriptive, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Svo, pp. vii, 324. New York, 1878. Damascus. Porter, J. L. Five Years in Damascus; with Travels to Palmyra, Lebanon, and other Scripture Sites. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1855. Dead Sea. De Saulcey, L. F. J. C. Narrative of a Journey round the Dead Sea and in Bible Lands. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 968. London, 1854. Lynch, W. F. Narrative of the United States Expedition to the River Jordan and the Dead Sea. Svo, pp. 516. Philadelphia, 1848. Desert and the Exodus. Bartlett, W. H. Forty Days in the Desert on the Track of the Israelites ; or, a Journey from Cairo to Mount Sinai and Petra. New ed., Svo. London, 1867. Brugsch Bey, Henry. The True Story of the Exodus of Israel. Edited by Francis H. Underwood. 12mo, pp. 260. Boston, 1880. Foster, Charles. Israel in the Wilderness. 12mo, pp. 319. London, 1866. Palmer, E. H. The Desert of the Exodus ; Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of the Forty Years' Wanderings. Svo, pp. 470. New York, 1872. Egypt. Bartlett, W. H. The Nile Boat ; or. Glimpses of the Land of Egypt. 12mo, pp. 236. New York, 1851. Bunsen, Ernest de. Egypt's Place in Universal History. New ed., 5 vols., Svo. London, 1867. Brugsch Bey, Henry. A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, derived entirely from the Monuments. Edited by PhiUp Smith. 2 vols., Svo. London. De Leon, Edwin. The Khedive's Egypt ; or, the Old House of Bondage under New Masters. 12mo, pp. 435. New York, 1877. Galloway, W. B. Egypt's Record of Time to the Exodus of Israel, critically investi gated. London, 1869. Harman, Henry M. A Journey to Egypt and the Holy Land in 1869-70. Pp. xii, 331. Philadelphia, 1873. Hengstenberg, E. W. Egypt and the Books of Moses. ]2mo, pp. 312. Andover, 1843. Jones, J. Foulkes. Egypt in its Biblical Relations and Moral Aspect. Svo, pp. viii, 326. London, 1860. Lane, E. W. An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modem Egyptians. 2 vols., 16mo, pp. XX, 418 ; vni, 429. London, 1836. 5th ed., enlarged, 1871. Lepsius, C. R. Tour from Thebes. Svo. London, 1847. Lepsius, Ric. Discoveries in Egypt, Ethiopia, and the Peninsula of Sinai, 1842-48. Edited, with Notes, by K. R. H. Mackenzie. Svo, pp. 471. London, 1868. 188 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Lindsay, A. W. C. Letters on Egypt, etc. Boston and New York. Osburn, William. The Monumental History of Egypt as recorded on the Ruins of her Temples, Palaces, and Tombs. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 461, 643. London, 1864. Israel in Egyyt; or. Genesis and Exodus. 2d ed. London, 1856. Palmer, William. The Egyptian Chronicles ; with a Harmony of Sacred and Egyp tian Chronology. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 1053. London, 1861. Schaff, Philip. Through Bible Lands : Notes of Travel in Egypt, the Desert, and Palestine. 12mo, pp. 413. New York, 1879. Sharpe, Samuel. The History of Egypt from the Earliest Times till the Conquest by the Arabs, A. D. 640. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 628. London, 1846. 5th ed., 1870. Taylor, Bayard. Egypt and Iceland in 1874. New York, 1S76. Taylor, W. C. Illustrations of the Bible from the Monuments of Egypt. 12mo, pp. xvi, 200. London, 1838. Wilkinson, J. Gardner. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. New ed., revised and corrected by Samuel Birch, LL.D. 3 vols., Svo, pp. xxx, 610 ; xH, 616 ; xi, 628. London, 1878. Zincke, F. Barham. Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. Svo. London, 1871. Ephesus. Wood, J. T. Discoveries of Ephesus. New ed., 4to. London, 1876. Greece. Anderson, Rufus. Observations upon the Peloponnesus and Greek Islands. 12mo. Boston, 1830. Baird, Henry M. Modern Greece ; a Narrative of a Residence and Travels in that Country. 12mo, pp. xii, 380. New York, 1856. Wordsworth, C. Greece, Pictorial, Descriptive, and Historical. Svo. Boston. Barclay, J. T. The City of the Great King ; or, Jerusalem as it was, as it is, and as it is to be. Svo, pp. 647. Philadelphia, 1868. Bartlett, W. H. Walks about the City and Environs of Jerusalem. Svo. London, 1852. Palmer, E. H., and Besant, Walter. Jerusalem: the City of Herod and Saladin. Svo. London, 1871. Pierotti, E. Jerusalem Explored ; Ancient and Modern. 2 vols., folio. London, 1864. Thrupp, J. F. Ancient Jerusalem ; a new Investigation into the History, Topography, and Plan of the City, Environs, and Temple. Svo, pp. 428. Loudon, 1855. Warren, Charles. Underground Jerusalem ; an Account of some of the Prinoipal Difficulties encountered in its Exploration, and the Results obtained. Svo, pp. 579. London, 1876. Williams, George. The Holy City. Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian notices of Jerusalem. 2d ed. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 601, 629. London, 1849. Wilson and Warren. The Recovery of Jerusalem. A Narrative of Exploration and Discovery in the City and Holy Land. Svo, pp. 459. New York, 1871. Lebanon. Burton, R. P., and Drake, C. T. Unexplored Syria. Visits to the Libanus, the Anti-Libanus, the Northern Libanus, etc. 2 vols., Svo, London, 1872. Macedonia. Walker, U. A. Macedonia to the Albanian Lakes. Svo. London, 1864. LITERATURE OP BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 189 Moab. Tristram, H. B. The Land of Moab : Travels and Discoveries on the East Side of the Dead Sea and the Jordan. Svo, pp. 416. New York, 1873. Ninenieh. Fergusson, J. The Palaces of Nineveh and PersepoUs Restored ; an Essay on An cient Assyrian and Persian Architecture. Svo, pp. 384. London, 1851. Layard, A. H. Nineveh and its Remains. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1848-49. Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, with Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan, and the Desert. Second Exploration. Svo, pp. 686. New York, 1863. Rich, C. J. Narrative of a Residence on the Site of Ancient Nineveh. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1836. Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries : Explorations and Discoveries on the Site of Nineveh, 1873, 1874. New York, 1875. Vaux, W. S. W. Nineveh and PersepoUs. A Historical Sketch of Ancient As syria, etc. 2d ed., 12rao, pp. 444. London, 1850. New ed., 1855. Palestine. Bartlett, W. H. The Footsteps of our Lord and his Apostles in Palestine, Syria, Greece, and Italy. Svo. London, 1856. New ed., 1862. Benjamin, I. J. Eight Years in Asia and Africa, from 1846 to 1856. Svo, pp. 347. Hanover, 1859. Buchanan, Claudius. Christi.™ Researches in Asia. 12mo, pp. 275. Philadelphia, 1813. Burt, N. C. The Land and its Story ; or. The Sacred Historical Geography of Pales tine. Svo. New York, 1869. Conder, Claude Reignier. Tent Work in Palestine. A Record of Discovery and Ad venture. Published for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. With Illustrations by J. W. Whymper. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xxvi, 381 ; viii, 352. Lon don, 1878. Dixon, William H. The Holy Land, with Illustrations. 3d ed., 2 vols., Svo. Lon don, 1867. Keith, Alexander. The Land of Israel, according to the Covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. 12mo. New York, 1861. Kinglake, W. Eiithen; or. Travels in the East. New ed., 12mo. London, 1871. Merrill, Selah. Galilee in the Time of Christ. With an Introduction by A. P. Pea body. Pp. 159. Boston. 1881. East of the Jordan. A Record of Travel in the Countries of Moab, GUead, and Bashan. With an Introduction by Prof. R. D. Hitchcock. Svo, pp. 549. New York, 1881. . Macleod, Norman. Eastward : Travels in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. 3d ed., Svo. London, 1872. Ridgaway, Henry B. The Lord's Land : A Narrative of Travels in Sinai, Arabia Petrae, and Palestine, from the Red Sea to the entering in of Hamath. Svo, pp. 744. New York, 1876. Robinson, Edward. BibUcal Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Regions. A Journal of Travels in the Year 1838. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xxx, 614 ; xiv, 600. Boston, 1868. Later Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent Regions. A Jour nal of Travels in 1852. New Maps and Plans. 2d ed., Svo, pp. xxx, 664. Bos ton. 1871. 190 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Sandie, George. Horeb and Jerusalem. Pp. 417. Edinburgh, 1864. Thomson, W. M. The Land and the Book ; or, Biblical Illustrations drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and Scenery, of the Holy Land. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 560, 614. New York, 1869. New ed., vol. i, pp. xx, 892. Tillotson, John. History of Palestine and the Holy Land. Illustrated with 350 En gravings and Maps. With a History of the Crusades, compiled by W. and K. Chambers. Svo. New York, 1 876. Tristram, H. B. Bible Places ; or, the Topography of the Holy Land. Svo, pp. xvi, 367. London, 1871. Sth ed. New York, 1878. Wright, Thomas. Early Travels in Palestine, Comprising the Narratives of Aroulf, Willibald, Bernard, Saewulf, Sigurd, Benjamin of Tudela, Sir John MandeviUe, Dela Brocquiere, and Maundrell. 12mo, pp. 648.. London, 1S4S. Palmyra. Myers, H. M. Remains of Lost Empires. Sketches of the Ruins of Palmyra, Nine veh, Babylon, and PersepoUs, etc. Svo, pp. 531. New York, 1876. Persia. Loftus, William K. Travels and Researches in Chaldea and Susiana. Svo, pp. 436. New York, 1857. Wagner, M. Travels in Persia and Georgia. 3 vols., Svo. London, 1856. Phmnicia. Phoenicia and Israel. A Historical Essay. London, 1871. Samaria. Mills, John. Nablus and the Modern Samaritans. 12mo, pp. xn, 335. London, 1864. Shelaby, Jacob Esh. Notices of the Modern Samaritans. Svo, pp. 65. London, 1855. Seven Churches. Cathcart, M. The Seven Churches of Asia. 4to. London, 1869. Tristram, H. B. The Seven Golden Candlesticks. Svo. London, 1871. Bartlett, S. C. From Egypt to Palestine through Sinai, the Wilderness, and the South Country. Svo, pp. 855. New York. Gaussen, L. From Egypt to Sinai. The Exodus of the Children of Israel. 12rao. London, 1869. Ritter, C. Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula; translated and adapted to the use of students by W. L. Gage. 4 vols., Svo. New York. Stanley, Arthur P. Sinai and Palestine in Connection with their History. Svo, pp. Iv, 635. New York, 1867. 4. Hebrew Poetry and Music. Carhart, J. Wesley. The Poets and Poetry of the Hebrews. New York, 1865. Herder, J. G. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. From the German. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 293, 320. Burlington, Vt., 1833. Hutchinson, Enoch. The Music of the Bible ; or. Explanatory Notes upon aU the Passages of the Sacred Scriptures relating to Music. Svo, pp. 613. Boston, 1864. Lowth, R. The Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. London and Andover. Many ed. Taylor Isaac. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. Svo, pp. xvi, 347. London, 1861. THE SCOPE OF INTRODUCTION UNSETTLED. 191 SECTION XH. biblical ISAGOGICS. (Introduction. Canonics). Comp. Dav. Schulz, Review ot Eichhom's and de Wette's Einleitungen in Stud. u. Krit, 1829, No. 3, pp. 570-72 ; Hupfeld, Begriff u. Methode der sog. Bibl. Einl., Marb., 1844; Rudelbach, Be griff der N. T. Theologie u. Isagogik, in his Zeitschrift, 1848, 1 ; Baur, Die Einl. in das N. T. als theol. Wissensch. In Theol. Jahrbb., 1850-51; Delitzsch, Begriff u. Methode der sog. Biblischen u. Insbeson. A. T. Einleitung, in Thomaslus and Hofmann's Zeitschr. Iiu- Prot. u. Kirche, xxvlil. No. 3; Erl., 1854, p. 133, sqq.; Hahn, in Herzog's Encykl., ui, p. 736, sqq. (s. v. Einl. ins A. T.); Articles Biblical Introduction in M'Clintock & Strong's Cyclopaedia, vol. iv, p. 630, and Kitto's Cyclopsedia, vol. ii, p. 27 ; Brooke Foss Westcott, Introduction to the Study ol the Gospels ; Henry Alford, How to Study the New Testament. The Bible is a body of writings which originated in different periods and under various circumstances and conditions, which were from different authors, and were gradually collected ,j^^ objects of into a whole; and it is consequently necessary for a a history of the proper appreciation of its character that the origin and fortunes of the entire collection and also of its several parts be understood. To afford this knowledge is the oifice of the history of the canon or the science of Biblical Introduction (Isagogics in the limited sense), which is divided either into Introduction to the New or to the Old Testament, or into general and special. General introduction discusses the origin and progress the establishing of the canon, the history of manuscripts, editions, versions, revisions of the holy Scriptures, etc. Special introduc- eitner general tion, on the other hand, inquires, in partial connexion "^ special. with criticism, into the authenticity and integrity of the several writings, and deals, in addition, with the history of their authors as such, the design, plan, form, and style of their works, and finally with the date, place, and circumstances in which the writings were composed. The idea of Introduction itself is vague, and opinion is still di vided ¦with regard to its importance and extent as a tj^ scope and Biblical science. De Wette denies that Introduction limits oi intro- .. . . duction not is a science in the proper sense, and views it as a mere precisely de- aggregation of preliminary knowledge, which lacks termmed. both " a true scientific principle and a necessary connexion of its parts ; ^ but in more recent times scholars (e. g., Schulz, Credner, ' De Wette, Einl. § 1. Schleiermacher (Herm. u. Krit., p. 379) observes in a similar spirit that the so-called N. T. Introduction is " a science that has no limits whatever, and into which anything that is desired may be thrown. A going back to principles is wholly out of the question in such a case. . . . But it is pertinent to ask, ' Are there no suoh principles ? ' " Comp. p. 36 ; " N. T. introduction is not properly a constitu- ept part of the organism of theological science, but it is practically useful for both the beginner and the master, because it faciUtates the bringing together upon a single point of all the inquiries that are involved." Scholz, a Roman Catholic writer on in- 193 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Reuss, Hupfeld) have directed attention to the necessity for a sift ing of the material to be treated by Introduction, and also for the application of principles to such treatment. The indefinite char acter of the word " introduction " ' will be apparent to every mind. At the bottom, all that our treatment of encyclopaedia has touched upon or shall hereafter discuss, relating either to the Bible itself or to the aids necessary for its interpretation, may be included under Introduction to the Bible ; and, in point of fact, the Hebrew and New Testament languages, archaaology, hermeneutics, etc., have been thus disposed of in some instances. Some writers have accord- Thename"ca- inglj preferred to lay aside this indefinite term, and the nonics" pro- name canonics has been proposed as a substitute.' 0th- posedasasub- t-, n ... tt- stituteior"in- ers (like Reuss) have exchanged it for the name "His- troduction." ^^^.^ ^^ ^^^ jj^^j^ gcriptures of the Old and New Tes taments." The vague idea of introduction is certainly confined with in wholesome limits in one direction by this method ; but in another direction the present science of introduction is extended to cover a field that lies beyond the bounds of introductory matter, since the later fortunes of the Bible — the dissemination of the sacred writ ings, the history of their employment and their exposition — are in cluded. troduction, likewise speaks of it as being simply an aggregation of multifarious mat ters, in connexion with which the important feature is that they be " conveniently dis tributed." He divides introduction into criticism, hermeneutics, and archaeology (see pp. 1 and 2). Comp. Delitzsch, \. c, "Every science is an organism; but the term organic applies only to what is not simply a means for promoting an object external to itself, but is itself a whole, an object to itself, in which the individual with its pe culiarities is lost in the idea ot the whole, and only that is an instrument (organ) which aids the development of the whole in its identity with itself. The so-caUed in troduction lacks this organic character. It is not without idea and aim, but it lacks the immanent, self-developing idea, the principle of teleological self-reference, which is necessary to a science." ' The name is first employed by Adrian, a writer probably of the fifth century, in the small hermeneutical work eiaayuyri f tf Tuf iJe/nf ypa6a; ; afterward by Cassiodorus (in the sixth century), and later in the Middle Ages. In Germany Michaelis first used it in connexion with the N. T., and Eichhorn with the 0. T. Comp. Hahn in Herzog's Encykl., iii, p. 727, sqq. '' Zyro, in Stud. u. Krit., 1837, No. 3, considers canonics to be bierely a branch of isagogics. In his view, the latter comprehends everything that is necessary for the interpretation of the Scriptures, i. e., 1. the nature and importance of the Bible, to gether with its history (canonics) ; 2. its compass, or the genuineness of its matter (crit icism) ; 3. its language and contents (hermeneutics). Ee then divides canonics into two parts, in abst-racto, in which character canonics unfolds the nature of the Scrip tures under the forms of authenticity, credibility, and genuineness, and canonics in concreto, or what is usually termed introduction in the more limited sense, which is again divided into general and special or into Old and New Testament canonics. Oomp. Pelt, Encykl., p. 121. GENERAL AND SPECIAL INTRODUCTION. 193 It wiU not be denied that great interest attaches to such an all-sided historical knowledge respecting the Bible ; but methodo logical considerations require nevertheless that what is introductory to the study of Scripture (the history of its origin and the collection of its parts into a canon), and what relates to the further history of the already completed collection of the Scriptures, should be kept apart. Only the former, though likewise historical in its nature, is an exegetical auxiliary science, because it affords a correct posi tion to the exegete from which to operate ; while the latter must be assigned to the department of Church history and the his tory of literature, and may be reserved for a later stage of theo logical study. It does not appear to us a matter which the sci ence need be ashamed of, that the "reader of the introduction Bible" (i. e., the student) must before all "be well- properly iimit- ^ . , , ' , ed to history of grounded in historical knowledge in order to correctly the canon and understand and properly appreciate the Bible as a whole """'^'"• and in its parts ; " ' but such preliminary knowledge needs a careful discrimination of its elements among themselves, and a proper dis tribution of its parts in the organism of the sciences. If, in har mony with this principle, the grammatical and archaeological ele ments be excluded, and a distinct place be assigned to hermeneutics, there will be left only what is generally denoted by the still current name of introductory science, namely, the history of the canon (within the limits hitherto assigned to it) and criticism. These may not be wholly separated from each other, for the history of the canon is not to be a mere review, but history involving the discus sion of principles — critical history; in which connexion it maybe remembered that what is now called introduction was formerly known as critica sacra or histoire critique du V. et N. T. (Richard Simon). This does not forbid, however, that criticism as such, i. e., the whole of the science of critical principles, should consti tute a distinct branch of study, as does hermeneutics, which em braces the theory of interpretation. The science of introduction is thus confined to critical and historical inquiry concerning the books of Scripture and their collection into a canon, instituted for pur poses of exegesis. The division into Old and New Testament introduction results from the nature of the case ; but the relation of general Relation of to special introduction is more diflScult to determine. oS^^'^troduoI The usual method is to begin with the general (the col- tion. lection of the canon, history of the text, versions, etc.), and to sup plement this with introductions to the several books ; but the oppo- > The words of Hupfeld, p. 8. 1'3 194 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. site course may be adopted with Reuss, and the origin of the different books discussed, so that the formation of the canon from its first beginnings to its final completion is presented in a genetic view. In the latter case, however, the special introduction would need to be very brief and to steadily approach its object, as is the case with Reuss, the more extended discussion being reserved for the exegesis of the books. Here, again, the intervention of the different sciences comes into view. Introduction provides the point of view from which the exegete is to regard the Bible ; but the progress of exegesis reacts upon introduction and alters the po sition of isagogics. Encyclopaedia is concerned with the material of introduction only in so far as it is necessary to give preliminary information with regard to its general character. The question concerning -the period . ., .^,. in which the formation of the canon was first under- Penod of the first formation taken, IS Connected with the inquiry respecting the time oft e canon, .^jjgjj ^jjg art of writing was invented. It is certain that the canon as a whole appears for the first time after the cap tivity. The traditional view that Ezra (B.C. 478) and Nehemiah (2 Mace, ii, 13) took measures for collecting the different books, ha.s been doubted by the criticism of recent times.' The first to receive a completed form was probably the Pentateuch, and to this the other books were added in various collections and at different times. The earliest constituents of the New Testament canon were the Pauline epistles, which were written as occasion required (those to the Thessalonians being the oldest); and to these were gradually added the (catholic) epistles of other apostles, togeth er with the written memorabilia of the life of Jesus (Gospels), the latter being probably first in point of time. The ancient Church knew of but two collections, the evayyiXiov and the airoaToXog (ac- The New Test- cording to the assumption which has become current th^eariyChriS since the time of Semler, though it is not fully estab- tian Church, lished).'' The former included the four Gospels, which had already been distinguished from the spurious gospels and recog- ' Comp. Leyrer's art. in Herzog's Encykl., xv, p. 296, sqq. A reference to an al ready completed canon cannot, of course, be looked for in the canonical books them selves. The apocryphal Book of Wisdom, however (not later than B.C. 130), affords proof that a collection of sacred writings existed (chap, xlv-xlix), though it cannot be shown that the entire canon, as we possess it, is intended ; for this purpose a formal catalogue would be required. The first to furnish a Ust (of twenty-two books) was Josephus (contr. Ap. i, 8), from whom the tradition referred to in the text is also derived. '^ Pelt, p. 144, under reference to Orelli : Selecta patrum capita ad elariyvTtiiriv sacra pertin. p. 1, 11, sq., note. Comp. Landerer in Herzog's Encykl., vii, p. 270, sqq. LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 195 nized by the Church, and the latter embraced the apostolical epis tles and the Book of Acts. Opinion was long divided with regard to the Apocalypse and certain of the catholic epistles, and a distinc tion was made between 6fj,oXoyovfj,eva and avTiXBydfiEva and voda (Euseb., H. E. iii, 25) as late as the fourth century. The first class included the four Gospels, the book of Acts, the fourteen Pauline epistles,' and 1 Peter and 1 John ; to the second were assigned the 2d ep. by Peter, 2 and 3 John, James, and Jude ; and the third was limited to the Apocalypse, though many classed it among the writ ings whose authenticity was acknowledged (comp. the canon of Origen in Euseb., vi, 25, and that of Eusebius himself, ibid., iii, 25, as also the somewhat divergent so-called Muratorian canon of Milan, in Kirchhofer, Quellensammlung, p. 1, sqq.; also Westcott on the Canon of the New Test., p. 184, sqq., and Harman's In troduction, pp. 428-438). The canon of the New Testament as it now stands was gradually formed by the actions of councils (comp. Canon Laodic, 364, and the canon of the third council of Carthage in 397). This may suffice to enable the beginner to un derstand the relation of the early Christian Church to the canon, and to demonstrate to him that the former had already attained to a liigh degree of indejiendence ("sine charta et atramento."- — Irenfeus) before the canonical boundaries of the letter of the Bible had been, definitely fixed.'' But this by no means involves the conclusion that the canon is a mere accident ; the religious disposition will still recognize its providential, though not necessarily miraculous, character. 1. Introductions to the Bible as a whole.'' Leonh. Bertholdt, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in sammtl. kanonische u. apokry- phische Schriften des A. u. N. T. Erl., 1812-19. 6 Bde". * W. M. L. de Wette, Lehrbuch der histor.-krit. Einleitung in die Bibel A. u. N. T. ¦ Including that to the Hebrews, though its Pauline character is denied by some churches. 'Comp. Schleiermacher, § 104, sqq.; Goethe, p. 140, "The Bible itself — and this receives too little attention — exerted almost no influence in the older times. The books of the Old Testament had scarcely been collected, and the nation in which they orig« inated was utterly dispersed. The latter alone formed the nucleus about which itt members gathered and still gather. The books of the New Testament had scarcely been brought together before Christendom divided into endless diiferences of opinions. And thus it appears that people do not busy themselves with the work so much as about the work." 5 Older works by Rivetus (1627), Walther (1636), A. Calov (1643-73), Brian Walton (1657; Edit, von Wrangham, 1828), Heidegger (1681), Pfeiffer (Ultraj., 1704), van TiU (1720-22), du Pin (1701), Calmet 1720; translated by Mosheim (1738^7), Moldenhauer (1744), Borner (1753), f Goldhagen (1765-68), Wagner (1796). 106 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Part 1 : Einleit. in's A. T. Beri., 1817 ; 7th ed., 1852. Part 2 -. Einleit. m's N. T. 1826-30; 6th ed., by Messner and Liinemann, 1860. K. A. Credner, Beitrage zur Einl. in die Bibl. Schriften. 1 Bd. Halle, 1832. f J. M. A. Scholz, Einl. in die heU. Schriften des A. u. N. T. (1st part : aUgemeine Einl.) Koln, 1846. •j- D. Haneberg, Yersuch einer Geschichte der bibl. Offenbarung als Einleit. in's A. u. N. T. Regensb., 1850. 3d ed., 1863. J. J. Prins, Handbook to de kennis van de heil. Schriften des Ouden en Nieuwen Ver- bonds. Rotterd., 1851, 1852. 2 parts. 0. R. Hertwig, Tabelleu zur Einl. in die kanonischen u. apokryphischen Biieher des A. T. Berl., 1866. F. Kaulen, Einl. in die heil. Schrift Alt. u. N. T. Freib., 1876. Practical, and in popular style : Huber, Einleit. in die sammtl. Biieher der h. Schrift. Basel, 1803. (3. Aufl., 1841.) A. Schumann, Prakt. Einleit. in die Biieher des A. und N. T. Berl., 1847. J. Kirchhofer, Leitfaden zur Bibelkunde fur Biirgerschulen, ElementarschuUehrer- Seminarien, etc. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1860. R. F. Gran, Entwicklungsgeschichte des Neu Testamentlichen Schriftthums. Giitersl., 187L F. W. Weber, Kurtzges. Einl. in die heU. Schriften Alten u. N. Test. 4th ed. Nord., 1874. E. Zittel, die entstehung der Bibel. 3d ed. Karlsr., 1875. C. A. Witz, Einl. in die Schriften A. u. N. Test. Wien., 1876. Apologetical : L. Gaussen, Die Eohtheit der heiligen Schriften vom Standpunkt der Geschichte und des Glaubens. From the French, by J. E. Grob. Basel and Ludswigsb., 1864 and 1865. 2 parts. 2.:. Introductions to the Old Testament. Dillmann, Ueber die Bildung der Samlung der h. Schrift A. T. (Jahrbb. fiir deutsche Theoiog., 1858. 3.) Diestel, Ueber den gegenwartigen Stand der Einl. ins A. T. (Deutsche Zeitschr. fiir christliche Wissenschaft und christi. Leben. April, 1861.) R. Simon, Histoire critique du Yieux Testament. Par., 1678. 4. Rotterd., 1686. 4.' * J. G. Eichhorn, Einleitung in's A. T. Lpz., 1780, 1783, 1787, 1803. 3 Bde; 1823, 1824. 5 Bde. Einleitung in die apokryphischen Schriften des A. T. Lpz., 1795. G. L. Bauer, Entwurf einer krit. Einleit. in die Schriften des A. T. Niirnb., 1794, 1801, 1806. t .1. Jahn, Einleitung in die gottlichen Biieher des A. T. Wien, 1793, 1802. 2 Bde. Introductio in libros sacros Yet. Foed. in compend. redacta. Vienn., 1804-15. * Bertholdt and de Wette. (See above, under 1 .) W. M. L. de Wette, Beitrage zur Einl. in das A. T. Halle, 1809. 2 Bde. J. Ch. W. Augusti, Grundriss einer histor.-krit. Einleitung in's A. T. Lpz., 1806-27. f F. Ackermann, Introductio in libros Vet. Foed. Yienn., 1825. • Works in Latin : Natalls Alb. de Vers^, hist, critica V. T. auctore R. P. Ricardo Simonlo. Amst., 1681-85. Franeq., 1698. 4. With which comp. fle Clerc) : Sentimens des quelques The- ologiens de HoUande sur I'histoire critique, etc. Amst., 1685. Germ, by Corrodi. Zurich, 1799. 2 Bde. other older works by J. A. Fabricius (1610), J. H. Hettinger (1649-96), J. Leusden (1663- 1739), J. G. Carpzov .(Introductio, 1714-31-41. Critica Sacra, 1738-48), J. S. Semler (Apparatus 1773), H. E. GClte (1787), J. D. Michaelis (1787). LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 197 Hengstenberg, Beitrage zur Einl. in's A. T. Beri., 1831-39. 3 Bde. * H. A. Ch. Havernick, Handbuch der histor.-krit. Einleit. in das A. T. Eri., 1837^9. 3 Bde. (Vol. 3 by K. P. KeU.) (Vols. 1 and 2 in a 2d ed., 1854-66, by Keil.) K. F. Keil, Lehrbuch der hist.-krit. Einleit. in die kanon. Schriften des A. T. Frankf. a. M., 1863. 2. Aufl. 1859. * Fr. Bleek, Einleit. in's A. T. Pubhshed by J F. Bleek and A. Kamphausen, with preface by C. J. Nitzsch. Berl., JS61I. 3. Aufl., 1870. * J. J. StaheUn, Specielle Einleit. in die kanonischen Biieher des A. T. Elberf., 1862. f Reusch, Lehrbuch der Einleitung in das Alte Testament. 4th ed. Freib., 1870. Volckmar, Handb. der Einleit. in die Apokryphen. 2 vols. Tiib., 1862, 1863. Th. Noldecke, die alttest. Liter, in e. reihe vou Aufsatzen. Lpz., 1868. T. S. Bloch, Studien zur Gesch. der Sammlung der althebr. Liter. Bresl, 1876. 3. Introductions to the New Testament. 0. R. Hertwig, Tabelleu zur Einl. in's N. T. Beri., 1849. 4th ed., prepared by Wein- garten, 1872. R. Simon, Histoire critique du texte dn N. T., oii Ton etablit. la v&'ite des actes, sur lesquels la religion chretienne est fondee. Rotterd., 1689. 4.' H. K. A. Hanlein, Handbuch der Einleitung in die Schriften des N. T. Erl., 1794- 1800. 2d ed., 1801-9. 3 Bde. Lehrbuch der Einleitung. Ebend., 1802. J. E. Chr. Schmidt, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in's N. T. Giessen, 1804. 2 Bde. J. G. Eichhorn, Einleit. in's N. T. Lpz., Bd. 1, 1804. 2d ed., 1820. Bd. 2 and 3, 1810-14. Bd. 4 and 5, 1827. *f J. L. Hug, Einleitung in die Schriften des N. T. Tiib. u. Stuttg., 1800-21-26-47. 2 Bde. Bertholdt and de Wette. (See above, under 1.) H. E. F. Guericke, Beitrage zur hist.-krit. Einleitung in's N. T. besonders mit polem. Riicksicht auf das Lehrbuch des Herrn de Wette. Halle, 1828. Fortges. Bei trage, 1831. * H. A. Schott, Isagoge hist.-crit. in libros N. T. sacros. Jen., 1830. f A. B. Feilmoser, Einleitung in die Biieher des N. T. Innsbr., 1810-30. M. Schneckenburger, Beitrage zur Einl. in's N. T. Stuttg., 1832. H. Ohlshausen, Nachweis der Echtheit sammtlieher Schriften des N. T. Hamb., 1832. K. A. Credner, Einleitung in das N. T. Part 1. Halle, 1836. Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanon, publ. by G. Volkmar. Berl, 1860. C. G. Neudecker, Lehrb. der hist-krit. Einleitung in das N. T. Lpz., 1840. *E. |feuss. Die Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des N. T. Halle, 1842. 2d ed.. Braunschw., 1853. 2 vols. 3d ed., 1860. 4th ed., ibid., 1864. ¦f A. Maier, Einl. in die Schriften des N. T. Freib., im Br., 1852. f F. 5. Reithmayr, Einleitung in die kanonischen Biieher des N. T. Regensb., 1852. H. E. F. Guericke, Gesammtgeschichte des N. T. oder neutestamentl. Isagogik. 2d ed. Lpz., 1854. 3d ed., ibid., 1868. ' With which connect : Histoire critique des versions du N. T., oil Ton fait connaitre quel a 6t& I'usage de la lecture des livres sacres dans ies principales ^glises du monde. Rett., 1690. 4., and Nouvelles observations sur le texte et les versions du N. T. Par., 1695. 4. (Translated by Mattli. H. Cramer, with preface and notes by Semler. Halle, 1776-80). Other older works by J. Leusden (1684-1739), J. G. Pritius (1704 ; published by Hofmann, 1737-64), E. Harwood (Schulz, Halle, 1770-73), J. Dav. MichaeUs (Einl. in die gOttl. Schriften des N. B. G6tt, 1750. 4th ed., 1787, 1788. 2 vols. 4.), Herb. Marsh (Anmm. und ZusStze zu Michaelis Einl. Cambr., 1793; fibers, von E. F. K. RosenmUUer. G8tt., 1. Thl., 1795. 2. Thl., 1803. 4.). 198 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. F. Bleek, Einleitung in das N. T. Beri., 1862. 2d ed., ibid., 1866. f Langen, Grundriss der Einleitung in das Neue Testament. Freib., 1868. Grau, Entwicklungsgeschichte des neutestameutUchen Schriftthums. 2 Bd. Gutersl, 1871. A. HUgenfeld, histor.-krit. Einleitung in das N. T. Lpz., 1875. M. von Aberie, Einl. in das N. T. Hersg. v. P. Schanz. Freib., 1877. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 1. Introduction to the whole Bible. Angus, Joseph. The Bible Hand-Book : An Introduction to the Study of the Sacred Scripture. 12mo, pp. 727. Philadelphia, 1865. Bissell, E. Cone. The Historic Origin of the Bible : a Hand-Book of Principal Facts from the best recent authorities. German and English. New York, 1873. Fairbairn, P. The Typology of Scripture, viewed in connection with th& whole series of the Divine Dispensations. 5th ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 420, 484. New York, 1880. Gaussen, L. The Canon of the Holy Scriptures. Examined in the Light of History. From the French, by Ed. N. Kirk. ]2mo, pp. x, 463. Boston, 1863. Harman, Henry M. Introduction to the Study of tbe Holy Scriptures. Svo, pp. 762. New York, 1880. Hitchcock, R. D. New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible : or, the Old and New Testaments arranged according to subjects. Svo. New York, 1870. Home, Thomas Hartwell. An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 464, 493, and 198. Philadelphia, 1841. Thirteenth English edition, with the aid of Ayre and Tregelles. 4 vols., Svo. London, 1872. Lightfoot's Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae. 4 vols., Svo. London, 1880. Rogers, Henry. The Superhuman Origin of the Bible. Inferred from itself. Svo, pp. 475. New York, 1874. Stowe, C. E. Origin and History of the Books of the Bible, both Canonical and Apocryphal. In Two Parts. Part I, The New Testament. Svo, pp. 683. Hart ford, 1867. Townley, James. Illustrations of Biblical Literature, exhibiting the History and Fate of the Sacred Writings from the Earliest Period to the Present Century. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 602, 604. New York, 1847. 2. To the Old Testament. Birks, T. R. The Pentateuch and its Anatomists ; or, the Unity and Authenticity of the Books of Moses Vindicated. 12mo. London, 1869. Bleek, Johannes. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Translated by G. H. Venables. 2 vols., pp. 967. London, 1875. Cowles, Henry. The Pentateuch in its Progressive Revelations of God to Men. Pp. 414. New York, 1874. Curtiss, Samuel Ives. The Levitical Priests : a Contribution to the Criticism of the Pentateuch. With Preface by Dr. Delitzsch. 12mo, pp. xxix. 264. Edinburgh, 1877. Davidson; Samuel. An Introduction to the Old Testament, Critical, Historical, and Theological. 3 vols., 8vo; London, 1862. LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 199 Davison, John. Discourses on Prophecy. In which are considered its Structure, Use, and Inspiration. Svo. London, 1870. Delitzsch, Franz. Messianic Prophecies. Translated from Manuscript Lectures by S. Ives Curtiss. New York, 1880. De Wette, W. M. L. A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Canonical Script ures of the Old Testament. Translated and enlarged by Theodore Parker. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 617, 670. Boston, 1843. Ewald, Heinrii'.h. The History of Israel. Translated and Revised. 5 vols., Svo. London, 1869-1871. (Discusses the formation of the Old Testament Canon.) Fairbairn, P. Prophecy, viewed in Respect to its Distinctive Nature, its Special Function, and Proper Interpretation. 2d ed., Svo. New York, 1866. Gloag, James Paton. The Messianic Prophecies. Baird Lectures for 1879. 12mo, pp. 368. Edinburgh, 1879. Godet, F. BibUcal Studies on the Old Testament. Edited by W. H. Lyttleton. 16mo. New York and London. Green, W. H. Moses and the Prophets. New York, 1883. (A reply to Prof. Rob ertson Smith and Kuenen.) Havernick, H. A. Ch. A Historico-Critical Introduction to the Pentateuch. From the German. Svo, pp. 450. Edinburgh, 1850. A General Historico-Critical Introduction to the Oid Testament. From the German. Svo, pp. 389. Edinburgh, 1852. Hengstenberg, E. W. Dissertations on the Genuineness of Daniel, and the Integ rity of Zechariah. Translated from the German. Svo. Edinburgh, 1868. -—- Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch. From the German. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 462, 543. Edinburgh, 1847. Jehovah and Elohim in the Pentateuch, On the Use of, as Consistent with, and Con firmatory of, its Mosaic Authorship. By H. T. Svo. London, 1869. Keil, Karl F. Manual of Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical Scriptures of the Old Testament. Translated by M. Douglas. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 546, 444. Edinburgh, 1869. Leathes, Stanley. The Structure of the Old Testament : a Series of Popular Essays. 16mo, pp. 198. Philadelphia, 1873. M'Donald, Donald. Introduction to the Pentateuch. Svo, pp. 487, 489. Edinburgh, 1861. Norton, Andrews. The Pentateuch aud its Relations to the Jewish and Christian Dispensations. 12mo. London, 1870. Oehler, G. P. Theology of the Old Testament. Translated by Sophia Taylor. Svo, pp. 497. Edinburgh, 1875. Phelps, Austin. Studies in the Old Testament. 12mo, pp. 333. Boston, 1879. Porter, J. L. The Pentateuch and the Four Gospels : a Statement of our Lord's Tes timony to the Mosaic Authorship, Historic Truth, and the Divine Authority of the Pentateuch. 12mo. London, 1865. Quaney, John. Genesis and its Authorship. Two Demonstrations : I. On the Im port of the Introductory Chapters. II. On the Use of the Names of God in the Book of Genesis. Svo. London and Edinburgh, 1866. Smith, R. Payne. Prophecy a Preparation for Christ. Bampton Lectures for 1869. 12mo, pp. 397. Boston, New York, and Cincinnati, 1870. Stebbins, Rufus P. A Study of the Pentateuch for Popular Reading, with an Intro ductory Examination of recent Dutch Theories, as represented by Dr. Kuenen's Religion of Israel. 12mo, pp. 233. Boston, 1881. 300 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Stuart, Moses. Critical History and Defense of the Old Testament Canon. 12mo. Revised ed., pp. 422. Andover, 1872. Watts, Robert. The Newer Criticism and the Analogy of Faith. A Reply to Prof. Robertson Smith. Edinburgh, 1881. Williams, Rowland. The Prophets of Israel and Judah, during the Assyrian Empire. Svo, pp. 460. London, 1866. Wright, W. The Book of Jonah, in Four Oriental Versions, namely, Chaldee, Syriac, Ethiopic, and Arabic; with Glossaries. Svo, pp. xU, 148. London, 1857. 3. To the New Testament. Abbott, Ezra. The Authorship of tbe Fourth Gospel. 8vo, pp. 104. Boston, 1880. Alexander, Jos. A. Notes on the New Testament Literature and Ecclesiastical His tory. 12mo, pp. 319. New York, 1873. New «d., 1875. Alford, Henry. How to Study the New Testament. First Section, The Gospels and Acts. Second Section, The Epistles. Third Section, The Epistles and the Rev- elation. 3 vols., 12md. London, 1865-69. Bleek, Friedrich. An Introduction to the New Testament. From the Second Edition of the German. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 900. Edinburgh, 1869-70. Conder, Josiah. Literary History of the New Testament. Svo, pp. 624. London, 1846. Conybeare and Howson. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. ; also 2 vols, in one, 12mo, pp. 656. New York, 1869. Davidson, D. Connection of the Sacred and Profane History, from the Close of the Old Testament History till the Establishment of Christianity. 3 vols, in one. 12mo. New York, 1S57. New ed., 24mo. London, 1868. Davidson, Samuel. An Introduction to the Study of the New Testament. 3 vols., Svo, pp. 458, 495, 688. London, 1851. Ebrard, J. H. A. The Gospel History. A Critical Investigation in Support of the Historical Character of the Gospels. Translated by James Martin. Svo, pp. 602. Edinburgh, 1863. Gloag, Paton J. Introduction to the Pauline Epistles. Svo, pp. 488. Edinburgh and New. York. Godet, F. Studies in the New Testament. 12mo, pp. 398. New York, 1877. Gregory, D. S. Why Four Gospels ? or, the Gospel for all the World. 12mo, pp. 348. New York and Cincinnati, 1880. Howson, John S. The Metaphors of St. Paul, and Companions of St. Paul. With an Introduction by H. B. Hackett. 2 vols, in one, 16mo, pp. v, 91, 211. New York, 1872. Hug, John Leonard. An Introduction to the Writings of the New Testament. From the German. Svo, 2 vols., pp. 529, 682. London, 1827. Hutton, Richard H. The Historical Problems of the Fourth Gospel. In Essays, Theological and Literary. 2 vols. London, 1871. Kelley, Wm. Lectures Introductory to the Study of the Gospels. 12mo. London, 1867. Lectures Introductory to the Study of the Acts, the Catholic Epistles, and the Revelation. 12mo. London, 1870. Introduction to the Study of the Epistles of Paul. 12mo. Lotidon, 1869. Less, Godfrey. The Authenticity, Uncorrupted Preservation, and Credibility of the New Testament. Translated by R. Kingdom. Svo. London, 1864. LITERATURE O^ BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION. 201 Lewin, Thomas. Fasti Sacri ; or, a Key to the Chronology of the New Testament. Svo, pp. 429. London, 1865. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul, with Numerous Illustrations, finely en graved on wood ; Maps, Plans, etc. 2 vols., 4to, pp. xxxiv, 414 ; xxii, 487. Lon don, 1878. Luthardt, C. E. St. John the Author of the Fourth Gospel. From the German. Svo, pp. 369. Edinburgh, 1875. Martin, James. Origin and History of New Testament. 2d ed., 16mo. London, 1872. Michaelis, J. D. Introduction to the New Testament ; Translated, with Notes, etc., by Herbert Marsh. 6 vols., Svo. London, 1823. MitcheU, E. C. The Critical Hand-Book. A Guide to the Authenticity, Canon, and Text of the New Testament. 12mo. Andover. Monod, Adolphe. St. Paul. Five Discourses. From the French, by J. H. M.yers. New ed., 12ino. Andover, 1876. Nast, Wm. The Gnspel Records. Their Genuineness, Authenticity, etc. 12mo, pp. 373. Cincinnati, 1878. Norton, Andrews. The Evidence of the Genuineness of the Gospels. Abridged ed., 12mo, pp. 684. Boston, 1867. Roberts, Alexander. Discussions of the Gospels. Part I, on the Language used by our Lord. Part II, on the Origiual Language of Matthew's Gospel. Svo, pp. 571. Cambridge and London, 1864. (Argues that Jesus spoke Greek.) Sandy, Wm. The Authorship and Historical Character of the Fourth Gospel con sidered in reference to the Contents of the Gospel itself. A Critical Essay. 12mo. London, 1872. Scrivener, F. H. Six Lectures on the Text of the New Testament, and the Ancient MSS. which contain it. Croivn Svo, pp. 607. Cambridge, 1861. Tischendorf, Constantino. Origin of the Four Gospels. Translated by WUliam L. Gage. 16mo, pp. 287. Boston, 1868. When were our Gospels Written? An Argument ; with a Narrative of the Dis covery of the Sinaitic Manuscript. 1 6mo. New York, 1867. Tregelles, S. P. Canon Muratorianus. The Earliest Catalogue of the Books of the New Testament. Edited, with Notes, and a Fac-simile of the Manuscript in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. 4to. London, 1868. Upham, Francis W. Thoughts on the Holy Gospels : How they came to be in Man ner and Form as they are. 12mo, pp. 378. New York and Cincinnati, 1881. Westcott, B. F. A History of the New Testament Canon during the first Four Cent uries. 12mo. Cambridge, 1870. Introduction to the Study of the Gospels; with Historical and Explanatory Notes. 12mo, pp. 476. Boston. Whately, Richard. Difficulties in the Writings of the Apostle Paul and other parts of the New Testament. From the Sth London edition. 12mo, pp. 376. Andover, 1865. For Literature of the disputed origin of the Fourth Gospel, see Appendix to Luthardt's work on St. John ; and also Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, American edition, sub voce, pp. 1437-1439. 303 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. SECTION XIII. BIBLICAL CRITICISM. J. S. Semler, Abhandlung von freler Untersuchung des Kanon, Halle, 1771-75, 4 vols. ; Jod. Herlnga, Ueber d. rechten Gebrauch u. Missbrauch d. bibl. Kritik, from the Dutch, by Beckhaus, Offenbach, 1S04 ; F. Hitzig, Begriff der Kritik, am A. T. praktisch erBrtert, Heidelberg, 1831 ; M. Drechsler, Die Unwissenscbattllchkeit im Gebiete d. Kritik, etc., Leips., 18-37; G. A. Hauff, Offenbarungsglaube u. Kritik d. WW. Geschichtsbiicher, am Beispiele d. B. Josua in ihrer noth- wendigen Einheit dargettian, Stuttg., 1843 ; G. L. Hahn, Gegenwartigen Stand d. N. T. Kritik, Breslau, 1848 ; Ebrard, in Herzog's Encykl., s. v. Kritik ; B. B. Edwards, Certain Erroneous Methods and Principles of Biblical Criticism, Bib. Sacra., vl, p. 185 ; Kitto's Cyclcpaedla, vol. i, p. 48". Biblical Criticism operates on the historical ground opened to The objects our view hy the study of isagogics. Its task is, to by^B'^i^utal determine, on the one hand, the authenticity of the Criticism. Scriptures as a whole ; on the other, the uncorrupted character (integrity) of single passages or the entire text, and also to restore the true reading where it has heen lost or crowded out. It conducts its work on scientific principles, and makes use of avail able historical monuments and of the evidence afforded by internal marks in the writings themselves under examination. No pious mind need be startled by the phrase "Biblical Criti cism," ' as though it implied a purpose to criticise and force the text. Of suoh criticism there has heen no lack ; but here no criti cism of the contents, whether historical or dogmatical, is intended, but simply an examination into the authenticity of the text as it exists, either in its parts or as a whole. At the first glance even suoh inquiry may seem to conflict with the reverence we owe to the Bible, though this reverence itself, when more correctly under stood, invites to conscientious investigation of the Scriptures." The thought that God has always watched over the Bible, is, in this gen eral form, the presumption of a pious consciousness, which may he ' " It is very difficult to conceive of this word (criticism) as denoting a real unity in the technical meaning which has been attached to it." Schleiermacher, Herm. u. Kritik (at the beginning) ; comp. his Abhandl. iib. Begriff u. EintheUung der philolog. Kritik in Akadem. Reden u. Abhandlungen (Sammtl. Werke zur Phil., vol. iii, p. 38); and also Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 310: "There assuredly exists a criticism that springs from the full confidence of faith as well as one that takes its rise in doubt ; and the former is inborn with Christian piety, at least with that of the evangelical type. God has not made, and did not intend to make, the task a trifiing one for us. He gives nothing whatever to man in its finished state ; all his gifts are imparted in such a way as to abundantly tax human energy — this for the reason that we are human. This applies also to the Scriptures ; and if we consent to undertake the labor impesed on us by God and subject the Bible to historical criticism, it does not follow that we thereby exalt ourselves above and constrain it, but rather that we are sincerely en deavoring to learn its true meaning." ' Upon this point comp. esp. Hauff, supra, p. 19, sqq. THE BIBLE A PROVIDENTIAL BOOK. 203 sustained at the bar of science, and even finds its justification at the hands of science. But to decide beforehand how God should have watched, what things he must have guarded against to prevent the Bible from becoming a book like other identiaTiy books, is an arrogant assumption equal to that of ra- s"^i'ded, yet . . ... *¦ ^ subject to hu- tionalistic criticism in the other direction. It is an man vicissi- historical fact to which we are, in all humility, to as- ^^^'^' sent, that God has chosen to permit the Bible to pass through the same human processes by which other written monuments have been and are being tested. This will be apparent to every person who has looked with an unprejudiced eye into the history and for tunes of the canon.' It is doubtless true that (in recent timfes, especially) criticism has been often employed for perverse and even frivolous Bibucai criti- eud6,° and rarely has a hook been subjected to so much cism, though abuse as has the Bible ; but it is hy no means wise to ed, stiu of oppose uncritical to hypercritical arbitrariness. Only a sreat value. strictly scientific procedure, unbiassed by dogmatic preconceptions of any kind, will meet the demands of the case.' While it is true " Comp. Herder, Briefe, No. 1, " Banish the last remains of the leaven of the opin ion that this book is unlike other books in its outward form and matter, so that, for instance, no various readings can occur in it, because it is a Divine book. Various readings do occur (and yet but one can be the correct reading) — this is fact, not opin ion. . . . Whether a person who makes a copy of the Bible thereby becomes at once a faultlbss God ? ... No parchment acquires a firmer nature because it bears the Bible, and no ink becomes thereby indelible.'' Similiarly, Eichhorn, Einl. ins. A. T., p. 57, sq. (2d ed.), "Every person who censures the Biblical scholar, or even sighs with pious anxiety because he examines one book after another of the Old (or New) Testa ment for this purpose, applying critical exactness and judicial strictness to his work^ must either remain unacquainted with antiquity and profane literature, together with the processes employed in that field, or be so extremely weak in mental powers as to fail to see the serious consequences resulting from the neglect of such tests, as well as the invincible host of doubts which can only be driven from their entrenchments by the proposed (i. e., critical) method," ' It must be, admitted, however, that complaints upon this point have been exagger ated, as, for instance, by Drechsler, who is governed by the idea that " every assault upon the genuineness of a Scriptural book is at the same time an attack directed against the belief in salvation through Christ."— Page 12, etc. ; comp. Hauff, p. 255. = " Every person is sufficiently protected against the arbitrary tendencies of his own nature who enters on the investigation animated by a sincere love of truth, and against the arbitrariness of others by the liberty to test assertions and arguments made by them," Hauff, p. 45 ; " It is the especial task of our age to place this department of theology (criticism) in a new and clearer Ught, to provide new fundamental con ceptions and a new basis, for this science, since the old has become decayed and un serviceable " Hahn, p. 7 ; " I am convinced that in order to renew the Christian faith we need, not less, but more, investigation," Bunsen, Hippolytus, i, 88; "On its bright side, criticism is the self-rejuvenating element of the Church as a whole, the boast of 204 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. that the authenticity of many a book or single passage has heen doubted because it gave discomfort to the critic's subjectivity, it yet appears, from the history of criticism, that genuine critics, while abstaining from all passion, have brought within the range of their researches matters having no immediate connexion with the faith, and have given them the most conscientious consideration, and that upon the whole, and on the large scale, their judgment has been con trolled by other than predetermined dogmatical reasons. How can a dogmatical system derive advantage from the fact that the ac count of the adulterous woman (John viii) is assigned to a different Gospel; that a doxology (Rom. xvi) is assigned to a different place; or even that the genuineness of Second Peter is by some surrendered? Not a single Bible truth is thereby deprived of its support. Criti- The objection cism has also been frequently denounced as paltry, and that Biblical jt j^av doubtless Surprise the layman or the beginner Criticism Is , •' . . ^ . , ,, t i • , otten paltry. that extensive investigation should he made into the transposition of a word, or concerning a particle, which might seem to exert no immediate influence on the meaning. Precisely this devotion to the letter of the Scriptures (which was cultivated " for the glory of Jesus Christ" by the pious Bengel) constitutes, with all its apparent dryness, the finest flower of scientifis earnestness and the most effectual restraint upon recklessness, while, on the contrary, uncritical ignorance, which, for instance, would, in order to possess an additional proof-text, retain passages like 1 John v, 7, though known to be not genuine, is rendering hut poor service to the interests of piety. The glory of science is this, that it presses onward in the course marked out by an incorruptible love of truth, without yieldmg to the power of outside influences. SECTION XIV. CONDITIONS OF CANONICITY. The claim of a hook to he canonical is only partially estahli.shedhy the acknowledgment of its genuineness; but the canonical char acter of the Bible certainly depends on the integrity of the separate passages contained in it, and consequently on the purity of the text. Genuineness of The word spurious (spurius, ^01900) is, in its harshest books and pas- . V i i • ¦ ,, -i i sages to be de- meaning, applied to works intentionally ascribed to Sil^f criti- '^^ author with whom they did not originate ; aud a cism. number of such works was known to the early Church, the evangelical Church and theology ; on the darker side, criticism has, by its deform ity, fiUed one of the most pungent pages in the history of the Protestant Church." J. P. Lange, Das Apostol. Zeitalter, i, p. 9 ; comp. also the Periodisirung der krit. Operationen in der evangel. Kirche, p. 10, by the same author. GROUNDS OP CANONICITY. 205 bearing the names of Peter, James, Thomas, etc., and seeking to intrude themselves into the canon, from which they were, however, subsequently rejected as apocryphal.' In this instance the denial of genuineness ' involved the loss of canonicity also. But the ques tion of genuineness may relate to more than the canonicity of a hook. The admission that a book possesses the highest title to a place in a collection of sacred and even Divinely-inspired books, does not necessarily preclude inquiry into the propriety with which it is attributed to the author to whom tradition or the inscription (of later date than the work itself) ascribes it. It will hardly do, however, to claim inspiration for a book whose very first sentence is a forgery. If the pastoral epistles, for example, are not Paul's, then some one has palmed off a deception in his name, and they are not deserving of respectful consideration. It will be useless to argue that, though written under false pretences, they may be yet canonical, although this concession has very unwisely been made. The greatest caution is, therefore, required at this point. The good name of the Bible would be damaged seriously by the assump tion of well-meant imitations of apostolical productions ; for such an hypothesis throws a very equivocal hght upon the question of the integrity of the Biblical writers, and attributes to them arts which can hardly be made to consist with the character of sincere dis ciples of Christ. Fortunately, the results of the destructive crit icism applied to the authorship of New Testament books are not yet so well established as its originators would persuade them selves they are. Criticism finds here a proper field for a frank dis cussion of the reasons for and against, by which means the questions involved can be brought to a final settlement ; but let the thought that it might possibly become necessary even to give up one book or another cause no alarm in advance, as though our salvation .. ' The N. T. Apocrvpha has been published by J. A. Schmid, Pseudo-Nov. Test., Helmst., 1809, 4to. ; J. A. Fabricius, Cod. Apocr.yphus N. T., Hamb., 1719, 3 vols.; 0. Ch. L. Schmid, Corpus vet. Apocryph. extra Biblia, Hadam., 1805 ; J. C. Thilo, Cod. Apocryphus N. T., etc., torn, i. Lips., 1832 (incomplete); Tischendorf, Evangelia Apocrypha, Lips., 1853; same. Acta Apostol. Apocrypha, 1861, and Apocalypses Apocryphae, Lips., 1866; K. W. Borberg, Bibliothek der N. T. Apocryphen, Stuttg., 1840-41, 2 vols. J. F. Kleuker, Die Apocryphen des N. T., Hamb., 1790; Nitzsch, De Apocr. Ew., etc., Viteb., 1804, 4to. ; Arens, De Evang. Apocryph., etc., Gott., 1836, 4to. ; Tischendorf, De Evangg. Apocryph., origine et usu, Hague, 1851, (prize essay). See also Hone's Apocryphal N. T., Lond., 1820, and N. Y., 1849, Svo., and Abp. Wake's Apost. Fathers, Lond., 1830, and Hartford, 1834, Svo.). ^ The word has reference solely to the authorship of a book, and not to its fitness to rank as canonical. 200 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPiEDIA. depended on such a contingency ; unlikely as that contingency may be.' The principle applies to the Old Testament as well. Let it he proven that certain Psalms were not composed by the royal singer himself, but merely ad modum Davidis — would this de stroy their religious worth? We should no more exclude them from the canon, than we would exclude from the hymn book a beau tiful poem by an unknown author of the seventeenth century, con cerning which we learn that it has heen erroneously attributed to Paul Gerhard. Is the description of God's servant in Isa. Iiii less applicable to Christ on the supposition that Isa. xl-lx was written by another (later) than Isaiah, a deutero-Esaias?" Who, moreover, would find the book of Job to be less impressive because its author is unknown ? Even Pope Gregory I. was able to form a more in dependent judgment upon this question than many Protestants liv ing ten centuries later. It follows that the canonicity of a book may be maintained, even when its authorship is left in doubt, pro vided the book itself contains nothing that conflicts with the nor mal character of the theocracy in the Old, or of the Gospel in the New, Testament. But should criticism extend its investigations to the question of canonicity also ? If so, to what extent ? That it did so in the ancient Church is a matter of fact, and it is to the exer cise of such criticism that we owe the rejection of apocryphal writ- ' A very correct and much more intelligent view than that entertained by many pious people of to-day was advanced by Richard Baxter (died 1091) in his work De casibus conscientiae, T. iii, p. 174: "Non est ad salutem necessarium, ut quis credat singulos libros aut versus Scripturae esse canonicos aut scriptos per spiritum Dei. Si liber aliquis periret aut in dubium vocaretur, v. g. epistola Judae, non inde sequeretur, una cum ipso omnem veram fidem spemque salutis perituram.". Comp. also Episcopii Institut. iv, 1. " It must become evident at some time," says J. L. Riickert, Theologie, i, Leips., 1851, Pref., p. 4, " that all the results of criticism may be aclcnowledged, and a thoroughly independent mode of thinking may be followed, without destruction to the Christian character. It must become evident that Christian faith and volition do not depend upon our judgment respecting this or that particular book." Even Kahnis (Dogmat.), occupying the strict confessional ground of Lutheranism, has asserted his right to an independent position with regard to the canon ; comp. his Zeugniss v. d. Grundwahrheiten d. Protestantismus gegen Dr. Hengstenberg, Leips., 1862. '' Umbreit (Prakt. Comm. zum Jesaia, p. 308) beautifuUy observes, " The auroral Ught of grace and salvation breaks forth from the joyously animated discourses which are appended to the book of Isaiah in a well-ordered succession. We hear the voice of one of the greatest prophets at the close of the Bab.ylonish exile. Even though his name is not Isaiah, his high importance is apparent from every word proclaimed by him. . . . Well may we term him (this anonymous) the evangelic of the old covenant, for no one of the prophets has declared like him the glad tidings of the day-star from on high." The thorough discussions in relation to Daniel, which Bunsen places in the mouth of his Hippolytus, U, p. 296, sqq., are very simUar. RE.ASONS FOR TEXT CRITICISM. 207 ings. Whether the exclusion of such writings was absolute, or whether the boundary line between canonical and apocryphal is still in dispute, is a different question. The recognition of a dis tinct class of avTtXEyoiMEva, and the distinction between proto- and deutero-canonical writings are of themselves evidence that such crit icism was exercised. The Reformation asserted in its own behalf this right of the ancient Church,' and more recent tiines have like Avise recognized it as a right and so employed it. We readily admit that the common feeling of the Church is not likely to consent that the slightest alteration in the canon be attempted, and cannot even desire it for ourselves ; '' but the right of judgment must be con ceded and science must steadily respect it. However unlikely it may now be that at this late day hooks will be excluded from the canon by general consent, it is yet more unlikely that the changes in the canon will receive anj addition or be enriched by the canonuniikeiy. incorporation with it of such writings as were formerly not known at all or were misunderstood.' It is not the genuineness of the sacred writings alone, however, that engages attention, but their integrity as well ; and the lat ter is even more directly necessary to the canonical reception of a book than the former. Whole hooks or extended paragraphs, as well as particular expressions, or even single adjectives, particles, etc., may have slipped into a completed work or have been attached to a revered name, whether by a designed insertion (interpolation) or through mistake, by which, e. g., a marginal note (gloss) written by a later hand was transferred to the text. The text may, more over, have become corrupt in places or be defective by reason of the carelessness or inexperience of copyists, or for other reasons to be discussed in connexion with introduction itself (faded characters, abbreviations, absence of divisions between words, etc.). That ' Comp. Luther's criticisms of the Epistle of St. James and of the Apocalypse. With this comp. the opinion of L. Osiander (1614): In eo autem erratum est, quod epistolam Jacobi et Judae et posteriores duas Joannis inter canonica scripta numerant, quae scripta non longe post apostolorum tempora non pro scriptis canonicis habita sunt. . . . Recte autem omissa Apocalypsis ; ea enim non est Joannis Apostoli, sed cujusdam Joannis Theoiogi, et multa habet adeo obscura et perplexa, ut non multi dextre in ejus lectione versari queant— in Spittler, Ueber d. 60 Laod. Kanon, p. 16. This cita-| tion is not designed as an approval of such opinions in themselves, but simply as a proof that independent views respecting the elements of the canon may consist with a decided faith in the Divine nature of Christianity. ^ Comp. Schleiermacher, § 114, sq. ' Discoveries made up to the present time (e. g., of a lost letter by Paul to the Cor inthians) have not, however, been sufficiently attested. But comp. Schleiermacher. § in. 208 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. such things have occurred is, as Herder observes, not supposition, but fact.' Who can even assure us that, despite the great number of MSS. of the Scriptures, none of which reach back to the time of the original founding, the original form of expression was not lost here and there, and that this could not have been the case at a very early period, perhaps at the time when the first copy was made from the autograph ? Upon the purity of the text depends the internal value and char acter of our Biblical canon. It may be said that as a book may be canonical, though found to emanate from another than the reputed author, even so a single passage, e. g., 1 John v, 7, may be allowed A pure text in- to Stand in the Bible if it does not contradict the dispensable. analogia fidei. Reverence for the Bible, however, re quires that every thing within our power be done to secure it in a form of the highest attainable purity, though the nature of the case is such as to prevent more than an approximate accomplish ment of the task. SECTION XV. CEITICAL METHODS. Criticism is, according to its objects, divided into external and internal, and, according to its results, into negative and positive. A further distinction is sometimes made between the criticism of books and that of words or texts ;' but the two cannot easily be kept apart, though they are employed on different objects— the former being more concerned with the authenticity of entire hooks or separate paragraphs, the latter with the genuineness and purity of the text (comp. the preceding §). It is usual, though inappro priate, to designate the criticism of sections and books the higher, and that of words and separate passages the lower criticism." Not less misleading is the usage of others, who endeavor to include in the higher criticism what we would, more appropriately, term the internal, and in the lower criticism what we characterize as the external.* The truth is that the business of the critic deals with ' " The evidence which lies on the surface long ago destroyed aU the prejudices vvhich formerly prevailed on this subject."— Schleiermacher, § 116. To this we add, "Ought, at least, to have destroyed them." Wetstein, Prolog., p. 4, adduces a note worthy example from the Aldine ed. of the LXX, in Gen. xliv, which reads ol Hvepairm airuv, mstead of ol bvoi airCv (Dn''nbn). The MS. had ivoi mstead of bvot, which was taken for an abbreviation of iv&puTroi, and in this way asses were transformed into ™^'^' ^ Danz, p. 210. = Schleiermacher, § 118. Note. Some writers apply the phrase, "the lower criticism," to the genuineness, etc., of single letters and words, and that of "the higher criticism" to entire books and sec tions. Schleiermacher has, however, forcibly demonstrated the mechanical and un tenable character of this distinction. Comp. Herm. u. Krit., p. 267 ; comp. 277. OBJECTS OF INTERNAL CRITICISM. 209 various combinations which are all equally important, but which are sometimes directed toward the external, historical, empirical, and sometimes toward the internal and psychological side. We accordingly give the name of external criticism to that External criti- which seeks to demonstrate the authenticity and genu- dsm defined. ineness of a hook, and also to discover the true readings from exist ing facts, viz. : from existing testimonies taken from Christian an tiquity, from MSS. versions, etc. This is by no means to be de nominated a lower criticism, as if it were contrasted with anoth er kind, which might proudly claim a higher place, or even disre gard its existence, but rather constitutes the necessary basis of all critical procedure, unless we intend to build on air. But this ex ternal application of the so-called critical apparatus is not alone sufficient ; for on the one hand that apparatus is itself subject to higher critical conditions, since the age and the importance of MSS. versions, etc., must first be ascertained,' and on the other hand the most perfectly constructed critical apparatus cannot accomplish everything. It is necessary that internal criticism be brought in to complement the other. In this way conclusions may be . ^ ., . , .... . "^ - The offlce of arrived at respecting the authenticity ot a written work, internal criti- even though the testimony from external sources be '"^^' indefinite or conflicting, or though no such testimony exist — the means employed being comparison with other works by the same author (e. g., the Ep. to the Hebrews compared with the acknowl edged writings of St. Paul, the Apocalypse with the gospel and the epistles by St. John, 2d with 1st Peter and with discourses in the Acts by the same apostle), the collocation and estimating of histor ical conditions (e. g., in connexion with disputed predictions in the prophets), and finally the careful observation and comparison of the language in any particular period, its grammatical forms, figures of speech, etc. Upon the question of integrity the disturbance of the natural connexion caused by an interpolated passage (1 John v, 7-8) may be suflScient to arouse the suspicion of spuriousness, even before the authority of MSS. is appealed to ; or with regard to the choice between different existent readings an important influence may be exerted, in addition to that exercised by the external superiority of some particular MS., by the internal relation of the passage to the whole connexion. It also becomes possible occasionally to show by internal criticism how a false reading could have originated, and ' In this regard compare the different critical systems by Bentley, Mill, Bengel, Wet stein, Griesbach, Hug, Matthaei, Scholz, Lachmann, Tischendorf. At this point crit icism and introductory science interpenetrate each other. See Schleiermacher, § 120; de Wette, Einl., § 37, sqq. 14 210 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. not rarely is it compelled to decide whether the preference is to he given to an easy or a more diificult reading ; for while it is certain that words have been changed because they were not understood in such a sense or such a connexion, it is equally certain that many a difficult reading was introduced into the text by ill-timed polishing or thoughtless want of care on the part of copyists. To discover the proper bounds to be observed between external Carefully fixed and internal criticism in their application, is conceded limits to be set ^^ -^^ dilficult. Great care is certainly required in con- icism. nexion with the latter, and much mischief has already been caused by its use ; but we cannot on that account give an un qualified assent to the idea that the critic's work should be of a purely mechanical nature, and that the authority of MSS. should alone be allowed to decide.' Harmonious activity of the intellect ual powers, the combination of external with internal circumstances, comprehension and judgment, doctrina and ingenium, must go hand in hand in this pursuit. Who will deny that even the earliest and best codices were exposed to accidents, the very thing which the keen scent of criticism, certainly a natural endo-wment which is to be ennobled by learning, is to discover when possible ? Above aU arbitrariness and accident, however, stands science, combined with liberty and a higher necessity. SECTION XVL POSITIVE AND NEGATro: CEITICISM. The negative criticism endeavours simply to ascertain and cast out Negative and what is spurious as a whole or in part : while the posi- positive crtti- .• .... , . , . ' , . . '^ cism; functions "^^ criticism seeks, With reierence to authenticity, to of each. discover the real authors of anonymous and pseudony mous works, and with reference to integrity to restore the text to its original condition. The former, when sufficient external evi dence is wanting, is done by hypothesis, the latter by conjecture. It is generally more easy to determine with certainty that a work was not written by the author to whom tradition has attributed it, than to discover who the real author was ; and it is likewise more easy to arrive at the conclusion that a passage has been corrupted or mutilated than at a definite result in settling the true reading. Positive criticism receives occasional aid from external helps, how ever, even though they he not wholly adequate. Thus, e. g., the testimony of Tertullian (De pudic. c. 20) led many to adopt the ' Comp., e. g., Rettig's notice of Lachmanu's N. T. in Studd. u. Kritt., 1832, No. 4. Baur (contra Thiersch et al.) has said much that is worthy of note, in opposition to pure mechanism in critical processes. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CRITICISM. 211 theory that the Epistle to the Hebrews was written by Barnabas. Sometimes, however, hypothesis puts forth chiims, based solely upon possibilities, as in the case of Eichhorn's assumption of a primitive Gospel, and in many other instances of recent times. The claim of hypothesis upon our approval is even less authoritative in the latter class of cases {i. e., of appeal to bare possibilities) p^equent taiia- than in the former, and many writers have accordingly eies of critical forsaken the way of hypothesis, as being entirely too ^^° uncertain, and have ceased altogether from making use of the so- called positive criticism; bolder inquirers, however, still continue to employ it.' Similar considerations apply to conjectures relating to the readings. A former age was entirely too prone to apply conjecture, at first in the department of profane, and subsequently also in that of sacred, literature ; but they are likewise wrong who unconditionally reject conjecture, for it is known that conjectures have occasionally been confirmed by readings that were afterward dis covered. While therefore it may be advisable in general to insist upon the rule that " whatever of correct results may be obtained in the way of conjecture must be supported by facts connected with the history of the text," the rule must yet be so modified as not to forbid conjectural attempts in needful cases.^ 1 Comp. Hitzig, supra. The positive criticism is especially recommended by Hahn ; understanding thereby not a criticism which so dreads negation as to cling with firmer grasp to the traditional, but that which conquers the negative, and which by concen trating its attention upon its object— the several books of the Bible and the cir cumstances of history — assigns to such books their definite and assured historical place. ' Schleiermacher, §§ 119 and 121, and Kritik, p. 291: "The canon that the divina- torial process (conjecture) is to be allowed only where documentary aids are wanting, or even that when the latter are not wanting, the right to employ conjectural processes does not exist, the best that manuscripts afford being all that we are authorized to ask — this canon does not apply absolutely, and may not even be assumed, because the interests of hermeneutics would suffer loss thereby." But see p. 312, and comp. Herder. " Conjecture, in the critical sense, resembles the scalpel of the surgeon. It may unfortunately become necessary and beneficial, but only terribly necessary, terri bly advantageous ; and the wretch who plays and whittles with it, cutting away at pleas ure, now an ear, now an eye, now a nose, that does not suit his fancy — but mutilates himself." Specimens of vain conjecture are given by Herder in the Appendix to the Briefe zweener Briider Jesu (Werke z. Bel. u. Theol., viU, p. 291). Similarly, Liicke, " Divinatorial criticism involves a dangerous element, and is least of all the concern of everybody ; but it is needed for complementing the theological science of the ca-non." (Stud. u. Krit, 1834, No. 4, p. 267). Comp. Rosenkranz, Encykl., p. 121, sqq. ; de Wette, Einl., § 69. 212 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. SECTION XVII. THE EELATION OF CEITIOISM TO EXEGESIS. Although criticism is, in its idea, distinguished from exegesis, assuming: the relation of an auxiliary to the latter, it Relation of ent- ° . , . . ,. , . . icism to exe- Can yet be conceived of in reality only m connexion sfsiS' with the functions of interpretation ; for an interest in criticism must be aroused, and a sense for it be quickened, by ex egesis. The two sciences must accordingly be conceived of as con tinually acting upon each other, and therefore as conditioning and aiding each other. Nothing is more hurtful, and nothing has done more to damage JJ. ^. f ^ criticism in the estimation of pious people, than the ill- by dabblers in timed and superficial dabbling with it of persons who, criticism. before having properly read a single book in the Bible, or having been tested in the work of exposition, undertake to deal exclusively with the surface results of criticism, and swear by them as though they were established facts — who pronounce their dictum about^ the Bible without being well read in the Bible, or having learned anything of value from it. How frequently has a taste for the Bible been destroyed at the outset by forcing upon the no tice of young men such oracular decisions of criticism, before they had become well acquainted with the sacred text ! If it is highly unpedagogical to trouble pupils who have not thoroughly read an ode of Horace or an oration by Cicero, with criticism in connexion with the explanation of the classics, it is' nothing less than sin to disgust young theologians with the study of the Bible from the be ginning, or, what is worse, to lead them to cultivate a foolish self- conceit, by means of depreciatory criticisms. It might therefore be suflScient for the beginner at first if he were to make himself acquainted with the tasks which criticism is to perform, leaving the practical employment of its operations for a later time, when he shall have become familiarly acquainted with his Bible, and shall have tasted somewhat of its positive contents, even having refreshed and nourished his soul thereby. This is possible, however, only in the rugged way of a thorough exegesis. Critical virtuosity, as Critical and ex- Schleiermacher terms it, is to be attained only as the egeticai skill result of practice ;' and exegetical virtuosity is its neces- the result of . . , , , . , ,. , practice. sary prerequisite, although neither of them can attain to its completion without the aid of the other. Such reciprocal ac tion between exegesis and criticism is self-evident, however. If the choice of a reading affects the interpretation, or, rather, if it pro- ' Schleiermacher, § 122, sq. HISTORY OF CRITICISM. 213 vides the matter for interpretation, it is conversely true that the correct explanation of a passage throws needed light upon the vari ous readings which exist, so that, not unfrequently, a more accurate comprehension of the connexion inclines us to readopt a reading which we had rejected, or to reject one which we believed ourselves obliged to hold, before the passage itself was understood. The authenticity of a book and the acknowledsrment of its „ .„ . •' . . ° . . Criticism and author may likewise he affected, and suspicion against exegesis act on the book itself be excited, by the misunderstanding of ^^'^ ° ^'^' a passage, while a profounder apprehension of the writer's spirit and of the situation may restore its genuineness. Conversely, a superficial knowledge respecting the authenticity of a book may al lay all questionings, while a thorough examination of the matter may excite doubts warranted by the facts, and call for a more ex haustive discussion of the points in doubt. It will thus be seen how necessary it is, first, in every case, and before the judgment has been formed, to have regard to the results obtained by others, and in this way to employ in reading the Bible a text as critically correct as may be possible; but, second, while making use of the best critical aids at command, to preserve unbiassed the keenness of our own mental vision in the work of interpretation. HlSTOET OF CeITICISM. To provide the history of criticism fully is the task of Intro duction. The text of the Old Testament, upon which „ . , ' ^ Historical the copyists expended conscientious care (the syna- sketch ot Bib- gogue-rolls), engaged the attention first of all of the "'='" cn«f^ism. Masorites, Jewish scholars, whose principal school ™'^ Masontes. flourished at Tiberias in the beginning of the sixth century. They compared the codices, noted the various readings, (Keri and Chetib,) and even anxiously numbered the words and syllables. To them we likewise owe the vowel-signs, pointings, etc. Among Christians, meritorious services were rendered by Origen (f 254), who com pared the Greek versions of the LXX, of Aquila, Theodotion, and Symmachus with the Hebrew original (Hexapla) ; and by Jerome, who improved the existing Latin version (Itala) and published a version of his own (Vulgata), which soon came into general use and acquired ecclesiastical authority in the Western Church. The prej udices which this man, usually so anxiously cautious, was compelled to encounter in connexion with this work, are well known. The "two-legged asses," as he terms his opponents, even went to the length of calling him falsarius, sacrilegus, corrupter sanctarum Scripturarum ! The New Testament was gradually collected. The 214 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. originals are no longer extant. The most ancient MSS. do not reach back further than the fourth century. An inclination to adulterate the text was apparent at an early day, against which the Church was obliged to guard. Copies were made, in the first instance, for the use of Churches, and "without any philological supervision." It was reserved for science in later ages to divide the different codices, according to their age (Uncials and Cursives), or according to the countries in which they originated (Oriental and Occidental), into families and recensions. The most important MSS. of Most important ^ , n t. /»\. MSs.oftheNew the New Testament are. The Cod. Alexandrinus (A) m Testament. ^^^ British Museum at London ; the Vaticanus (B) at Rome; the Codex Regius (Parisiensis) ; also the Cod. Ephraem Syr. (a palimpsest) at Paris (C) ; and the Codex Cantabrigiensis (D). To these must be added, as of highest importance, the Codex Si- naiticus {<.¦<), discovered by Tischendorf in 1859 and published in 1862; comp. Stud. u. Krit., 1860, 4; 1862, 1, 4; 1864, 3 (by Wies- eler); Gott. Gelehrt. Anzeigen, 1860, No. 177; Prot. Kirchenzei tung, 1862, No. 60; Zarncke's Centralbl., 1860; Literaturhh, 1863, No. 69; Hilgenfeld's Zeitschr., 1864, 1, and *Volbeding: Constantin Tischendorf, 1862; Tischendorf, Die Sinaibibel, etc., 1871. See also article on Sinaitic Manuscript in M'Clintock and Strong's Cy clopaedia, and Harman's Introduction, Appendix. This Codex is distinguished not only by its age (Tischendorf assigns it to the for mer half of the fourth century, which is, however, already denied by others) but also by its completeness, even the Epistle of Barna bas, in the Greek text, and the Shepherd of Hermas being included in it. But little was done for criticism during the Middle Ages. Al- „.,.,. , „ ... euin, about A. D. 802, improved the Vulsjata based on Biblical Cnti- ' _ ' r & cism in the the translation of Jerome, by the command of Charle- Middie Ages, magne. New revisions were undertaken by Lanfranc in the eleventh century and Cardinal Nicholas in the twelfth. At about this time the Correctoria biblica appeared (concerning which see De Wette, Einleitung, p. 108, sq.). The work of Cardinal Hugo de St. Caro in the thirteenth century, who divided the Bible into chapters, was rather mechanical than critical. The division of the New Testament into verses was not performed until the sixteenth century, when Robert Stephens devised the present arrangement. The undertaking of the Cardinal Ximenes, shortly before the Refor-' mation, was, on the other hand, a magnificent conception, to which we owe the so-called Complutensian Polyglot, which was followed by those of Antwerp, Paris, and London, being critical collocations of the text and versions after the manner of Origen. A richbih- THE RATIONALISTIC CRITICISM. 215 lical apparatus was given in the prolegomena to the London Poly glot (also published separately) of Brian Walton (f 1661). The first critical edition of the New Testament was issued by Erasmus (Basle, 1516) at nearly the time when the tion of the New Complutensian Polyglot was completed. Testament. All this work was text criticism; but the Reformation called into life a universal spirit of inquiry. Luther permitted himself to form independent opinions respecting various parts of the Scrip tures, though he was rather influenced by subjective feeling than by scientific considerations. The progress of an unbiassed criticism was long hindered afterward by the strictness with which the Prot estant Church clung to the principle of adherence to the letter of Scripture, and to the idea of inspiration connected with that prin ciple. The Reformed Formula Consensus raised even the inspira tion of the vowel-points into a dogma! A new critical impulse was given, on the other hand, to the Roman Catholic Church in the seventeenth century by Richard Simon, who expressed inde pendent views, among other things, with regard to the composition of the Pentateuch, etc. (In relation to him see Bernus, Richard Simon et son histoire critique du vieux Test., Lausanne, 1869.) The dogmatists of hoth Churches were, however, unceasing in their efforts to fiir up the way which he had opened, to use Lessing's ex pression, " with floods of rubbish constantly renewed." The criti cism of the text likewise came to an end, after the age had become accustomed to regard the textus receptus of the sixteenth century as an authority. A new interest in it was excited by Revival of Bib- the English scholars Fell, Mill, Bentley, and Kennicott J^t^eigt"^" (the latter in Old Testament criticism). When Wet- tury. stein, having been encouraged by Bentley, was preparing his critical edition of the New Testament, about the middle of the eighteenth century, he was exposed to severe attacks of opposition (comp. Hagenbach in Illgen's Zeitschr. f. hist. Theologie, 1839, 1) ; but Bengel nevertheless undertook to perform in behalf of orthodox theology what Wetstein had begun in sympathy with a more scep tical habit of thought. While these scholars confined their efforts more particularly to the department of text-criticism, Semler, on the other hand, after the middle of the eighteenth century, excited numerous doubts with regard to the genuineness of entire books in the Bible by his Free Examination of the Canon. Beginning With Semler begins the period of independent re- ^^^ Snai- search in this field, but also of abuse and subjective arbi- istic criticism. trariness. Sober science, however, continued to pursue its assured course in the midst of such fluctuations. On the one hand, diplo- 316 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. matic text-criticism continued to gain in settled principles and in historic ground through paleographic researches which were steadi ly prosecuted, through the comparison of MSS., etc., and various systems were developed in this direction, upon which the processes of criticism rest. (The labours of Hug, Griesbach, Schulz, Scholz, Lachmann, Tischendorf.) On the other hand, inquiry was more in telligently directed toward the several parts of the Old and the New Testament canon. Single books in either Testament were at first attacked, without the recognition of any definite principle, but rather under the infinence of the personal impressions of critics; hut the investigation gradually secm-ed firmer points of connexion with historical facts. The inquiry has been chiefly directed upon the Pentateuch, the Books of Chronicles, the Prophets, (the second part of Isaiah, Daniel.) the Psalms, and the writings of Solomon in the Old Testament, and the Gospels, (their origin and relation to each other,) the Pastoral epistles and the second epistle to the Thessa lonians, the epistle to the Hebrews, Second Peter, and the Apocalypse in the New. Such fragmentary operations do not cover the whole ground that has been gone over, however; but after the latest spec- The Tubingen ulative (Tiibingen) school, Baur, Zeller, Schwegler, et tendency critics. fl(;_^ ji^d attempted an historical construction of Chris tianity from its principles, it involved the entire canon of the New Testament books in the critical process of disintegration connected with that attempt, assigning most of them to a later date, and, at the same time, charging them with subserving tendencies which are not always reconcilable with the purity of purpose belonging to an apostle. It can be confidently affirmed that despite the bold, though often widely divergent, conclusions of the more recent critics, (Hilgenfeld, Volckmar, Holsten, Overbeck,) genuine science can still hold an assured footing for a further advance in the service of truth. The leadership in biblical criticism was successfully maintained by English scholars in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for eighty years (1657-1737). The fifth volume of Brian Walton's London Polyglot contained the text of the New Testament in six languages, with a large collection of various readings. He did not, however, undertake to form a revised text. Bishop Fell (1625- 1686) added much to this stock of critical material, and was hesides the friend and patron of Dr. John Mill (1645-1707.) Thirty la borious years were spent by Mill on his Greek Testament. He re- collated all the codices used by Walton for the London Polyglot, and accumulated a mass of readings from many sources, which he exhibits in his prolegomena. " Of the criticism of the New Testa- EDITIONS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 317 ment in the hands of Dr. John Mill," says Scrivener, " it may be said that he found the edifice of wood and left it marble." Rich ard Bentley (1662-1742) projected a revision of the text of the New Testament, which he never completed. We can readily con jecture what his extraordinary critical sagacity would have accom plished in this field. From the time of Bentley little was done by English scholars in New Testament criticism for more than a hun dred years. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles issued from 1857 to 1 872 his Greek Testament from the most ancient MSS. and from ancient versions. Tregelles bases his text on a small number of manuscripts. Frederick Henry Scrivener has contrihuted a valuable Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament (Cambridge, 1861, 1874). Messrs. Westcott and Hort have, since the appearance of the revised English Testament, published a text which has been long in prepa ration, and also a companion volume containing an appendix and introduction to their work. Although the revisers of the English Testament have not attempted " to construct a continuous and complete Greek text," the text adopted by them has been published by their secretary, E. Palmer. (Oxford, 1881.) 1. Critically revised portable editions of the Old Testament of recent date.^ * Biblia hebraica manualia ad praestt. editt. edita a Joh. Simonis. Halle, 1762, 1767, 1822, 1828. Various books of this edition (Genesis, Psalms, Isaiah, etc.) have also been separately published. * Biblia hebraica digessit et graviores lect. variett. adj. J. Jahn. Vien., 1806. 4 voll. Ed. 4., 1839. BibUa hebr. ad Eb. v. d. Hooght ed. nov., recogn. et emend, a Judah d'Allemand. Lond., 1825. * Biblia hebraica ad optim. editt. fidem summa diligentia ac studio recensa. Basileae, 1837. (Largely after van der Hooght.) ' With regard to the history of the text and other critical apparatus for tbe Old Test. comp. Franke, p. 96, sqq. ; Eosenmiiller's Handbuch, and the Introductions to tbe Old Test, (de Wette's, §. 76, sqq.) ; Strack, Prolegomena critica in Vetus Test. Hebr., quibus agitur, I. de codicibus et deperditis et adhuc exstantibus, II. de textu bibliorum bebr. qualis talmudistarum temporibus luerit. Lips., 1873. Ancient versions : a) Greek (the Alexandrian of the so-called seventy trans lators, and tbose by Aquila, Symmachus, Tbeodotion, etc.) ; b) Oriental (the Syriac [Peshito], Ethiopic [ed. by Dillmann], Egyptian, Arabian, Armenian, Georgian) ; c) Latin (ante-Hierono- miau [Italal, Vulgate) ; d) Slavic ; e) Chaldee Paraphrases ; comp. de Wette, §. 39, sqq. Concern ing the Hexapla of Origen comp. ibid., §. 45, sqq. : P. C. Tischendort, Anecdota sacra et profana ex oriente et occidente allata sive notltia codicum graecorum, arabicorum, syriacorum, etc., cum exoerptis multis maximam partem graecis et 35 scripturarum antiquissimarum exemplis. Lips., 1861. 4. Older, and usually large, editions of the Old Testament : (de Wette, §. 93. EosenmuUer, I, 189 ft. Benj. Kennicott, dissertationes super ratione textus hebr. V. T. in libris editis. Latine vertit et auxit W. Abr. Teller. Lips., 1757-65. 2 voll.) : von Sonclno (1488-94), In der complu- tens. Polyglotte (1514^17), Bomberg I. (1518-21), Bomberg II. (1525), S. Miinster (Froben, 1536), R. Stephan I. (1539-43), B. Stephan II. (1544-46), Plantinus (1566-71-84), B. Hutter (1587), J. Bux torf (1611-18, 1619, etc.), J. Atbias (1561), Jablonsky (1899, Handausg.), van der Hoogbt (1705. Lond., 1822, Handausg.), Opitz (1709), MicbaeUs (1720, Handausg.), Houbigant (1753), Kennicott 1776, 80), Eeineccius (1725, Handausg.), Doderlein u. Meisner (1793). 21S SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. D"3M1D1 D'S^nJ niin. Blblla hebr. sec. editt. Athiae, J. Leusdeni, Jo. Simonis, impr. Eberh. van der Hooght rec. A. Hahn. Ed. ster. Lips., 1831-39. Biblia hebr. ad optimas editiones, imprimis Eb. van der Hooght ex rec. A. Hahnii im- pressa (cur. K. W. Landschreiber ; praef. est E. P. K. Rosenmiiller). Ed. stereot Lips., 1834-38. 12. D"3in31 D''X''3J min. Blblla hebr. ad optimas editt. expressa. Curavit et indices nee non clavem masoreticam add. C. G. Giul. Theile. Ed. stereot. Lips., 1849. (Genesis, Psalms, Job, Isaiah, etc., also published separately.) New ed. 1859. Testament utrumq. edd. Theile et Tischendorf (V. T. hebr. ; N. T. gr.) Lips., 1850. 2d ed., 1862. Cnpn 1SD. Vien., 1862. * Polyglottenbibel, Zum prakt. Handgebrauch. Prepared by Dr. Rud. Stier and Dr. K. G. W. Theile. A. li. N. T. Bielef., 1846-55. 8 vols. 3d ed. of the 0. T. and 4th ed. of the N. T., 1863-64. (Embraces the Original, the LXX, the Vulgate, Luther's translation, and the most important various readings of ancient and mod ern versions.) Separate portions of the Old Testament. Pentateuchus in usum scholarum academioarum ex editione utriusque testamenti Tauchnitziana separatim edendum curavit C. G. G. Theile. Lips., 1861. Ed. ster. Liber Geneseos sine punctis exscriptus curaverunt P. Muehlau et Aem. Kautzsch. Lips., 1868. Liber Genesis. Textum Masorethicum accuratissime expressit, e fontibus Masorae varie illustravit, notis criticis confirmavit S. Baer. Praefatus est Fr. Delitzsch. Lips., 1869. Jesajae, Liber. \V]J^ "ISD. Textum Masorethicum accuratissime expressit, e fontibus Masorae varie illustravit, notis criticis confirmavit S. Baer. Praefatus est Fr. Delitzsch. Lips., 1872. Liber Psalmorum hebraicus. Textum Masorethicum accuratius quam adhuc factum est expressit, brevem de accentibus metricis institutionem praemisit, notas criticas adjeoit S. Baer. Praefatus est Fr. Delitzsch. Lips., 1861. a) Large Editions of the Septuagint : V. T. ex versione LXX interprr. — post Grabe et Lee ed. J. J. Breitinger. Turic, 1730-32. 4 voll. 4. V. T. graecum, cum. var. lectt. edd. R. Holmes et Parsons. Ox., 1798-1827. 5 voll. f. b) Manual Editions : V. T. Grace, ex versione LXX una cum libris apocr. ed. Oh. Rheineccius. Lips., 1730-57. V. T. gr. juxta LXX interprr. cur. L. v. Ess. Lips., 1824. Ed. nova, 1855. V. T. gr. juxta LXX interprr. ed. J. N. Jager. Par., 1834. V. T. gr. juxta LXX int. Textum Vatic, emendatius ed., argumenta et locos N. T. parall. notavit, lect. var. subj., comment, isag. praetexuit C. Tischendorf. Lips., 1850. 2 voll. Ed. 4. 1869. Ed. 5. 1876. For the history of this version : Aristeae historia LXXII interprr. ; gr. et lat. Oxon., 1692. (New ed. in Merx' Archiv I, 3. 1868.) Comp. the works of Hody, van Dale, Ussher, Voss, u. A. Comp. Winer, Handb. d. theol. Lit. P. 49. L. T. Muecke, de origine vers. LXX interprr. ZuUich., 1789. Thiersch, de Pentateuchi versione Alexandrina. Erl., 1841. EDITIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 219 Editions of the Vulgate : Biblia S. vulg. edit, ad cone. Trid. praescriptum emend, et a Sixto V. recogn. Rom., 1590. fol. Biblia S. vulg. ed. Sixti V. jussu rec. et ausp. Clementis VIII. ed. Rom., 1593-4. Portable editions by L. van Ess (Tiib., 1822-24. 3 Bde.), J. H. Kistemaker (Miinst., 1823^6), B. Galura (Innsbr., 1834-36. 3 Bde. 4.), B. Loch (Regensb., 1849. 2. Aufl,, ebend., 1867 ff.), J. F. v. AUioli (Landsh., 1853), Fleck (Neues Test. Lpz., 1840). Important for critical purposes : Codex Amiatinus. N. T. latine interprete Hieronymo, ex celeberrimo cod. Amiatino omnium et antiquissimo et praestantissimo nunc primum ed. Const. Tischendorf. Lips., 1850-64. Codex Fuldensis. Novum Testa mentum latine interprete Hieronymo ex manuscripto Victoris Capuani edidit. pro- legomenis introduxit, commentariis adornavit Ernest. Ranke. Marb., 1868. The Gothic version by Ulfilas, with parallel Greek and Latin versions, by H. Mass- mann. Stuttg., 1855. 2. Editions of the New Testament.^ Novum Testamentum graece, recogn. atque insign. lectt. varietat. et argument, notat. subjunxit G. Chr. Knapp. Halle, 1797, 1813, 1822, 1830. Ed. 5. 1840. * N. T. graece. E rec. Griesb. nova vers. lat. illustr., indice brevi praecip. lectt. et in terprett. diversitatis indice instr., auct. H. A. Schott. Lips., 1805, 1811, 1825. Ed. 4. 1839. N. T. graece. Ad fidem optimor. librr. rec. J. A. H. Tittmann. Ed. ster. Lips., 1820. 28. Ed. nov. cur. A. Hahn, 1840; 186L N. T. textum gr. Griesb. et Knappii denuo recognovit, delectu variet. lectt. testim. confirm., adnott. turn criticis turn exegeticis, indicibus, etc., instruxit J. S. Vater. Halle, 1824. N. T. graece. Ex rec. C. Lachmanni. Ed. ster. Berol., 1831. N. T. graece nova versione lat. donatum ed. F. A. Naebe. Lips., 1831. N. T. graece et latine. Ex rec. Knappiana adjectis variis Griesb. et Lachm. lectioni- bus ed. A. Goeschen. Lips., 1832. N. T. ad optt. librr. fidem rec. A. Jaumann. Miin., 1832. N. T. graece, ex recogn. Knappii emendatius ed., C. G. Guil. Theile. Ed. ster. Lips., 1841. Ed. 7., 1858. Ed. 8. 1865. Ed. 11. 1875. Also in Greek and Latin (Vulg.) 1854, and Greek and German, 1852, by the same pubUshers. N. T. gr. et lat. (Vulg.) ed. F. X. Reithmayr. Miin., 1847. *N. T. graece. Textum ad fidem antiquorum testium recensuit, brevem apparatum criticum una cum var. lectt. Elzeviriorum, Knappii, Scholzii, Lachmanni subjunxit C. Tischendorf. Lips., 1841, 1848, 1849. 7th ed., 1859. Sth ed., 1869-72. Editio stereotypa. Lips., 1850. Ed. nova, 1873. (A good manual edition.) N. T. gr. Par., 1842. 12; gr. et lat, ed. Jager et Tischendorf. Par., 1842. 'H Kaivri Sia^fiKTi. N. T. graece, recens. inque usum academicura omni modo instruxit C. Tischendorf. Lips., 1855, 1861. 16. Edit. 5., iiiid., 1867. Ed. 9. 1876. H. A. W. Meyer, das N. T. griechisch, nach den besten Hiilfsmitteln kritisch revidirt, mit einer deutschen Uebersetzung (see Commentaries). ' For the history of the N. T. text comp. de Wette, II, §. 27, sqq. ; with regard to versions, see S. 10, nqq. Polyglotts : a) the Complutensian (1514-17) ; b) Antwerp (1569-72) ; c) Paris (1645) ; d) London (by Walton, 1657). Oomp. Franke, p. 139, sqq. Witb regard to the different classes of editions (1. such as exactly reproduce the text of a given JIS. ; 2. such as are based upon several MSS. and other helps; and 3. such as merely reproduce earlier editions with unimportant changes) ; and also, with reference to the so-called Textus Eeceptus (vulgaris) of the Elzevir edi tion, comp. Danz, §. 19, and the works there mentioned, Franke, p. 161, sqq. 230 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. N. T. graece ad fidem potissimum cod. Vat. rec, Phil. Buttmann. Lips., 1856, 1862. Edit. 3., ibid, (without date). Testamentum novum triglottum, graece, latine, germanice . . . ed. Tischendorf. Lips., 1864. 4. Edit. 2., 1866. N. T. tetraglottum. Archetypum graecum c. versionibus vulgata latina, germanica Liitheri et anglioa authentica, in usum manualem edend. curaverunt C. G. G. Theile et R. Stier. Bielef., 1855. Edit. 2. 1868. 'H Kaivr; dia-^TjKTi. Nov. Test, ad fidem Codicis Vaticani ediderunt A. Kuenen et C. 6. Cobel. Lugd. Bat., 1860. Novum Testamentum Vaticanum. Post Angeli Mali aliorumque imperfectos labores ex ipso codice edidit. Tischendorf. Lips., 1867. Bibliorum sacrorum graecus codex Vaticanus studiis Caroli Vercellone et Josephi Cozza editus. Tom. V, (contains the N. T.) Fol. Rom., 1869. Testamentum Nov. post Lachmannum et Tischendorfium ad fidem optimorum librorum denuo diligenter recognovit lectionumque varietatem notavit Aug. Hahn. Edit. ster. Lips., 1861. * Bibliorum Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus. Auspiciis aug. Imperatoris Alexandri II. ex tenebris protraxit, in Europam transtulit, ad juvandas sacras litteras ed. Constantinus Tischendorf. 4 voll. f etrop., 1862. (A costly library edition.) A cheaper edition is Testamentum Novum Sinaiticum s. Nov. Test, cum epist. Bar- nabae et fragmentis Pastoris ex codice Sinaitico, etc. Lips., 1863.' Svo. 1864. E. Reuss, Bibliotheca Novi Testamenti Graeci, Brunsvigae, 1872, gives a descriptive list of all the published editions of the New Testament. Synopses. Synopsis ew. Matth., Marc, et Luc, una cum iis Jo. pericopis, quae hist. pass, et resurr. Chr. complectt. ; textum recogn. etc., J. J. Griesbach. Hal., 1776-97-1809. St. John's Gospel is wanting in the 1st ed., 1774. Synopsis ew., etc. ; ex rec. Griesb. edd. W. M. L. de Wette et F. Luecke. Berol., 1818, 1841. 4. Synopsis Mt., Mc. et Luc. c. Jo. peric parallelis, ed. M. Roediger. Hal., 1829-39. R. Anger, Synopsis ew. Mt., Mc, Lc cum locis qui supersunt parall. literarum et tra- ditt. ew. Irenaeo antiquiorum. Lips., 1851. Ed. 2, 1S63. C. Tischendorf, syn. ev. ex 4 ew. ord. chron. concinnata. Lips., 1851 ; ed. 4, 1878. J. H. Friedlieb, quatuor ew. in harmoniam redacta. Vratisl, 1847. H. N. Clausen, quat. ew. tabulae synoptieae. Havn., 1829. Sevin, die drei ersten Evangelien synoptisch zusammengestellt. Wiesb., 1866. Synopses in German by H. Planck (Gott., 1809), Fr. A. Beck (Beri., 1826), G. 0. R Matthai (Gott., 1826), J. Gehringer (Tiib., 1842), P. J. Sindler (Augsb., 1852). A Harmony of the Gospels by Sevin, 1867. Upon the whole of this richly endowed branch of literature comp. Hase, Leben Jesu (4th ed. Lpz., 1864), pp. 20-26. ' Older editions of the New Test., aside from those contained in the Polyglotts : (Comp. de Wette, 8. 41, sqq.) ; 5 by Erasmus (1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535), 3 by Robert Stephens (1546, 1649, 1565), 4 larger eds. by Theodore Beza, (pubhshed by Stephens, 1565, 1582, 1589, and 1598), and 6 smaller, 1556-91 ; upon the 3d ed. of Stephens, as Improved by Beza, depends the autborlty of the so-called Textus Receptus ; John Pell (following the London Polyglott, 1675), John Mill (1707), Kflster (1710-33), J. A. Bengel (1734; republished in manual eds. 17.39, 1753, 1762, 1776, and by his son, Ernst Bengel, in 1790), J. J. Wetstein (1751 ; new ed. by Lotze, Eotterd., 1831). Larger critical editions of more recent date: ?J. J. Griesbach (HaUe, 1774, 1775, 2 vols.; Leips., 1803, 1807, 4 vols.), Chr. Fr, Matthtll (1783-88), F. C. Alter (1786, 1787), Andr. Birch (1788, 1801), David Scbulz (Griesb. T. Berl., 1827), M. A Scholz (Lpz., 1830), K. Lachmann u. Ph. Buttmann, (Beri., 1842, 1860. 2 Bde.), E. V. Muralt (Hamb., 1846, 1848), W. Greenfield u. J. P. Engles (Philad., 1851). CRITICAL EDITIONS OP THE SCRIPTURES. 221 3. Theoretical works on Criticism and Critical Helps.^ L. Cappelli . Critica sacra s. de variis quae in sacris V. T. libris occurrunt leotionibus libri VI. Rec. multisque aniraadverss. auxit G. J. L. Vogel. Vol. 1. Hal., 1776 Voll. 2, 3, ed. J. G. Scharfenberg., 1778, 1786. J. J. Griesbach, symbolae criticae ad suppl. et eorrig. variarum N. T. lectt. collec- tiones. Hal., 1785-93. 2 voll. Commentarius criticus in textum graec. N. T. Jen., 1798-1811. J. G. Reiche, commentarius crit. in N. T. 3 Tom. Gott., 1853-62. * F. Schleiermacher, Hermeneutik u. Kritik mit bes. Beiziehung auf N. T., published by Liicke. Beri., 1838. (Vol. 2 of the Nachl. zur Theol.) ¦j- J. M. A. Lohnis, Grundziige d. bibl. Hermeneutik und Kritik. Giessen, 1839. Convenient for students ; * Quellensammlung zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanon bis auf Hieronymus, published by J. Hirchhofer. Ziirich, 1844. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LlTEEATUEE, 1. Critical Editions of the Old Testament in Hebrew. An Interlinear Hebrew-English Psalter. The Book of Psalms in Hebrew, with a closely literal English Translation under each word. Svo, pp. 240. London, 1882. Davidson, 'Samuel. Revision of the Hebrew Text of the Old Testament. Synopsis of Readings, Revised from Critical Sources. Svo, pp. 234. London, 1882. Hahn's Hebrew Bible. New ed. Revised by Isaac Leeser and Joseph Jaquett. Svo. Philadelphia. Hebrew and English Psalms. The Hebrew Text of Van der Hooght, with the Au thorized Translation of 1611. In parallel columns. Svo, pp. 100. London, 1882. Hebrew Psalter. 32mo. Andover, 1864. Hughes, Joseph. The Prophecy of Joel. The Hebrew Text printed Metrically, with a new English Translation and Critical Notes. Svo. London, 1882. Letteris, Myer Levi. The Hebrew Bible, Revised and carefully Examined. With a Key to the Masoretic Notes. Svo, pp. 1404. New York, 1872. Modern Polyglot Bible in Eight Languages. Giving the Hebrew Text, the Septuagint, and the Vulgate, and a Series of the best European Translations. To which is added the Peshito- Syriac New Testament, wilh Tables of the various Readings of the Hebrew, the Septuagint, the Greek, and Syriac New Testaments, etc. Crown folio, 2 vols. London, 1882. Dvnn "iSD. The Book of Psalms, in Hebrew and English. Arranged in Paral lelisms. Andover, 1862. The llebrew and English Scriptures of the Old Testament. Consisting of the Orig inal Hebrew Text, and the Authorized English Version. With Appendices and Clavis to the Masoretic Notes. 4to, small. London, 1882. ' See the more general critical and philological works of Valesius (1740), Heumann (1747), Morell (1768), J. Clericus (1778), Beck (1791), in Ast (in the work mentioned under Hermeneutics, at the end). " A barely sufficient guide (to New Test. Criticism) is found partly in the prolegomena to the critical editions (by Bengel, Wetstein, etc.) and is partly contained in that olla podrida to which the title of Introduction to the New Test, is commonly applied." Schleiermacher, §. 123, note. Hence comp. the literature under Introduction, supra. 223 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA. The Hebrew Bible of the Polyglot Series. The Text after Van der Hooght. Also the various Readings of the Samaritan Pentateuch. Svo, pp. 636. London, 1882. Walton's Polyglot. Biblia Sacra Polyglotta. Edidit Brianus Waltonus. 6 vols., folio. With Castell's Lexicon Heptaglotton, Hebrew, Chald., Syr., Samar., etc. 2 vols., folio. Together, 8 vols., folio. 1667-69. Wright, C. H. H. The Book of Genesis in Hebrew ; with a Critically Revised Text, various Readings, and Grammatical and Critical Notes. Svo. London, 1859. » 2. Critical Editions of the Septuagint. Hexaglot Bible ; compising the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments in the Original Tongues ; together with the Septuagint, the Syriac, (of the New Testament.) the Vulgate, the Authorized English and German, and the most approved French Versions, arranged in parallel columns. Vols. I, II, III, (to be completed in 6 vols.) 4to. London, 1871-3. Septuagint Text, with Variorum Readings. 5 vols., folio. London, 18S0. The Greek Septuagint. With an English Translation in parallel columns. 4to. London, 1882. The Septuagint according to the Vatican edition. Together with the real Septuagint Version of Daniel aud the Apocrypha, including the Fourth Book of Maccabees, and an Historical Account of the Septuagint and of the Principal Texts in jvhich it is Current. Svo, pp. 958. London, 1882. The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament. Tables of the Various Readings of the Alexandrine Text, and the Septuagint according to the Vatican Text. Svo, pp. 689. London, 1882. Tischendorf, Constantinus. Vetus Testamentum Graece Juxta LXX. Interpretes. Svo. Leipsic, 1869. Vetus Testamentum, Graece. Juxta LXX. Interpretes. Pp. 1088. Oxford, 1859. (Gives the Hebrew and Greek Texts in parallel columns.) 3. Editions of the 'Fulgate. The Latin Bible. Biblia Sacra Vulgata Editionis Sixti V. et Clementis VIII. Svo, pp. 773. Loudon, 1882. The Vulgate New Testament, compared with the Douay Version of 1582. Parallel columns. Small 4to. London, 1882. 4. Critical Editions of the New Testament. Alford, Henry. The Greek Testament, with a Critically Revised Text ; a Digest of various Readings, etc, and a Critical and Exegetical Commentary. 4 vols., Svo, pp. civ, 924 ; Ixxxvii, 723 ; cxxix, 435 ; cclxxxviii, 760. London, 1868. Greek Testament with English Notes, Abridged by B. H. Alford, Svo. Lon don, 1869. Bagster's Large Print Greek Testament, with various Readings from Griesbach, Scholz, Lachmann, and Tischendorf, and references to Parallel Passages. Svo. London. Critical New Testament, Greek and English, containing the Greek Text ot Scholz, with Readings, both Marginal and Textual of Griesbach, and variations of Stephens, Beza, and the Elzevir. 16mo, pp. 624. New York, 1868. Bloomfield, S. T. The Greek Testament with English Notes, Critical, Philological, and Exegetical. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 629, 631. Philadelphia, 1S68. CRITICAL EDITIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 233 Buttz, Henry A. The Epistle to the Romans in Greek, etc. With References to the New Testament Grammars of Winer and Buttman. Svo, pp. 42. New York, 1876. Cambridge Greek Testament. Ex Editione Stephani Tertia, 1550. 12mc Cam bridge. Codex Vaticanus. Novum Testamentum Graece ex Antiquissimo Codice Vaticano edidit Angelus Maius S. R. E. Card. Ad fidem Editionis Romanae Accuratius Impressura. Svo, pp. 502. London, 1859. Cowper, B. H. Codex Alexandrinus, H KAINH AIABHKH, etc. Ad Fidem Ipsins Codicis Denuo Accuratius edidit. Svo. London, 1866. Dobbin, Orlando T. The Codex Montfortianus. A Collation of this Celebrated MS. throughout the Gospels and Acts, with the Greek Text of Wetstein, and with certain MSS. in the University of Oxford. Svo, pp. 280. London, 1882. Fairbairn, P. The Pastoral Epistles; the Greek Text and Translation. 12mo. New York. Green, T. S. The Twofold New Testament. A newly-formed Greek Text, with new Translation into English. In parallel columns. 4to, pp. 466. London, 1882. Grinfield, E. V. Novum Testamentum Graecum, Editio Hellenistica. Scholia Hellenistica in Novum Testamentum. 4 vols., Svo. London, 1843-48. Hahn, A. Greek Testament, edited by E. Robinson. 12mo, pp. 636. New York, 1842. ¦ Hansen, E. H. The New Testament. The most Ancient MSS. of the Original Greek, printed in parallel columns, with a Collation of the Sinaitic Codex. 3 vols., Svo. London, 1880. Major, J. R. The Gospel According to St. Mark, in the Original Greek, with a Digest of Notes from various Commentators. 16mo. London, 1871. New Testament, Griesbach's Text, with the various Readings of Mill and Sholz, Marginal References, and Parallels, and a Critical Introduction. 12mo, pp. 660. London, 1869. Novum Testamentum Textus Stephanici, A. D. 1550. Accedunt variae Lectiones editionum Bezae, Elzeviri, Lachmaimii, Tischendorfii, et Tregellesii. Curante F. H. Scrivener. ISmo. Cambridge, 1S72. Scrivener, F. H. An Exact Transcript of the Codex Augiensis, a Graeco-Latin MS. of St. Paul's Epistles, etc., etc With a Critical Introduction. Svo. Cambridge, 1859. A Full Collation of the Codex Sinaiticus, with the Received Text of the New Testament ; to which is Prefixed a Critical Introduction. 16ino. London, 1867. Bezae Codex Cantabrigiensis, being an exact copy, iu ordinary type, of the cele brated Uncial Graeco-Latin MS. of the Four (gospels and Acts, etc, ete. With a Critical Introduction, etc Svo. Cambridge, 1864. Novum Testamentum Graecum. ISmo. New York. Stuart, 0. E. Textual Criticism of the New Testament, for English Bible Students. 2d ed. Revised and Corrected. The Authorized Version compared with Critical Texts. Svo. London, 1882. The Codex Zacynthius. Edited by S. P. Tregelles. Folio. London, 1882. The Englishman's Greek New Testament. Giving the Greek Text of Stephens, 1560 : With various Readings of Elzevir, 1624, Griesbach, Lachmann, Tischendorf, Tre gelles, Alford, and Wordsworth; with an Interlinear Literal Translation. To which is added the Authorized Version of 1611. Crown Svo. London, 1 882. 224 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. The Greek Testament. With the Readings adopted by the Revisers of the Author ized Version. 16mo, pp. 660. Oxford, ISSl. The New Testament. Greek and English, in parallel columns. Edited by J. Schole- field. New edition with Marginal References. By Dr. Scrivener. 16rao. London, ISSO. The New Testament. Greek Text. Ex Editione Stephani Tertia. 16mo. London, 1880. Tregelles, S. P. A Collation of the Critical Texts of Griesbach, Sholz, Lachmann, and Tischendorf, with the Received Text. Svo, pp. 96. London, 1SS2. ¦ • The Greek New Testament, edited from Ancient Authorities. 5 parts, 4to. London, 1879. Westcott, B. P., and Hort, F. J. A. The New Testament in the Original Greek. With an Introduction by Philip Schaff. 12mo, pp. 580. New York, 1881. Wordsworth, Chris. The New Testament in the Original Greek. With Notes and Introductions. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1866. 5. Synopses and Harmonies. Alexander, Wm. Lindsay. The Connection and Harmony of the Old and New Testa ments. 12mo. London, 1853. Andrews, Samuel J. The Life of our Lord upon Earth. Considered in its Historical, Chronological, and Geographical Relations. Svo, pp. xxiv, 624. New York, 1868. (A harmony of the Gospels with each other, and with ' contemporary history.) Buck, D. D. The Closing Scenes of the Life of Christ. Being a Harmonized Com- bination of the Four Gospel Histories of the last Year of the Saviour's Life. 12mo, pp. 293. Philadelphia, 1869. Calvin, John. A Harmony of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Translated by Rev. W. Pringle. 3 vols., Svo. Edinburgh, 1846. Clark, George W. A new Harmony of the Four Gospels in English, according to the Common Version. 12mo, pp. 365. New York, 1870. Fuller, J. M. The Four Gospels, arranged in the form of a Harmony from the Text of the Authorized Version ; with four maps. 12mo. New York, 1875. Gardiner, Frederick. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the Text of Tischendorf, with a Collation of the Textus Receptus, and of the Texts of Griesbach, Lachmann, and Tregelles. Revised ed., Svo. Andover, 1882. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in English, according to the Authorized Ver sion. Svo, pp. 287. Andover, 1871. Diatessaron. The Life of our Lord in the Words of the Gospels. 16mo, pp. 259. Andover, 1871. Greswell, Edward. Dissertations upon the Principles and Arrangement of a Har mony of the Gospels. 2d ed., 4 vols., Svo, pp. 618, 664, 708, 930. Oxford, 1837. Haley, John W. An Examination of the Alleged Discrepancies of the Bible. With an Introduction by Alvah Hovey. Svo, pp. xii, 473. Andover, 1882. Macknight, James. Harmony of the Gospels with Paraphrase and Notes. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1819. Robinson, Edward. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek, according to the Text of Hahn; newly arranged, with E.xplanatory Notes. Svo. Boston, 1868. Harmony of the Four Gospels in English. 12mo. Boston, 1868. Strong, James. Harmony of the Gospels in Greek of the Received Text, for the use of Students and Others. 12mo, pp. 406. New York, 1854. Harmony and Exposition in English. Svo, pp. 669. New York, 1852. CRITICAL HELPS. 325 Stroud, Wm. A new Greek Harmony of the Four Gospels, comprising a Synopsis and a Diatessaron ; together with an Introductory Treatise, and numerous Tables, Indexes, and Diagrams. 4to, pp. 602. London, 1863. The Gospels Consolidated. The Four Gospels Consolidated into one Continuous Nar rative. 4to. London, 1882. The Treasury of Scripture Knowledge. A Selection of more than 500,000 Scripture References and Parallel Passages ; together with a Harmony of the four Evan gelists. Svo. London, 1882. Wiesler, Karl. Chronological Synopsis of the Four Gospels. Translated by E. Ven ables. Svo, pp. 459. London, 1864. 6. Helps to the Study of Criticism. Barrett, Richard. Synopsis of Criticisms upon those Passages of the Old Testament in which Modern Commentators have differed from the Authorized Version. 6 vols., Svo. London, 1847. Birks, F. R. Essay on the Right Estimation of Manuscript Evidence in the Text of the New Testament. London, 1880. Boyce, W. B. The Higher Criticism of the Bible. A Manual for Students. 12mo, pp. xxi, 473. London, 1881. Burgon, John W. The last Twelve Verses of the Gospel according to St. Mark Vindicated against Recent Critical Objectors and Established. Svo. Oxford, 1871. Crowfoot, J. R. Observations on the Collation in Greek of Cureton's Syriac Frag ments of the Gospel. 4to. London, 1872. Davidson, Samuel. A Treatise on Biblical Criticism, exhibiting a Systematic View of that Science. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 463, 484. Boston, 1853. Gerard, Gilbert. Institutes of Biblical Criticism ; or. Heads of the Course of Lect ures on that Subject, read in the University of King's College, Aberdeen, Svo. Boston, 1823. Green, Thomas S. A Course of Developed Criticism on Passages of the New Testa ment materially affected by various Readings. Svo, pp. 202. London, 1 88^2. Hammond, C. E. Outlines of Textual Criticism applied to the New Testament. (Clarendon Press Series.) 16ino, pp. 146. Oxford, 1872. Horsley, Samuel. Biblical Criticism ; or, the First Fourteen Historical Books of the Old Testament ; also the First Nine Prophetical Books. 2d ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 484, 611. London, 1845. Milligan, William, and Roberts, Alexander. The Words of the New Testament, as Altered by Transmission and Ascertained by Modern Criticism.. 12moy. pp. 262. Edinburgh, 1873. Porter, J. S. Principles of Textual Criticism. Svo. London, 1848. Roberts, Alex. Companion to the Revised Version of the English New Testament. 12mo, pp. viii, 213. New York, 18S1. Sargent, Frederick. A Compendium of Biblical Criticism en the Canonical Books of the Holy Scriptures ; Revised and Enlarged. Svo. London^ 1871. Schaff, Philip. Companion to the Greek Testament and English Version. New York, 1883. Scrivener, F. H. Lectures on the Text of the New Testament and the Ancient MSS. which contain it. Crown Svo. New York. Third ed., London, 1883. Stuart, C. E. Textual Criticism of the New Testament for English Students. ISmo. London. Stuart, Moses. Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon. 12mo, pp. 454. Andover, 1871. 15 226 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Tregelles, S. P. An Account of the Printed Text of the Greek New Testament ; with Remarks on its Revision upon Critical Principles. Svo, pp. 374. London, 1854. Turpie, David M'C. The Old Testament in the New. A Contribution to Biblical Criticism and Interpretation. 8vo, pp. 279. London, 1868. 7. Concordances. Brown, John. A Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testa ments. A new ed., carefully revised by Samuel Ives. Thick 24mo. London, 1867. Companion to the Bible, and Supplement to the Comprehensive Commentary ; being a Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1854. Oruden, Alexander. A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures. Royal Svo. New York, 1871. Condensed ed. Svo. Boston. Davidson, B. Hebrew Concordance of the Hebrew and Chaldee Scriptures. 2 vols., royal Svo. London, 1882. Eadie, John. An Analytical Concordance to the Holy Scriptures ; or, the Bible Presented under Distinct and Classified Heads or Topics. Royal Svo. .Boston, 1862. A new and Complete Concordance on the Basis of Cruden. Crown Svo. Lon don, 1870. Englishman's, The, Greek Concordance of the New Testament ;' being an Attempt at a Verbal Connection between the Greek and the English Texts. 4to, pp. 482. New York, 1879. Englishmen's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance, The, of the Old Testament. 2 vols., royal Svo. London, 1866. Henderson, William. A Dictionary and Concordance of the Names of Persons and Places, and of Terms which occur in Scripture. Svo, pp. 689. Edinburgh and New York. Hudson, Charles F. A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testa ment. Revised and Completed by Ezra Abbot. 24mo, pp. 510. Boston, 1870. Schmidt, Erastus. A Greek Concordance to the New Testament. A Concordance of the Words of the Greek New Testament, with their Context. Svo, pp. 283. London, 1882. Student's Concordance to the Revised Version of 1881. (Shows changes in all words referred to.) New York, 1883. Thoms, John Alexander. A Complete 'Concordance to the Revised Version of the New Testament. Published under the Authorization of Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Svo. New York, 1883. Wigram, G. V. The Hebraist's Vade Mecum ; a first attempt at a Complete Verbal Index to the Hebrew and Chaldee Scriptures. London, 1867. Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Every word in alphabetical order, with Hebrew or Greek Original. Edinburgh and New York, 1881. S. Biblical Dictionaries and Cyclopmdias. Abbot, Lyman. A Dictionary of Religious Knowledge. New York, 1876. Ayre, John. The Treasury of Bible Knowledge ; being a Dictionary of the Books, Persons, Places, Events, etc, in the Holy Scriptures. 18mo. New York, 1866. Barnum, Samuel W. A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible. Abridged from Smith, with Additions. Svo, pp. 1219. New York and London, 1868. BIBLICAL DICTIONARIES AND CYCLOPEDIAS. 237 Blunt, John H. A Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology. By various Writers. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1870. Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, Ecclesiastical Parties, and Schools of Religious Thought. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1874. Brown, John. A Dictionary of the Bible, etc. Svo. London, 1868. Cassell's Bible Dictionary. Illustrated with nearly six hundred Engravings. 2 vols. in one. 4to, pp. 1159. London, 1869. Darling, James. Cyclopsedia Bibliographica : a Library Manual of Theological and General Literature, and Guide to Books, etc. , 2 vols., royal Svo. Vol. I, Authors ; columns, 3,338. Vol. II, Subjects, Holy Scriptures ; columns, 1,920. London, 1864-59. Davidson, D. Pocket Biblical Dictionary, Condensed from Calmet, Brown, Clarke, Jones, and the most Recent Sources of Information. New ed., 24mo. London, 1868. Eadie, John. A Biblical Cyclopsedia ; or. Dictionary of Eastern Antiquities, Geogra phy, Natural History, Sacred Annals, etc. 13th ed., Svo, pp. viii, 690. London, 1870. ¦ EncyclopEedia of Religious Knowledge ; or. Dictionary of the Bible. Theological, Religious, Biographical, etc. Royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1870. Fairbairn, P. The Imperial Bible Dictionary. Historical, Biographical, Geograph ical, and Doctrinal, etc. Illustrated. 2 vols., royal Svo, pp. x, 1007, 1151. London, 1866. Farrar, John. A Biblical and Theological Dictionary ; Illustrative of the Old and New Testaments. 3d ed., 12mo, pp. 663. London, 1852. Fausset, A. R. The Englishman's Critical and Expository Bible CyelopEedia. Illustrated. 4to. London, 1878. Herzog's Protestant, Theologica', and Ecclesiastical Encyclopjedia ; with Additions by J. H. A. Bomberger, assisted by distinguished Theologians of varidus Denom inations. 2 vols., royal Svo. Philadelphia, 1858-60. (This translation was never completed.) Inglis, James. The Bible-Text Cyclopsedia : a Complete Classification of Scripture Texts in the form of an Alphabetical Index of Subjects. Post Svo, pp. 528. London, 1861. New ed., 1865. Journal of Sacred Literature. Edited by Drs. Kitto, Burgess, etc. The Five Series complete. 40 vols., Svo. London, 1848-60. Kitto, John. A Cyclopsedia of Biblical Literature. Edited by W. L. Alexander. 3 vols., Svo, pp. 872, 876, 872. Edinburgh, 1862-66. Malcom, Howard. Theological Index. References to the Principal Works in every Department of Religious Literature. Royal Svo, pp. 488. Philadelphia, 1870. M'Clintock and Strong. Cyclopsedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Lit erature. Svo, 10 vols. New York, 1867-80. Schaff, Philip. A Religious Eneyclopsedia ; or. Dictionary of Biblical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology. Svo, 3 vols. New York, 1882. Smith, William. Dictionary of the Bible. American ed. by Hackett and Abbot. 4 vols., Svo. New York, 1867-70. The same Abridged. '1 vol., Svo. Boston, 1865. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. Svo, 2 vols. Hartford, 1876-80. Dictionary of Christian Biography. Svo, 3 vols. Boston, 1877-1883. (To be completed in 4 vols.) Staunton, Wm. An Ecclesiastical Dictionary, containing Definitions of Terms per taining to the History, Ritual, Discipline, Worship, Ceremonies, and Usages of the Christian Church. Svo. New York, 1861. 338 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. SECTION xvin. HERMENEUTICS. G. Seyffarth, iiber Begriff, Anordnung und Umlang der Hermeneutik des N. T. (Lpz. 1824), womit jedoch zu vergleichen die Recens. in Winers und Engelhardts Journal Bb. 4. S. 324 ft. A. Tholuck, uber den Mangel an Uebereinstimmung unter den Auslegem des N. T. (theol. Studien und Kritiken Jahrg., 1832, S. 335) . Planck's Sacred Philology and Interpretation, trans lated by Turner ; Kitto's Cyclopsedia, voL il, p. SO. For a very full history and bibUography, see Terry's Hermeneutics, Part III. Biblical Hermeneutics treats of the principles on which Scripture is to be explained. These principles are, upon the whole, the same Deflnition of that apply to any work of human origin, and Hermen- Hermeneutios. eutics, as a theological science, differs from the science in its general (philosophical and philological) character simply with regard to the object upon which it is employed. In this connexion the peculiarly religious character of the Bible certainly demands recognition. Hermeneutics from Bpfj,7jVEvu) (which is to be traced back to the Hermes of the ancients') is, in Schleiermacher's language, an art- doctrine ; "for the complete understanding of a discourse or writ ing is a work of art, and requires a technical apparatus." " It Distinguished Stands in an inverted relation to rhetoric, in so far as from rhetoric, ^he latter is dependent on logic ; for while the logical part of rhetoric furnishes the laws by which our thoughts are to be connected, arranged, and presented, Hermeneutics teaches how to apprehend the given discourses or writings of another person, and how to follow and interpret them. In proportion as the logically ordered thinking in a discourse or book becomes clear, as it will when the matter to be imparted is developed before the mind of the hearer or reader in a well-arranged style, will the need of ex planation and of an art of explanation be small ; for which reason, e. g., purely mathematical lectures need no hermeneutics if defini tions ai'e first understood. But when the logic is hidden in the dis cussion, and when the words do not represent mere formulas and figures (the expression of magnitudes), but are, according to the nature of the subject under consideration, the not fully adequate signs of a profoundly apprehended original, when they are the bearers, borrowed from the world of sense, of ideas which are in visible, there arises the need of an interpreter who shall know how to trace back to the original idea the letter which was first correctly apprehended through the mechanical processes of gram mar, and who shall thus restore the written or spoken word, so ' See Creuzer, Symbolik, i, pp. 9-15 : 365 sqq. ; ii, p. 617. ' Schleiermacher, § 182. PECULIARITIES OP BIBLE LANGUAGE. 339 that it becomes for the reader or hearer what it w^as to the writer or speaker from whom in the freshness of its originality it emanated. For this reason the ancients already joined divination to her meneutics ; and this likewise indicates why an exposition according to rules of art is more necessary with poets, epigrammatists, and poetizing philosophers, than with simple prose-writers.' Works, moreover, that belong to a distant age, and are written causes which in a language which has itself passed through many his- ""Jfy^g ''neres- torical vicissitudes, are more likely to engage the atten- sary. tion of hermeneutics than writings and discourses belonging to our own times, whose meaning is more apparent to us by reason of their nearness. And, lastly, the allusions contained in a discourse or writing will need a key to their interpretation, in proportion as they bear upon individual matters, which is especially the case in episto lary compositions. If we apply these considerations to the Bible, it will appear that it needs th4 art of hermeneutics in each of these regards. Few books, in the first place, in the form of expres sion, fall so much behind their wealth of contents, and ,j^^ reasons few, accordingly, belong so fully to the class of pregnant why the Bibie J ., T . 1 i J- needs care in writings, as do these modest envelopments ol supreme its interpreta- ideas. Luther strikingly likens them to the swaddling- t^™- clothes in which the Christ-child lay, and the great Reformer was led to use the expression that the words in Scripture are not merely "written words, but living words," whence it becomes a frequent necessity to read between the lines. But the Bibl« at the same time shares with all works of antiquity, including the less pregnant also, the fortune of having been written in times, and among a people, into whose circumstances we must enter and live, and in languages with whose spirit and expression we must become familiar, if we desire to accurately understand what is written.^ ' " There is no lack of examples in our own experience of an author's mind being, e. g., exalted to such an intuitive penetration of its object as to be enabled to speak of it with an unusual pregnancy of word and meaning which his own reflection is un able to resolve into details ; it even happens that when he descends from his intuitive center-point to hie ordinary level of thought, his own work will appear like a strange object, respecting the development of whose meaning he finds as much difficulty as do others." — J. T. Beck, Enil. in das Syst. d. Chr. Lehre, p. 253. An example is found in Hamann. ' " He who would interpret, needs, by drawing as near as may be possible, to de scend to the condition of the first readers and hearers." — Lutz (Hermeneutic). " Pour ne pas errer sur le sens que nous appelons exterieur, il faut avoir une idee precise de la langue des auteurs, je veux dire de la valeur des signes et des formes de cette langue, compares aux formes et aux signes correspondants de notre propre langue. 230 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. How thoroughly individual, too, is the Bible, never dealing in ab stract generalities, always singling out the concrete instance, the special condition and its needs, the disposition and mode of culture of persons and communities ! ' How natural, then, that we should seek to obtain a key! This can be no magic key, however, which some angel must bring down from the third or the seventh heaven, or whose possession is restricted to a sacred caste ; but, generally The key to speaking, the same art has its application here, which fouiS'*in'her- ^^^^ he employed, according to the natural laws of a meneutics. historico-logical method of estimating the past, upon every work that requires explanation. This art belongs to the higher department of the science of language, of philology, and hence of applied philosophy. Biblical her- ^^ is a theological science merely in its special appli- meneutics a cation to this object,'' for every rule established by the- branch of gen- , . , , . . , . . i- i r, ¦ eral herme- ological hermeneutics tor the exposition ot the ocript- neutics. yj.gg must be based upon the general principles of her meneutics or deducible from them, and all that can be done in the interest of the Bible is that such principles be properly applied. Arbitrary departure from them, or making so-called " exceptions to such rules," is never beneficial. When the latter course is fol lowed the proper inference is that the general law itself has not been apprehended, or that confusion or a misconception is in volved. Should a one-sided, scanty legislation confine the inter pretation of the Scriptures to the purely external meaning of the letter so exclusively as, while considering the notation of the let ter (the grammar), to forget the notation of the spirit, should it designedly seek to blot, out the individuality and originality of an author, in order to put in the place of the forms which reveal a rich fulness of ideas, the vaguely outlined shadows of abstract common-. places, it will of course be exposed to the danger of seeing those who are not content with such meagre fare forsake its school and submit themselves to the impression of an undefined feeling. This is a result the more likely to come to pass because of the failure En d'autres termes, il faut savoir k quel taux il faut prendre le mots principaux, qui reviennent le plus souvent et entrent dans le passages les plus importants."— Vinet (Homiletique), p. 124. > Comp. Schleiermacher, § 135 : " The explanation of the New Testament Scriptures is especially difficult, both on account of the nature of their contents, and by reason of external conditions." ' Schleiermacher, § 137, sq. It is evident that within this specifically biblical her meneutics, another and yet more special (Old and New Test., Pauline, Johannean, etc.) may be conceived of and wrought out. Comp. ib., § 136. "WHO IS THE COMPETENT INTERPRETER? 231 of such teachers to instil the scientific principles sought at their hands. If hermeneutics has regard to the deeper psychological fea tures of the writers to be explained, whether they occupy the field of poetry, philosophy, or religion, and if it establishes as the lead ing principle that he only is competent to correctly appreciate an author whose mind possesses elements related and analogous to that author's, or, at least, who has learned how to think himself into the mental state of his author,' it certainly has also the right to require an unconditional submission to its rules on the part of the expositor of the Bible. All the wanderings of the so-called allegorical in terpretation find their excuse in narrow hermeneutics, whether of the orthodox or the rationalist letter, and may be corrected and finally laid aside by the application of the true science of spiritual exposition.' The science of hermeneutics could not be formed before frequent experiments in interpretation had been made, and such , , practice had resulted in the more or less conscious ap- growth of her- plication of the laws of interpretation which were de- '"™®'' "^¦ veloped in the way of practical exposition. Even then it remained "an aggregate of separate, often valuable and. praiseworthy, obser vations," ° rather than a systematic art, " w^hose precepts would con stitute a system resting upon clear principles deduced from the nature of thought and of language." This experience belongs alike to general and biblical hermeneutics. % ' " Who will the poet understand must journey into poet-land." Luther already observed that the Eclogues of Virgil are thoroughly plain to him alone who has lived with shepherds, and that he alone can properly understand Cicero's epistles " who has served twenty years in a first-class regiment." Lutz observes similarly (in Herme- neutik), " The contents (of the Scripture) are understood only by him who apprehends and values them in the spirit of one who is saved by Christ and out of interest for the Christian Church." Comp. also Schenkel, Dogmatik, i, p. 827, and Krauss, Be deutung des Glaubens fiir die ,Schriftav,sleg^mg. ^ Diestel (infra), p. 778, justly observes, in opposition to one-sided tendencies in exegesis, that only an all-sided illumination can do justice to the object to be ex plained. He designates (1) the rational, (2) the historico-philosophical, and (3) the religious principles, as elements which must interpenetrate each other in any truly theological method of investigation. At the same time we are to remember that " an absolute knowledge of the religion of the people of God will continue to be a far-off goal that twinkles in the distance, so long as human development shall continue ; and in the same measure, even as Christianity likewise can never be exhausted, and the knowledge of it, in its depth and fulness can only represent a constant approxima tion toward the highest ideal." 'Schleiermacher, Outline of Theology, § 133. See also the succeeding paragraphs to § 140 inclusive. 383 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 1. General Hermeneutics.^ G. F. Meier, Versuch einer allgemeinen Auslegekunst. Halle, 1756. J. J. G. Scheller, Anleitung zur Erklarung der alten Schriftsteller, mit Vorrede von Ch. A. Klotz. Lpz., 1783. Ch. D. Beck, commentatt. academ. de interpret, vett. scriptorum. Lips., 1791. F. Ast, Grundlinien der Grammatik, Hermeneutik und Kritik. Landsh., 1808. S. 165. ff. F. A. Wolf, Darstellung der Alterthumswissensohaft. Pubhshed by S. F. W. Hoff mann. Lpz., 1833. S. 23 f. 27. 2. Its application to tlie Bible.'' Mth. Flaccii clavis h. scripturae. Bas., 1537. 2 voll. f. Neue AufB. von J. Musaus. Jen., 1674. Lpz., 1695, etc. S. J. Baumgarten, Ausf. Vortrag der bibl. Hermeneutik ; published by J. C. Bertram. Halle, 1769. 4. 6. A. Bauer, Entw. einer Hermeneutik des A. und N. T. Lpz., 1709.' G. W. Meyer, Versuch einer Hermeneutik des A. T. Liib., 1799, 1800. N. T. Lpz., 1812. (Each in 2 vols.) J. H. Pareau, Instit. interpr. V. T. Ultraj., 1822. 8. Ernesti, Institutio interpr. N. T. ad usum lectionum. Ed. 1-3. Lips., 1761-75 ; ed. 4. observatt. auct. cur. C. F. Ammon, 1792; ed. 5, 1809. 8. S. F. Nth. Morus, Super hermeneutica N. T. acroases academ. Ed. et additamentis instr. H. C. A. Eichstaedt. Lips., 1797-1802. 2 voll. Ch. D. Beck, Monogrammata hermen. librr. N. T. Lips., 1803. K. G. Bretschneider, Die historisch-dogmatische Auslegung des N. T. nach ihren Prin cipien, Quellen und Hiilfsmitteln dargestellt. Lpz., 1806. A. G. Keil, Lehrb. der Hermeneutik des N. T. nach Grundsatzen der gramm. -histor. Interpretation. Lpz., 1810. (Lat. by Emmerling. Ibid., 1811.) J. J. Griesbach, Vorlesungen iiber die Hermeneutik des N. T., published by J. E. S. Steiner. Niirnb., 1815. Fr. Liicke, Grundriss der neutestamentl. Hermeneutik und ihrer Geschichte, zum Ge- brauche fiir akadem. Vorlesungen. Gott., 1817. G. Ph. Ch. Kaiser, Grundr. eines Systems der neutestamentl. Hermeneutik. Erlang., 1817. F. H. Germar, die panharmonische Interpretation der heiligen Schrift. Schlesw., 1821. Beitrag zur Allgemeinen Hermeneutik und zu deren Anwendung auf die theolo gische. Altona, 1828. H. Olshausen, Ein Wort iiber tiefern Schriftsinn. Konigsb., 1824. Die biblische Schriftauslegung ; noch ein Wort iiber tiefern Schriftsinn. Hamb., 1825. R. Stier, Andeutungen fiir glaubiges Schriftverstandniss im Ganzen und Einzelnen. Konigsb., 1824. (See Winer and Engelhardt's Journal, No. 4, p. 422 sqq) ' Older works in Danz, p. 826 ; to which add, Rudorif, Diss, de arte Interpretandi scriptores veteres profanos. Lips., 1747. ^ Much that applies here may also be found in the above-mentioned works (under Grammar, Introduction, Criticism, etc.) by Glassius (Philologia sacra), Richard Simon, etc. Here, too, Semler opened tbe way In part : Apparatus ad liberal. V. T. interpret. Hal., 1778. Ad N. T. 1767. Neuer Versuch, die gemeinufitzlge Auslegung und Anwendung des N. T. zu befOr- dern, 1786. Individual forerunners : Bambach, Pfeiffer, Wolke, Carpzov, etc., see Danz. ubi mpra. ENGLISH LITERATURE OP HERMENEUTICS. 333 E. F. Hopfner, Grundlinien zu einer fruchtbaren Auslegung der heil. Schrift. Lpz;, 1827. G. Chr. R. Matthai, Neue Auslegung der Bibel, zur Erforschung und Darstellpng ihres Glaubens, begriindet mit Charakteristik der neuesten theologischen Grund- satze, Richtungen und Parteien. Gott., 1831. Comp. Liicke in Studien und Krit iken, 1833. 2. * Schleiermacher und \ Lohnis. See above under Criticism. H. Nic. Clausen (auch Klausen), Hermeneutik des N. T. From the Danish, by Schmidt- Phiseldeck. Lpz., 1841. 0. G. Wilke, Die Hermeneutik des N. T. systematisch dargestellt. Lpz., 1843-44. 2 Bde. Kuenen, Critices et hermeneutices librorum Novi Foederis lineamenta. Lugd. Bat., 1858. * J. L. Lutz, Bibl. Hermeneutik, published by A. Lutz. Pforzh., 1849. 2d ed., 1861. f J. Kohlgruber, Hermeneutica bibl. generaUs. Oenip., 1850. f J. B. Guentner, Hermen. bibl. generalis; ed. alt. Vien., 1851. t Setwin, Hermeneuticae biblicae institutiones. Vindabonae, 1872. A. Immer, Hermeneutik des N. T. Wittenb., 1873. Historical : J. G. Rosenmiiller, hist, interpret, librr. sacrr. in eccl. christ. Hildb. et Lips., 1795- 1814. 5 voll. G. W. Meyer, Geschichte der Schrifterklarung seit der Wiederherstellung der Wissen schaften. Gott., 1803-1808. 5 vols. For the History of the Exposition of the Old Testament : * L. Diestel, Geschichte des Alten Testaments in der chritl. Kirche. Jena, 1869. R. Siegfried, die Aufg. der Gesch. der Alttest. Auslegung in der Gegenwart. Jena, 1876. ENGLISH AND AMEEICAN LlTEEATUEE, 1. Hermeneutics. t Alexander, Archibald. Principle of Design in the Interpretation of Scripture. Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review for July, 1845. Apthorp, East. Discourses on Prophecy. Warburtonian Lectures. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1786. (One of these Lectures is on the Canons of Interpretation.) Arnold, Thomas. Sermons chiefly on the Interpretation of Scripture. New ed. London, 1878. Barrows, E. P. A New Introduction to the Study of tbe Bible. Part IV, Biblical Interpretation. Svo. London. Blunt, J. H. Key to the Knowledge and Use of the Holy Bible. Svo. London, 1873. 16mo. Philadelphia, 1873. Bosanquet, S. R. Interpretation ; being Rules and Principles assisting to the Read ing and Understanding of the Holy Scriptures. 12mo. London, 1874. Campbell, George. The Four Gospels, with Preliminary Dissertations. 4 vols., Svo. Boston, 1811. (Dissertation IV is on the right method of proceeding in the critical examination of the New Testament.) Cellerier, J. E. Biblical Hermeneutics, chiefly a Translation of the Manuel D'Her- meneutique Biblique, par J. E. Cellerier. By Charles Elliott and William J. Harsha. Svo. New York, 1881. Conybeare, J. J. An Attempt to Trace the History and to Ascertain the Limits of the Secondary and Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture. Bampton Lecture for 1824. 12mo, pp. xii, 331. Oxford, 1824. 334 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Conybeare, W. D. An Elementary Course of Lectures on the Criticism, Interpreta tion and Leading Doctrines of the Bible. 12mo. London, 1S36. Davidson, Samuel. Sacred Hermeneutics Developed and Applied ; including a His tory of Biblical Interpretation from the Earliest of the Fathers to the Reforma tion. Svo, pp. 760. Edinburgh, 1843. Dixon, Joseph. A General Introduction to the Sacred Scriptures in a Series of Dia sertations. Critical, Hermeneutical, and Historical. 2 vols., Svo. Dublin, 1852. 2 vols, in one, Svo. Baltimore, 1853. (A Roman Catholic work.) Dobie, David. A Key to the Bible, being an Exposition of the History, etc., of Sa cred Interpretation. 12mo. New York, 1856. Doedes, J. J. Manual of Hernieneutics for the Writings of the New Testament. 12mo, pp. 141. Edinburgh, 1867. EUicott, C. J. Scripture and its Interpretation. One of the Essays in Aids to Faith. Replies to Essays and Reviews. Svo. London, 1863. Ernesti, J. J. Principles of Biblical Interpretation. Translated from the Institutio Interpretis, by Chas. H. Terrot. 2 vols., 12mo. Edinburgh, 1S32. Fairbairn, Patrick. Hermeneutical Manual ; or. Introduction to the Exegetical Study of the New Testament. Svo, pp. 492. Edinburgh, 1858. Philadelphia, 1859. Prophecy Viewed in Respect to its Distinctive Nature, Special Function, and Proper Interpretation. Svo. New York, 1 866. The Typology of Scripture ; Viewed in Connection with the Whole Series of Divine Dispensations. 5th ed., 2 vols., Svo, pp. 504, 555. Edinburgh, 1870. New York, 1877. Home, Thomas Hartwell. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. 2 vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1841. Thirteenth ed., 4 vols., Svo. London, 1872. (Part II, vol. i, treats of interpretation.) Immer, A. Hermeneutics of the New Testament. Translated from the German by Albert H. Newman. Svo, pp. xvii, 396. Andover, 1877. Irons, W. J. The Bible and its Interpreters. Miracles, and Prophecies. 2d ed. London, 1869. Jones, Wm. Course of Lectures on the Figurative Language of the Scriptures. Svo. London, 1789. (Also in Vol. IV of Theological and Miscellaneous Works. 1810.) Jowett, Benjamin. On the Interpretation of Scripture. One of the Essays in Essays and Reviews by eminent English Churchmen. Svo. London, 1861. Lamar, J. S. The Organon of Scripture ; or, the Inductive Method of Biblical In terpretation. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1860. Lee, Samuel. The Study of the Holy Scriptures. Svo. London, 1830. (Contains a dissertation on the interpretation of prophecy.) Macknight, James. Concerning the Right Interpretation of the Writings in which the Revelations of God are Contained. (Essay VIII, appended to his Transla tion and Commentary on the Apostolic Epistles. Many eds.) Maitland, Chas. The Apostles' School of Prophetic Interpretation, with its History to the Present Time. Svo, pp. 472. London, 1849. Maitland, S. R. Eight Essays on the Mystical Interpretation of Scripture, etc. Svo. London, 1852. Marsh, Bishop Herbert. Lectures on the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible, with the History of Biblical Interpretation. Svo. London, 1828, 1838, 1842. M'Oelland, Alexander. Manual of Sacred Interpretation, for the Special Benefit of Junior Theological Students. 12mo. New York, 1842. A Brief Treatise on the Canon and Interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. New York,1850. (Above book enlarged.) ENGLISH LITERATURE OF INSPIRATION. 235 Muensoher, Joseph. Manual of Biblical Interpretation. 16mo, pp. 318. Gambler, Ohio, 1865. Pareau, John Henry. Principles of Interpretation of the Old Testament. Translated by P. Forbes. 2 vols., 16mo, pp. 369, 319. Edinburgh, 1835. Pierce, B. K. The Word of God opened. Its Inspiration, Canon, and Interpretation Considered and Illustrated. New York, 1868. Planck, G. J. Introduction to Sacred Philology and Interpretation. Translated from the Original German by Samuel H. Turner. Edinburgh, 1834. 16mo, pp. 288. New York, 1834. Sawyer, Leicester A. The Elements of Biblical Interpretation ; or, an Exposition of the Laws by which the Scriptures are capable of being correctly Interpreted. 12mo. New Haven, 1836. Scott, J. Principles of New Testament Quotation Established and Applied to Bib lical Science. Edinburgh, 1875. Seller, G. F. Biblical Hermeneutics ; or, the Art of Scripture Interpretation. From the German. Svo. London, 1835. Smith, John Pye. Principles of Interpretation as Applied to the Prophecies of Holy Scripture. London, 1829. 2d ed., 1831. Stuart, Moses. Hints on the Interpretation of Prophecy. 12mo. Andover, 1842. Terry, M. S. Bibhcal Hermeneutics ; a Treatise on the Interpretation of Scripture. Svo, pp. 787. New York, 1883. Tholuck, Augustus. On the Use of the Old Testament in the New, and especially in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Translated by J. E. Ryland. Vol. XXXIX of Biblical Cabinet. 16mo. Edinburgh, 1842. Hermeneutics of the Apostle Paul, with Special Reference to Gal. iii, 16. Vol. XXXIX of Biblical Cabinet. Hints on the Interpretation of the Old Testament. Translated by R. B. Patton. Vol. II of Edinburgh Biblical Cabinet. 16mo. Edinburgh, 1833. Turner, S. H. Thoughts on the Origin, Character, and Interpretation of Scriptural Prophecy. 12mo. New York, 1860. Turpie, David M'C. The Oid Testament in the New. A Contribution to Biblical Criticism and Interpretation, etc. Royal Svo. London, 1868. Van Mildert, William. An Inquiry into the General Principles of Scripture Interpre tation. Bampton Lectures for 1814. Svo. Oxford, 1816. 3d ed. London, 1838. Wemyss, Thomas, A Key to the Symbolical Language of Scripture, etc. 16mo, pp. 520. Edinburgh, 1835. Winthrop, Edward. Premium Essays on the Characteristics aud Laws of Prophetic Symbols. 12mo. New York, 1860. Whitaker, William. On the Interpretation of Scripture. Cambridge, 1849. Whittaker, John William. A Historical and Critical Enquiry into the Interpreta tion of the Hebrew Scriptures. London, 1819. Whitby, Daniel. Dissertatio de SS. Scripturarum Interpretatione, secundum Patrum Commentaries. Svo. London, 1714. (Elicited by the Arian Controver.sy.) Wordsworth, C. On the Interpretation of Scripture. An Essay in Reply to Essays and Reviews. Svo. London, 1862. 2. Inspiration. Alexander, Archibald. Evidences of the Authenticity, Inspiration, and Canonical Authority of the Holy Scriptures, 12mo, pp. 308. Philadelphia. Atwell, W. E. Pauline Theory of the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Svo. London, 1878. 238 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Benjamin. An Essay on Inspiration. Svo. London, 1707. 2d ed., 1708. Bannerman, James. Inspiration : the Infallible Truth and Divine Authority of the Holy Scriptures. Svo, pp. 595. Edinburgh, 1865. Barry, WiUiam. An Inquiry into the Nature and Extent of the Inspiration of the Apostles and other Writers of the New Testament. Svo. London, 1797. 2d ed., 1822. Baylor, Joseph. Verbal Inspiration the True Characteristic of God's Holy Word. 12mo. London, 1870. Boyle, W. R. A. The Inspiration of the Book of Daniel, and other Portions of Scripture. Svo. London, 1863. Burgon, John W. Inspiration and Interpretation; Seven Sermons before the University of Oxford. Svo. London, 1874. Calamy, E. The Inspiration of the Holy Writings of the Old and New Testament Considered and Improved. Svo. London,' 1710. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit. 16mo, pp. 129. Boston, 1841. (Also in his collected works.) Curtis, S. F. The Human Element in the Inspiration of the Sacred Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 386. New York, 1867. Dewar, Daniel. Divine Revelation : its Evidences, External, Internal, and Collateral. Together with its Canonical Authority and Plenary Inspiration. 2d ed., Svo. London, 1859. Dick, John. An Essay on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 4th ed., Svo. Glasgow, 1840. Doddridge, Philip. A Dissertation on the Inspiration of the New Testament, etc. In works, vols, iv and viii. Elliott, Charles. A Treatise on the Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Edinburgh and New York, 1877. Findiay, Robert. The Divine Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures asserted by St. Paul. 2 Tim. iii, 16. London, 1803. Fowle, F. W. The Reconciliation of Religion and Science, being Essays on Immor tality, Inspiration, Miracles, and the Being of Christ. Svo. London, 1882. Garbett, E. God's Word Written : the Doctrine of the Inspiration of Holy Scripture Explained and Enforced. 12mo, pp. 365. Boston, 1867. Gaussen, S. R. L. Theopneusty ; or, the Plenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. From the French, by E. N. Kirk. 12mo, pp. 343. New York, 1842. Given, .lohn James. Truth of Scripture in Connection with Revelation. Inspiration and the Canon. Edinburgh, 1881. Gloag, Paton J. Introduction to the PauUne Epistles. Svo, pp. xvi, 480. Edin burgh, 1874. Haldane, J. A. The Inspiration of the Scriptures. 12mo. Boston. Hannah, J. The Relation between the Divine and the Human Element in the Scrip ture. Bampton Lectures for 1863. Pp. xix, 364. London, 1863. Henderson, Ebenezer. Divine Inspiration ; or, the Supernatural Influence exerted in the Communication of Divine Truth, etc. Svo. London, 1836. 4th ed., 1852. (A work highly commended for impartiality.) Hinds, Samuel. An Inquiry into the Proofs, Nature, and Extent of Inspiration, and into the Authority of Scripture. Svo. Oxford, 1831. Home, Thomas Hartwell. Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scriptures. Svo, 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1841. (The opening chapters, iv to vi, both inclusive, treat of inspiration.) ENGLISH LITERATURE OP INSPIRATION. 237 Jamieson, Robert. The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. Baird Lectures for 1873. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1874. Lee, William. The Inspiration of the Scripttfres. Its Nature and Proof. Svo, pp. 478. New York, 1876. Lewis, Tayler. The Divine Human in the Scriptures. 12mo, pp.400. New York, 1860. (Holds that the language of the Bible is, in a certain sense, inspired, and yet rejects verbal inspiration.) Liber Librorum : its Structure, Limitations, and Purpose. 16mo, pp. 232. New York, 1867. (Holds that reason enlightened by the Spirit is the verifier of rev elation.) Lord, Eleazar. The Plenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures. 12mo. New York, 1858. (Takes an extreme view.) Lowth, Wm. A Vindication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Writings of the Old and New Testaments. Svo. Oxford, 1692. (An answer to Le Clerc.) Mahan, Milo. Palmoni ; or, the Numerals of Scripture a Proof of Inspiration. A Free Inquiry. 12mo. New York, 1863. M'Caul, Alexander. Testimonies to the Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, as Taught by the Church of England. 12mo. London, 1862. M'Leod, Alexander. Yiew of Inspiration. 12mo. Glasgow, 1827. Moore, James Lovell. Inspiration of the New Testament. Svo. London, 1793. Morell, J. D. The Philosophy of Religion. 12mo, pp. 369. New York, 1849. (Chapter vi treats of inspiration.) Noble, S. Plenary Inspiration of the Scriptures Asserted. Svo. London, 1856. Owen, John. The Divine Original and Plenary Inspiration of Scripture. Works, vol. ix. Philadelphia, 1871. Rennell, Thomas. Proofs of Inspiration; or. Grounds of Distinction between the New Testament and the Apocryphal New Testament. Svo. London, 1822. Rowe, C. A. The Nature and Extent of Divine Inspiration. Svo, pp. 439. London, 1864. Ryle, John Charles. Bible Inspiration. Its Reality and Nature. 2d ed. London, 1883. Smith, J. A. The Spirit in the Word ; or. Letters to a Bible Class on the Canon of Scripture and its Interpretation. 16mo. Chicago, 1865. Spring, G. The Bible not of Man ; Divine Origin of Scripture drawn from the Scrip tures themselves. 12mo. New York, 1847. Warington, George. The Inspiration of Scripture ; its Limits and Effects. 16mo, pp. 284. London, 1S67. Whytehead, Robert. The Warrant of Faith ; or, a Hand-Book to the Canon and Inspiration of the Scriptures. 12mo. London, 1854. Woods, Leonard. Lectures on the Inspiration of the Scriptures. 12mo. Andover, 1S29. Wordsworth, Christopher. On the Inspiration of Scripture ; or, the Canon of the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha. Svo, pp. 447. London, 1851. 338 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. SECTION XIX. EXEGESIS. Exegesis, as an art product, accomplishes that for which herme- Deflnition of neutics, the theory, lays down the rules, and toward exegesis. which the other auxiliary sciences direct their efforts, namely, the exposition of holy Scriptures, based on comprehension of the languages and antiquities involved. Reference must be made for the sake of clearness to the terms in common use, though in this as in many other instances the usage is arbitrary. The words epurjvsla and e^TJyTjcyig have at bottom the . same meaning ; but exegesis has come to denote the from herme- action of the expositor himself, and hermeneutics the neu cs. theory of the art of exposition. In the broad sense of the term, exegesis includes both the inter- inciudes both pretation and the explication of Scripture. The former interpretation gf these confines its endeavors solely to the apprehend- and explica^ . ^ " r i • tion. mg 01 facts narrated by an author, or ot doctrines pre sented by him, in a purely objective light; while the latter brings them into relation with other facts or doctrines, or possibly with the judgment of the expositor himself with respect to the facts as stated, or the doctrines as presented. Mere interpretation will, ac cordingly, be less susceptible to influence from the individual views of the expositor than explication, which is more open to the infu sion of elements derived from his subjectivity. The former cor responds to translation, and is its authentication; the latter finds its expression in paraphrases. We follow the accepted usage, though it might well be reversed, since the expositor in fact does nothing more than simply explain the meaning and throw light upon what is dark, while the inter preter still further subdivides and spreads out the matter that has been explained.' Thus it is said of a preacher that he knows how to interpret a text when he not only clears up what is dark to the mind, but when he at the same time develops in every direction what has been made plain, for the purpose of a fuller understand ing of it. In the terminology of the science, however, the words have come to bear the above signification. The work of the iiiter- ' Comp. Eberhard, Synon. Handworterbuch, s. v. erklaren, auslegen, deuten, p. 101 ; Ast, p. 184: "To explain is to develop and lay down the meaning; for explanation presumes understanding and rests upon it, since only what has been rightly conceived and comprehended, what is understood, can be imparted and explained as such to others." PREDISPOSITION NOT ALWAYS PREJUDICE. 339 pres is ended when the author's meaning has been simply stated," e. a., when it has been shown that he records a mir- „ . ^. " ' The functions acle, or that he teaches a certain doctrine. The com- of the inter- mentator, however, goes further, seeking to understand ae'^'^ommen- how the author came to narrate and teach as he does, tator dis tin- He compares him with himself, with his contempora- ^"'* ries, with the spirit of the time iu which he lived (historical, as contrasted with merely grammatical exposition), and he finally brings practically what he has ascertained into connexion with the sum total of tlie facts possessed. This will indicate the extent to which it is possible to speak of pure objectivity in connection with exegesis. Interpretation must certainly remain independent of every existing dogmatical system,^ and it bas become interpretation increasingly so in recent times. Rationalism especially should be inde- has ceased to dispose of miracles, by perverting them, dogmatical sys- in the way of an exegesis framed to favor its system. '^"'^• It would even appear that the negative tendency of the present day finds, in connection with its so-called avoidance of predisposi tion, a special pleasure in placing a greater burden in this respect on the biblical writers than is admitted to belong to Tj,e so-caiied them by an unpreiudiced exegesis, in order, however, avoidance of ¦' ^ •' ,1 111 "predlspo- it must be admitted, to afterward throw overboard the sition" aprej- whole, as being without substance and meaning. But "''"^** this very absence of predisposition is governed by a prejudice, that of "modern culture," and this has its influence upon exposition, even though the interpretation may not be affected thereby. In stead of quietly, and with unbiassed spirit, entering upon the sub ject in hand, the exposition assumes a hostile attitude toward the writer at the beginning, and treats him with injustice. The school which occupies the purely grammatical and historical point of ob servation, and abstains from judging at all, avoids such impas sioned courses, and its position is certainly more worthy of respect ' On the distinction between sense, signification, and understanding, see Schleier macher, Hermeneutik, p. 41. "^ " To ascertain the contents of Scripture in obedience to the accepted views of the Church remains, despite all exceptions and provisos, a dishonest procedure from the outset, by which we have before we seek, and find what we already have." — Meyer, preface to Krit.-exeget. Handb., 2 ed., p. 12, sq. " Seek to discover the real meaning of your author by the use of all proper means at your command ; lend him nothing that is yours, but take nothing from what is his. Never insist upon what he should sav, but never be alarmed at what he does say." — Riickert (see Rheinwald, Repert, 1839, 5. p. 97). Comp. Kling in Stud. u. Krit., 1839. Bengel cries to the expositor of the Scriptures, in similar language, " Non timide, non temere," and adds the counsel, " Te totum applica ad textum et totum textum applica ad te." 240 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. in both a moral and a scientific light. But is it satisfactory? Does not the ultimate and really scientific profit consist position essen- in transforming what learned industry has discovered lightinterpre- ^"*° ^ possession of the mind ? Why concern myself tation of the about an author who is nothing to me, and who confers nothing upon me, and with whom I am not inwardly conscious of being in any wise connected ? As only a poetic intel lect is capable of interpreting a poet, so is a religious disposi tion the only one that can apprehend and understand a religious writer, or, more particularly, only a Christian intellect can cor rectly render a Christian author. And as the letters of an ab sent member of the family are understood in their profoundest meaning at home, while the stranger finds in them a mere surface matter too tedious for consideration, so is it with these writings of The spirit of *^® ^if* conferred by love divine.' The exegete will the true exe- accordingly reveal the bottom of his heart in the man ner in which he explains his author, and his subjectivity will be a disturbing element so long only as it remains out of har mony with the key tone of the spirit of the Bible.' This does not imply that the exegete must, from the first, make an unconditional surrender of his own thoughts. He should retain suflacient men tal independence and freedom from prejudice to properly esti mate the personal peculiarities of his author, and whatever may belong to his individual culture, his relations to his age, etc. He may, in one respect, occupy a position above his author, while in another he must be subordinate to him. Here, too, a living inter- ' " Verily I say unto you that Lord Byron would, with a scanty knowledge of the Hebrew language, have given a rendering of the chief penitential psalm of David (the fifty-first) superior to that of many of the most celebrated grammarians." Um breit (Review of Tholuck's Comment zu d. Psalmen, in Stud. ,„. Krit., 1845, 1, p. 177). ^ " He who lacks a profound apprehension and a living conception must, with every degree of technical skill for interpreting Nature or the holy Scriptures of the New as well as the Old Testament that he may possess, remain a bungler who gnaws away at the shell and never penetrates to the intellectual heart in which the idea sparkles in its everlasting truth." Umbreit in Stud. u. Krit., 1832, No. 3, p. 656. Usteri ( Comm. uber d. Brief, an d. Galater, p. vi) expresses a similar opinion : " It appears to me that the grammatico-historical principle is merely the conditio sine qua non, or the negative rule of interpretation ; the positive task of the exegete seems to me to require, so to speak, that he should sink himself wholly into the spirit of the author, in order that tho picture drawn in the Scripture, with its accessories of time and place, may afterward be held up before the reader's eye in the light of his researches in language and matters of fact." Comp. Billroth, Comm. ;.u d. Briefen a. d. Corinfher, p. v. ; °Liicke in Stud. u. Krit., 1834, 4, pp. 769-71 ; Schleiermacher, Herm^ p. 50;, Bunsen) CoM in d. Geschichte, p. 122, sqq. ; Krauss, supra. THE APPLICATION OF EXEGESIS. 241 action, a sympathetic yielding to the spirit of the work, and an incorporation of the results of the inquiry with what before existed, are needed to further the exposition.' It is apparent, as a general truth, that exegesis is not finished at one effort. He who complete exe- reads an author for the tenth time, and the hundredth ^^f* '^^^f/"*T ' ent on spiritual time, will explain him othervsrise than he who reads but growth. once.' Such multifarious intellectual activity in the work of exegesis, such harmonizing of the grammatico-historical with the higher, ideal, and sympathetically religious interpretation, has been termed j^anhar- monic interpretation, (Germarus), and subsequently the name pneu matic has come into favor (Beck). The word is of no importance; but our age largely feels and acknowledges that while the human standpoint must be retained in the explaining of the human ele ment in the Scriptures (which will ever be the necessary barrier against all the perversions of superstition), the Holy Spirit himself must in the final instance be the real interpreter of his words, the angelus interpres who opens for us the meaning of the Bible.^ SECTION XX. THE APPLICATION OF EXEGESIS. The application of the Scriptures finally should carefully be distinguished from both the interpretation and the „ . . ° '^ . Scnpture,when exposition ; for while it is based upon the former, it interpreted, to yet belongs, according to its nature, to a different de- appiiei*""^"^ partment— the practical. The holy Scriptures were at first explained for devotional pur poses — the Old Testament by the writers of the New, and both the New and the Old by the Church fathers, although some among the latter already began to distinguish between practical and sci entific exposition. It is still the office of exegetical study to pro duce fruit for the benefit of the Church, of the exegesis of the schools to serve the exegesis of the pulpit, a principle practical exe- often overlooked from a spirit of scientific supercilious- gesis the re- ness. But is scientific exegesis to govern itself from the entinc. ' So Liicke also speaks of a mental disposition on the part of the exegete to im- merse himself in, and to emerge from, the spirit of the work he seeks to explain Comp. Herm. Schultz, Uber doppelt., Schriftsinn, (Stud. u. Krit., 1866, 1, p. 37). ' Thus Luther boasts that he had read the Bible through twice a year for several years, and that he had each time beaten off a few more fruits from its branches and twigs. ' According to Luther (comp. Liicke's Supplement to Neander in his N. T. Herme neutik), or, according to Flaccius, " In order that God himself should remain the supreme Lord and Judge in all controversies and debated questions." In Pelt, p. 175. 16 243 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. outset by the demands of the pulpit, so as to accept from the start the idea that the interpretation which will best promote the work of edification is the true one ? Or is a special kind of interpreta tion (with Kant '), the churchly-praotical (or, in his language, the moral), to be established beside the scientific in such a way that both shall remain independent of each other ? Neither of these. Prac tical exegesis must result from scientific, and a conscientious preacher will present no interpretation to the people which cannot be scientifically justified. Such an interpretation could lay no claim to the title " moral," but would be thoroughly immoral, like every thing that is not of the truth. The preacher should, how ever, bring the truth of Scripture to bear in every direction upon the religious needs of the age and congregation. He should Process by eliminate, from the immediate surroundings in which i^^madeT^^ ^* ^^ found by the exegete, the passage of Scripture ticai. upon which his remarks are based, and without doing violence to its original meaning, should endeavor, now to generalize its teaching, and again to apply it to the most individual and spe cial matters, so as to transfoi'm what is outwardly and historically given into a picture of inward states, and into an exponent of the pres ent situation; for what was said to the Churches at Rome, Corinth, Philippi, etc., is still said by the Spirit to the Churches of to-day. It would, however, be a serious confounding of different de partments for scientific exegesis to apprehend the statements im mediately in their subjective application to human conditions,'' as ^Religion innerhalb d. Grenzen d: blossen 'Fernunft, Konigsb., 2 ed., 1794, p. 158, sqq. ; per contra, RosenmiiUer's Bemerkimgen, Erl., 1794. '^ This applies especially to the Old Test., where it is the task of exegesis to appre hend the writer from out of his own age, and to comprehend even the so-called Mes sianic sections in their immediate historical surroundings. WhUe it furnishes the threads which lead over into the New Test., it must yet refer their connection to other branches, and never should " Old Test, exegesis in its known scientific and artistic limitations be confounded with the retrogressive Christian inquiries which have their starting-point in the New Testament," (Umbreit, s-upra, against v. Meyer and his school). A different view in Kurtz, Gesch. des Alten Bundes, p. 8 : " The nature of prophecy is entirely misunderstood when its principal importance is found in the service it renders to Christianity — in which, of course, all prophecy comes to its ful filment — by attesting its divine origin. Christianity would be in an unfortunate pre dicament, were it still unable to dispense with the attestation derived from the actual fulfilment of predictions, and it would be even worse for prophecy were it to remain without meaning and significance until hundreds or thousands of years should have passed away. Prophecy is designed — every other signification is secondary and sub ordinate to this — to open up the understanding of the present, its position and its duty, not only the immediate present in which it was first given, but also every subsequent present (?) to the extent to which the latter has substantially the same basis, the same needs, and the same task." RELIGIOUS EARNESTNESS IN EXEGESIS. 243 the preacher is authorized to apprehend them, or for the preacher to timidly content himself with the most immediate and apparent meaning of the letter.' The scientific expositor may likewise explain the writer to the edifying of his hearers; but this is assur edly not done by entering upon edifying observations, or by con structing a patchwork of passages taken from ancient and modern ascetics. He must rather proceed by a quiet stating and unfolding of the sense of Scripture which confines itself within self-imposed limitations, and in this he resembles and excels the mathematician, who is able, by the cogency of his proofs, even to excite the feelings of persons who attentively follow his demonstration. Hints rela ting to the further practical development may be given in connec tion with scientific exegesis,'' but the practical work, in the proper sense, and for homiletical purposes, belongs to practical theology. It follows, accordingly, that interpretation, exposition, and appli cation, reach over into a further theological field, the interpreta tion into history, exposition into dogmatics, and application into practical theology. SECTION XXI. THE METHOD OF APPLYING EXEGESIS. In the carrying forward of exegesis it may be handled either cursorily or statedly. Both modes of instruction are to be united. The use of learned commentaries will be of real value c^j^nientaries to him only who has tried his own powers in the way not to be too of exposition ; for too many aids rather confuse than guide aright, and the beginner needs to be on his guard against relying upon the authority of others as greatly as against a mis- tnken striving after originality. A moral and religious earnest ness when approaching the holy Scriptures, and a mind decidedly devoted to the cause of the Bible and Christianity, will be the most efficient aids to preserve him from error and to secure that self-renunciation without which no work of real greatness can be accomplished. 'Rosenkranz, Encykl, 1 ed., p. 125: "The distinction between popular and scien tific exposition lies in the reference to the original limitation of the sense. The former must be governed by the principle of treating the sense of Scripture in as fruitful and manifold a way as is admissible : it may freely make every addition to the text that it wiU bear, avoiding only what is strained and directly perverted. The latter, on the other hand, is to ascertain the sense of Scripture which it was origin ally designed to bear." Comp. Vinet, Homiletics, pp. 146, ff., who distinguishes between amplification and paraphrase, so that the former would be suitable for prac tical use, but not the latter. Comp., too, Hagenbach, Pref. to Festpredigten, Basle, 1830, ix-xi. ' De Wette, Prakt. Erklarung der Psalmen. 244 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Before entering upon theology the student should have read his Bible through many times, and especially the New Testament, while the more important parts should have been perused in the original. Private reading should be also regularly self-training in continued while the course of theological study is pur- exegesis. ^^^^^ . ^^^ ^^ ^.^^ ^^ jj^^ jj^ ^j^g Scripture, as it were to arise and lie down in it. Thus only can we receive living impres sions from it; while if it be regarded solely as the object of purely scientific inquiry it will remain external to our minds, and not be inwardly assimilated with our being. Let, furthermore, the thought be banished, that it is necessary from the beginning to intrench one's self behind a wall of commentaries. This has the appearance of greater thoroughness than is warranted by the truth, and it often becomes impossible to see the forest because of the mass of trees. It is better to practice the meriting of translations of the section to be explained, and it may be well even for instructors to precede or follow their expositions with an English or Latin translation. The latter will be more suitable in proportion as the version par takes of the nature of a paraphrase, the former {i. e., the Merit ing by the student,) as it is confined to a mere verbal rendering, which itself needs further explanation. It will be also useful to look up and compare the parallels adduced in connection with the lecture, and carefully to compare the quotations in the New Testament from the Old with the original and the LXX. before entering upon the use of commentaries. It is a grave error to suppose that the task of exegesis is confined to the selection of one from among the different versions which already exist, rather than to engaging in personal investigation and examining with an inde pendent eye.' When, however, additional helps are employed it will still be Additi nal advantageous to consult those chiefly which, after the 1 'fS to self- manner of the scholiasts, afford grammatical and his- tratoing. torical aid (Schoettgen, Lightfoot, Grotius, Wolf, Ben gel), and only subordinately those which develop the writer's train of thought in his peculiar fashion." The latter should form the ' In harmony with this, Melanchthon, Postille II, 626, already counsels, " Amate doc trinam et scripta PauU et saepe legite ; id magis proderit, quam si legatis magnos acervos commentariorum. Qui ordinem obseiwat in Epistolis Pauli et saepe relegit, plus discit, quam qui multos evolvit commentaries." Gaussenius, diss. 1, p. 26 : " Atque illud est, quod soleo studiosis usque ad f astidium inculcare, ut ad commen taries non adeant, quin prius illis aqua haereat neque ultra possint in loci examine proprio remigio pergere." ' " Caeterum, cum commentaries dice, eos intelligo, qui scripturam brevibus ad sensum literalem aceommodatis observationibus Ulustrant ; non qui occasione scrip- HISTORY OP INTERPRETATION. 245 crown of the industrious research. On the other hand, the false ambition to construct new and independent expositions will be less prevalent where the number already extant is not known (if known it could now excite nothing more than a desire to add an other one to the many already in existence), and the confirmation given by an approved exegete, who is afterward consulted, to the results obtained by our own independent effort, will only serve to increase our satisfaction. This does not mean, however, that in every instance the support of some learned authority is necessary to warrant confidence in the explanation arrived at by independent effort; for we must, as Protestants, admit that hew expositions, that is to say, such as are more thoroughly sustained by the lan guage and historical data, are always possible, in proportion as philology and historical studies adv:mce among us, although dis trust of our own powders of observation, which cannot be too highly recommended, should lead us in such matters to apply the strictest and most searching tests. In this regard, too, a straight forward, simple disposition is often able to discover the best method.' Woe to him who converts the Bible into a medium for exhibiting his vanity ! To him truth in its pureness will certainly not be disclosed, even though he should succeed in extracting some particulars which cover him with an ephemeral distinction. But blessed is the exegete by whose side', as by that of the picture of St. Matthew, the evangelist, the angel stands with a face of infan tile innocence and unprejudiced acceptance of the truth! Sketch of the Histoky op Intekpeetation. Comp. Diestel, supra. The exposition of the Bible, as has already (sec. xx) been remarked, was at first intended to meet a practical want. It was ^rst exposi- of primary importance to master the contents of the sa- «™^ °whoUy cred books. To settle their original form, and distinguish practical. turae suas, quas locos communes vulgo vocant (ihre Dogmatik) in medium protru- dunt, quibusque adeo libri sacri non tam sunt commentariorum argumentum, quam praejudiciorum loci quidam atque indices." — Gaussenius 1, 1, p. 27. ' " Certe, quemadmodum vina, quae sub primam calcationem moUiter defluunt, sunt Buaviora, quam quae a torculari exprimuntur, quoniam haec ex acino et cute uvae aliquid sapiant, similiter salubres admodum et suaves sunt doctrinae, quae ex Scrip- turis leniter expressis emanant, nee ad controversias . . . trahuntur."— Baco Verul. de augmentis scientiar. IX, p. 488. Sam. Werenfels, in the Dissertation mentioned below, likewise warns against those who rather seek their argutiolas, allegoriolas, allusiunculas, etc., in the Scriptures than the direct and simple meaning. The sim ple lay-mind occasionally finds the true goal more readily than the vision of the learned exegete befogged with the vapors of the school. 246 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. the consciousness of the time of their origin from that of a later period was reserved to become the task of a subsequent reflective age. (Comp. Rothe, Zur Dogmatik, p. 186, sqq.) But after the Jews, particularly those of Alexandria, became acquainted with the wisdom of the Greeks, they were, above all, concerned to show that the divine, with which they believed themselves here also to be in contact, was grounded in the Scriptures, and to discover the germs of a profound gnosis beneath its humble guise; on the other hand, their Palestinian brethren held fast to the historical inter pretation. The former tendency led to the allegorical method,' Else of the which must be regarded as a stage in the natural de- aiiegoricai velopment of the history of Bible exposition, rather tl^rpretetion?"" than as the arbitrary invention of certain persons. When Christianity had been introduced into the world, and the prophecies and expectations of former times had thus been realized, it was natural that an age, yet wholly under the influence of the mighty impression which the appearance of Christ had left behind, should find the Messinh everywhere in the Old Testament, and should discover traces of his being in the most incidental matters. " The brighter and more glorious the light which Jesus shed over the Old Testament at large and as a whole, for the Israelites who had learned to believe in him, the more confident were they that every particular in the sacred book, however dark, would receive light from the same source." (Rothe, p. 196.) Every red cord became a type of the blood that was shed, and every thing that even remotely resembled a cross was held to prefigure the cross on Calvary. (Comp. Barnabas, Justin Martyr, et al.) This was the case even before Origen (f A. D. 254). He was not the discoverer Origen the of the allegorical interpretation, but the first among ciiief^of the al- CJirigtians " to raise it into a canon, and to assign to it legoricallnter- . . ' => preters. a place approved by science, beside the grammatico- historical method. The contrast between the allegorical and the grammatico-historical methods now became apparent, and Origen sought to harmonize this contrast. He taught a threefold sense in ' The word tiXXri-yopuv, from oKko and iyopevsiv, is found in Gal. iv, 24 (part): " The most hurtful diversion in this direction is the cabalistic interpretation, which, in the effort to find every thing in every thing, turns to particular elements and their signs." Schleiermacher, Hermeneutik, p. 23. It likewise originated among the Jews after the captivity (the book Sohar), and passed over from them to the Christian world. Comp. Z. Frankel, Einfiuss d. Palaest. Exegese auf d. Alexandr. Hermeneutik, Leips. 1851, and Hirschfeld, Die Halachische Exegese, Berl. 1840 ; Die Hogedische Exegese, Berl., 1847. ' Among the Jews, Philo had previously made a conscious distinction between the esoteric and the exoteric sense. MIDDLE AGE EXEGESIS. 247 Scripture (answering to the body, soul, and spirit in man) — the literal, the moral, and the spiritual. Whatever cannot „ , ' ' '^ Origen s three- be justified by the letter, as derogatory to the honor fold sense of of God and the Bible, is to be explained allegorically. S'"''?'"™- The anagogical and the tropological are related to the allegorical (with reference to which further particulars are given in connection with the history of hermeneutics). This Origeiiistic-Alexandrian hermeneutics was opposed in the fifth century, however, .^jjg gdjooi of by the more sober school of Antioch, whose representa- Antioch. tives, as opposed to the fanatical Cyril, were Diodorus of Tarsus, Theodore of Mopsuestia, John Chrysostom, Ephraem Syrus, and Theodoret. From this time the historico-theological method, which had been employed at an earlier date, however, was cultivated side by side with the allegorical. Amona: Latin teach- „,^ ¦' . . . . The exegesin ers Jerome and Ambrose were distinguished in exege- of the Latin sis ; while Augustine owed his fame less to exegetical * '*'^^' learning and precision than to the originality and depth of intel lect with which he dominated his age. He, too, was partial to al legorizing, and held to a fourfold sense in Scripture. Gregory the Great (f 604), the Bishop of Rome, was allied to Augustine. In dependent research now gradually began to give way before the authority of the Church, and in proportion as people became accus tomed to beMeve the Gospel throngh the Church, the traditional and churchly method of interpretation became general, and must be considered another stage in the development. Nearly all the expositors during the Middle Ages held to this method. Middle Age ex- Collections of what good things and less good things egesis. had been said by the Church teachers about the Scriptures (oEipai, catenae patrum) ' constituted the generally accepted authorities ; and, besides these, the mystics especially practised a fanciful alle gorizing. The neglect of the study of the Bible and ignorance of the orig inal languages deprived scholastic theology of an assured Scrip tural basis. Importance attaches, however, to the Jewish Old Testa ment expositors in the Middle Ages, especially after the eleventh century, e. g., the rabbins Jarchi, Aben Ezra, David and Moses Kim chi, Maimonides (R. Mose Ben Maimon, abbreviated Rambam), and others. Christian exegesis likewise began to appear after the study of Hebrew had been renewed among Christians through the influence of Nicholas Lyra (f 1340), Laurentius Valla (f 1457), and Reuchlin (f 1522), and after the spread of Greek literature conse- ' On these exegetical collections see Herzog, Encykl., iv, p. 282, sqq. 248 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. quent upon the capture of Constantinople (1453). The stability of a traditional and Church interpretation, and the arbitrariness of a fanciful allegorical method, were again threatened by a sober, taste ful, and philologically grounded exegesis as developed by Erasmus, which was adopted by the more intelligent minds of the century; but a still broader range was given to exegesis by the Reformation Reformation. Luther directed attention to the deeper on exegesis. elements of the Scriptures, and prepared the way for the spiritualizing (pneumatic) mode of interpretation. His posi tion as a translator of the Bible for the people is unique (Comp. note 9, infra. — Drs. M. Lutheri exegetica opera latina, curaverunt J. M. Irmischer et Hy. Schmidt, vol. xxii, Francof., 1860); but it should be remembered that he was aided by the more exact lin guistic learning of Melanchthon and others. Zwingle, whose clas sical training was of great value to him, proceeded with a more measured pace; but Calvin (see Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, part 2) was distinguished above all others for exegetical keenness and pre cision. His pupil, Theodore Beza, proved a not unworthy associate in this work. The study of the Holy Scriptures was prosecuted, upon the , , whole, more generally in the Reformed Church than and Lutheran in the Lutheran, the latter giving larger attention exegesis. ^^ systematic theology; and Lutheran exegesis, more over, again became dependent on the confessional teaching of the Church, thereby contradicting the principles of Protestantism; "for it is a fundamental proposition in the writings of the reformers that the interpretation of the Scriptures is independent of the dic tum of the Church and of all human authority whatsoever." (Clau sen, Hermeneutik, p. 230.) The orthodoxy of the Reformed Churches likewise was exposed to the danger of establishing a The Eemon- Settled exegesis ; but the Remonstrants (Arminians) strants - Gro- who had Come out of the Reformed Church, and among them especially Grotius, advocated the grammatico- historical principle, though often with a regard for facts that was but one sided. In opposition to that principle Cocceius defended the doctrine that a pregnant meaning lies everywhere in the Scrip tures, which was applied with special fulness in the search for Mes sianic features in the Old Testament. Sam. Werenfels, on the other hand, developed very sound hermeneutical principles in his Ernesti, the re- ^^'^^ -^* scopo interpretis, printed in the Opuscula. storer of sound Ernesti (f 1781) is regarded in the German Lutheran Church as the restorer of a grammatical and historical method of interpretat-ioa, independent of dogmatics. The adh^er- DE WETTE, GESENIUS, AND WINER. 249 ents of this method continually increased in numbers; it recom mended itself to the spirit of the times, which yearned for emanci pation from the yoke of orthodoxy. That spirit itself, however, succeeded only too speedily in enlisting the services of exegesis in its own behalf, and proceeded to vaunt its expositions mgeof neoiog- as timely in proportion to their shallowness. Neology icaiexegesis. — whether because it retained a remnant of respect for the author ity of Holy Scripture, or because of fraudulent intentions— had long accustomed itself to find its system taught in the Bible. Miracles and mysteries, a number of which had been unnecessarily explained into the Bible by a former age, were now explained out of it and interpreted away by every conceivable art, often in oppo sition to the most explicit language. The rationalists were not alone liable to this charge, however, for the supernaturalists, acting in the interests of apologetics, understood how to fit much of the Bible to their views, and in point of fact taught the rationalists this lesson (false and impracticable attempts at constructing harmonies). Kant endeavoured to restrain such indecorous behav- Kant's separa- iour by severing scientific (theological) from practical ic^ro^etucai (ethical) interpretation. The Church, however, could exegesis. not long support this unnatural separation, which, as has already been observed, even depends upon an immoral principle. The age strove to effect a reconciliation between science and life. The rationalistic school was purged by the influence of thorough exe getical studies, and the loose methods of procedure in vogue were ended by a thorough philological discipline, such as Else of the De Wette and Gesenius introduced in the Old Testa- ^^°°' ^°^ ^l ment field, and Winer in the New. The conflict of senius. parties was relegated to the domain of dogmatics and the philoso phy of religion, and the territory occupied by exegesis became neutral ground. The neutrality could not, however, be observed with entire strictness, for reasons developed above. The orthodox party again directed attention to the underlying sense of Scripture, which was not, however, to be ascertained by the setting aside of grammatical and historical facts, but by ascending to a loftier and more far reaching point of view. A glance over the exegetical literature of the most recent decades will, in fact, reveal a gratify ing progress in this regard, even though there has been no lack of errors and deplorable lapses into the devious courses of former times. ' ' See articles on Interpretation in Kitto's Cyclopaedia, and the Biblical and Theo logical Cyclopsedia of M'Clintock and Strong; also title "Interpretation," in Index of the Bibliotheca Sacra, p. 116. 250 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. COMMENTARIES. ON THE ENTIRE BIBLE. * Ch. K. Josias Bunsen, VoUstandiges Bibelwerk fiir die Gemeinde (Part 1. The Bible, translation and exposition; Part 2. Bible records; Part 3. History of the Bible). 9 vols. Lpz., 1858-70. (Comp. Bahring, Bunsen's Bibelwerk nach seiner Be deutung fiir die Gegenwart beleuchtet, Lpz., 1861). 2d ed. Lpz., 1870. a. ON THE OLD TESTAMENT. * Kurzgefasztes exeget. Handb. zum A. T. Lpz., 1841 ff. (No. 1. the Minor Proph ets, by Hitzig. 2d ed., 1852. 3d ed., 1863. 2. Job, by Hirzel. 2d ed., by Olshausen, 1852. 3d ed., by Dillmann, 1869. 3. Jeremiah, by Hitzig, 1841. 2d ed., 1866. 4. Saniuel, by Thenius, 1842. 2d ed., 1864. 5. The Prophet Isaiah, by Knobel, 3d ed., 1861. 4th ed., by L. Diestel, 1872. 6. Judges and Ruth, by Bertheau, 1845. 7. Proverbs, by Bertheau, and Ecclesiastes, by Hitzig, 1847. 8. Ezekiel, by Hitzig, 1847. 9. Kings, by Thenius, 1849. 2d ed., 1873. 10. Daniel, by Hit zig, 1850. 11. Genesis, by Knobel, 2d ed., 1860. 3d ed., by Dillmann. 1875. 12. Exodus and Leviticus, by Knobel, 1867. 13. Numbers, Deuteronomy, aud Joshua, by Knobel, 1861. 14. Psalms, by Olshausen, 1853. 15. Chronicles, by Bertheau, 1854, 2 Aufl., 1873. 16. Solomon's Song, by Hitzig, and Lamentations, by Thenius, 1855. 17. Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, by Bertheau, 1862.) C. F. Keil and Fz. Delitzsch, Biblischer Commentar iiber das A. T. I, II, 3 ; III, 1, 4 ; IV, 1, 2. Lpz., 1863-1873. /3. ON THE NEW TESTAMENT. J. Ch. Wolf, Curae philologicae et criticae. Hamb., 1741. 5 voll. 4. (Hamb. 1725- 41.) Basel, 1741. 5 vols. * J. A. Bengel, Gnomon N. T. Tub., 1742-49, 1773. 4. 3d ed., by Steudel. Tiib., 1855. Stuttg., 1860. 2 Bde. J. G. RosenmueUer, Scholia in N. T. Norimb., Ed. 1-4, 1777-94; ed. 5, 1801-7, 6 voll.; ed. 6, 1815-31. J. J. Stoltz, Eriauterungen zum N. T. fiir geiibte und gebildete Leser. Hannov. Nos. 1-4. 1st and 2d eds., 1796-1800. 3d ed., 1806-9. Nos. 5, 6. (1799-lSOl.) 1802. J. B. Koppe, N. T. graece, perpetua annotatione illustratum. Gott., 1810-32, 1809-28. Various editions, 1 0 vols. The whole unfinished, confused in arrangement, and by different authors : Heinrichs, Ammon, Pott, Tychsen. H. Olshausen, biblischer Commentar iiber sammtliche Schriften des N. T. Fortges., von Ebrard und Wiesinger. Konigsb., 1830-62. I, II, 1-3 ; III, IV, V, 1, 2 ; VI, 1-4 ; and VII. * Kurzgefasztes exegetisches Handb, zum N. T. von W. M. L. de Wette. Lpz., 1836- 48. 3 Bde. in 1 1 parts. ¦* H. A. W. Meyer, Das N. T. griechisch, nach den besten Hiilfsmitteln krit. revidirt, mit einer neuen deutschen Uebersetzung u. einem krit. u. exeget. Commentar. Gott., 1832. ff. C. G. G. Theile, Commentarius in N. T. (vol. xviii : Epist. Jacobi ; vol. xiii : [auct. Holemann] Epist. ad Phillipp.) Lips., 1833, 1839. J. Ch. K. V. Hofmann, Die h. Schrift des N. T. zusammenhangend untersucht. Nord lingen, 1862 ff. LITERATURE OP EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 251 y. COMMENTARIES ON PARTICULAR BOOKS (selected). 1. Old Testament, 1) Historical Books. Pentateuch : Vater (1802-5. 3 Bde.). Ranke (1834-40. 2 Bde.). Herheimer (1853- 64. 3d ed., 1865). Baumgarten (1843, 2 vols.). Stiihelin (1843). Hengstenberg, die Authentie des Pent. (2 vols., 1836, 1839). Graf, die Geschichtl. Biieher des A. T. (1866). De Lagarde, Materialien zur Krit. u. Geschichte d. Pent. (1867). Noldeke, Untersuchung zur Krit. des A. T. (1869). Kayser, das vorrexil. Buch der Urgeschichte Israels (1874). Wellhausen, die Composition des Hexateuchs, (Jahr blich. fiir deutsche Theol., 1876). A. Kuenen, (in the hoU. theol. Tijdschr., 1877), Ryssel (1878). Konig (1879). Genesis: Schumann (1829). v. Bohlen (1835). Theile (1836). Critical: Hengstenberg, (die Echtheit des Pent., 1836-39). Bleek, v. Bohlen, (in the Commentary). Ber theau, (die 7 Gruppenmos. Gesetze, Gott., 1840). Stahelin (1830, 1843). Hupfeld (1853). Bohmer (1860-62). Schrader, Studien zur Krit. u. erkl. der bibl. Urgesch. (1863). Ewald (in the Einl. zur Gesch. des Yolks Israel). Lengerke (in Kenaan). Calvin (ed. Hengstenberg, 1838). * Tuch (1838, 2d ed., by Arnold and Merx, 1871). Kurtz (1846). Sorensen (1861). * Knobel (1862; 2d ed., 1860). *« Delitzsch (1851; 2d ed., 1853; 4th ed., 1872). Hupfeld (1863); in Lange's Bibelwerk (1864). Deuteronomy: Schultz (1859). Kleinert (1872). Riehm, die Gesetzg. Mosis im Lande, Moab (1854). Joshua: Maurer (1834). Keil (1847). Critical: Hauff (1843). Judges: Studer (1835). Bertheau (1845). Bachmann (1868). Ruth : Maurer, Bertheau (1845). 1st and 2d Samuel: Maurer aud * Thenius (1842). Kings: Thenius (1849). Chronicles. Critical: Gramberg (1823). f Movers (1834). Bertheau (1854). De Wette, Beitr. zur Einl., 1., 1806; Keil, 1833; Movers, 1834. On the 'remaining historical books comp. Winer, Handbuch der Lit., p. 202, und Pelt, p. 196. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther: Neteler (1877). Esther: Cassel (1878). 2) Poetical Books. Luther's Psalmenauslegung. A Commentary on the poetical books of the 0. T., by Eberle. Stuttg., 1874-79. 3 vols. * Ewald, Die poetischen Biieher des A. T. 4 Bde. (Part 1 : General matter ; new ed., 1866. Part 2 : Psalms ;' 3d ed., 1866. Part 3 : Job; 2d ed., 1867. Part 4: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, aud additions). Gott., 1839. (New ed. entitled "DieDich- ter des alten Bundes." Gott., 1854. 2d ed., 1866-67). Psalmen : Lutheri scholiae ineditae ed. Seidemann (1876). De Wette (4th ed., 1836, with translation; 5th ed., by G. Baur, 1856). Hitzig (1835 ; Psalmen libersetzt und ausgelegt ; 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1863-65). Koster (1837). Tholuck (1843 ; 2d ed., 1873). Vaihinger (1845; 2. Aufl., 1856). Lengerke (1847). Aigner (1805). Hengstenberg (2. Aufl., 1850-52, 4 Bde.). Ewald (see above). Olshausen (1863). Hupfeld (4 Bde., 1865-62 ; 2d ed., 1867-71, von Riehm). De Mestral (Tom. I, French, 1866). f Reinke (1857 ; 1. Die messianischen Psalmen; 2. 1858). De litzsch (1859-60, 2 Bde. ; new ed., 1867). Bohl (12 messianische Psalmen, 1862). Job: Schultens (1737, 1748). Umbreit (2d ed., 1832). Hitzig (1874). Zschokke (1875). Ewald (see above). Practical : Tholuck (1 843). * Hirzel (1839 ; 2d ed., by Olshausen, 1852). Vaihinger (1842 ; 2d ed., 1856). Stickel (1842). Hosse (1859). * Schlottmann (1851). Magnus (1862). Hahn (1851). Metrical version, by Spiess 352 SPECLiL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. (1852). Hengstenberg (1856; a discourse). Elster (1858). Rohling (1879). Ebrard (1858). Berkholz (1859). * Merx (1871). Zschokke (1876). Hansen (1877). Kemmler (1877). Rogge, (1877). Critical: Budde (1876). Proverbs: Kleuker (Salom. Schriften., 1777-85 ; 3 Bde.). Umbreit (1826). Schultens (1748). Gramberg (1828). Lowenstein(183S). Stier (1849-50). Bertheau (1847). Delitzsch (1873). Ecclesiastes: Umbreit (1818). Kleinert (1864). Bloch (1872). Veith (Koh. u. Hohes Lied, 1877). Kaiser (1823). Knobel (1836). Ewald (see above). Hitzig (1847). Elster (1855). Wangemann (1857; practical). Hengstenberg (1859). Hahn (1860). Canticles: Hengstenberg (1863). Meyer (1854). Friedrich (1855). Hitzig (1855). Holemann ("Die Krone des hohen Liedes," 1859). * Translation, by Th. Hirzel (1840-50). E. Renan (Par., 1860). Friedlander (1867). Altschul(1874). Sachse (1875). Schafer (1876). Kampf (1877). 3) Prophetical Books. Translations and introduction by Eichhorn (1816-19, 3. Bde.) by Fr. Riickert (1831, 1. Bd.). * Ewald, Die Propheten des A. T. (1840^1, 2. Bde. 2d ed., 3 vols., 1867). * Hitzig, Die Prophetischen Biieher des A. T. (Translation.) Lpz., 1854. * Praktischer Commentar iiber die Propheten d. A. T., by Umbreit. (1st vol., lesaiah, 1842; 2d ed., 1846. 2d vol., Jeremiah, 1842. 3d vol., Ezekiel and the Minor Prophets (To Jes., Jer., Ez.), by Le Hir. (Par., 1877.) Isaiah: Gesenius (1821; trans. 2d ed. 1829). Hitzig (1833). Knobel (2d ed., 1854; 3d ed., 1861). Hendewerk (1838-43, 2 vol). Drechsler (3 parts, 1844-57 ; Vol. II, 2 ; and III, by Delitzsch and Hahn ; vol. I in 2d ed., 1865). Critical : MoUer (1825). Kleinert (1829, against Gesenius). Hengstenberg (Christologie des A. T. comp. lit. on § 62). Stahelin (Stud, und Krit., 1831, 3). Havernick (in Introduc tion). Caspari (jesaianische Studien, in the Zeitschr. of Rudelbach and Guericke, 1843, 2.) fSchegg (1860, 2 Bde.). Meier (1st Part, 1850). Stier (Jes.' 44-66, kein Pseudo-Jes., 1860-51). Eljakim (Visions d'Esaie, 1864; French metrical version, with exposition), f G. Mayer (1860). Delitsch (1866; 2d ed., 1869). Jeremiah: Hitzig (1841 ; 2d Aufl., 1866). * Umbreit (Prakt. Commentar, see above). Niigelsbach (1850). Neumann (2 Bde., 1866-58). Graf (1862 and 1863). Scholz (der masor. Text u. die LXX-Uebersetzg des B. Jer., 1876). Lamentations : Hetzel (1864). Thenius (1855). Engelhardt (1867). Gerlach (1868). Ezekiel: Havernick (1843). Hitzig (1847). Kliefoth (1864-65). Hengstenberg (1867). Daniel: Bertholdt (1806-8, 2 Bde.). Havernick 0832). Lengerke (1835). Hitzig (1850). Auberlen (1854, having reference to the Apocalypse; 2d ed., 1856). Kranichfeld (1868). Fiiller (1868). Mayer (1866). Kliefoth (1868). Critical: Ziindel (1861). Hilgenfeld (Ezra und Daniel, 1863). Caspari (1869). Rohling (1877). Doprez (Dan. and John, 1879). The Minor Prophets : * Theiner (1828). f Ackerman (1839). Hitzig (2d ed., 1852 ; 3d ed., 1863). f Schegg (1864). Schroder (Part I, 1829). Schlier (2d ed., 1876). Hosea: Bockel (1807). Stuck (1828). Krappe (1836). De Wette (Stud, und Krit., 1832, 4). Simson (1851). Kurtz (iiber Hos. I-III, 1859). Wiinsche (1867-8). Joel: Credner (1831). Meier (1841). Wiinsche (1S72). Karle (1877). Merx (1879). Amos: Vater (1810). G. Baur (1847). Obadiah: Hendewerk (1836). Caspari (1842). Jonah: Krahmer (1839). Jager (1840). Kaulen (1862). Micah : Caspari (1852). Reinke (1 874). Nahum: Holeraan (1842). Strauss (1863). Habakkuk: Baumlein (1840). Delitzsch (1854). ¦)¦ Gumpach (1860). Reinke LITERATURE OP EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 353 (1870). Haggai: Scheibel (1822). Kohler (1860). Reinke (1868). Zechariah: Baumgarten (" Nachtgesichte," 1854-55; new ed., 1858). Neumann (1860). Kliefoth (1862). Bradenkamp (1879). Critical: Ortenberg (1869). Malachi: t Reinke (1856). Kohler (1865). 2. New Testament. 1) Historical Books (Gospels and Acts of the Apostles). Ewald, Die drei ersten Evangelien, iibersetzt und erklart. Gott., 1850. New ed. en titled : Die drei ersten Evangehen und die Apostelgeschichte, 2 vols., 1871-2. Baumgarten-Crusius, Exeget. Schriften zum N. T. Part I : Matth., Mark, Luc; pub lished by Otto, Jena, (1844). * Fr. Bleek, Synoptische Erklarung der drei ersten Evangelien, publ. by Heinr. Holtz mann, Lpz., 1862, 2 vols. Scholten, Das alteste Evangelium. Kritische Untersuchung, etc., der Evangelien nach Matthaus und Marcus. Transl. from the Dutch. Elberfeld, J 869. K. Wieseler, Beitr. zur richt. Wiirdig der Ew. und der evang. Geschichte. Gotha (1869). Matthew (comp. above): f Mayer (1818). f Gratz (1821, 1823). * Baumgarten-Crusi us (publ. by Otto, 1844). Critical; Sieflert (1832). Klenert (1832). Olshausen (1835; new ed. by Ebrard, 1853). Nabe (1837). Assmann (1 874). B.Weiss (Matth. u. Lucasparal, 1876). Wiehelhaus (publ. by Zahn, 1876). Keil (1877). Zittel (Matth. u. Marc, 1880). Pract.: Dieffenbaeh (1876). Sommer (1877), and others. Comp. Baur, iiber die sammtlichen Evangelien. Tiib., 1847. Wilke, der Urevangelist. Lpz., 1838. G. Miiller, die Entst. der 4 Ew. u. der Br. des Ap. Paulus. 2d ed., Berlin, 1877. G. Meyer, la question synoptique. Par., 1878. Pierre Victor, les evangiles et I'histoire. Paris, 1879. Mark : Keil (Mark u. Luc, 1879). Critical; Sauuier (1825). Knobel (1831). Wilke (1837). Hilgenfeld (1860). Baur (1851). Klostermann (1867). f Schegg (2 Bde., 1869-70). Volkmar (1870). Weiss (1872). Luke: Bomemann (Scholia, 1830). Critical: Schleiermacher (1817, and in Sammt lichen Werken), and in opposition, H. Planck (1819), \ Schegg (3 Bde., 1861-66). Godet (French, 1871 ; German, 1862). Critical : Scholten (Het Paulinisch evan gelic. Leiden, 1870). John : * Liicke (Commentar iiber die Schriften des Johannes ; the Gospels in vols. 1 and 2; Epistles, vol. 3; 3d ed., 1866; Apokalypse, Introd., vol. 4; 1, new ed., 1861-62). Tholuck C7th ed., 1867). Baumgarten-Crusius (Theol. Auslegung der Johann. Schriften, 1 Bd., Evang. Johann., 1843). f Klee (1829). Herwerden (Holland, 1851). Luthardt (1862 f.,2parts; 2ded., 1875). Hengstenberg (1861 f., 2 parts). Ewald (1861 ff., 3 vols.) Baiimlein (1863). Godet (French, 1864 f.. 2 vols.; 2d ed., 1876 f.; German, 1869; 2d ed., 1876-78). f Haneberg (publ. by Schegg, 1878). Acts of the Apostles : Heinrichs (N. T. Koppii, vol. III). Hildebrand (1824). Bome mann (1848). Beelen (2 Tom., Lovan, 1850 f.). Stern (1872). Andrea (1876 f., 2 parts). Schneckenburger (1841). Schwanbeck (1847). Baumgarten (1861- 52, 2 Bde., 2d ed., 1859). Lekebusch (1854). Zeller (1854). Trip (1866). f Konig (1867). Oertel (1868). 2) Pauline Epistles, and Epistle to the Hebrews. J. Calvin, Commentarii in omnes Pauli Ap. epp. atque in ep. ad Hebraeos, ad ed. R. Steph., accuratissime exscripti ; ed. A. Tholuck. Hal., 1831. 2 voll. 254 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. J. Calvin, Commentarii in epistolas N. T. catholicas, ad ed. R. Steph., accuratissime exscr.; ed. A. Tholuck. Hal., 1832. Baumgarten-Crusius, Exeget. Schriften zum N. T., vol. II (Rom., Gal., published by Kimmel, 1844 ff.). Vol. II, (Eph., Col., Philippians, Thess.; published by Kimmel and Schauer, 1845-48). Epistle to the Romans :" Tholuck (1824, 1828, 1831 ; 5th ed., 1866 ; with the result ant dispute with Fritzsche). Flatt (Tiib., 1825). f Klee (1830). Benecke (1881). Riickert (1831-39). Reiche (1833-34, 2 Bde.). Glockler (1834). Kollner (1834). Nielsen (1841 ; German by Michelsen, 1834). f Stengel (publ. by Beck, 1836-46). Fritzsche (1836-43, 3 Bde.). Krehl (1845). Philippi (1848; 2d ed., 1856; 3d ed., 1866). Steinhofer (publ. by Bock, 1851). Bisping (1855). Van Hengel (1864, 1859). Umbreit (on the basis of the 0. T., 1856). Th. Schott (1858). F. G. Jatho (2 Bde, 1858-59). Critical: Mangold (1866). Hebrew Version, by Delitzsch (1870). Diedrioh (1873). Manoury (French; Paris, 1878). Godet (French, I, Paris, 1879). Rugge Holl., Romer und Cor., 1879). Epistle to the Corinthians: Neander (Ed. by Beyschlag, 1859). Burger (2d Epistle 1859-60). Comp. Bleek, in the Stud. u. Krit., 1830-33, and Goldhorn in lUgens Zeitschrift fiir hist. Theol. 1840-42. On the 1st and 2d Epistle : Osiander (Stuttg., 1847 u. 1858). Van Hengel (1 Cor. xv; 1861). A. Maier (1857-65.) Kloppel (exeg. Krit. Untersuchung, on the 2d Epistle, 1869). Epistle to the Galatians : Schott (1834 ; with Thessalonians ; see above). Fritzsche (on single passages ; 1833-34). Hermann (do., 1834 ; comp. Schulthess, 1835). Hol ler (1830, Deinish). fWindischmann (1844). Hilgenfeld (1851). Miiller (1863, 1861). Jatho (1856). Wieseler (1859). Matthies (1865). Reithmayr (1865). Vomel (1866) Brandes (1869 ; New Titelausg., 1871). Ephesians : Harless (1834 ; 2d ed., 1858). Matthias (1834). Riickert (1834). Baum garten-Crusius (1847). Stier (1848). Auszng. (1859). Schenkel (in Lange's Bi belwerk, 1862; 2d ed., 1867) Bleek (publ. by Nitzsch, 1865). Ewald (Sieben Sendschreiben des N. B., 1870). Ernst (pract., 1877). Hahn (1878). Holtzmann (critical, 1872). Koster (Holl., 1877). Luther's Exegesis, by Eberie (1818). Philippians: Rheinwald (1827). Flatt (Phil., Col., Thess., Philem., 1829). Matthies (1835). Van Hengel (1838). Rilliet (Geneve, 1841). Holemann (1839 ; comp. above). Baumgarten-Crusius (publ. by Schauer, 1848). Briickner (1848). Wies inger (Olshausen, v, 1, 1850). Weiss (1859). Schenkel (ubi supra). Jatho 1857). Colossians: Junker (1828). Bahr (1833). Bohmer (Theol. Auslegung, 1835; Isagoge, 1829). Steiger (1835). Huther (1841). Dalmer (1868). Critical : Mey- erhoff (1 838). Schenkel, ubi supra. Bleek (publ. by F. Nitzsch, 1865). Thom- asius (Practische Auslegung, 1869). Holtzmann (critical, 1872 ; see above to Ephesians). Thessalonians : Schott (comp. Galatians). Pelt (1830). Baumgarten-Crusius (see Philippians). Koch (1849). Liinemann (see above). Auberlen und Riggenbach (see above, Lange's Bibelwerk). Pastoral Epistles : Heydenreich (1826-28; 2 Bde.). Flatt (1837). Matthies (1840). fMack (1836, 1841). Leo (on 1st and 2d Tim., 1837; 1850). Huther (1850). Wiesinger (1850). Ewald (Sieben Sendschreiben des N. B., 1870). Plitt (Prak- tische Ausleg., 1872). Bahnsen (2 Tim., 1876). Beck (2 Tim. ; publ. by Linden- meyer, 1879). Holtzmann (ISSO). Critical : Eichhorn (Einleit. ins. N. T.). Schlei ermacher (against the authenticity of 1 Tim., 1807 ; per contra : Planck, 1808 und Wegscheider, 1810). Ferd. Baur (1835 ; denying authenticity in general). Defenders: Baumgarten (1837), and Bottger (1838 u. 1840). Baur in reply in the Tiib. Zeitschrift. Comp. Liicke in the Stud. u. Krit., 1830 ; 2 S., 422. LITERATURE OP EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 355 Philemon: Schmid (1786). Hagenbach (1829), ad fidem versionum oriental, ed. Peter mann (1844). Demme (1844). Koch (1845). Wiesinger (1850). Kiihne (1852 anl 1856, 2 vols., Bibelstunden.) Bleek (by F. Nitzsch, 1866). Hebrews: Morus (1786). Storr (1789, 1809). Dav. Schulz (1818). Bohme (1825). * Bleek (1828-40, 3 Bde., by Windrath, 1S6S). Kuinol (1831). Paulus (18.S3). Tholuck (3d ed., 1850). f Klee (1833). Stein (1838). Critical: fStanglein (1836). Thiersch (1848). f Stengel (publ. by Beck, 1849). Ebrard (Olshausen, V, 2; 1850). Bisping (1854; 2d ed., 1864). Lunemann (1856; 2d ed., 1861; 3d ed., 1867). Delitzsch (1857). Riehm Lehrbegriff, 1868-59). Adalb. Maier (1861). Wieseler (Krit. Unters., 1861). Kluge (1863). Reuss (French, 1862). Andrea (practical, 1866). Kurtz (1869). Ewald (Hebraer und Jacobus, 1870). Stier (1842; 2 vols.). Werner (1876). Biesenthal (1878). 3) Catholic Epistles and Apocalypse. Augusti (Lemgo, 1801-8, 2 Bde.). f Nickel (1852). Grashof (1830). Jachmann (1838). Pott (N. T. Koppii, vol. IX). Ewald (Sieben Sendschreiben des Neuen Bundes. Gott., 1S70. 1 and 2 Peter, Jude, Ephesians, Tim., Titus, Pastoral Epistles). f Bisping, Erklarung der sieben katholischen Briefe. 1871. Epistles of St. Peter : Steiger (1 Brief Petri, 1832). 1 and 2 Peter and Jude : Huther (1852; 2d ed., 1869; 3d ed., 1867). Critical: Mayerhoff (1835). In reply: f Windischmann (Vindiciae Petrinae, Ratisb., 1836). On 2d Ep. of Peter: Ull mann (1821). Dietlein (185.5). Wiess (1855). Wiesinger (1862; in Olshausen). Schott (1 Petri, 1861 ; 2 Petri und Juda, 1863). Steinfass (2 Petri ; 1863). Epistles of St. John: Lucke (3d ed., 1856, by Bertheau). Paulus (Die 3 Lehrbriefe, des Joh., 1829). Rickli (Predigten iiber 1 Job.; Luz., 1S2S). Mayer (1861). Wolf (1851). Neander (1851). Sander (1851). Diisterdieck (1852-66). Huther (1866; 2d ed., 1861, in Meyer). Erdmann (Primae Joh. ep. argument, nex. et consil. 1855). Haupt (Der Erste Brief des Johannes, Colberg, 1869). Stock- meyer (1873). Rothe (publ. by Miihlhauser, 1878). Epistles of James to Jude : Herder (Briefe zweener Briider Jesu, 1774). Scharling (1841). James und 1 Peter : Hettinger (1825). James: Schulthess (1825). Gebser (1828). Schneckenburger (1832). Theile (1833). Kern (1838). Jacobi (Predigten, Berl., 1835). Wiesinger (1864, in Olshausen). Huther (see above). Wold. Schmidt (Lehrgehalt, 1869). Blom (De Brief van ,Ta- cobus, critical, Dort., 1869). Ewald (Hebraer u. Jacobus, 1870). Weiffenbach (liber Jac ii, 14-26; Giessen, 1871). Jude: Stier (1850). Huther (see s. v. Epistles of Peter). Arnaud (1851). f Rampt (1854). Apokalypse: Tinius (1839). De Wette (1848; 2d ed., 1854; 3d ed., 1862). Heng stenberg (1849-51, 2 Bde. ; 2d ed., 1861). Dressel (1850). Holzhauser (1850). Stern (1851). Ebrard (1858). Rink (1853). Auberlen (see Daniel). Bohmer (on the date of composition, etc., 1866). Graber (Hist. Erklarung, 1857). Stier (Re den des Herrn Jesu, etc., 1859). Diisterdieck (see above). Bleek (publ. by Hoss bach, 1862). Volkmar (1862). Kienlen (Paris, 1870). Fuller (1874). Kliefoth (1874). Harms (2d ed., 1874). Burger (1877). L'Hote (French ; Paris, 1877). London, 1879). Kratzenstein (pract., 1879). 258 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. ENGLISH AND AMEEICAN LlTEEATUEE. 1. Commentaries on the Wliole Bible. Bible Commentary, The. Explanatory and Critical. With a Revision of the Trans lation, by Bishops and Clergy of the Anglican Church. Edited by F. C. Cook, M.A. 10 vols., Svo. New York, 1872-80. Calvin, John. Commentaries. 45 vols. Edinburgh : Calvin Trans. Society. Clarke, Adam. The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments. The Text carefully printed from the most correct Copies of the present Authorized Translation, including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts, with a Com mentary and Critical Notes. 6 vols., Svo, pp. 884, 829, 902, 865, 920, 1070. New York, 1832. Jenks, Wm. The Comprehensive Commentary on the Holy Bible, containing the Text of the Authorized Version ; Scott's Marginal References ; Matthew Henry's Commentary, condensed, etc. 6 vols., supplement with Cruden's Concordance. Philadelphia, 1848. Lange, John Peter. A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures, Critical, Doctrinal, and Homiletical, with special reference to Ministers and Students. Translated from the German, and Edited with Additions, Original and Selected, by Philip Schaff, in Connection with American Divines of Various Evangelical Denominations. 25 vols., Svo. New York, 1865-78. Poole, Matthew. Annotations upon the Whole Bible. 3 vols., royal Svo, pp. 1030, 1008. New York, 1880. Whedon, D. D. A Commentary on the Old and New Testaments. Intended for Popular Use. 13 vols., 12mo. New York, 1866. (Old Testament not yet com plete.) 2. Commentaries on the Old Testament. Hengstenberg, E. W. Christology of the Old Testament, and a Commentary on the Messianic Predictions. 4 vols., Svo, pp. 523, 474, 410, 410. Edinburgh, 1864-59. Keil, C. F., and Delitzsch, F. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. 25 vols., 8yo. Edinburgh, 1864-78. 3. Commentaries on the New Testament. Alford, Henry. New Testament for English Readers ; containing the Authorized Version, with a Revised English Text ; Marginal References, and a Critical and Explanatory Commentary. New ed., 4 parts, or 2 vols., Svo. London, 1868. Barnes, Albert. Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the New Testament, Designed for Sunday-School Teachers and Bible Classes. 26th ed., revised and corrected. 11 vols., 12mo. New York, 1859. Bengel, John Albert. Gnomon of the New Testament. 3d ed., 6 vols., Svo. Edin burgh, 1860. Also 2 vols., Svo. Philadelphia, 1874. Doddridge, Philip. The Family Expositor ; or, a Paraphrase and Version of the New Testament. Svo, pp. 1242. London, 1829. New ed., 1S62. Meyer, Heinrich August Wilhelm. Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. From the German, with the sanction of the Author. 12 volumes, Svo. Edmburgh. Also, in preparation, an American edition in Svo. New York, 1883. Olshausen, Hermann. Biblical Commentary on the New Testament. First American ed., by A. C. Kendrick, to which is prefixed Olshausen's Proof of the Gen uineness of the Writings of the New Testament, translated by D. Fosdick, Jr. 6 vols., Svo, pp. 621, 624, 616, 586, 624, 624. Kew York, 1868." LITERATURE OP EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. 337 Schafi, Philip. A Popular Commentary on the New Testament, by Epglish and American Scholars of Various Evangelical Denominations. In 4 vols., royal Svo. Profusely Illustrated. New York, 1878. 4. Commentaries on Particular Books. I. Old Testament. (a) Historical Books. Alford, Henry. The Book of Genesis and part of the Book of Exodus ; a Revised Version, with Marginal References, and an Explanatory Commentary. Svo. London, 1872. Birks, T. R. The Exodus of Israel. Its DiflSculties Explained and its Truth Con firmed. Svo. 1863. Bush, George. Notes, Critical and Practical, on the Book of Genesis. Designed as a General Help to Biblical Reading and Instruction. 26th ed., 2 vols., 12mo, pp. xxxv, 338, 444. New York, 1863. Also on Exodus, Leviticus, Joshua, Judges, and Numbers, the whole with Genesis in 8 vols. Jacobus, M. W. Notes on the Book of Genesis. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 304, 256. New York, 1865. Also on Exodus. Murphy, J. G. A Critical Commentary on the Book of Genesis, with a Translation. With a Prekce by J. P. Thompson, D.D. Svo, pp. 535. Andover, 1866. Also on Exodus, pp. 385, and Leviticus, pp. 318, both Svo. (b) The Poetical Books. Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Psalms, Translated and Explained. 6th ed., 3 vols., pp. xvi, 436, 349, 316. New York, 1866. Augustine. Exposition of the Psalms. Translated, with Notes. ¦ 6 vols., Svo. Ox ford, J. H. Parker, 1848. Barnes, Albert. Notes, Critical, Illustrative, and Practical, on the Book of Job. With a New Translation and an Introductory Dissertation. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. cxxvi, 311, 384. New York, 1867. New ed., 1881. Also on Psalms, 2 vols., 12mo. Ewald, Heinrich. Commentary on the Book of Job. Translated from the German by J. F. Smith. London, 1882. Ginsburg, Christian. Coheleth, or Ecclesiastes ; translated with a Commentary. Svo. London, 1857. Hengstenberg, E. W. Commentary on the Psalms. 4th ed., 3 vols., Svo, pp. 539, 479, 647. Edinburgh, 1860. Also on Ecclesiastes, with Appended Treatises ; Svo, pp. 448. Edinburgh, I860. Hibbard, F. G. The Psalms Chronologically Arranged, with Historical Introduc tions. Svo. New York, 1856. Noyes, G. R. A Translation of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, with Explana tory Notes. 12mo. Boston, 1846. Also a volume on the Psalms. Boston, 1876. Perowne, J. J. Stewart. The Book of Psalms ; a New Translation, with Introduc tion and Notes, Critical and Explanatory. New ed., 2 vols., Svo. pp. 534, 477. Andover, 1876. Spurgeon, Chas. H. The Treasury of David : Containing Original Expositions of the Book of Psalms. Svo, 7 vols. New York, 1880, Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the Book of Proverbs. 12mo, pp. 432. New York, 1852. Also on Ecclesiastes. 12mo. Andover,, 1864. 17 258 SPECIAL THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Tholuck, Augustus. A Translation and Commentary of the Book of Psalms, for the Use of the Ministry and Laity of the Christian Church. Translated from the German by J. Isidor Mombert. 12mo, pp. xv, 497. Philadelphia, 1858. Umbreit, D. F. W. New Version of the Book of Job, with Expository Notes. 2 vols., 12mo. Edinburgh, 1836-37. (c) Prophetical Books. Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Prophecies of Isaiah. Translated and Explained. 2 vols., Svo. New York, 1847. Revised ed., pp. 507, 482. 1869. Auberlen, Carl A. The Prophecies of Daniel and the Revelation of St. John. Viewed in their Mutual Relation. Svo. Edinburgh, 1856. Barnes, Albert. Notes on Isaiah. 2 vols., 12mo. New York, 1881. Also on Daniel. 1 vol., 12ino. New York. Ewald, Heinrich. Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament. Translated from the German by J. F. Smith. 5 vols. London, 1875-81. Fairbiiirn, Patrick. Ezekiel and the Books of his Prophecy. An Exposition. 2d ed., Svo, pp. 512. Edinburgh, 1861. Jonah : Life, Character, and Mission. 12mo. Edinburgh, 1849. Hengstenberg, E. W. The Prophecies of Ezekiel, Elucidated. Translated by A. C. and J. G. Murphy. Svo, pp. 545. Edinburgh, 1869. Also on Daniel. 1 vol., Svo. Edinburgh. Moore, T. V. The Prophets of the Restoration ; or, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. A new Translation, with Notes. Svo, pp. vii, 408. 1856. Pusey, E. B. Daniel th Best method o( ma, brings to distinct consciousness both what is change- doctrinal his- able in the statements of doctrine and what is permanent ^°^^' in the midst of the changes, and gives rise to such mutability itself. Only such a treatment, moreover, will warrant the expectation of realizing the practical advantage of preserving the history of doc trines from yielding to the authority of a rigid narrowness of the traditional type, and from being dominated by a mania for novelty and condemning what is old. For the historical sense is the neces sary base of a theological character. The remarks, in a preceding section, relating to a true pragma tism in the treatment of Church history, are applicable at this point as well. The form assumed by particular doctrines may, indeed, not unfrequently be explained by a reference to different and exter nal causes, such as political conditions and events, the scientific cul ture of a period, or even conditions of climate, and other surround ings. But, while seeking such explanations, the dynamical principle, which works from within outwardly upon the material, should not be forgotten, since the triumph of any chief principle im- tendency over others, which cannot be altogether acci- p""^^"'- dental, must, in the end, be judged by that principle.' This twofold and self-complementary mode of viewing the history will guard against two errors which lie near at hand. On the one hand, the recognition of what is changeable in received conceptions of doc trine, and the connected observation that much which „ ,. . ' _ _ . _ Necessltyof once was held to be indispensable toa correct faith is no recognizing longer so regarded by even very orthodox scholars, while " ^^s^- other things which are now stubbornly maintained in many quar- , ters were formerly regarded more mildly, or with indifference, will preserve the mind from being bound by the unworthy fetters of any system whose influence tends to conflne inquiry from the out set within narrowinff limits, and will infuse a noble confidence in truth, which is not alarmed for the safety of the Church with the springing up of every breeze. But, on the other hand, even greater attention will be fixed upon the one thing needful, which, whatever may have been the form of doctrine, has always asserted itself, and has always demonstrated, ' Comp. Rosenkranz, p. 248, and Hagenbach in Coburger Theol. Aimalen, article Ueber den Sieg der Orthodoxie iiber die Heterodoxie, 1832, vol. 4, No. 1. 366 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. however frequent may have been its temporary obscurations, that it is the permanent element which is destined to abide. It will ap pear, moreover, especially when the periods have been properly arranged, and with evidential force, that every period was specially Acentrai truth determined and guided by some particular truth; that, lor every age. go to speak, it had its own polar star, by. which it shaped its course, and which shone for it with a brightness such as, with a change of constellation, it could not possess for any other age. But God continually brings up new stars, with the object that all should guide to the One who is the salvation of the world. It is, therefore, a sign of crudeness, and of a want of genuine enlighten ment, when the mind finds it impossible to so far enter into former modes of thought as to discover that the productions of the human mind, when engaged upon the very noblest work that could com mand its attention, are more than mere abortions of unreason and superstition.' The "absurdities of Scholasticism," which have so often been made matter for sport, are certainly as nothing when compared with the absurdity with which the schoolmen have been judged by the people, " whom they could not have used as copy ists" (Semler).' HISTOEY. Comp. Baur, Dogmensgeschichte, § 6. The history of doctrines, in its clearly defined outlines, is a new science. Materials for it have, however, been furnished from the beginning. A rich mine for discoveries exists already in ecclesi- astico-historical and polemico-dogmatical works of the Church fathers, especially Irenseus, Hippolytus, and Epiphanius. Down to our own time, also, works on Church history contain material for the history of doctrines. While connected in this way with Church history on the one hand, the history of doctrines stands similarly related to dogmatics on the other. We have only to bear in mind the great dogmatical works of Chemnitz, Hutter, Quenstedt, J. Gerhard, and others. Works preliminary to the history of doc- ' ' Rosenkranz, ubi supra : " While it cannot be denied that arbitrariness and acci dent form an element in the History of Doctrines, as in every thing that is human, it »is also true that the play of subjectivity, its dabbling in opinions, forms a feature that destroys and subordinates itself, as being unimportant, to the real movement. The estimate of the History of Doctrines which finds in it merely a lumber-room of human follies and silly opinions, is itself a silly opinion, which has no perception of the yearn ing of the mind to know its own inner nature, and no conception of the secret aUi ance which binds all the actions of the mind into a general whole." Comp. KUefoth, p. 208 sq. ; Baur, Dogmengesch. § 3, and (with reference to the unhistorical disposi tion of Rationalism) pp. 42, 43. , 'Comp. Mohler, Kleine Schriften i, p. 131 sqq. MODE OP TREATMENT. 367 ' trines proper were furnished by the Roman Catholic theologians: Petavius (1644-50, 1700), Thomassin (1684-89), Dumesnil (1730), and by the Protestant Forbesius a Corse (1645 sqq.). It is only since the days of Semler and Ernesti that a separate treatment was thought of (Ernesti, ubi supra, and Semler's Introduction to Baum garten's System of Doctrine, Halle, 1759 sq.). At first, the attention was merely directed to the accumulation of material, and this was followed with the critical treatment of doctrines, for the expressed purpose of " enlarging the range of vision for incipient theologians or theological students in general" (Semler). The positive method of treatment was soon added, and the history of doctrines was made to serve in defence of dogma in the interests of Apologetics (Augusti). The higher view, which has regard equally to the crit ical and the dogmatical elements, and which dialectically mediates the contrasts between the positive and the speculative, is a fruitage of the recent science. LITERATURE OF DOCTRINAL HISTORY. 1. Textbooks and Manuals of History of Doctrines.' W. Miinscher, Handbuch der christi. Dogmengeschichte. Marb., vols. 1-3, 1797- 1802. (Sd ed., 1817 f.) Vol. 4, 1809. Amer. ed., translated by Murdock. New Haven, 1830. * Lehrbuch der christi. Dogmengeschichte (Marb., 1811). 3d ed., with Ap pendices from original sources, by Dan. v. Colin. Cassel, 1832-34. J. Ch. W. Augusti, Lehrbuch der christi. Dogmengesch. Lpz., 1805. 4th ed., 1835. L. Bertholdt, Handbuch der Dogmengesch., pub. by J. G. V. Engelhardt. Erl., 1822 f. 2 vols. F. A. Ruperti, Geschichte der Dogmen, etc. Berl, 1831. L. F. 0. Baumgarten-Crusius, Lehrbuch der christUchen Dogmengeschichte. Jena, 1832. * Compendium der christi. Dogmengesch. Lpz., 1840-46. 6 vols. C. G. H. Lentz, Geschichte der christlichen Dogmen in pragmatischer Entwicklung. Helmst., 1834 f. 2 vols. f H. Klee, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. Mainz, 1837 f. 2 vols. J. G. V. Engelhardt, Dogmengeschichte. Neust., 1839. 2 vols. *F. K. Meier, Lehrb. der Dogmengesch. Giess., 1840. 2d ed. by G. Baur, 1864. K. R. Hagenbach, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte. Lpz., 1840 f. 2 vols. 4th ed., 1867, in 1 vol. 6th ed., 1867. Eng. and Amer. ed. by H. B. Smith. N. Y, 1861, 1862. F. C. Baur, Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte. Stuttg., 1847. 2d ed., I Tiib., 1858. 3d ed., Lpz., 1867. * Vorlesungen uber christi. Dogmengesch. Lpz., 1865-67. 3 vols. K. Beck, christi. Dogmengesch. in gedr. Uebersicht. Weim., 1848. 2d ed., 1864. Ph. Marheineke, christi. Dogmengesch., pubUshed by Matthies und Vatke. Berl., 1849. (Vol. 4 der theoiog. Vorlesungen.) ' Older works by Gaab, Lange, Wundemann, Miinter. Oomp. also the Literature on History and Doctrines. 368 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. L. Noack, die christliche Dogmengeschichte nach ihrem organischen Entwickelungs- gange. Eri., 1853. 2d ed., 1856. * J. C. L. Gieseler, Dogmengeschichte. Pub. from remains by E. R. Redepenning. Bonn, 1855. (The supplementary 6th vol of Church History.) *A. Neander, christi. Dogmei^gesch. Pub. by J. L. Jacobi. Berl., 1867. 2 vols. Eng. ed., translated by J. E. Ryland. Lond., 1858. H. Schmid, Lehrb. der Dogmengesch. 1859. 3d ed., 1877. iK. A Kahnis, der Kirchenglaube, historisch-genetisch dargestellt (Vol. 2 der Dog- ' matik). Lpz., 1864. 2d ed., 1876. Ft. Nitzsch, Grundriss der christlichen Dogmengeschichte. 1st part. Berl., 1870. J. Bach, die Dogmengesch. des Mittelalters vom christolog. Standpunkt. Wien, 1873-75. 2 parts. 6. Frank, Gesch. der protest. Theol. Lpz., 1862-75. 3 parts (to 1S17). G. Thomaslus, die christi. Dogmengesch. Erl., 1874-76. 2 vols. F. Lichtenberger, hist, der idees religieuses en AUemagne depuis le milUeu du IS. siecle. Vol. 1. Par., 1874. J. F. Astie, la theologie allemande contemporaine. Basel, 1874. 2. Tables. K. R. Hagenbach, tabellarische Uebersicht der Dogmengeschichte bis auf die Refor mation. Basel, 1828. 4. K. Vorlander, tabellarisch-iibersichtliche Darstellung der Dogmengesch. nach Nean- ders dogmengeschichtl. Vorlesungen. 1. (oder apologetische) und 2. (oder polem- ische) Periode. Hamb., 1835-37. 3. (Uebergangs-) u. 4. (scholastische) Periode. 1865. Fol. Lange (s. Tabellen der Klrchengeschichte) 3. Monographs on History of Doctrines. a. On the Apostolic Fathers and the Clementines.^ A. Hilgenfeld, die apostolischen Vater. Untersuchungen iiber Inhalt u. Ursprung der unter ihren Namen erhaltenen Schriften. Halle, 1853." J. H. B. Lubkert, die Theologie der apostol. Vater in iibersichtl. Darstellung, in (Ill- gen-) Niedners Zeitschrift fiir die histor. Theologie. Jahrg., 1864. Heft 4. A. Schliemann, die Clementin. Recognitionen, eine Ueberarbeitung der Clementinen. Kiel, 1843. die Clementinen nebst den verwandten Schriften u. der Ebionitismus. Hamb., 1844. A. Hilgenfeld, die clementin. Recognitionen und Homilien nach ihrem Ursprung und Inhalt dargestellt. Jena, 1848. G. Uhlhorn, die Homilien und Recognitionen des Clemens Romanus nach ihrem Ur sprung u. Inhalt dargestellt. Gott., 1864. J. Lehmann, die Clementinischen Schriften mit besonderer Riicksicht auf ihr literar- isches Verhaltniss. Gotha, 1869. (Here belong also: D. v. CoUn, Art. "Clementinen" in Ersch und Grubers En cykl. 1st sec, vol. IS, p. 36 ff. und D. Schenkel, de Clementinis, iu dess. de eccl. Corinthia primaeva. Basel, 1838.) ¦ Here belongs also the literature ot Church histories by Baur, Matter, M5hler, Neander, Schwegler, where we flnd much doctrinal history interwoven. » Comp. the Rec. von Lipsius in Gersdorf Repert. 1854. Vol. Ill, p. 65 fl. MODE OF TREATMENT. 369 b. On Special History of Doctrines.^ F. Delitzsch, die Gotteslehre des Thom. v. Aquino, krit. dargest. Lpz,, 1870. F. C. Baur, die christi. Lehre von der Versohnung. Tiib., 1838. die christi. Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung. Tiib., 1841-42. 3 vols. G. A. Meier, die Lehre von der Trinitat in ihrer histor. Entwicklung. Hamb., 1844. 2 vols. K. A. Kahnis, die Lehre vom heil. Geist. Part 1. Halle, 1847. E. W. MiiUer, Geschichte der Kosmologie in der griechischen Kirche bis auf Origenes. Halle, 1860. * J. A. Dorner, Entwicklungsgeschichte der Lehre von der Person Christi von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die neueste. Stuttg., 1839. 2d ed., Berl., 1846-56. Eng, ed., translated by Alexander and Simon. Edinb., 1862-64. K. Bahr, die Lehre der Kirche von dem Tode Jesu. Sulzb., 1832. A. Ritschl, die christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung. 1st vol., Geschichte der Lehre. Bonn, 1870. Eng. ed., translated by J. S. Black. Edinb., 1872. Chr. E. Luthardt, die Lehre vom freien WiUen und seinem Verhaltniss zur Gnade, in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung dargestellt. Lpz., 1863. A. F. 0. Miinchmeyer, Das Dogma von der sichtbaren und unsichtbaren Kirche. Gott, 1864. J. W. F. Hofling, das Sacrament der Taufe, etc., dogmatisch, hlstorisch, liturgisch dargestellt. Eri., 1846-48. 2 vols. 2d ed., 1859. A. Ebrard, das Dogma vom heil. Abendmahl und seine Geschichte. Frankf., 1845 f. 2 vols. K. A. Kahnis, die Lehre vom Abendmahl. Lpz., 1861. J. W. F. Hofling, die Lehre der altesten Kirche vom Opfer im Leben und Cviltus der Christen. Eri., 1861. A. W. Dieckhoff, die evang. Abendmahlslehre im Reformationszeitalter 1st vol. Giitt., 1864. L. J. Riickert, das Abendmahl, sein Wesen und seine Geschichte in der alten Kirche. Lpz., 1866. H. Schmid, der Kampf der luther. Kirche um Luthers Lehre vom Abendmahl im Reformationszeitalter. Lpz., 1867. (Corodi) kritische Gesch. des Chiliasmus. Lpz., 1781 ff. 2d ed., ZiiV., 1794. 4 vols. F. H. Hesse, der termiuistische Streit. Giess., 1877. H. J. Holtzmann, Kanon und Tradition, ein Beitrag zur neuern Dogmengeschichte und SymboUk. Ludwigsb., 1859. G. Teichmiiller, Gesch. des Begriffs der Parusie. Halle, 1873. W. R. Alger, Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life. New ed. New York, 1878. C. F. Cornwallis, Christian Doctrine in the Twelfth Century. Lond., 1850. ¦I. Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine. 3 vols. Lond., 1864-66. W. G. T. Shedd, A History of Christian Doctrines. 2 vols. N. Y., 1869. ' See below the monographs on Patristics and Dogmatlcs;^ 24 370 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. SECTION XIX. PATEISTICS AISTD SYMBOLICS. An exact acquaintance with the lives and works of individuals who rose to eminence above their contemporaries as teachers of the Church (Patristics), and whose efforts prompted the development of dogma, is included, though not wholly absorbed, in the circle of studies belonging to the history of doctrines. But inasmuch as the dogma is not the concern of individuals merely, having become the possession of the Church, nor an ecclesiastical branch, because it is the expression of the common faith, the teachings of ecclesiastical confessions (Symbolics) likewise form an integral part of the history of doctrines. SECTION XX. PATRISTICS. 1. Herzog, Beal-Encyklopaedie. 2. M'Clintock and Strong, Cyclopaedia. The material usually comprehended under the name of patristics (patrology) is difficult to unite into an independent science with scientific limitations, because, I. The term Church father itself designates a vacillating idea, whose only stability rests on empirical foundations. 2. The material of patristics is partly resolved in that of literary history and partly in that of eoolesiastico-historical monographs, while only the remainder is reserved for the use of the history of doctrines. Patres ecclesiae,^ is the name given to men who by their intel lectual energy promoted the life of the Church, especially in the earlier stages of its development. The additional name of patres apostolici is applied to such of them as stood nearest the apostles, the fathers of the first century, such as Bar nabas, Hermas, Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, and Papias. The usage is, however, very variable. The Roman Catholic Church distinguishes between Church fathers. Church teachers, and Church writers. The latter class includes those who are not honoured as fathers, or whose orthodoxy is suspected — e. g., Origen — while Church teachers are those whose orthodoxy is acknowledged, and who have, in addition, exercised a determining and shaping influ ence upon the dogma. These are Athanasius, Basil the Great, ' Corresponding to the Heb. 3X. The pupils of the rabbins were termed their sons. Comp. Schoettgen, Horae Hebr. et Talm., i, p. 745, on Gal. iv, 19 ; Clem. Alex. Strom., i, 317; aiirlKa -KaTtpat: tovq KaT-qXTiaavTas <>>afiiv; Basil the Great in Constitut. Monast., c 20; Chrysost. Hom., 11 and 48, vol. v; Suiceri, Thesaur., u, p. 637 b. PATRISTICS. 371 Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom in the East; and Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, and Gregory the Great in the West. Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura are also included with them. The bound aries of patristics are indefinite also as respects time. Limits of Pa^ Protestants close the series of Church fathers with the tristicsintime. 6th century (Gregory the Great), Roman Catholics with the 1.3th. The scholastic divines, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and others, however, are preferably termed doctores ecclesiae, their activity be ing, in point of fact, chiefly limited to teaching ; while, in the case of the fathers of the early centuries, the government of the Church, and also the characteristics of their personality, claim attention as well. This may be seen in the life of Cyprian, and in the much later illustration in Bernard of Clairvaux. The Church fathers are not only ecclesiastical lights, luminaria, but also, in many instances, ecclesiastical princes, pri- other terms for mates, and saints, saneti patres. This constitutes the ctiurcn fathers. reason why patristics is interwoven with different branches of the history of the Church. If it be chiefly regarded with reference to its biographical element — the lives of the fathers, to which some apply the distinctive name of Patrology ' — it will coincide with ecclesiastico-historical monography. If attention be directed only toward the writings left by the fathers, it will become a branch of the history of literature.^ Thus patristics will constitute an ele ment in the history of doctrines only in so far as the object is to comprehend the teachings of an ecclesiastical personage in connex ion with the modes of thought which prevailed in his time, and to assign to it a suitable place in the dogmatical development as a whole. The difference prevails, however, that in the former case the person himself becomes, monographically, the central object of the inquiry, while the history of doctrines is more especially con cerned with the opinion of the individual as related to the develop ment of doctrine at large. The history of doctrines is, for in stance, less concerned to know how Augustine attained to his con victions than how the Church came to adopt his views as its own.' ' Danz, p. 322. ^ This may likewise be treated as a distinct branch which, however, will be simply a coUateral branch of the history of Christian culture in general. We assigned to it a separate place in our first edition (and also in the History of Missions), and Pelt also accords it separate treatment " only because of its special importance for theo logians, and because it is the customary method," and without assigning to it a place in the organism of theological sciences (§ 57). It is probably better for the purposes of encyclopaidia to narrow down the framework, for which reason we give it no sepa rate paragraph. ' Comp. Hagenbach, History of Doctrines (Smith's ed.), § 5. 372 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. In all such cases it is difficult to understand why patristics should be erected into an independent study. In a scientific aspect it is immaterial whether the life of Augustine or that of Spener be under discussion — both of them are comprehended under the idea of monography. Bibliographical investigations, in relation to the various editions of Lactantius, have the same scientific character as though they were concerned with the letters of Luther or Calixtus. It follows, that the contribution to the history of doctrines ren- _ ,. . dered by patristics is not different in substance from tristics to doc- that furnished by every monograph in which doctrinal tnnai history. }jjg^Qj.y jg involved. For, while we must be concerned to know the doctrinal system of an Athanasius or Augustine, it is equally important that Anselm, Luther, Quenstedt, Bengel, Schleier- Kiacher, and Rothe be made to contribute toward the common work. The only qualification to which weight attaches is, that the possi bility of pre-eminent service decreases with the progress of time.' Real productiveness is greater in proportion as the development is near the point of origin. But it would, nevertheless, be arbitary, and an evidence of mechanical views, if the attempt were made to confine such productiveness " altogether to the age of the so-called Church fathers." Remarks of a somewhat similar character will apply to the ap- The term pellation "classic." In neither case is it possible to "classic." draw a clearly defined line, although certain eminences will be presented to every eye as decidedly and energetically prom inent; and, as in that instance, the attention of students is to be turned toward the classical, so patristical studies are to be recom mended here, in order that familiarity with ecclesiastical modes of thought and language may be acquired at an early stage. To at tempt the reading of all the Church fathers would be far too great a task for the student, to offset which the treatment of Church history should include an outline of patristics. Certain of the fa thers may, in addition, be described in monographs, and the more important of their works be read, in part or as a whole, as patristic selections, under the direction of the teacher. Por this purpose we may particularly recommend, in addition to the Apostolical Fathers, the Epistle to Diognetus, the Apologists (Justin Martyr, Athen- agoras, Theophilus of Antioch, Minucius Felix, and some portion Best works of of Tertullian), the Alexandrians (Clement and Origen^ the fathers. ^t least in extracts or summaries), Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa (in a similar way), some of Chrysostom's Homilies and the work De Sacerdotio, and ' Schleiermacher, § 251. PATRISTICS. 373 Augustine's Confessions, De Doctrina Christiana, Enchiridion ad Laurentium, and De civitate Dei.' THE HISTOEY OF PATEISTICS. The necessity of collecting the material of patristics could not arise before an ecclesiastical literature had been formed. Jerome (died 420) composed Illustrious Men, or Ecclesiastical Writers, and was followed by Gennadius (490), Isidore of Seville (iu the 7th century), Ildefonsus of Toledo (in the 8th), and by Hono- rius Augustodunensis, Sigebertus Gemblacensis, Henr. Gaudavensis, Joh. Trithemius, and Aubertus Mirseus (between the 12th and 16th centuries). All are found in J. A. Fabricii, Bibliotheca eccles., Hamb., 1718. The Benedictine monks, more accurately the Con- gregatio St. Mauri, have distinguished themselves by their editions of the Church fathers; and a number of theologians in the Anglican Church have likewise performed meritorious work in this direction. In later times patristical studies were promoted in the Roman Catholic Church by Robert Bellarmine (in the I7th century), Caspar Oudin, Ellies du Pin, le Nourry, Tillemont, Ceillier, Lumper, Spren ger, Mohler, and others ; and, in the Protestant, by Scultetus, Nol- ten, Oelrichs, Cave, Schoenemann, and J. G. Walch. The earlier works were more particularly confined to the bibliographical de partment, while in modern times the method of monographical discussion has been elevated into an art. ' R. Rothe, writing while yet a student, says, " I am convinced that no person can become a thorough and skilful theologian who has not made a serious and life-long task of the study of the Church fathers, and who has not derived adequate and spir itual strength from their sanctified spirit and their genuinely religious application of a solid learning. But for this the longest life will ever be too brief, so that there can be no thought of completing the work while at the university " (C. Nippold i, p. 98). Certain medieval writers — Scholastics and Mystics — have equal claim to be made the object of careful study, especially Anselm, Cur Deus homo, and pre-eminently tbe Reformers. The history of the Reformation, for instance, may be most attractively followed along the thread of the letters of Luther (published by de Wette), Zwingle (by Schuler and Schulthess), and Calvin (Strasburg ed., by Strauss, Baum, and Cunitz). Every student should have also read, in addition to the more important of Luther's writings (the Address to Christian Nobles of the German Nation, and that on the Babylonian Captivity), the Loci Communes of Melanchthon and Calvin's Institutes. In a word, the entire history of Christian literature should be made to pass in living forms before the eye of the theologian. This, however, is nothing more than the practical reaUzation of the idea of thorough study of the field of Church history in general. 374 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. PATRISTIC LITERATURE. German akd French. 1. Best Editions of Collected 'Works of the Fathers. Magna bibliotheca vett. patrum et antiqu. scriptorum ecclesiast., ed. Margarin de la Eigne. Par., 1575. Most complete. Par., 1654. 17 vols. fol. Maxima bibUotheca vett. patrum, etc. Lugd., 1677. 27 vols. fol. (The Greek fathers only in Latin translations. Especially important because of introduction of medi seval theologians.) A. Gallandii, bibliotheca vett. patrum antiquorumque scriptt. ecclesiast. Venet, 1766-88. 14 vols. fol. (Gives the smaller writmgs of the Church fathers in the most complete collection. However, it remains unfinished.) f M. Permaneder, BibUoth. patristica. Landsh., 1841-44. 2 vols. New ed., 1860. (Vol. I, entitled : Patrologia generaUs s. encyclopaedia patristica.) t A. B. Cailleau et M. N. S. Guillon, coUectio selecta ss. eccl. patrum. Par., 1829 ss. 148 vols. f J. P. Migne, patrologiae cursus completus s. bibl. universaUs ss. patr. scriptorumque eccl. Par., 1844 ss. (Latin fathers to 13th century ; Greek, to 9th, and still con tinued.) 1 theologiae cursus completus. Vol. I, Par., 1879. (Expected to be in 28 vols.) f A. Reifferscheid, BibUoth. patrum latin. itaUca. (Catalogue of MSS. of Latin Church fathers in the ItaUan libraries.) Vienna, 1866 ff. f Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum ed. consilio et impensis Academiae literarum Caesariae Vindobonensis. 1866 sqq. (Vol. I, Sulpic. Severus. II, Minu cius Felix. Ill, Cyprian. IV, [1875] Arnobius.) Horoy, medii aevi biblioth. patristica. Vol. I. (Honor. IH.) Par., 1879. (Expected to be in 100 vols.) 2. Extracts and Chrestomathies. C. F. Rosier, Bibliothek der Kirchenvater in Ueberss. und Ausziigen aus ihren fiir- nehmsten, besonders dogm. Schriften, sammt dem Original der Hauptstellen und niithigen Anmerkungen. Lpz., 1776-86. 10 vols, J. Ch. W. Augusti, chrestomathia patristica. Lips., 1812. 2 vols. H. J. Royaards, chrestomathia patristica. Part I. Traj. 1831.^ * L. de Sinner, novus ss. patrum graec. sec. iv. delectus. Par., 1842. Homiliarium patristicum, edd. L. Pelt, H. Rheinwald, C. Vogt. Berol., 1829-82. Vol. I, fasc. 1-4.' J. C. Orelli, selecta patrum eccl. capita ad exegesin sacr. pertinentia. Tur., 1820-24. 4 specc. Fragmenta selecta ex scriptis patrum eccl. latinae, edd. J. Hagen et A. Listov. Hafn., 1860. ' The collections ot Oberthiir (1780 fl.), Gersdorf (for Latin fathers, 1838 ft.), and Klchter (for Greek fathers, 1836 ff.), remain unfinished. ° The collection of Olshausen, see Literature of Church History. ' At the same time also German ; Homiliensammlung aus den ersten 6 Jahrh. Beri., 1829 ft. Comp. the Predigten auf alle Sonn- und Pestage aus den Schriften der K. VBter (Lpz., 1838 f. 2 vols.), published in German translation by J. C. W. Aufnistl, and also his Auswahl von Casual- reden der berOhmtesten Homileten der griech. und lat. Elrche aus dem 4. und 6. Jahrh. Lpz., 1840. PATRISTICS. 375 Bibliotheca patrum graecorum dogmatica, cur. J. 0. Thilo. Lips., 1853 f. 2 vols. Vol. I, S. Athanasii ; Vol. II, (cur. J. D. H. Goldhorn,) Basilii et Gregorii Nazian- zeni opp. dogmatica selecta. Ace. appendix Eunomii apologeticum et confes- sionem et Amphilogii epist. synodalem continens. F. Oehler, Bibliothek der Kirchenvater, eine Auswahl aus deren Werken. Urschrift mit deutscher Uebersetzung. Lpz., 1858 ff. f H. Hurter, patrum ss. opuscula selecta. Innsbr., 1868 ff. (thus far 39 vols.). V. Thalhofer, BibUoth. der Kirchenvater. Auswahl der vorzugl. patrist. Werke in deutscher Uebers. Kempten, 1869 ff. (thus far 322 vols.).' 3. Editions of Patristic 'Writings for the Use of Students.^ Patrum apostoUcorum opera recogn. * f C. J. Hefele (Tiib., 1839 ; 6th ed., by F. X. Funk, 1878); other editions, by Reithmayr (Miinch., 1844), on Barn, and Clemens, by E. von Muralt (Ziir., 1847), on Clemens, Ign., and Polyk., by Jacobson (Oxford, 4th ed., 1863).' Patrum apostolicor. opera, ed. A. R. Dressel; accedit Hermae Pastor ex fragm. graecis Lipsiensibus auctore C. Tischendorf. Lips., 1867. * Gebhardt, Harnack, and Zahn undertook a new ed. of Dressel's ed. Lpz., 1876-77. 3 fasc. (Briefe des Clemens in 2d ed., 1876, Br. des Barnabas, 1878; minor edition of the whole work. Lpz., 1877. Bibliotheca patrum ecclesiasticorum selectissima, cur. B. Lindner. Fasc. I-IV. Lips., 1857-61. Novum testam. extra canonem receptum ed. A. Hilgenfeld. Lips., 1866. Clementis Romani epistolae ed., Lightfoot (Lond., 1869), Laurent (Lips., 1870), Tischendorf (Lips., 1873), Hilgenfeld (Lips., 1876). The complete MS. of the Clementine Epistles found by Bryennius in Constantinople, in 1873, was pubUshed by the discoverer (Constantinople, 1875). The hitherto wanting portions of it were pubUshed by Lightfoot (Lond., 1877) as appendix to his edition of 1S69, and by Gebhardt and Harnack (Lpz., 1876). J. G. MiiUer, Erkl^r. des Barnabasbrrefes. Lpz., 1869. Barnabae epistula ed. A. HUgenfeld. 2d ed., Lips., 1877. Clementis Rom. quae feruntur homiUae, pub. by A. Schwegler. Stuttg., 1847. More complete by A. R. Dressel, Gott., 1853 ; P. de Lagarde, Lpz., 1865.* Constitutiones apostoUcae, pub. by W. Ueltzen. Schwerin, 1853; P. de Lagarde. Lpz., 1862.5 Ignatius, by W. Cureton: Corpus Ignatianum. Lond. (Berl.), 1849. Ignatii, quae feruntur epistolae, ed. H. Petermann. Lips., 1849.* ' Also the rich collections of early Christian hymns by Aid. Manutius, G. Fabricius, Bjiiru, Gebser, and others. For more minute details see Winer, I, p. 879 f . " Of the larger, and, tor the most part, magnificent editions, we may mention chiefly those of Cotelerius, of the Apostolic fathers, Maran's ed. of Justin, Massuet's ed. of Irenaeus, Rigoetius' ed. of Tertullian and Cyprian, Potter's ed. of Clemens Alexandrinus, de la Rue's ed. of Origen, Montfaucon's ed. of Athanasius and Chrysostom, Petavius' ed. of Epiphany, Vallarsi's ed. ot Hieronymus, and the Benedictine ed. of Augustine. ' After the large edition of J. B. Cotelerius (Par. 1672) and J. Clericus (Amst., 1698. 2a ed., 1724., 2 vols. fol.). Also editions by Ittig (Lpz., 1669), Frey (Bas., 1742), Rusel (Lond., 1746), Hornemann (Hafn., 1828). On the ApostoUc fathers see literature on History of Doctrines. See also : F. A. Karker, die Schriften der apostoli-schen VSter. Breslau, 1847. * See also 0. E. Francke, die Lehren des Clemens von Bom. in Guericke's und Rudelb. Zeit schrift 1841. IIL " Likewise O. Krabbe, iiber Ursprung u. Inhalt der apostol. Constitutionen. Hamb., 1829. +J. S. V. Drey, neue Untersuchungen fiber die Constltutt. u. Kanones der Apostel. Tiib., 1832. " Also tbe works of Arndt, Diisterdieck, Bunsen, Baur, Denzinger, Hefele, Uhlhorn, Lipsius, Merx, Hilgenfeld, and others. 376 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. Justini Martyris Opp. ed. J. C. Th. Otto. Jena, 1S42 ff. 3 vols. 3d ed., 1875 ff. (Vols. 1-5 des Corpus apologetarum christian, saec. secundi ; vol. 6 contains Tati- ani oratio ad Graecos ; vol. 7, Athenagorae opera ; vol. 8, TheophiU ad Autoly- cum n. III.; vol. 9, [1872], Hermias, Melito.) Justini apologiae ed. \J. G. Braunius. 2d ed., Bonn, 1860. Epistola ad Diognetum, by J. C. Th. Otto. 2d ed., 1852.' Irenaeus, by A. Stieren. Lpz., 1848-63. 2 vols, in 4 parts; by Harvey. Camb., 1857. 2 vols. Minucius Felix, by Liibkert. Lpz., 1836; by E. de Muralt. Ziir., 1836; by H. Holden. Camb., 1853. Arnobius, by OreUi (Lpz., 1816 f.), Hildebrand (1844), Oehler 1846 (in Gersdorf 's bibl. patrr. latin. Vol. 12), Reifferschied (1876). Eusebius, hist, eccles., by Heiuichen (Lips., 1827 f. 3 vols. 2d ed., 1868 f.), Schweg ler, (Tiib., 1852), Dindorf (Lpz., 1871). Cyprian, by Goldhorn in Gersdorf's Bibliothek, vols, ii, iu (Lpz., 1838 1), by Krabinger (Tiib., 1853), and G. Hartel (Vindob., 1869 f. 2 vols.). Tertullian, collected works by F. Oehler, in larger (Lips., 1863 f. 3 vols.) and smaller editions (Lips., 1854). Lactantius, by Biinemann (Lips., 1739; 0. F. Fritzsche (Lips., 1842 ff. Vols. 9, 10 of Gersdorf's bibUoth. patrr.) Clemens Alexandrinus, by R. Klotz (Lpz., 1831 ff. 4 vols.), W. Dindorf (Oxford, 1868 f. 4 vols.). Origenes tspi apx<^v, by E. R. Redepenning (Lpz., 1836); works by Lommatzsch (Berl., 1831—48. 25 vols.), from the edition of de la Rue. Augustinus, Confessiones (with Preface by Neander, Berl., 1823 ; by Bruder, Lpz., 1837), by Pusey (Oxon., 1838 ; from this edition also pub. and elucidated by K. v. Raumer. Stuttg., 1866. 2d ed., Giitersl., 1876) ; de civitate Dei : Lpz., 1826, and by J. Strange, Koln, 1860. 2 vols. ; de doctrina christ. u. enchiridion, by Bruder (Lpz., 1838). Chrysostomus de sacerdotio, by Bengel (Stuttg; 1726, and Lpz., 1825), by Leo (Lpz., 1834); single HomUies by Bauermeister (Gott., 1816), Becher (Lpz., 1839), and others. Basil the Great, Address to Christian Young Men on the Right Use of Heathen Au thors. Greek Text with German Annotations, by G. Lothholtz. Jena, 1867. 4. Introductory Writings. J. C. Walch, bibliotheca patristica literariis adnotatt. instr. Jen., 1770. New ed. emendatior et mult, auctior adorn, a J. T. L. Danz, 1834. C. T. G. Schoenemann, bibliotheca histor.-liter. patr. latinorum a TertuUiano usque ad Gregor. M, et Isidor. Hispal. Lips., 1792-94. 2 vols. H. J. Pestalozzi, Grundlinien der Geschichte der kirchl. Literatur der ersten 6. Jahrh. Giitt, 1811. f V. A. Winter, krit. Gesch. der altesten Zeugen od. Patrologie. Miinch., 1814. J. G. V. Engelhardt, Literar. Leitfaden zu Vorles. ii. d. Patristik. Erl., 1823. f F. W. Goldwitzer, Bibliographie der Kirchenvater u. Kirchenlehrer vom 1. bis zum 13. Jahrh. Landsh., 1828. The same, Patrologie verbunden mit Patristik. Niirnb., 1834. 2 parts. J. T. L. Danz, initia doctrinae patristicae. Jena, 1839. ' Comp. the work ot Otto, Jena, 1845, and W. A. HoUenberg, Berl., 1853 ; also the review ol Otto in Gersdorf's Repert. for 18.54. 1st vol., p. 263 fl. J. F. Overbeck, iiber den pseudojus- tinlschen Brief an Diognet. Basel, 1872, 4., aud the replies of Hilgenfeld and Keim. PATRISTICS. 377 *f J. A. Mohler, Patrologie od. christi. Literargesch. 1st vol. (1-3 Jahrh.); pub. by F. X. Reithmayr. Regensb., 1839. J. Fessler, institutiones patrologicae. Vol. 1 in 2 parts. Oenip., 1850. J. C. F. Bahr, Gesch. der rom. Literatur. (Suppl. I. : Die christi. Dichter u. Geschichts- schreiber. II. : Die christlich-rbmische Theologie. III. : Die romische Liter, im karol. Zeitalter.) Karlsr., 1836-40. f J. W. Eberl, Leitfaden zum Stud, der Patrologie. Augsb., 1854. F. C. Magon, Hdb. der Patrol, u. kirchl. Lit.-gesch. Regensb., 1864. f J. Alzog, Grundriss der Patrologie. Freib., 1866. 3d ed., 1876. i Jos. Schwane, Dogmengeschichte der patristischeu Zeit. Miinster, 1866. 5. Patristic Monograplis.^ C. Skworzow, patrolog. Untersuchungen. Ueber Urspr. derproblemat. Schriften der apostol. Vater. Lpz., 1876 Ueber das Papias-Fragment bei Euseb. hist. eccl. 3, 39: W. Weiffenbach (Giesz., 1874) ; reply by L. Leimbach (Gotha, 1875), and to this again by Weiffenbach (Beri., 1878). V. V. Strauss, Polykarpus. Heidlb., 1860. 2d ed., 1875. E. Gaab, der Hirte des Hermas. Basel, 1867. Th. Zahn, der Hirte des Hermas untersucht. Gotha, 1868. The same, Ignatius v. Antiochien. Gotha, 1873. F. G. Goltz, Clemens von Rom. Eine Gesch. aus dem apost. Zeitalter. Berl., 1851. C. J. Bunsen, Ignatius von Antiochien und seine Zeit. Hamb., 1847. J. Riggenbach, der sogenanute Brief des Barnabas. (Program.) Basel, 1874.'' 0. Braunsberg, der Ap. Barnabas. Mainz, 1876. J. C. T. Otto, de Justini Mart., scriptis et doctrina. Jena, 1841. K. Semisch, Justin der Martyrer. Bresl, 1840-42. 2 vols. die apostol. Denkwiirdigkeiten des M. Justinus. Hamb., 184S. F. Overbeck, iiber den pseudojustin. Brief an Diognet. Basel, 1872. H. Meier, de Minucio Felice. Tigur., 1824. A. Ebert, TertulUans Verhaltniss zu Minucius FeUx. Lpz., 1868. H A. Daniel, Tatianus der Apologet. Halle, 1837. Th. A. Clarisse, de Athenagorae vita et scriptis, etc. Lugd., 1819. L. Duncker, des hi. Irenaus Christologie. Giitt., 1843. H. Ziegler, Irenaus, der Bischof von Lyon. Berl., 1871. C. J. Bunsen, Hippolytus und seine Zeit. Lpz., 1852 f. 2 vols.' Lond., 4 vols., 1862. - G. Volkmar, Hippolytus und die rijmischen Zeitgenossen. Ziir., 1855. A. Neander, Antignostikus, Geist des Tertullian. Berl., 1826. 2d ed., 1849. K. Hesselberg, TertulUans Lehre, etc. 1st part : Leben u. Schriften. Dorp, 1S48. A. Hauck, TertuUians Leben u. Schriften. Erl., 1877. F. R. Eylert, Clemens von Alex, als Philosoph u. Dichter. Lpz., 1832. H. Reinkens, de Clemente Alexandr. Vratisl., 1861. G. Thomaslus, Origines. Niirnb., 1837. E. R. Redepenning, Origenes. Eine DarsteUung seines Lebens und seiner Lehre. Bonn, 1841-46. 2 parts." ' Comp. the monographs on Church History. " See above, the writings of Hilgenfeld on the ApostoUc fathers in general. ' Comp. also L. F. W. Seinecke, iiber Leben und Schriften des Biscnof s Hippolytus, in lUgens Zeitschr. fiir histor. Theol., 1842, 1843, p. 48 fl., and +.1. J. DBllinger, Hippolytus und Kalllstus. Regensb., 1853. * Also the monographs of Matter and Guericke on the Alexandrian School. 378 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. F. W. Rettberg, Cyprianus dargest. nach seinem Leben und Wirken. Gott., 1831. B. Feehtrup, der hi. Cyprian. Sein Leben u. s. Lehre. Vol. I. Miinst., 1878. V. Hely, Eustbe de Cesaree. Par., 1877. F. A. Scheutz, Zenonis episc. Veron. doctrina christ. Lips., 1854. f J. A. Miihler, Athanasius d. Gr. u. die Kirche s. Zeit. Mainz, 1827. 2d ed., 1844. f L. Atzberger, die Logoslehre des hi. Athanasius. Miinch., 1880. * K. Ullmann, Gregor von Nazianz. Darmst., 1825. Benoit, St. Grggoire de Nazianze. Par., 1876. J. Rupp, Gregors von Nyssa Leben und Meinungen. Lpz., 1834. K. R. W. Klose, Basilius der Gr., nach s. Leben u. s. Lehre dargestellt. Stralsund, 1835. On the same, A. Bayle. Avign., 1878. H. Weiss, die grossen Cappadozier, Basilius, Gregor von Nazianz und Gregor v. Nyssa. Braunsberg, 1872. *A. Neander, der heil. Joh. Chrysostomus u. die Kirche bes. des Orients in dessen Zeitalter. Berl, 1821 f. 2 vols. 4th ed., 1868. Th. Forster, Chrysostomus in sein. Verhaltniss zur antiochen. Schule. Gotha, 1869. fH. Reinkens, Hilarius von Poitiers. Schaffh., 1864. H. A. Niemeyer, de Isidori Pelus. vita, scriptis et doctrina. Hal, 1825. f F. Lauchert and A. Knoll, Hieronymus, sein Leben und seine Zeit, etc. ; from the French of CoUombet. Rottw., 1846. 2 vols. 0. Zockler, Hieronymus, sein Leben und Wirken. Gotha, 1866. Thierry, St. Jerome. 3d ed. Par., 1876. f F. A. G. Kloth, d. hi Kirchenlehrer Aur. Augustinus. Aachen, 1840. 2 vols. C. Bindemann, der heil Augustinus. Berl, u. Lpz. (Greifsw.), 1844-69. ,3 vols. Poujoulat, hist, de St. Augustin. 3 vols. Par., 1843. 3d ed., 1852. German, by F. Hurter; Schaffh., 1845 ff. 2 vols. G. P. Wiggers, pragm. Darstellung des Augustinismus, Pelagianismus imd Semipelagi- anismus. Berl. u. Hamb., 1821. 33. 2 vols. A. Dorner, Augustinus. Sein theol. System u. seine reUgionsphilos. Anschauung. Beri., 1873. G. Waitz, iiber das Leben und die Lehre des Ulfilas. Hannov., 1840. W. A. Arendt, Leo der Grosse und seine Zeit. Mainz, 1835. E. Perthel, Leo's I. Leben und Lehren. Jena, 1843. G. F. Wiggers, de Gregorio Magno. Rest., 1839. G. J. Th. Lau, Gregor I. nach s. Leben und s. Lehre. Lpz., 1845. G. Pfahler, Gregor der Grosse und seine Zeit. Frankf., 1852. G. Maggio, prolegom. alia storia di Gregorio i\ Grande e de suoi tempi. Prato, 1879. F. H. G. Grundlehner, Joh. Damascenus. Utr., 1877. J. Langen, Joh. von Damascus. Gotha, 1879. t J. Hergenrother, Photius, Patriarch v. Constant. Regensb., 1867-69. 3 vols. 6. History of the Literature of the Church and Theology (including the Later Period). Ch. W. Fliigge, Versuch einer Gesch. der theoiog. Wissenschaften. Halle, 1796-98. 3 vols. Einleit. dazu, HaUe, 1799. C. F. StaudUn, Geschichte der theoiog. Wissenschaften seit der Verbreitung der alten Literatur. Gott., ISIO f. 2 vols.' • On the knowledge of theological books : J. G. Walch, bibliotheca theol. selecta. Jena, 1757-65. 4 vols. J. A. NOsselt, Anweisung zur Kenntniss der besten allgem. Biieher in alien Thellen der Theologie. Lpz., 1779. 4th ed., 1780. Continued by Simon. Lpz., 1813. D. G. Nie meyer, Bibliothek fiir Prediger und Freunde der Theoiog. Liter. Halle, 1782-84. 3 vols. Newly revised and continued by A. H. Niemeyer and H. B. Wagnitz. Halle, 1796-1812. 4 vols. W. D. PATRISTICS. 379 English and American Literature. Ante-Nicene Christian Library, edited by Boberts and Donaldson. 24 vols. Edinb., 1864-72. Augustine, The Confessions of, edited by W. G. T. Shedd. And., 1860. J. Bennett, The Theology of the Early Christian Church, exhibited in Quotations from the Writers of the First Three Centuries. Lond., 1852. R. Blakey, Lives of the Primitive Fathers. Lond., 1S42. J. J. Blunt, Lectures on the Right Use of the Early Fathers. 3d ed. Loud., 1869. W. J. Bolton, The Evidences of Christianity, as exhibited in the Writings of its Apologists down to Augustine. N. Y., 1854. E. Burton, Testimonials of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Divinity of Christ. Lond., 1829. Testimonies of the Ante-Nicene Fathers to the Doctrine of the Trinity, and of the Divinity of the Holy Ghost. Loud., 1831. H. Gary, Testimonies of the Fathers of the First Four Centuries to the Doctrine and Discipline of the Church of England. Lond., 1835. J. Daille, A Treatise on the Right Use of the Fathers iu the Decision of Controversies existing at this Day in ReUgion. 2d ed. Lond., 1843. J. Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council 3 vols. Lond., 1864. Douglass, Series of Christian Greek and Latin Writers. Edited by F. A. March. 6 vols. N. Y., 1874-80. Eusebius, History of the Martyrs in Palestine. Edited and translated by W. Cureton. Lond., 1861. J. Harrison, Whose are the Fathers ? Lond., 1867. Ignatii, Romani S. Polycarpi, Patrum ApostoUcorum, quEe supersunt. Accedunt S. Ignatii et S. Polycarpi Martyria. 2 vols. Lond., 1863. 6. A. Jackson, The Apostolic Fathers and the Apologists of the Second Century. N. Y, 1879. Fuhrmann, Handbuch der theol. Liter. Lpz., 1818-21. 2 vols. Fortsetz. Vol. I. Iserl, 1836. *G. B. Winer, Handb. der theol. Liter, hauptstichlich der protest. Lpz., 1820 fl. 3d ed., 1837-40, und Erganzungsheft, 1842. Deegen, Jahrbiichlein der deutschen theoiog. Literatur (since 1811), Essen, 1819-29. 7 small vols. Continued by * E. Zimmermann and others, 1832-35. 3 small vols. W. Hauck, theol. Jahresberioht. Wiesb., 1866-77. E. A. Zuchold, Bibliotheca theologica (1830- 62). Gott., 1864. 2 vols. + Reusch, theoiog. Literaturblatt (Bonn, 1865-77) ; Ruprecht, (now W. Miildener), BibUotheca theoiog. Oder System, geordnete Uebersicht aller auf d. Geb. der evan gel. Theol. in Deutschl. neu erschien. Biieher. Gott., 1848 fl. (annually 2 Nos.). Every No. of Schiirer's theol. Literztg. (Lpz., 1876 fl.), and more recently Luthardt's allgem. ev.-luth. Kirchen zeitung, furnish a very complete account of the latest literature. Comp. also the Universal Book LexIca of Kayser (begins with 1750 and is continued now In quadrennial periods), and others; the Hinrichs' Biicherverzeiehnlsse (2 Nos. yearly); Engelmann's Fachkataloge, the Uebersichten of Baldamus and Haupt (Prot. and Cath. separately, 1865-69 ; 1870-74), and many othera. 380 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. SECTION XXL SYMBOLICS. Symbolics, in a broad sense, designates the science of the origin. Definition of nature, and contents of all the public confessions in symboucs. which the Church has laid down a summary of its teach ing, and which it has erected at certain times and under certain forms as the standard of its faith. In a more limited sense, the term is used to denote a knowledge of the distinctive teachings which, especially since the Reformation, separate the different di visions of the Church from each other in doctrinal matters, the con trast between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, and the minor differences therewith connected. Symbolics forms an integral part of the history of doctrines, or coincides with comparative dog matics, or polemics, in proportion as the purely historical or the dogmatico-polemical interest predominates in the stating and dis cussing of such opposing standards. It is probably best to regard it as a historical science connected with the history of doctrines, but as also, under this form, a necessary aid and point of transition to dogmatics. SvuPoXov (a token, mark') denotes, in ecclesiastical usage, a for mula preserved by tradition or in writing, by which all who belong to the same ecclesiastical party may recognize each other. The symbol is the common shibboleth, the ecclesiastical standard, about which the community is gathered. The use of such symbols, of which the so-called Apostles' Creed was the earliest, is derived Firs*, and later ^^°^ ^^^ ritual of baptism. Its first ofiice, therefore, office of sym- was to distinguish the Christian, as belonging to a dif- ° ¦ ferent religious society, from the Jew and the heathen; and it was afterward employed to distinguish orthodox Catholic ' Comp. Suicer, Thesaur. Eccles., s. v., and Creuzer, Symbolik Mone's ed., § 16, p. 13). liifi^oTiov signifies what is formed by the joining together of two parts ; e. g., the term avu^ola was applied to the two halves of the tablets which served as pledges of a contracted hospitality (tesserce fiospitalitatis). It was afterward employed to desig nate all unions ; and, subsequently, everything that in the progress of time came to take the place of the coarse tokens of earUer times, a pledge in general. Thus we find it applied to the ring, which was given instead of ordinary contributions toward a common feast, and later to the pledge for subsequent redemption, which was in use in matters of exchange; also to the tessera militaris, tlie parole; in brief, to any token, any sign, by which those belonging together, the initiated, might recognize each other. Its derivation from avp.^ak'ksiv, for the purpose of proving that each of the apostles contributed one article to the Apostles' Creed, is absurd. Nor is art symbolism to be taken into account in this connexion. This has its place, but in a different theological department (Liturgies), although but little has been done as yet toward its thorough scientific development. Comp. the section on Archaeology. SYMBOLICS. 381 Christians from heretics. The bvaovaiog of the Nicene symbol served in this way to discriminate the adherents of the Athanasian (orthodox) faith from the Arians. The Nicene, the so-called Athanasian — the Symb. Quicumque of later date — and the so-called Apostolic Creed, form the three principal symbols of the Church. But when the adherents of the purified doctrines separated from the Roman Catholic Church, in the time of the Reformation, they laid down the doctrines held by them in common, first apologetically, and then polemically, in sepa rate symbolical writings, the Lutherans and the Reformed party each constructing their own, because of deviations from the truth that had taken place — each, however, holding fast to the three leading symbols of the early Church. The differences existing with in the above-mentioned parties, together with the controversies that agitated the Protestant Church as a whole, gave rise to still further symbolical divergencies. It was also desired to erect barriers against all intermixture with non-Catholic bodies (Anabaptists, Anti-Trinitarians, Anti-Scriptuarians, etc.), with whom the Reform ers wished to have nothing in common. The following are the Lutheran symbols, brought together in 1580 in the Book of Concord: The Conf. Augustana, Lutheran sym- 1530, the Apology, 1531, the Articles of Smalcald, 1537, *°'«- and the Formula Concordise, 1579, to which must be added the two Catechisms of Luther, 1628 and 1529. The Reformed Con fessions are less sharply distinguished from other theological pro ductions, and less generally received. The more prominent are the Swiss (Conf. Bas. i; Helv. i or Bas. ii, and Helv. ii), Gallic, Belgic, Anglican (xxxix Articles), Scottish, and American, and the Anlialt, Brandenbergian, and Heidelberg Catechisms. To these must be added the Arminian Confession, by the Remonstrants of Hol land. It consisted of 26 chapters, and appeared first in 1622.' The Roman Catholics, on their part, now saw themselves com pelled to present more clearly what was distinctive in their teach ing. This was done in the Professio fidei Tridentina and the Cate- chismus Romanus. The smaller sects and ecclesiastical parties likewise reduced to writing the points at which they diverged from the general belief; e. g., the Anabaptists (Mennonites), Socinians, Quakers, and others, although such writings have, in some instances, simply the authority of private productions. The Socinian Catechis- raus Racoviensis might deserve to be considered a symbolical book more than any of the others. The idea of confessional writings can not be entertained in connexion with the Quakers, who make their ' Comp. Winer (Pope's ed.). Creeds of Christendom, p. 28. 383 HISTORICAL THE0L0(5Y. religious life altogether independent of the letter, even that of the Bible.' The task of Historical Theology embraces even the origin and fortunes of these books. To whatever extent symbolics is primar ily engaged upon this external history, it will coincide with the his tory of ecclesiastical literature. Or, it might, if not in too detailed a form, be incorporated with Church history, which is necessarily obliged to take notice of the origin of movements of great import ance. But the task of symbolics is more extensive. What has Scope of sym- been thus far noted partakes more of the nature of in- bohcs. troduction, analogous to the introduction to the books of the Bible. To this must be added exegetical investigation, in asmuch as the meaning of these confessional writings is to be ascer tained, construed, and explained. But as exegesis leads immedi ately into Biblical dogmatics as its resultant, so symbolics does not rest satisfied with having explained each particular confession, but passes on to construct, in harmony with the definitions of the several symbolical writings, a system of Roman Catholicism, of Protestantism, of Anabaptism, Socinianism, Quakerism, and the rest. Finally, it proceeds to compare these ecclesiastical systems with the general principles upon which they are based, or with each other, by an examination of particular doctrines which they receive. In the latter function it becomes Comparative dogmatics. ° When it goes to the length of taking part directly in favour of some mode of belief, and of defending it, in opposition to other beliefs — e. g., the views of Protestantism against those of Roman Catholicism — it becomes Polemics. Symbolics thus provides the weapons for polemics, and is its his- Beiation of torical base. It is related to the history of doctrines hiSor°"of do^ ^® ^® *^^ ^°"^* *° *^® tvxmk of the tree, or the eddy to trines. the Stream. The history of doctrines is obliged to pass through the field of symbolics, and even becomes symbolics to some extent. In the history of doctrines we have made a distinction between the general and the special. Symbolics may similarly be treated in a general way by discussing principles, noting oppo site ideas at large; for example, those of Roman Catholicism and ' The term symbolics is not, therefore, thoroughly appropriate, and can only denote, in instances where no symbols exist, that " the statements are conformed to the most classical and generally acknowledged mode of presenting any particular faith.'' — Schleiermacher, § 249, note. ^ Schleiermacher, § 98, distinguishes between Comparative Dogmatics and Symbol ics, but is not wholly decided to recognize either as a science which could wf U exist independently. SYMBOLICS. 383 of Protestantism, or it may trace the particular differences in sepa rate doctrines. The two methods must be combined. It has been justly observed, however, with reference to the conflict of princi ples, that the task of symbolics has not been fully accomplished when it has brought into view the existing dogmatic contrasts, since the differences between the several confessions extend also into the domains of ethics, politics, and social life. The symbolics of to-day will, accordingly, need to be expanded into a science that shall not only embrace the dogmatic 1- • Symbolicsa vital tendencies of Roman Catholicism and Protestant- himd science ism, and, further, those of Lutlieranism and Calvinism, '"""^^y- of Episcopacy and Puritanism, of the Orthodox and the Schismatic in Protestantism, but also the moral, political,' artistic, and scientific factors, bringing the whole together for purposes of comparison, and pointing out how every such confessional feature stands con nected with the fundamental dogmatic principle upon which the confession rests.' The material for such a science, which would be highly interesting as bearing upon the history of culture as well, but for which the term " symbolics " would no longer be an ade quate designation, must be sought in the history of the Reforma tion, and of later times, down to the present. HISTORY. Symbolics, in the broad sense, was already cultivated, in part, in the antiquity of the Church, inasmuch as certain teach- origin of mod- ers in the Church — like Augustine, On Faith and Sym- ^"^ symhois. bol, A.D. 393 — explained the ecclesiastical symbols. But a " defi nite recognition of ecclesiastical contrasts was begotten by the Ref ormation " (Pelt, p. 444). Symbols, strictly speaking, first orig inated in the Lutheran Church, though the terra confessio, which was preferred by the Reformed, was also in use (Confessio Augus tana). Upon the basis of this symbolism polemics unfolded itself, Chemnitz, Examen concilii Trid, being on the one side, and Bel larmine, De controversiis fidei, on the other; and, likewise, between Lutherans and the Reformed party, Hospinian, Concordia discors, 1607, and Hutter, Concordia conoors, 1614. The need of Historical Introductions to the symbolical books was not felt, however, prior to the middle of the l7th century. This method of discussing simply the history of the -me pragmatic books was supplemented in the 18th century by the method. pragmatic method, the foundation for which was laid by Planck, ' Pelt applies to this the name " Science of Confessional Principles, or Science of the Principles of the Separate Churches," pp. 375 and 444. 384 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. and which was developed by Marheineke and Winer, the former giving more attention to the general discussion, the latter to the treatment of particular questions (locis). Koellner followed in the footsteps of both these writers with his large work, while Guericke again departed from the position of impartial investigation, and pressed symbolism into the service of his Lutheran proclivities. A presentation of symbolics, from the Roman Catholic point of view, by Mohler (1832), naturally aroused a lively interest for this sub ject, and called forth a number of works in o})position (by Nitzsch and others), particularly the Symbolics by Baur (1834), and a con tinued interchange of further writings. This science, which had for-a time occupied the position of quiet objectivity, was thus trans ferred again to the ground of polemics, and called for a renewed treatment in harmony with its principles. The opposition between the Lutheran and the Reformed views. Opposition he- which had at one time sunk into indifference, and had aT'^an^d^iie- subsequently been compromised by the establishment of formed. the " Union,'' or, at least, had been reduced to its merely relative importance, has also come into the foreground of late, and been carried to excess. Science has gained thereby, inasmuch as the differences connected with the principles of the Reformers, which had formerly been overlooked, w^ere now more sharply appre hended and more definitely stated. It is to be regretted, however, that the passions and the narrow spirit of the disputants have often perverted the actual points of view, and caused a confusion from which we can hope to be delivered, through God's mercy, only by a cautious theology enlisted in the service of truth and not of a party. SYMBOLICAL LITERATURE. Latin, German, and French. 1. Later Editions of Collections of Symbolical Books. H. A. Hahn, Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche. Breslau, 1842. 2d ed., by G. L. Hahn, 1877. C. P. Caspari, ungedruckte, unbeachtete u. wenig beachtete Quellen zur Gesch. de? Taufsymbols u. der Glaubensregl Christiania (Lpz.), 1866-79. 4 parts. H. Heppe, die Bekenntnisschriften der altprotest. Kirche Deutschlands. Cassel, 1S65. (Comp. by the same: der Text der Bergischen Concordienformel verglichen mit dem Text der Schwab. Concordie, etc. Marb., 1858. 2d ed.,1860.) a. Of the Lutheran Church.' Libri syrabolici eccl. evang. rec, ,1. A. H. Tittmann. Misn., 1817-27. * Libri symbolici eccl. evang. s. Concordia, rec, C. A. Hase. Lips., 1827. 3d ed., 1845. Libri symbol, eccl. Luther, ad editt. princ, etc., ed. H. A. G. Meyer. Getting., 1830. ' For single editions of the Augsburg Confession, and monographs on the same, especially since the centennial year, 1830, see Winer, Hdb. der Theol. Lit. 1, 323 fl. SYMBOLICS. 385 Libri symbolici eccl Lutheranae, ed. F. Francke. Ed. ster. Lips., 1846 f. Die symbol. Biieher der evangel. -luther. Kirche. German and Latin by J. T. Miiller. Stuttg., 1848. 4th ed., Giitersl, 1876. Concordia. LI symbol, eccl. evang. ad ed. Lips. (a. 1584), Berol, 1867. b. Of the Reformed Church.' Corpus librr. symbol, qui in eccl. reformatorum auctoritatem publ. obtinuerunt, ed. j. C. W. Augusti. Elberf., 1828. 2d ed.. Lips., 1846. J. J. Mess, Samml. symbol. Bucher der reform. K. Neuwied, 1828-46. 3 vols. H. A. Niemeyer, coUectio confessionum in ecclesiis reformatis publicatorum. Lips., 1840. Appendix : Puritanorum U. symb. (ib. eod.) Die Bekenntnissschriften der evangel-reform. Kirche mit Einleit. und Anmerkungen, by E. G. A. Bockel. Lpz., 1847. *Die Bekenntnissschriften der reform. Kirchen Deutschlands, pub. by H. Heppe, Elberf., 1860. (Schriften zur reform. Theol, vol i.) F. W. Bodemann, Sammlung der wichtigsten Bekenntnissschr. der evang. reform. Kirche mit geschtl. Einl. u. Anmerkungen. 2d ed. Gott., 1867. Single editions of the Helvetic Confession (II) by Kindler (1825), 0. F. Fritzsche (1839), Bohl (1866). c. Of the Roman Catholic Church. Librr symb. eccl rom. catholicae, ed. J. T. L. Danz. Weim., 1836. i Libri symbolici eccl catholicae conjunx. et notis, etc., instruxit F. W. Streitwolf et K. E. Klener. Gott., 1836-38. 2 vols. Sacrosancti et oecumenici Cone. Trid. canones et decreta, ed. W. Smets (Latin and German). Bielef. 5th ed., 1859. Other editions by Bisping (Miinst., 1846), Wesselack (German and Latin, from the Roman ed. of 1845. 3d ed., Kegensb.. 1860). Canones et decreta Cone Trid. (from the German ed. of 1 834) ; acced. declarationes, etc., ex buUario Romano, etc. Edd. A. L. Richter et Fr. Schulte. Lips., 1853. d. Of the Greek Church. E. J. Kimmel, libri symbolici ecclesiae orientalis. Jena, 1843. Comp. J. G. Pitzipios, I'eglise orientale. Rome (Lpz.), 1855. e. Of the Smaller Religious Bodies. Unitarian Conference : Bibliotheca fratrum Polonor. Irenop., 1656, 6 vols. f. Con fessio fidei christ. (by J. Schlichting), 1642. The larger and smaller Cate- chismus Racoviensis. Rac,, 1305. Also an ed. of the larger by Oeder. Lpz., 1739. Quakers: R. Barclay, Theologiae vere christianae apologia. Amst., 1676. The same, Catechismus et fidei conf. Boterod., 1676 u. o. Mennoniten: H. de Rys u. L. Geiritst, korte belydenisse des geloofs, etc., about 1580. H. Schyn, historiae Mennonitarum. Amst., 1729. Swedenborgians : Swedenborgs gottl Offenbarungen, translated by J. Tafel (Tiib., 1823 ff. 7 vols.). Also numerous writings by Tafel himself. 2. Introductory Writings. J. G. Walch, Introductio in libr. symbolic, eccl Lutheranae. Jena, 1732. ' Earlier Editions : Harmonia confess. Gen., 1581. 4. and Corpus et Syntagma conff. fldei. Gen., 1612, 1654. For further details on all the symbols of the Swiss Reformed Church, see Hagenbach's krit. Gesch. der ersten Easier Confession (Bas., 1827), and particularly in Eschar, the Encykl. of Ersch and Gruber, sec. II, vol. v, p. 223 fl. On the terms " Lutheran " and " Ee- tormed," comp. H. Heppe, Ursprung u. Gesch. der Bezeichnungeu "reformirte" und "luther- Ische " Kirche. Gotha, 1859. 35 386 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. J. S. Semler, Apparatus ad libr. symbolicos eccl. Lutheranae. HaUe, 1775. J. A. Ernesti, praelectt. in libr. symbol, eccl Luttier. a. 1752 et 77. Vol. 1, pub. by J. M. RedUng. Beri., 1S7S. Writings on the apostolic Symbolum : Rudelbach (Lpz., 1844), J. Stockmeyer (Ziir., 1845), Viguie (Nimes, 1864), Nicolas (Par., 1867), Coquerel (Par., 1869), Krawutz- ky (Bresl, 1872), Semisch (Berl, 1872), Zockler (Giitersl, 1872), Miicke (1873), Werther (Rathenow, 1875), Swainson (Lond., 1875); above aU Caspari (No. 1) and Zezschwitz' Katechetik (Lpz., 1863 S.). 3. Comparative and Critical Representations of Ecclesiastical Systems. (Comp. also the Literature on Polemics and Irenies.) *J. G. Plank, Gesch. der Enstehung, der Veranderungeu und der BUdung unsers protestant. Lehrbegriffs, von Anfang der Reform, bis zu der Einfiihr. der Concor dienformel. Lpz., 1781-1800. 6 vols. Vols. 1-3. 2d ed. 1791-98. Abriss einer histor. u. vergleich. Darstell. der dogmat. Systeme unserer verschied. christi. Hauptparthien, etc. Gott., 1796. 3d ed., 1822. * G. B. Winer, comparative Darstell. des Lehrbegriffs der verschied. christi. Kirchen- parteien, nebst voUstand. Belegen aus den symbol. Schriften derselben. Lpz., 1824. 4. 3d ed. by E._Preuss. Beri., 1866. English ed. by Pope. Edinb., 1873. f J. A. Mohler, Symbolik oder Darstell der dogm. Gegensatze der KathoUken u. Pro testanten, nach ihren iifEentl Bekenntnissschriften. Mainz., 1832. 7th ed., 1864.' English translation. N. Y., 1844. H. E. F. Guericke, aUgemeine christUche Symbolik, von luth.-kirchl. Standpuukte. Lpz., 1839. 3d ed., 1860 f. Max. Giibel, die relig. Eigenthiimlichk. der luth. und d. reform. K. Bonn, 1837. A. G. Rudelbach, Reformation, Lutherthum u. Union, eine histor. -dogm. Apologie der luther. K. u. ihres Lehrbegriffs. Lpz., 1839. f B. J. Hilg'ers, symbolische Theologie oder die Lehrgegensatze des Katholicismus und Protestantismus dargest. und gewiirdigt. Bonn., 1841. f J. Buchmann, Populasyrabolik od. vergleich. Darstell. der Glaubensgegensatze, zwischen KathoUken u. Protestanten. 3d ed. Mainz, 1850. 2 vols. H. W. J. Thiersch, Vorlesungen iiber Katholicismus und Protestantismus. Erl, 1845. 2 parts. 2d ed., 1848. *Dan. Schenkel, das Wesen des Protestantismus, aus den Quellen des Reformations zeitalters dargest. Schaffh., 1846-52. 3 vols. 2d ed., 1862. 2 parts. Ch. H. Weisse, die Christologie Luthers, etc. 2d ed. Lpz., 1855. K. B. Hundeshagen, die Conflikte des Zwinglianismus, Lutherthums und Calvinismus in der Bernischen Landeskirche von 1552-58. Bern, 1842. Merle d'Aubign^, Luther u. Calvin, oder die luther. u. reform. K. in ihrer Verschie- denh. und wesentl. Einheit. German translation by Gottheil Bayr., 1849. f L. Schmid, der Geist des Katholicismus oder Grundlegung der christlichen Irenik. Giessen, 1848 f. 2 vols. F. G. Lisco, das christlich-apostol Glaubenbekenntniss ; mit Anh. iiber die Scheide- lehren der evangel, und rom. -kathol Kirche. 4th ed. Berl, 1851. K. G.-W. Theile, das allgem.-christl und das evangel-luther. Bekenntniss in urkundl. Darlegung . . . mit Eriauterungen u. Belegen aus der Bibel und den Symbolen. Lpz., 1852. ' Comp. K. J. Nitzsch, protest. Beantwortung der Symbolik MBhlers in den theol. Stud. u. Krit., 18.M t., auch besonders Hamb., 1835 ; und F. C. Baur, Gegensatz des Katholic. u. Protes tant. (Tiib., 1834), MOhler, in reply, neue Untersuchungen, etc. (Mainz., 1834), answered by Baur m the "Brwiderung," etc. (Tflb.. 1834). See also Evang. Klrchenztg. 1834 Nr. 82, 84. 1835 Nr. 1, 87-40, 102-104. 1836 Nr. 8, 9, 20, 21. SYMBOLICS. 387 A. Hahn, das Bekenntniss der evangel. Kirche in seinem Verhaltniss zu dem der Rom. und Griechischen. Lpz., 1853. E. ZeUer, das theoiog. System Zwingli's. (Theol. Jahrbb., 1853.) Tub., 1853. A. H. Baier, SymboUk der christi. Confessionen u. Religionspartheien. 1st vol. : Symbolik der rbm.-kath. Kirche. 2 parts. Greifsw., 1853 f. y. K. Matthes, comparative Symbolik aller christi. Confessionen vom Standpunkt der eviingel-luth. Confession. Lpz., 1854. * A. Schweizer, die protestant. Centraldogmen in ihrer Entwicklung innerhalb der re form. Kirche. Ziir., 1864-66. 2 vols. * M. Schneckenburger, vergleich. Darstell des luther. u. reform. Lehrbegriffs, aus dessen handschriftl Nachlass von E. Giider. Stuttg., 1855. 2 parts. H. Heppe, Dogmatik d. deutsch. Protestantismus im 16. Jahrh. Gotha, 1857. 3 vols. Rud. Hofmann, Symbolik oder systemat. Darstell. des symbol Lehrbegriffs der ver schied. christi. Kirchen u. namhaften Secten. Lpz., 1857. F. H. R. Frank, die Theologie der Concordienformel Erl, 1862-65. 4 vols. * M. Schneckenburger, Vorlesungen iiber die Lehrbegriffe der kleinern protest. Kirchen- parteien, aus dessen handschriftl. Nachlass v. K. B. Hundeshagen. Frankf., 1863. * A. Neander, Katholicismus u. Protestantismus, pub. by H. Messner. Berl, 1863. K. F. A. Kahnis, iiber die Principien des Protestantismus. Lpz., 1865. G. Plitt, Entstehungsgesch. des evangel. Lehrbegriffs bis zum Augsb. Bekenntniss. Erl, 1868. F. W. Bodemann, vergleich. Darstell. der Unterscheidungslehren der vier christi Haupteconfessionen. Gott, 1842. 2d ed., 1869. W. Gass, Symbolik der griechischen Kirche. Berl, 1872. J. Delitzsch, das Lehrsystem der rom. Kirche dargest. u. beleuchtet. 1st part. Gotha, 1875. F. Reiff, der Glaube der Kirchen und Kirchenparteien nach s. Geist u. innern Zusam menhang. Basel, 1875. G. Plitt, Grundriss der Symbolik fur Vorlesungen. Erl, 1876. 6. F. Oehler, Lehrb. der Symbolik, pub. by J. Delitzsch. Tab., 1876. K. H. G. Scheele, Teologisk Symbolik. Ups., 1877. English and American Literatuee. G. W. Bethune, Expository Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism. 2 vols. N. Y., 1864. T. P. Boultbee, An Introduction to the Theology of the Church of England, in an Ex position of the Thirty-nine Articles. Lond., 1871. E. H. Browne, An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles, Historical and Doctrinal. N. Y., 1870. G. Burnet, An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Oxf., 1805. Doctrine (The) of the Church of England, as stated in Ecclesiastical Documents set forth by Authority of Church and State. Loud., 1868. E. S. Ffoulkes, The Athanasian Creed. Lond., 1871. Bishop A. P. Forbes, A Short Exposition of the Nicene Creed. Lond., 1866. An Explanation of the Thirty-nine Articles. Oxf., 1867. P. Hall, The Harmony of Protestant Confessions. Lond., 1841. C. Hardwick, A History of the Articles of Religion, with Documents, A. D. 1536- 1615. Lond., 1859. W. W. Harvey, The History and Theology of the Three Creeds. 2 vols. Lond., 1854. C. A. Hase, Libri Symbolici Ecclesiae EvangeUcae, sive Concordia. Lips., 1827. 388 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. C. A. Heurttley, Harmonia Syrabolica ; a Collection of Creeds belonging to the An cient Western Church, and to the Mediaeval EngUsh Church. Oxf., 1858. A. A. Hodge, A Commentary on the Confession of Faith. Phila., 1869. R. W. Jelf, The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Lond., 1873. C. P. Krauth, The Augsburg Confession. Phila., 1869. The Conservative Reformation and its Theology, as represented in the Augs burg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the EvangeUcal Lutheran Church. Phil, 1871. J. R. Lumby, The History of the Creeds. Lond., 1873. J. Macpherson, The Westminster Confession of Faith ; with Introduction and Notes. N. Y., 1881. J. H. Newman, Tract Number Ninety. Remarks on certain Passages in the Thirty- nine Articles. N. Y., 1865. J. Pearson, An Exposition of the Creed ; with an Appendix containing the Principal Greek and Latin Creeds. Lond., 1870. T. Rogers, Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles. Lond., 1S53. P. Schaff, BibUotheca Symbolica Ecclesiae UniversaUs. The Creeds of Christendom, with a History and Critical Notes. N. Y., 1879. The Harmony of the Reformed Confessions, as related to the Present State of Evan gelical Theology. N. Y., 1877. S. S. Schmucker, Lutheran Manual on Scriptural Principles ; or, the Augsburg Con fession, Illustrated and Sustained Chiefly by Scriptural Proofs. Phila., 1855. J. H. W. Stuckenberg, The History of the Augsburg Confession, from its Origin tiU the Adoption of the Formula of Concord. Phila., 1869. SECTION XXII. AECHJEOLOGY. While the history of doctrines, in connexion with patristics and symbolics, presents the history of the development of doctrine apart from Church history in general, making of it an object for special consideration, ecclesiastical archseology deals pre-eminently with the history of worship. But the boundaries of this science are as indefinite and changeable as its name is inappropriate. Gieseler says: "In strictness of language everything that once existed in the Church, and has now become antiquated, would be long to ecclesiastical archeeology. But if this principle be ad mitted, it will not be easy to justify the separate treatment of archseology, as if it were an independent historical science. What scientific reason could be assigned for attempting the historical rep resentation of everything that is ancient in the Church down to the boundary where it touches upon w^hat now exists, but really exclud ing the latter from such representation? For it is held to be a lead ing principle in historical science, that it should show how the now existing has been developed out of what once was." ' ' Uebersicht d. kirchenhistor. Literatur, in Stud. u. Krit, 1831, No. 3, p. 627 sq. ARCHAEOLOGY. 389 The case resembles that of patristics. Arbitrary boundaries have been assumed, some extending archasology down to . ^ , ' , ., , .'' . , Archaeology as Gregory the Great only, while others continue it to the a history oi time of the Reformation. But as patristics must be ^*"'^'"''- brought down to the latest times in the form of a history of the literature and a history of theology, so must archseology be carried onward as a history of worship. For the ancient is not entitled to separate treatment simply because it is old, though it will not be denied that, as in patristics, the first six centuries are of special im portance as the constructive period, and especially so in liturgical features.' By taking archseology out of its connexion with the living development of the Church, and making it an incense-breath ing reliquary, we degrade it as a science into a mere hunt for bric- a-brac, and give it an un-Protestant varnish of idle curiosity and favouritism. It becomes instructive and quickening Archeology only through its relations to the present, which is fateT'^to''^ the obliged, in the interests of both dogmatics and liturgies, present. to continually draw from the ancient sources, and renew its life at the original beginnings of the Church itself. Archseology, as the history of worship, enters into a relation with the history of Christ ian art as close as that sustained by the history of doctrines to historical philosophy; and, as the latter prepares the way for dog matics, so does the former for liturgies. Certain writers, especially older ones, and Boehmer among them, include the history of constitution in archseology. But it is ques tionable whether a separate treatment of that branch is needed, or be allowed to quietly retain its place upon the tree of Church his tory, with which it is intimately united.' It would, at all events, be impracticable to regard the two as forming a single vrorship and science. The history of worship also sustains an inti- ™<«^is. mate relation with Christian morals, or Christian life itself, in the more independent forms of its manifestation. Each is largely involved with the other ; for example, the history of asceticism, of fasting, and of feasts, the Church feasts being likewise popular festivals. It is difficult to indicate the bounda ries at this point, and the historian will be obliged to depend 'Comp. Schleiermacher, §g 168-70; Danz, § 70; Rosenkranz, p. 221, and Guericke in Herzog, Encykl. s. v. '^ Rheinwald's definition, according to which Christian archaeology is "the repre sentation of the entire life of the Church, in the course of its development and ac cording to its results," is evidently too broad, since it would include the history of doctrines also in archaeology. Compare, for a contrary view, Boehmer, who, how ever, holds to the boundary of the first six centuries. 390 HISTORICAL THEOLOGY. upon a certain tact to preserve him from wandering away into for eign matters.' HISTORY. The history of archseology depends upon the history of worship itself. In the same measure as the latter rose from its original sim plicity to an artistic representation under various forms, has it of fered material for antiquarian research. The simple collecting of the material from the appropriate sources, as ancient liturgies. Acts of Councils, and Papal decretals, was all that was undertaken at first; for example, in the Roman Catholic Church, by J. Bapt. Casalius (Christianorum ritus veteres, 1645), who was joined by Cardinal Bona (died 1694), Claude Fleury (1682), Martfene (died 1739), Th. Maria Mamachi (1749-55), and Selvaggio (1787-90). In the Prot estant Church the initiative was taken, certainly not as the result of accident, by the Anglicans, and first of all by Joseph Bingham (died 1723), in the Origines Ecclesiasticae (Antiquities of the Chris tian Church, 1708-26), whose work was translated into Latin by J. H. Grischow, Halle ed., 1724-38, and again in 1751-61 (10 vols. 4to). The best English edition is by Pitman, London, 1840, 9 vols. Svo. He was followed, among Germans, by J. A. Quenstedt (Antiqu. Bibl. et Eccles., Vit., 1699) and Hildebrand at Helmstedt (died 1691), who published a series of dissertations. G. A. Spangenberg's Comp. Ant. Eccles. was published by G. Walch, Lips., 1733, and upon this followed S. J. Baumgarten, Simonis, and others. SECTION XXIIL STATISTICS. Comp. Schleiermacher, SS 95, 232 sq. ; Hagenbach's article on Statistics, in Herzog's Ency- klopsedia ; Schem, American Ecclesiastical Tear-Book, New York, 1860. Dorchester, Problem of Religious Progress, New York, 1881. All history, on arriving at the present time, expands into statis tics, which has to do with conditions instead of events. Ecclesias tical statistics, accordingly, deals only with ecclesiastical conditions. It is possible, however, to secure resting-places in the past, also, from which to conduct a statistical review. On the other hand, the germs of a further historical development lie in the conditions of the pres ent. The contrast between history and statistics must, for this reason, be considered a flexible distinction. ' The History of Morals must be distinguished from the History of Ethics, in the same way as the History of Dogmatics is distinguished from the History of Doctrines, the History of Liturgies from the History of Worship, and that of Ecclesiastical Ju risprudence from that of Constitution. All of these are simply departments of the History of the Theological Sciences. STATISTICS. 391 "Statistics," says SohlSzer, "is history at a standstill;" but this is not a real pause, and what has been at this moment „, . ^ . . ' History must treated as statistics will in a few years belong to his- furnish statis- tory. The historical presentation itself is obliged to "^^ furnish statistical information respecting the age of which it treats, thus interrupting the progress of the narrative, and changing the past into the present. It is not possible, however, to furnish such reviews with equal facility at all times, the periods of general con fusion being especially unfavourable to such inquiry, while the times immediately before and afterward are eminently suitable. This may be seen, for example, in the state of the world immedi ately before the introduction of Christianity, or the condition of the Church before the Reformation, or in the time of Charlemagne, Gregory VII., or Innocent III. The most favourable point for a statistical review is always where an old period ends and a new one begins. The statistics of the present, or statistics in the proper sense, includes, like the history, the whole of the kingdom of God in its earthly manifestation — the outward state of Christianity in its spread; its geographical extension, or the statistics of missions; and the constitution, worship, customs, and teaching of the Church. Statistics of doctrine may either content itself with simply stat ing the prevalent confessions and tendencies of belief, as is usual with works of this character — numerical strength of the Roman Catholic population of a country, of the Lutheran, and others — or it may draft a somewhat detailed description of the existing state of doctrine. For it really is what Schleiermacher calls it, though it is but outwardly so, " a description of the teaching accepted in modern times." Statistics generally deals most largely „,,.(- with ecclesiastical constitutions — because this element ecclesiastical is more easily grasped and understood than others — and "°'^'' utions. also with the worship. The most diflBcult feature to include in a description is the life itself, vrith all its shadings and gradations; and for this work, as for the narrating of historical events, the skill of the artist will be required. The groupings may be arranged to correspond with different points of view; for example, by countries, confessions, forms of doctrine, constitution, worship, and their fac tors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages,' and it will be advisable to combine different systems in the Best source for execution of this work. The best source for statistics statistics. is, beyond question, personal study and observation, which here ¦ See Pelt, p. 363 sq., and the combination proposed in that place : " Much remains to be accomplished by special effort in this department, with reference to both the material and the form. — Schleiermacher, § 245. 393 HISTOEICAL THEOLOGY. possibly may assure us to some extent, but is absolutely denied to us in history. Exact observation, however, is possible only when based on the facts of history down to the present time; and the testimonies of contemporaneous authorities are largely needed with regard to existing facts. Suitable helps, in addition to works of a properly statistical character, may be found in official reports, de scriptions of travels, especially when written by persons who travel in the interests of ecclesiastical afEairs, and ecclesiastical periodicals and newspapers. The student of theology will, of course, need to become ac quainted with such matters. He is required to comprehend the time in which he lives, and to enter with all his abilities and sympa thies into its progress. But the nequid nimis has its application to his case. In the absence of a thorough historical preparation, and of the historic sense, the only attainment likely to be reached will be a limited knowledge instead of thoroughness. For nothing is more dissipating and destructive of thoroughness than an exclusive read ing of newspapers and journals; and the temptation to employ the shauow books reading of travels simply as a pastime is likewise an of travel. imminent danger. A shallow literature, of the tourist and journalistic type, has, unfortunately, deluged all lands, and it affords nothing but superficial reasonings. Beware of it! Fortu nate is the youth who has a paternal friend at hand, to impart coun sel and aid in interpreting the signs of the times! 1. Statistical Textbooks. C. F. StaudUn, kirchliche Geographic und Statistik. Tiib., 1804. 2 vols. J. Ch. W. Augusti, Beitrage zur Geschichte und Statistik der evangel Kirche. Lpz., 1837-38. J. Wiggers, kirchl. Statistik oder DarsteUung der gesammten christi. kirche nach ihrem gegenwart. aussern und inneren Zustande. Hamb., 1842 f. 2 vols. J. E. Th. Wiltsch, Handb. der kirchl Geographic und Statistik von den Zeiten der Apostel bis zu dem Anfang des 16. Jahrh. Berl, 1846. 2 vols. St. J. Neher, kirchl. Geogr. u. Stat. Regensb., 1864. , A. de Mestral, tableau de I'egUse chret. au IS. siecle. Laus., 1870. C. J. Bottscher, Germania sacra. Ein topograph. Fiihrer durch die Kirchen- u. Schul- gesch. deutscher Lande. Lpz., 1874 f. Statistics of the Catholic Church: f Statistisches Jahrb. der Kirche, oder gegenwart. Bestand des gesammten kathol- Erdkreises, by P. Karl. Regensb., 1860. fJ. Silbernagl, Verfassung u. gegenwart. Bestand sammtl Kirchen des Orients. Landsh., 1866. Protestant Church of the Present Time : D. Schenkel, die gegenwartige Lage der protestant. Kirche in Preussen u. Deutsch land. Mannh., 1867. H. Kritzler, die deutsche evangelische Kirche in der Gegenwart. Gotha, 1S69. STATISTICS. 393 2. Ecclesiastical Travels. A. H. Niemeyer, Beobachtungen auf Reisen in und ausser Deutschland. HaUe, 1820- 26. 5 vols. F. F. Fleck, wissenschaftliche Reise durch das sudliche Deutschland, Italien, Sioilien, u. Frankreich. Lpz., 1836-38. 2 vols, in 5 parts. Th. Fliedner, CoUektenreise nach Holland und England, nebst einer ausfiihri. Dar steUung des Kirchen-, Schul-, Armen- und Gefangnisswesens beider Lander. Essen, 1831. 2 vols. (Only embraces HoUand.) Th. F. Kniewel, Reiseskizzen, vornehmlich aus dem Heerlager der Kirche ; gesammelt auf einer Reise in England, Frankreich, Belgien, Schweiz, OberitaUen, Deutsch land un Jahr 1842. Lpz., 1844. 2 vols. 394 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. CHAPTER III. SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. SECTION L Comp. Schleiermacher, 8 199; vender Goltz, Der Weg zum Systeme der dogmatischen The ologie, in Jahrbb. fur deutsche Theologie iv, p. 679 sqq. Henry B. Smith, Analysis and Proof Texts of Julius MiiUer's System of Theology (translation ot) in Amer. Presb. and Theol. Eeview. New York, 1865. The same author's Introduction to Christian Theology, (edited by W. S. Karr), New York, 1883. Systematic Theology is the scientific and connected presentation of Christian doctrine in its relation to both faith and morals. For merly it was regarded and treated as a single science of Christian teaching. But latterly, since the time of Danseus and Calixtus, it has been divided into two distinct branches. These, however, should be regarded as simply different sides of that same life which manifests itself in faith and morals, and whose various qualities are in constant relation with each other. We have observed, in a former connexion, that Christianity was Christianity not, at the Outset, an organized and self -inclusive body destined to de- f doctrines. But this does not necessitate the con- velop into a system. clusion that Christianity was not destined to unfold into a system of doctrine at some future time. The pre-requisites for such a consummation existed from the first, and a sound develop ment of its teaching could only lead to the analysis of its contents, and to their comprehension under a single idea. A relative dis tinction may be established between the several doctrinal concep tions of John, Paul, and other apostles. But the respective systems are simply members of the great organism of the developed Christ ian teaching as a whole. There is no cessation in the develop ment of doctrine. Where an apparent pause is observed, there is danger of stagnation and petrifaction. But there are single stages in the history, at which the dogmatic consciousness of the Church appears in a more assured light, and where the unfolding arrives at a relative conclusion. These are the times of symbols and of the greatest dogmatical writings, in which the belief of an entire age, or at least of an ecclesiastical party, or a school, is reflected. SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 395 It thus becomes proper to speak of Lutheran, Reformed, or Ro man Catholic dogmatics, whose results may be brought Ecclesiastical into the light of objective history. Such objective de- Dogmatics. scription has also been denominated Ecclesiastical Dogmatics, in distinction from Biblical Dogmatics. But neither the latter nor the former is dogmatics in the strictest sense.' Both are merely intro ductory in their character; and ecclesiastical dogmatics results from symbolism, and is a further historical basis for dogmatics proper, just as biblical dogmatics results from biblical exegesis, and is the basis for the history of doctrines. The object object oi dog. of dogmatics proper is not simply to record historical m^wcs- matter, but also to express the conviction entertained by the writer who presents the system to our notice in word and print.'' It is, therefore, for adequate reasons that systematic theology is taken from the soil of history, into which it has struck its roots, and is made a separate branch of study,' the very centre of the the ological sanctuary and the heart of theological life. It takes the exegetical and historical material, and out of it constructs for the ' Dogmatics should always be ecclesiastical ; that is, be linked to the Church to which it owes its birth. But we understand by ecclesiastical what has been ecclesias tically fixed and authorized, the symbolically statutory, or, as it has been termed, the socially established. See J. P. Lange, Christi. Dogm., i. The attempt has been made, of late, to limit the term dogmatics to this statutory, symboUcal, and tradi tional branch, while the German phrase " Glaubenslehre " — System of the Faith— has been applied, as alone appropriate, to what we would characterize as dogmatics proper. This is done, for example, by Alex. Schweizer, who, in his ChristUche Glau benslehre, follows in the track of Rothe. But it is impossible to understand, in view of the elastic meaning of the word doy/ia, why the term dogmas may not be used with reference to the theology of the present day. This usage is further recommended by the ease with which the adjective "dogmatic," and the verb "to dogmatize," may be formed from the noun. Comp. Krauss on 1 Cor. xv, pp. v and vi. Von der Goltz (ubi supra, p. 688) likewise declares that he is unable to attach the importance to the difference between dogmatics and the term advanced by Schweizer which that writer urges, and continues : " The mere stating of the doctrines held by the fathers is no dogmatics, but a cross section taken from the history of doctrines." ^ Qualified, of course, by the feature that such personal conviction claims to have discovered the true expression of ideas that now live in the Church, and have earned the right to make themselves heard. Only upon this ground does the work deserve the name of dogmatics. The mere statement of subjective views, sometimes having no reference to the Church, and even designed to antagonize the Church, and break down its teaching, reducing it to a mere zero, deserves to pass by any other name rather than that of dogmatics, or a system of the faith. ° Liicke, Stud. u. Krit., 1834, No. 4, p. 775: "I am of the opinion that the scientific interest which gives birth to systematic theology is predominantly unlike the histor. ical, even though it include the critical element. It is simply the systematic, and not merely the subordinate, interest, in an orderly arrangement of a given historical material, but at the same time a desire to state scientifically the doctrines of Christian 396 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. present time that doctrine which, in its tum, yields the governing principles for practical theology. In this work it may also appro priate to itself the name of theology, nar' t^6xip>. Christian doctrine is not, however, simply a doctrine of the faith. Ethical charac- ^° *^^ sense that the faith is merely turned in the direc- ter of Christian tion of religious perception and apprehension. But it ocnne. ^^^ ^^ ^^ equal extent, ethical doctrine, or, more pre cisely, a doctrine of the life. Disposition and the life are embraced as one under Christianity. It preaches both faith and repentance, — a change of disposition — and its thoroughly practical character even causes the regeneration of the soul to be of primary import ance, while thought upon it, or reflection, has but a derived value. Christianity is, first of all, a religion, and not a theology. While it has been observed that religion, in its essence, is neither a form of knowledge nor of action, though it necessarily leads to both, it follows that the doctrinal system of a religion will need to develop in the two directions of knowing and doing. This is generally con ceded with reference to the practical department. It would not be desired that either the doctrinal or the moral element should be wanting in a catechism of Christian teaching. The same is true of those sermons in which the two factors of doctrine and ethics are presented in combination. These, as in the case of Wesley and Dwight, are justly regarded as superior to homiletical literature in general. The question is, however, whether the same rule shall apply in Predominanee *^® Scientific field as well. At the first, while the sci- of the dogmat- ence itself was being developed out of the practical ele- c m eres . ments at hand, the two features were interwoven with each other. We see an illustration of this in Augustine's Chris tian Doctrine. The dogmatic interest, however, has, upon the whole, always overbalanced the ethical in religious controversies. The Reformation seemed to spring primarily from moral, not di rectly doctrinal, causes. But a change of relations soon took place, which resulted in the attaching of greater weight to the definition of doctrinal points. It might be said that attention was, with en tire propriety, directed chiefly to the settling of the truths belong ing to the faith, since works spring from faith. But the faulty faith and action with absolute truthfulness, in such a way that all doubt and opposi tion, and all want of congruity in Christian thought, may be removed. This is whoHy unlike the historical object." Lange, p. 49 : " The importance of dogmatics is ma- teriaUy obscured when it is treated, as it was by Schleiermacher, simply as a branch of historical theology. The immediate object of historical theology is to make dogmatics possible, but not to absorb it." SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. 397 principle consisted in this fact, that the faith was too little appre hended from the dynamical, and too greatly from the merely theo retical, side, the apprehending of the faith being confounded with tendencies of belief, and the understanding of the faith with its power. In this way Christian ethics long failed to receive just treatment. It was a mere tenant on the premises of dogmatics, sparingly introduced in connexion with the teaching of the divine law; and a practical application (usus practieus) was appended to the several dogmas as occasion might require. It is not caiixtus sepa- strange, therefore, that Calixtus should fall upon the (roS^aogmlt! idea of emancipating ethics from dogmatics, and assign- ics. ing to it a separate field.' But the idea of emancipation should never have been entertained. Christian ethics must ever be grounded, and at home, in Christian dogmatics, if it is not to renounce the Christian character, and de generate into a general or philosophical morality. The latter event actually came to pass ; and there was even a time when moral ity spread itself over the practical field so broadly that dogmatics was shrivelled into a narrow extract. The separation of the two became an error as soon as it extended to principles, and assumed an internal independence of ethics from dogmatics. In this regard the recalling to mind of their original unity and connexion has been of advantage. It is a different question, however, whether their fusion into a single science must be the result. Science ^,^Difference be- must often separate elements which are combined in tween dogmat- lif e, and theology may distinguish between dogmatics ^"^ ™'^ ''*''^' and ethics with the same propriety as philosophy discriminates be tween the philosophy of religion and ethics. The one has to do with things to be believed, the other with things to be done. The one moves upon the ground of conception and recognition, the other upon that of modes of disposition and conduct based upon such recognition. In other words, "Dogmatics represents life in its transcendent relations to God, the eternal basis of its being; ethics according to its immanent relation to the world of man. Dogmatics regards it in its specifically ecclesiastical character, ethics in its general human character. Dogmatics describes the organ, ethics indicates the tasks that await its energy. Dogmatics teaches how man derives his Christian life from God, ethics how he is to give proof of it in the world of men, by human methods and in that exercise of incarnated power which we call virtue."^ The ' The Reformed theologian Daneeus attempted this even earlier than Calixtus. Oomp. Nitzsch, ubi supi'a. ' Lange, ubi supra, pp. 46j 47. 398 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. reference of the one to the other should, therefore, never be for gotten, and a really Christian dogmatics will always guide into morality, while Christian ethics will point back to dogmatics. It may be noted, moreover, that Schleiermacher already deemed it "desirable that the undivided treatment should be employed from time to time," ' and this desire has been responded to in recent times by two theologians, Nitzsch and Beck, although in diverse ways.'' The method has also been tried, finally, by Rothe, of in cluding the substance of the doctrines of belief in ethics as being, in effect, the determining influence of the latter, and of regarding only the historical residuum as dogmatics.' But it is not to be sup posed that the usage has been thereby settled for all time. ' Schleiermacher, § 231. J. C. v. Hofmann allows no other excuse for the sepa ration of dogmatics from ethics than that of convenience. " Both branches have been at times considered historical, and at other times systematic, or dogmatics has been assigned to historical theology, while a special treatment has been demanded for ethics. The writer who distinguishes between th6 science of the kingdom of God in itself and the science of its actualization in man, or who designates dogmatics a history of the deaUngs of the redeeming God in their development, and ethics a his tory of development in the men redeemed by him, will be compelled to treat the same material twice, wholly or in part, and this without any appreciable profit, but simply from different points of view. For it is impossible to describe God's deaUngs with man without discussing at the same time man's action toward God, or to describe the attitude of the Christian without preceding the description with a direct or implied reference to the attitude of God, to which the former corresponds. If the relation sustained by God be presumed, it is admitted that ethics is simply the part of a •greater whole. If it be stated, ethics is thereby made such a part, nothing remains but the admission that Christian ethics, as the science relating to Christian conduct — not that of men in general — toward God, is indeed a separable, but not for that rea son an independent, part of the one body of teachings which has its origin in the publication of that relation existing between God and man which has been established through the mediation of Christ." — Schriftbeweis i, pp. 14, 15. "Nitzsch, System der Lehre fur akadem. Vorlesungen. Bonn, 1829, 6th ed., 1851. Tob. Beck, Einl in d. System der christi. Lehre, oder propsedentische Entwicklung der christi, Lehrwissenschaft, Stuttgart, 1838. Die christi. Lehrwissenschaft nach den bibl. Urkunden, Stuttgart, 1840. * Theol Ethik i, p. 38. In opposition see Lange, supra, p. 49, and Julius MiiUer in Herzog's Encykl, iii, p. 439, and also Dorner in ibid., iv, p. 187: "Dogmatics and ethics are as certainly separate departments as God and man are really different from each other. . . . Dogmatics is engaged upon the being, thoughts, and actions of God, which . . . have for their object an ethical world ; Christian ethics has to do with the good that comes into actual being in the form of man's free-wiU, and under the actual ized purpose of the love of God." Comp. also Schenkel's Dogmatik i, p. 13. DOGMATICS. 399 SECTION IL DOGMATICS. Baumgarten-Omslus, Einleitung In das Studium der Dogmatik, Lpz., 1820; F. Hscher, zur Einleitung in die Dogmatik der evangeUsch-protestantischen Kirche, Tub., 1828 ; Mynster, iiber den Begrift der christlichen Dogmatik (theol. Stud. u. Krit., Jahrg., 1831, No. 3) ; Rust, Eede fiber christliche Dogmatik, Frankt., 1830; KUng, iiber die Gestalt der evangel. Dogmatik (Tiib., theol. Zeitschrift, 1834, 4) ; P. H. Th. Alihn, Einl. in das Studium der Dogmatik nach den Er gebnissen der neue.sten wissenschaftl. Forschungen, Lpz., 1837; Beck a. a. 0. J. P. Lange, christi. Dogmatik, 1st part, Heidelb., 1849 ; Th. A. Liebner, introductio in dogmaticam christi anam, lips., 18S4 ; J. Muller, in Herzog's Realencykl. Ill, p. 433 f . ; Rothe, Begrift der evangel ischen Dogmatik (Zur Dogmatik I.) ; Wiedermanu, christi. Dogmatik. Einl., p. 1-20 ; Von der Goltz, -ubi Sfupra, and his Dogmatik, mentioned below. The best English and American treatment of Introductory Systematic Theology is found at the beginnings of the works, and not in separate volumes. For the older works, see Lowndes, The British Librarian, pp. 682-814. Hodge and Van Oosterzee, of later writers, furnish the best introductory discussion. Christian Dogmatics forms the central point of all theology. The reason is, that the results obtained by exegetical and historical in quiry, in so far as they touch upon the Christian faith, are wrought over, and impressed upon, the consciousness of the present time, and are combined into that scientific whole from which the princi ples underlying ethics and practical theology are to be deduced. Dogmatics is neither a mere philosophy of religion nor a mere his tory of doctrines, but a science including both historical Dogmatics de- and philosophical elements. It is the science which ^^¦ presents to our notice the material obtained by exegesis and history in an organized and systematic form, representing the sum of the truths of the Christian faith in organic connexion with the facts of the religious consciousness. It, therefore, demands preparatory training in exegesis and history, as well as in philosophy. What has been said of systematic theology in general applies more especially to dogmatics, as constituting the centre of gravity in this matter. For ethics, which is connected with it, depends upon it in the last analysis. Hence Augusti is justified in the re mark, that the old and generally adopted usage, which conceives dogmatics and theology as being synonymes, is evidence of the high importance which has always been attached to this first of all the departments of theology.' It is, to use Lange's expression, " in a specific sense the theology of the Church." But there is, never theless, no universal agreement respecting the extent and import ance of this science, some regarding it as being simply historical in its nature, and others making it merely philosophical or specula tive. Again, they who admit that it combines within itself both historical and philosophical elements, yet differ greatly with regard to the relations sustained by the one to the other. ' System der christi. Dogmatik, § 1. 400 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. The reducing of dogmatics to a mere historical science may grow out of various fundamental views. Those make a great mistake who regard the system of doctrines as completed once for all, for .„ ^. thev confine dogmatics within the boundaries of the Dogmatics a •' ... . « progressive sci- past. This IS precisely the view of the sceptic, who ™'"*' seeks to degrade it into a mere old history, whose high est usefulness consists in its walking behind, and bearing the train, very easily dispensed with, of the wisdom of our own time. There was no lack of opinions of the latter sort during the last century, and a number of dogmatical works dating from the present century, such as those of Bretschneider and Wegscheider, are filled with un modified historical matter. Tzschirner took the ground of simple statement, without entering upon any direct disciission. There is, however, still another historical view of dogmatics, which at least grows out of a living apprehension of history, and therefore demands intellectual mediation between the past and the present. This view is represented by Herder,' and especially by Schleiermacher, who, in point of fact, steps out from the past alto- Schieiermach- gather, and makes of dogmatics, as he would of statis- er's deflnition tics, a science of the present as historically conditioned, ogma cs. gjjjgg jjg conceives it to be " the science of the combina tion of doctrine which prevails in a Christian ecclesiastical com munity at a given time." ' 'Von Religion, Lehrmeinungen und Gebrauchen' § 37: "Dogmatics, even on the conception which underlies its name, is simply a history of doctrines. How beneficial is it to carry forward every dogma to its limits, philologically, historically, philosophi cally ! " Though Rohr, in his Briefe iib. Rationalismus, announced the expectation that the time will come when our dogmatics shall appear only in the character of a history of doctrines, and appealed for justification to the progress made by the spirit of inquiry among theologians since Socinus and Herbert of Cherbury, there seemed to be but little hope that the prophecy would be fulfilled. A certificate of death has, however, been issued in behalf of dogmatics from a different quarter, and in a differ ent connexion, it being characterized as the "science of Church doctrines," in dis tinction from doctrines of the faith. (Page 39.) Schweizer says: "The dogmatics of former times has been superseded by the doctrinal system of the evangelical Protes tant faith, which, having been contained in the former in a very subordinate and re stricted character, has thrown off its dogmatic fetters, and become the system of faith in each separate state of development in the Evangelical Church.'' But this language is connected with the usus Ungues referred to above. The wild cry, "No more dog- ipatics !" which has been uttered in certain writings of a partisan character, can only impose upon persons who have no sympathy with anything that has been historically developed. We are able, on the other hand, to agree with Biedermann, who asserts (p. 17) that " the science of mere ecclesiastical doctrines must be overcome by a true science of the Protestant faith." Upon this point he remarks, however, that this cannot be ac complished by simply declaring that dogmatics is such a science of traditional doctrine. ' DarsteUung, §§ 97, 196 sqq. ; Der christliche Glaube, vol. i, p. 1. DOGMATICS. 401 With reference to this definition, the question has been properly asked, what is to be understood by "prevalent"? Schleiermacher responds, "That form of doctrine is prevalent which is employed in public transactions as representing the common piety," ^ or that " which is ofiicially asserted and made known, without calling forth official contradiction."" Upon this point he is obliged to concede, however, that "the boundaries must be extended or narrowed as time and circumstances may require." Since this definition requires that not what was formerly accepted should be pre- Qj,^ections to sented, but what now prevails, it removes dogmatics schieiermach- to some extent from the strictly historical field. But Schleiermacher proceeds further still. He demands that dogmatics should not state the views of others simply, but also the personal views of the writer, and even ascribes to it a kind of. sagacity that will detect the truth, since he defines its task to be the " purifying aud perfecting of the doctrine." ' Further, he insists upon the appli cation of critical processes, which, of course, applies also to history. He thereby elevates dogmatics into a science which is directed to ward the future, and which teaches, to an equal degree, what must be accepted in the future, and what is ¦ authoritative now, or has been so in the past. By this method dogmatics is evi dently lifted out from the framework of historical theology, and it is for this very reason that adherents of the school of Schleier macher, and some other writers as well, have raised objections that are not wholly ujifounded against its incorporation with that branch." ' Der christi Glaube, vol. i, p. 1. ' DarsteUung, § 16, note. ' Christi. Glaube, vol. i, p. 130. Schleiermacher speaks with especial clearness in opposition to a mere empirically historical view respecting dogmatics and ethics, p. 9 : " W# may, at all events, insist that every representation of Christian doctrine is his torical but it may not on that account cease to be systematic ; and, on the other hand, whUe every one is systematic, it must be not only systematic, but in every in stance also historical and systematic." ¦* Comp. the extract from Liicke, p. 721 of MS. Von der Goltz says, in a simUar spirit : " If the designation of- dogmatics as a historical department- is designed to specify simply that it is not merely a speculative construction of Christianity, but that it is the positive truth of the Christian faith as the common possession of the Church, with its internal combinations wrought into intelligible form, there can be no objec tion to the idea. But the designation ' historical ' is nevertheless misleading. Its originator, Schleiermacher, adds to it the feature that systematic theology is only to present the historically given matter, without laying claim to the right of presenting authoritative truth. This is an error. Dogmatics has always striven to report not only what the Church teaches, or has taught, but what it should teach. Dogmatics aims to furnish authoritatively what constitutes the normal statement of the truth in 26 402 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. It does not follow that the historical character of dogmatics is thereby denied. This is in any case to be retained, unless dog matics is to become equivalent to the philosophy of religion. The material of dogmatics is certainly historical, but it is required to ,. , pass throusrh the philosophical process of refiection. Dogmatics to^ ° ^ ^ . pass through Dogmatics has to do not simply with the abstract relig- reflection. -^^^ consciousness, but with the consciousness of the Church, and with revelations addressed by God to man which have been historically transmitted. It is only necessary that the divine, in so far as it may be apprehended by the human mind, be cognized with human certainty, and be received into the scientific conscious ness of the present. In this way scientific knowledge and syste matic philosophical thought will interpenetrate each other in the treatment of the system of belief. "A reference of religion in it self to religion, as it appears in Christianity and in the manifestation of the latter through the evangelical Church, is established," as Hase correctly shows.' In his later editions he presents the idea with greater definiteness, " of the relation of the Christian religion in itself to the religious spirit."" Schenkel likewise holds that, the domain of Christian belief. This is in harmony with the proper meaning of the word dogma ; for dogma is an established term, attested by the Church, to designate a truth belonging to the Christian faith." ' Evangel. Dogmatik, I, § 2. The definition of De Wette (Dogm., I, § 60) may be made to agree with that of Hase: "The representing of Christianity as related to the culture of an age is dogmatics." Other definitions are very obscure, e. g., those of Reinhard, Wegscheider, and Tzschirner, that of the latter being: "Dogmatics is the science of the Christian belief, or the scientific presentation of the doctrine of God and divine things contained in Christianity." Biedermann teaches, that dogmatics is both a positive and a speculative science (but observe, not a "mixture of both"!), while Rothe terms speculative dogmatics a " wooden iron." It is evident that much confusion respecting the scientific nomenclature still prevails upon this point. " The Sth ed., for instance, says, " Dogmatics is the systematic presentation of the Christian religion in so far as it has taken definite shape in the form of dogmas, and as it stands related to the religious spirit." Comp. § 1 1 (in the older editions) : " As philosophical dogmatics, when not connected with historical references, is a mere ab straction, so the historical presentation of biblical, ecclesiastical, and comparative- symbolical dogmatics can only become actual science by its union with philosophical dogmatics — a science which embraces the consciousness of Christianity in its primitive form, the self-consciousness of the Church, and n comprehension of the different forms in which the Christian spirit, affected by human errors, has found expression. WhUe each of these is, in its o^vn way, important, it is yet but an isolated view of Christianity, for whose complete recognition dogmatics is required, which apprehends the Christian faith in the whole of its development, and teaches how to become ac quainted with the nature of the religious spirit." The recent Protestantism of France, contrasting with the former abstract view of dogmatics, likewise recognizes the co operation of various factors in it — the religious, the historical, and the scientific. Comp. the pamphlet, M. Scherer, ses disciples et ses adversaries, Par., 1854, p. 3. DOGMATICS. 403 " Christian dogmatics is the scientifically connected presentation of the saving truths of Christianity, as founded upon personal convic tions, and as historically conditioned in the form of the common consciousness of Christians."' It follows that a genuine dogmatist must receive into himself all the stages of theological culture, and not only control the entire field of theological knowledge intellec tually, but also demonstrate with his personal character that he represents the Church in his teaching, and that the consciousness of Christians generally finds a living and concrete illustration in his own — the highest duty assigned to the theologian ! He must be firmly grounded on the basis of the word of God in Necessity of a the Scriptures, but have at the same time taken into pure and weu '- ,.-,-,¦ n J ¦ endowed per- himself the entire progress of the history ot doctrines, sonai charac- have wrought out all contrasts, have reduced every **''• thing to clearness and certainty in his own consciousness, and be able to render to himself an account of the internal and external character of every doctrine. The human spirit, with its capacities for religion, and its needs and strivings, must, as well as the Scrip tures, with their profound teachings, be open to his eyes. He must be acquainted with the present and with the past, and he must make use of both to carry forward the development for future times and the preparation for new developments ;' " following the age, but not subservient to it." ' SECTION HI. APOLOGETICS AND ITS EELATION TO DOGMATICS. Schleiermacher, § 32-42. Comp. the article by Heubner, in Ersch und Gruber's Encyklop., vol. 4 ; Schmid, iiber christi. Apologetlk, in the antagonistic serial on Theol. und Philos., 1829 ; * Lechler, iiber den BegriH der Apologetlk, ein histor. Beitrag zur Bestimmung der Ausgahe, Methode und Stellung dieser Wissenschaft, in the Stud. u. Krit., 1839 ; Hanell, die Apologetik als die Wissenschaft von dem der Kirche und der Theologie gemeinsamen Gninde, iu the Stud. u. Krit., 1843 ; J. Hirzel, iiber die christi. Apologetik, (Vortrag an die Ziiricher Synode,) Ziirich, 1S43 ; Kienlen, die Stellung der Apologetik und der Polemik in der theologischen Encyklop., (Stud. u. Krit., 1846.) See Hagenbach's article in Herzog's Realencykl., I. Hetherington, Apologetics of the Christian Faith, N. T., 1867. The presentation of the Christian faith presumes the truth of that faith as a whole, or regards the fact of Christianity as a divine fact. It is the office of science, however, to justify that presump tion to the religious sense. Hence, apologetical investigation must ' ChristUche Dogmatik, p. 1. ^ Hase distinguishes five functions of the dogmatist : first, the philosophical unfold ing of the religious belief ; second, historico-critical apprehension ; third, systematic arrangement; fourth, ascertaining and estimating its religious value; fifth, organic further development of the Christian system. " Kling, ubi supra, p. 11. 404 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. precede the purely dogmatical. In its formal aspect, apologetics, Apologetics like dogmatics, is a philosophical and historical science, dogmatf^'^ci- ^^^ ^^^ proofs are drawn both from within and with- ence. out — from reason and conscience, and from history. With regard to its contents, the relation it sustains toward dog matics is that of elemental and constitutive to the systematically developed, or of the keynote to its scale. It is, accordingly, pos sible to separate the two branches from each other, yet not abso lutely, but only relatively. Schleiermacher, who assigns dogmatics to the department of his- Apoiogetics and torical theology, has, nevertheless, erected a separate tion toli^mit department of philosophical theology, and given it the ics. first place. It is subdivided into apologetics and po lemics. Hence these branches thus come to occupy the position of outposts, though in a somewhat lost and isolated state, being far removed from the main body of theological forces, and separated by the interposition of other departments, such as exegesis and Church history; we, therefore, consider it advisable to call in these outposts and incorporate them with the main body. They are cer tainly included in dogmatics, and constitute the organs through whose exercise it makes itself understood by outside observers. The life of dogmatics beats in them; they constitute the two poles at which the electric flash that passes through dogmatics is dis charged both positively and negatively. At every step taken by the system of Christian belief it is obliged to defend its just claim to be so regarded against the attacks of unbelief, and it is also obliged to assert its determinate character as a particular form of belief, as the Protestant, in distinction from other similar beliefs, such as the Roman Catholic' Dogmatics itself thus adopts the apologetical mode of procedure at one time, and the polemical at another, in its teaching, provided the latter has a living aim. It becomes apologetic when it purposes to bring into prominence, in connexion with the statement of every doctrine, the underlying ' The apologetic or the polemical interest wiU predominate at different times. The latter was uppermost in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; while dogmatics, without a persistently apologetic character, is inconceivable at the present day, though the newly awakened Strife of confessions has considerably repressed quiet and un prejudiced apologetic expositions. Ullmann, in his Preface to the 6th German edi tion of his Sinlessness of Jesus, p. v, justly complains that " many contemporaries, even of the younger class, are so involved in the formulas of ready finished doctrines, whether framed in the interests of belief or unbelief, as to reject every attempt to establish the faith at the outset ; in the one case because they wiU not think of an authentication that must be constantly renewed, in the other because they refuse to Jwow the faith itself." APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION TO DOGMATICS. 405 principle of Christianity as radically different from every other religion, and thus to fasten the conviction that Christianity, as a whole, is true and divine by opening up to view each separate ele ment. It is polemical in so far as it rejects all that is improper or that obscures, defaces, or works injury to the dogma, and as it pro tects the view held by the Church against the non-ecclesiastical and pseudo- churchly ideas which may exist. This does not forbid the separate treatment of apologetics and polernics.' The former, especially, has established its right to such treatment. But it must not be allowed to remove to a distance from dogmatics. On the contrary, " while defending the ground " of the latter," it must go before it and prepare the way, as the Bap tist before Christ, either bv way of introduction to doe- . . , X -11 • -1 Apologetics an matics, or independently. It will m either case act m introduction to the service of dogmatics, and with reference to its needs. '^°e'''^''cs. The leading place at the head of dogmatics must, accordingly, be given to apologetics, though not the first place in the entire course of theological study, as Schleiermacher decides. It may be said, indeed, that exegesis and ecclesiastical history also cannot be re garded as sciences belonging to Christian theology in their inmost nature, unless a previous understanding of the nature of Christian ity in general be secured. But such an understanding is attainable only upon the ground of history — unless it is to be based on the air — so that we again are forced to the conclusion that Remote begin- no department has an absolute beginning. Certain parSn°ents"^ta . apologetical assumptions must be necessarily taken for theology. granted in the study of exegesis and Church history, though with the understanding that they are to receive thorough investigation in the proper place. This procedure approves itself as correct on the grounds of methodology also. An apologetical course at the very beginning of theological study would, assuredly, be of little service to the student whose interest for apologetics needs to be awakened, and who for that end requires exegetical and historical studies, particularly the life of Jesus and the history of the king- ' Sack, in his Polemik, has conceived the distinction on this wise: "Dogmatics is Christian doctrine as adapted to Christian thinkers, implying friendUness on their part ; apologetics is Christian doctrine in a form adapted to heathen thinkers, and presumes hostility on their part ; and polemics adapts the doctrine to the state of heretical Christian thinkers, proceeding on the supposition of dissatisfaction on their part." These different functions frequently run into each other, however. What dogmatics, for instance, does not alford evidence of such dissatisfaction in this age, which is dissatisfied in so many regards ? ^ Zyro, in Stud, u Krit., 1837, 8. 406 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. dom of God. But after the theologian has arrived at dogmatics he can no longer dispense with apologetics as a science which deals with the principles of the former. No absolute reply can be given to the question whether a sepa- Apoiogetics In rate chair should be devoted to its service, or whether the schools. j^ should be taught in connexion with dogmatics. De partments should not be multiplied unnecessarily, and exj)erience has probably demonstrated that, while, in the field of authorship, special apologetical works are much to be desired, since they call forth a thorough discussion of the vital question upon whose solu tion the whole of dogmatics depends, the Apologetica in schools come to occupy a somewhat isolated position when not connected with some other department.' In former days apologetics was con nected with introduction to the books of the Bible, because the dem onstration of the genuineness of such writings, and the discussion of revelation and inspiration, were held to constitute the substance of its task. But it has been correctly shown, in more recent times, that it is not the particular features, but rather the Christian relig- Entire Chris- ion, in the whole of its manifestations, that must consti- jlct"of'apo°ol *"*^ *^^ object upon which the line of apologetical getics. proof is directed." The latter will proceed upon a two fold basis and become a " demonstration of the Spirit and of power " (1 Cor. ii, 4). This was formerly restricted to the ground of merely prophecy and miracles. But we would prefer to say that the demonstration of the Spirit lies in the inward justifying of Chris tianity to the Spirit, in that it demonstrates itself as religion, while the demonstration of the power consists in its being apprehended as a definite historical fact, as an effective actualization of religion, as that religion which is endorsed by the world's historical expe rience. The task of apologetics may, accordingly, be, with Lechler,' con- The task of sidered as a twofold one, viz.: (1) To show that Chris- apoiogetics. tianity is a religion, and (2) That it is the true religion, or unmodified religion.'' It thus connects itself on the one hand ' Noesselt already decided against the separate treatment of apologetics, and also Tholuck, Verm. Schriften, part i, p. 376, and Literar. Anzeiger, 1831. But compare Nitzsch Protest. Beantwortung von Strauss' PhUo. Dogmatik, in Stud. u. Krit., 1842, No. 3. Are not lectures on apologetics generaUy delivered as an introduction to dog matics at the present time ? ^ Lechler, ubi supra. ' Ibid., p. 605. ¦* " The Christian religion forms the subject, and absolute reUgion the predicate ; while apologetics itself forms the copula ; for it is simply the scientific process through which Christianity is shown to be the absolute reUgion." — Ibid., p. 60S. APOLOGETICS AND ITS RELATION TO DOGMATICS. 407 with the philosophy of religion, and on the other with the results obtained by exegesis and Church history. It forms this connexion with the former because its office is to determine the nature of re ligion in general, while apologetics applies this general notion of religion to Christianity, and shows its concrete realization in this form; with the latter, because the entire development of the divine wisdom in revelation, and, first of all, the manifestation of Christ and the existence of the Church, form the basis upon which their evidences rest. In other words, the demonstration of the absolute purpose of Christianity to become the religion for all peoples and times, the religion for the individual and the race, is in scientific form precisely what the popular definition seeks to express when it declares it to be the task of apologetics to prove the truth and di vine character of Christianity. This has too often been understood to mean that the divine ele ment is merely another predicate superadded to the Divinity and truth, and its existence has, from the standpoint of the voivedln each older supernaturalism, been looked for exclusively in other. the extraordinary features of revelation, its inspiration, proj)hecies, and miracles;' whereas the divinity is already involved in the truth, and the truth in the divinity. This is not intended to signify that the divine element in Christianity consists simply in its gener ally acknowledged moral truths and its abstract correspondence with the laws of reason, though even this is something, and affords a field of apologetic effort even to the rationalist; but that the truth of Christianity is of a peculiar kind, having been born with Chris tianity, and therefore revealed; for what "eye hath not seen nor ear heard, and what hath not entered into the heart of man . . . God hath prepared for them that love him, and hath revealed it unto us by his Spirit" (1 Cor. ii, 9, 10). But this specifically pecul iar divine truth is certainly required to establish and approve itself to the inner consciousness as involving the human element also, that is, as a truth for man." For this reason it must first render the negative proof that it contains nothing which conflicts with the ' The erection of such entrenchments, without any direct connexion with the con tents of the Gospel, caused that " hateful ditch " concerning which Lessing declared that he could not pass over it. Comp. Hirzel, p. 22 sqq. The divine nature of Christianity does not appear in the absence of natural factors in the development of human affairs. If this were so Christ and Christianity would, of course, be fables, and not the subject of history. It manifests itself through the renewing might of the Spirit in the living consciousness of believers." — Bunsen, Hippolytus i (Pref.). 2 " Were the eye unlilte the sun How could it bear His Ught?" — Goethe. 408 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. nature and the mission of man, and hence that contradicts the abso lute reason, but that its definiteness constitutes at the same time a reasonable character.' SECTION IV. THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. The necessity of defending Christianity in general — the faith and morals of Christendom-^against attack, was apparent at an early day. The earliest form of apologetics was the juridical, in the character of a defence against unjust charges before the tribunals of heathen authority. This form of necessary resistance was soon joined with theological apologetics in the stricter sense, so that the defensive element soon became the offensive, and apologetics took The field of °" ^ polemical character. The earliest Christian apolo- eariiest apolo- gists represented heathenism in its emptiness, Judaism getics. -j^ j^g insufficiency, and Christianity in its greatness and unique character. The first apologies, by Aristides and Quadratus, and also those by Melito of Sardis, Miltiades, and Claudius ApoUi- naris, are either lost or exist only in the fragments we find in Euse bius. The oldest in our possession are the two apologies by Justin Martyr, about the middle of the second century, and those of Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, and Hermas. The Alexan- ciement and drian divines, Clement and Origen, defended Christian- origen. ity — the former against the Greeks generally in his Ad monitory Treatise, and the latter against the attacks of Celsus, in which undertaking they, like their predecessors, made ample use of Grecian philosophy. In the African Church, Tertullian became the attorney of Christianity through the publication of his writings — The Apologist, Against the Gentiles, and Against the Jews. He ' The term " apologetical " may, however, " be applied in instances where it is being demonstrated that the decisive feature cannot be properly introduced into the demon stration at this point. It follows that an apologetical significance is to be ascribed to the little work by Lavater entitled "Nathanael, or the Certain but Unprovable Divinity of Christianity." Hirzel says: "Apologetics can only remove hinderances from the way of the thinking reason, in part, and in part bring an already existent belief into harmony or into a clearly apprehended relation with the entire sum of knowledge and of Ufe." " No syllogistic method of proving the truth of Christianity is incontrovertible. But no human ingenuity has as yet succeeded in putting to shame the demonstration of the Spirit and of power." — Schenkel, Der ethisohe Char akter des Christenthums, in Prot. Monatsbl, 1857, p. 115. Melanchthon, too, remarks concerning the truths of Christianity : " Geometrica pingi et oculis subjici possunt ; haec vero, de quibus hic dicimus, non ita pingi et oculis subjici possunt, sed attenta consideratione paulatim magis intelligentur." — Loci Communes (in Bretschneider, Corpus Reform, xxi, p. 646). THE HISTORY OF APOLOGE-nCS. 409 was subsequently joined by Minucius Felix, Cyprian, Arnobius (about A. D. 303), and Lactantius (died about 325). The fathers of the second period, though directing their efforts more especially upon internal affairs, likewise continued the work of apologetics ; for example, Athanasius, in his Treatise against the Greeks, Cyril of Alexandria (died 444), who wrote the books against Julian, and still other writers. After ancient heathenism had been overcome it was necessary to defend Christianity against the continued attacks of the Jews, and, after the appearance of Mohammed, against the followers of Islam. A number of apologetical works of this character originated during the Middle Ages. We may mention those by Agobard, of Lyons, in his Insolence of the Jews, 822; by Abelard, in his Dialogue be tween the Philosopher, the Jew, and the Christian; and by Thomas Aquinas, in his Truth of the Catholic Faith against the Gentiles. A kind of uncertainty respecting the foundations of Christianity began, moreover, to manifest itself within the pale of conflict be- the Church itself. Philosophy and Christianity came p'^y™ fchri^ into conflict, and in this way the apologetic writers tianity. came to regard internal conditions, especially after the restoration of the sciences in the fifteenth century. The truths of Christianity were protected against philosophical scepticism by Marsilius Ficinus in his Christian Religion and Piety of Faith (Opp. Par., 1641, tom. i, pp. 1-73), and against the intellectual scepticism by Savonarola in his Triumph of the Cross. The period of the Reformation was more particularly engaged in prosecuting the conflicts that arose within the Church; but the claims of apologetics soon afterward came again into notice. In 1627 Grotius composed the work. Truth of the Christian Religion,' primarily for mariners who came into contact with non-Christian peoples, in order to furnish them with a cable that should save them from Mohammedanism and heathenism. But the work was suited to the learned class rather than the unlearned, and has long Gmtius and maintained its reputation among them. The Arminian Limborch. Limborch subsequently walked in the path of Grotius, in his Truth of the Christian Religion. He had for his object the defeat of the Spanish Jew, Orobio, and the Portuguese deistical Jew, Acosta. The rise of freethinkers of England furnished the impulse for apologet ical authorship in that country, where it was even promoted by the institution of prizes. Mention must be made of Locke (1695-1733), Samuel Clarke (1704), Lardner, in his Credibility of the Gospel History (1764-67, iv), Addison, in his Evidences of the Christian ' Frequently edited. A good edition is Le Clerc and Madan's, Lond., 1814. 410 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. Religion, Stackhouse, in his Worth of the Christian Religion, and Butler, in his Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion. In tlie Roman Catholic Church of France, Pascal, in his Thoughts (1668), and Astie (1857), and Havet, have defended Christianity against the objections raised by sceptical thinkers. The same work was performed in the Reformed Church by Abbadie (died in Ire land, 1727), Jacquelot (died 1725), and G. A. Turretin (died 1687), in his Treatise on the Truth of the Christian Religion. The German apologists of the last century largely followed the Qerman apolo- English at the first; but the Wolfenbiittel Fragments, sies. since 1777, were chiefly influential in calling forth apol ogetical works. A measure of uncertainty was soon apparent, how ever, in the fact that people were not agreed with reference to the condition of the defence itself. What should have been maintained was often given up, and other matters were insisted on which might have been conceded, or which, at least, in the form in which they had been held, were untenable.' The apologists were divided into two camps — that of the strictly orthodox, and that of the lati- tudinarians. The prominent names at this point are Lilienthal, The Good Cause of Revelation (Konigsb., 1750-78, in 16 vols.), Euler," Haller, A. F. W. Sack, Jerusalem, Noesselt, Less, Spalding, and Klenker. Chateaubriand defended the genius of Christianity and proved its greatness by the history of its martyrs (The Genius of Christianity; or, the Beauty of the Christian Religion, Par., 1802), from the position occupied by modern culture in France, and from that of sesthetical Roman Catholicism as well. The progress of development in theology in Germany gave rise to the conflict be tween Rationalism and Supernaturalism, by which means apolo getics was transformed into polemics. The question concerning j)rinciples generally was at stake. Most of the works mentioned above were called into being by practical and temporary conditions rather than by scientific considerations. This is true in recent times also of Stirm; but the attempt to establish apologetics upon a strictly scientific basis was now made by Karl Sack, at Bonn, who was inspired thereto by Schleiermacher. The same effort was made ' Lessing says, with reference to the apologetical literature of his day, " It often appeared to me as if the gentlemen had exchanged their weapons, like those which are presented in the fable of Death and Love. The more forcibly one attempted to prove Christianity to me the more did I become inclined to doubt. The more reck lessly and triumphantly another sought to tread it under foot the more assuredly was I conscious of maintaining it, at least in my heart." See C. Schwarz, Lessing als Theoiog, Halle, 1854, p. 35. ^ Comp. Hagenbach, Leonhard Euler, als Apologet des Christenthums, Basle, 1S51, 4. THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 411 in the Roman Catholic Church by Drey (comp. Pelt, p. 398 sq.). Apologetics thus came to be clearly distinguished from . , , , . , -. .. Apologetics not apology ; but it has not yet succeeded in attaining to an yet a separate assured position as a separate science. Nothing has ^'^'^'"^®- been gained by assigning to it a place under Practical Theology, as has been done in recent times, for it can only be practically applied after its foundations have been theoretically established. THE LITERATURE OF APOLOGETICS. I. Scientific Apologetics. J. F. Kleuker, Neue Priifung und Erklarung der vorziiglichsten Beweise fiir die Wahr heit und den gottlichen Ursprung des Christenthums. Riga, 1787-94. 4 vols. G. S. Franke, Entwurf einer Apologetik der christi. Religion. Altona, 1817. G. J. Planck, Ueber Behandlung, Haltbarkeit und Werth des histor. Beweises fiir die Gottlichkeit des Christenthums. Gott., 1821. K. W. Stein, Die Apologetik der Offenbarung als Wissenschaft dargestellt. Lpz., 1824. K. H. Sack, Christi. Apologetik. Hamb., 1829. 2d ed., 1841. J. Ch. F. Steudel, Grundziige einer Apologetik fiir das Christenth. Tiib., 1830. fS. V. Drey, Apologetik als wissenschaftliche Nachweisung der Giittlichkeit des Christenthums in seiner Erscheinung. 1st, Philosophie der Offenbarung. Mainz, 1838-48. Fz. Delitzsch, System der christlichen Apologetik. Lpz., 1869. Fr. 6. R. Frank, System der christlichen Gewissheit. 2 vols. Erl, 1870-73. n. Practical Apologetics J. A. Nosselt, Vertheidigung der Wahrheit und GiJttUchkeit der christlichen ReUgion. Halle, 1769. 5th ed., 1784. G. Less, Beweis der Wahrheit der christlichen ReUgion. Bremen, 1768. Sth ed., Giitt., 1785. J. F. W. Jerusalem, Betrachtungen iiber die vomehmsten Wahrheiten der Religion. Braunschw., 1773-76. 2 vols. Fortgesetzte Betrachtungen. Ibid., 1792, 1793. 2 vols. A. V. Haller, Briefe iiber die wichtigsten Wahrheiten der Offenbarung. Bern, 1772. New ed. by Auberlen. Basel, 1858.' Briefe iiber einige Einwiirfe noch lebender Freigeister wider die Offenbarung. Bern, 1774-77. 2d ed., 1778. 3 vols. * Stirm, Apologie des Christenthums in Briefen, fiir gebildete Leser. A prize Essay. Stuttg., 1836. 2 vols. New ed., 1856. F. F. Fleck, Vertheidigung des Christenthums. Lpz., 1842. *K. Ullmann, Die Siindlosigkeit Jesu; eine apologetische Betrachtung. 7th ed. Hamb., 1863. EngUsh transl Edinb., 1858. Das Wesen des Christenthums (designed also for cultured laymen). Hamb., 1845. 4th ed., 1854. English transl. by BleasdeU. Lond., 1860. *A. Tholuck, Gesprache iiber die vornehmsten Glaubensfragen der Zeit. Halle, 1846. New unchanged ed., Gotha, 1864. . J. W. Hanne, Vorhofe zum Glauben, oder das Wunder des Christenthums im Ein- klange mit Vernunft und Natur. Jena, 1850, 1851. 2 vols. D. Frayssinous, Defense du Christianisme. Par., 1851-53. 2 vols. 1 Comp. Hundeshagen in Gelzer's Monatsbl. June, 1858. 413 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. E. B. Hundeshagen, Der Weg zu Christo, Vortrage im Diensle der innern Mission. Frankf., 1853. J. Scheinert, Die christliche Religion. Konigsb., 1853, 1854. 2 vols. Fr4d. de Rougemont, Christ et ses temoins, ou lettres d'un laique sur la revelation et I'inspiration. Par., 1856. 2 vols. Zur Verantwortung des christi. Glaubens. Ten lectures by K. A. Auberlen, W. G. Gess, S. Preiswerk, C. J. Riggenbach, E. Stahelin, Imm. Stockmeyer. Basel, 1861. English transl London, 1863. K. A. Auberlen, Die gottliche Offenbarung, ein apologetischer Versuch. Basel, 1861 and 1864. 2 parts. W. F. Gess and C. J. Riggenbach, Apologetische Beitrage. Basel, 1863. M. Guizot, Meditations sur I'essence de la reUgion chretieime. Par., 1864. German by Oscar Wendel. English transl 3 vols. Edinb., 1868-79. Ch. E. Luthardt, Apologetische Vortrage. Lpz., 1864. 3 parts. Eng. transl. Edinb. A. Diisterdieck, Apologetische Beitrage. Gott., 1866, C. C. G. V. Zezschwitz, Zur Apologie des Christenthums. Lpz., 1865. C. F. W. Held, Jesus der Christ. Sechzehn apologetische Vortrage iiber die Grund lehren des Christenthums. Ziir., 1865. f Hettinger, Der Beweis des Christenthums. 8d ed. Freib., 1867. 2 parts. R. Grau, Semiten und Indogermanen, eine Apologie des Christenthums vom Stand puukte der Volkerpsychologie. Stuttg., 1867. Theodor ChristUeb, Moderne Zweifel am christi. Glauben, in Vortragen an Gebildete. Basel, 186S. English transl. N. Y., 1874. E. Krauss, Lehre von der Offenbarung. Gotha, 1868. Von der Goltz, Gottes Offenbarung, etc., see Lit., under g 69.' J. F. W. Jerusalem, Betrachtungen iiber die vornehmsten Wahrheiten der ReUgion. Braunschw., 1773-76. 2 vols. Fortgesetzte Betrachtungen. Ibid., 1791-93. 2 vols. Apologetical Journal : Der Beweis des Glaubens, by 0. Zockler, R. Grau, 0. Andrea, C. Brachmann. Giit- tersl, 1864 ff. The labours ol the different societies organized lor the flelence ol Christianity also come un der this head, e. g., those of tne Haagen Gesellschaft, the Teylersche Stiftung, etc. The Calwer Publication Society lumishes a popular work on Apologetics In Christliclie Glaubenslehre : Ein Zeugniss lib' und wider. Stuttg., 1864, 1866, 1858. The field ol apologetics embraces also the discussions relating to the true idea of the miracle; ou which compare Eothe, Zur Dogmatik, ubi supra. J. Hirzel, Ueber das Wunder und was damit zusammenhangt. Ziir., 1863. + Frohschammer, Die Philosophie imd das Wunder (Athe- naum. Vol. ii. No. 1). W. Beyschlag, Die Bedeutung des Wunders im Christenthum. Berl., 1883. Jul. KSstlin, Die Erage iiber das Wunder nach dem Stande der neuern Wissenschalt {Jahr bucher fiir deutsche Theol. IX. 2. p. 206 It.). Nitsch, Augustln's Lehre vom Wunder. 1865. Pliigel, Das Wunder und die Erkennbarkeit G6ttes. Lpz., 1869. Bender, Der Wunderbegrilt des Neuen Testaments. Frankl. a. M., 1871. Lommatzsch, Schleiermacher's Lehre vom Wunder und vom Uebematilrlichen im Zusammenhange seiner Theologie und mit besonderer Beriick sichtigung der Beden iiber die Eeligion und der Predigten dargestellt. Berl., 1872. Also the manuals ol dogmatics and apologetics by Auberlen, Schenkel Schweizer, Weisse, etc. Con cerning the miracles ol Jesus in particular, see Godet, Les miracles de J&us Christ. Neulch., 1867. ENGLISH AJ^D AMERICAN LITERATURE. Joseph Addison, Of the Christian Religion. Lond., et passim. Aids to Faith. A Series of Theological Essays, by Several Writers. Lend., 1861. 1 H. G. Tzschirner, Geschichte der Apologetik, oder historische Darstellung der Art, vrie das Christenthum tn jedem- Zeitalter beweisen, angegrilten und vertheldigt ward ; with prelace by F. V. Eetnhard. Lpz., 1805. Vol. 1. (Unfinished.) THE HISTORY OF APOLOGETICS. 418 Bampton Lectures. 102 vols. Lond., 1780-1882. Bremen Lectures (The); on Fundamental, Living, Religious Questions, by various Eminent European Divines. Translated by Rev. D. Heagle. Boston, 1871. T. W. Chambers, The Psalter ; a Witness to the Divine Origin of the Bible. (Vedder Lectures for 1876.) N. Y., 1876. B. F. Cocker, Lectures on the Truth of the Christian Religion. Detroit, 1873. Joseph Cook, Boston Monday Lectures. With Preludes on Current Events. 9 vols. Boston, 1877-81. George P. Fisher, Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity. N. Y., 1866. James Grant, The Religious Tendencies of the Times. 2 vols. Lond., 1869. W. M. Hetherington, The Apologetics of the Christian Faith. N. Y., 1867. John Leland, The Divine Authority of the Old and New Testaments Asserted. Lond., 1837. Henry P. Liddon, Some Elements of ReUgion. Lond., 1873. J. McCosh, An Examination of Mr. John Stuart Mill's Philosophy. Being a Defence of Fundamental Truth. N. Y., 1866. Pitts' Street Chapel Lectures (The). Delivered in Boston in 1S5S, by Clergymen of Six Different Denominations. Boston, 1858. RepUes to "Essays and Reviews," by Goulborn, Rose, Heurtley, Irons, Rorison, Had- dan, Wordsworth. N. Y., 1862. Henry Rogers, Reason and Faith, and other Miscellanies. Boston, 1853. The Eclipse of Faith ; or, a Visit to a Religious Sceptic. Lond. The Superhuman Origin of the Bible inferred from itself. N. Y., 1S74. Sanderson Robbins, A Defence of the Faith. Lond., 1862. Philip Schaff and Napoleon Roussel, Romance of M. Renan and the Christ of the Gospels. N. Y, 1868.. W. A. Scott, The Christ of the Apostles' Creed. N. Y., 1867. A. C. Tait (Abp.), Dangers and Safeguards of Modern Theology. Lond., 1861. L. T. Townsend, Credo. Boston, 1869. Fred. Watson, The Ante-Nicene Apologies; their Character and Value. Camb., 1870 R. Watson, An Apology for the Bible. Passim, et N. Y., 1837. R. B. Welch, Faith and Modern Thought. N. Y., 1876. SECTION V. POLEMICS AND lEENlCS. Comp. Schleiermacher, §§ 53-62 ; Pelt in Herzog's Encyklopsedia, vii, p. 60, and xi, p. 791. M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, articles Ironies and Polemical Theology, vols, iv and vlll. While dogmatics is governed by apologetical motives on the one hand, its entire substance is pervaded by polemical considerations on the other. That is to say, it has continually to recognise confes sional contrasts, as historically revealed by symbolics, and to bring into view what is peculiar in the confession which it professes to support. It thus receives the confessional stamp, without whicli it would cease to be the dogmatics of a particular Church. It has, moreover, to reprove what is erroneous and morbid in the Church itself, and to present the unimpaired rule of doctrine in opposition to (I.ogpiatical perversions. This polemical feature does not, how- 414 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. ever, exclude the irenical, whose aim it is to discover the measure Polemics and of truth in the keeping of opposing parties, and to point arate^^'dmar^ °^^ ^^^ conditions upon which a gradual understanding, ments. and ultimately a true and lasting reconciliation, of ex isting contrasts, may be brought about. Neither polemics or irenies is therefore to be regarded as a separate branch of theological study, but simply as a special side of the department of dogmatics. The older divinfes already distinguished between the acroamatic and elenchieal theology. But symbolics had not yet received its present scientific form. If we assume that the distinctive doctrines have already been discussed in symbolics in so far as they are avail able as historical material, there wrill be nothing more for the dog matic theologian to do than simply to move about on this historical ground with freedom and security, and to know how to strike chiv alrous blows for his Church. But if it is not possible that he should be allowed to escape such service, it is not easy to understand why polemics should become a distinct branch.' Each depends for its life upon the other; polemics becoming empty disputation when it has no dogmatic basis, and simple dogmatics without polemical salt being an insipid hash. Dogmatics derives its confessional charac ter, as Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, and other types, from the polemical tendency it manifests, just as it is shown to be Christ ian dogmatics by the apologetic exposition with which it is intro duced. A dogmatics that is Christian without any qualifying fea ture, to be satisfactory to both Roman Catholics and Protestants in a scientific point of view, is, in the present condition of affairs, wholly inconceivable.'' If the attention w^ere even confined alto gether to biblical dogmatics, the latter would assume a very differ ent form under Roman Catholic from that under Protestant treat- T. ™, « V, *v ment. But, as has been shown in a former section, Dogmatics both ... . . biblical and ec- dogmatics is not simply a statement of Bible doctrine, ciesiasticai. ^^^ ^^ assumes both that and ecclesiastical doctrines. The features added by the dogmatic theologian can only amount to a closer specification of the relation sustained by himself, or rather by his age — in so far as he has apprehended the latter and received ' " Peaceable minds are also, against their will, swept into the stream of polemics, and faithful adherence to denominational belief excites the feeling of resistance to the uninterrupted assaults upon his views in proportion to its strength." — Schenliel, Ges prache, etc., i, Vonede iv. '' Comp. Schleiermacher, § 197, note. The taslc of dogmatics is, nevertheless, not cut short thereby, as Biedermann asserts (Dogmatik, p. 9) — the task, namely, passing beyond the acknowledged existence of diverse views, " of foUowing the confessional branchwork down to its root, the real principle of Christianity, and of basing its judg ments of confessional differences upon that foundation." POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 415 it into himself — to the Bible and the Church, and thus open the way in which the doctrine is to move in the progress of its further development. But how can this be accomplished in the absence of confessional determinateness? Since, however, the ultimate goal of our efforts cannot be division, but unification, the dogmatic theo logian will not be authorized to cling to the letter of the doctrines of his Church, as hitherto received, with a tenacity that makes all approximation toward other confessional views impossible. To defend to the death what is untenable and merely peculiar to the stage of development attained by any particular age, influenced simply by obstinacy and party interest, is bad polemics. Every judicious dogmatist must be intent upon eventually com promising and harmonizina; such contrasts as may exist.' „,, . ^, . i^ f ... . The judicious But such harmonizing is not to be accomplished by an dogmatist a ovei-hasty obliteration of differences, or by forcibly ^'''^°'^^- breaking off their points and grinding their edges, so as to reduce every thing to indefiniteness and imbecility. This is false irenies. It is necessary, on the contrary, that the contrasts be sharply appre hended and followed down to their last details. This honest mode of procedure is less liable than any other to the danger of misrepre senting the views of opponents. For the more earnest the effort to understand the peculiarities of even an antagonistic doctrine, the more will suoh doctrine display characteristics which afford a ground upon which reconciliation is possible. The understanding of a dis ease is the only guide to a right selection of remedies for its cure, while palliatives can only harm. This has been shown by the his tory of the latest times in the case of two of the leading confes sions of Protestantism — the Evangelical Union of the Lutheran and Reformed Confessions of Prussia, introduced by King Frederick William IIL, in 1817. An external union has certainly „ , 11-111. ,1 ,-,. Evangelical been established, but it could not be made effective m union of prus- all quarters, because the internal differences had not ^"^' yet been wholly overcome; the result being that they were only made more prominent. The conflict, however, if it only be con ducted in the interests of truth, and without the intervention of blind passion, may, and will, result in demonstrating that the several evangelical modes under which Protestantism comes into. ' It is most of all necessary that a false consequential spirit be avoided, as it consti tutes a mortal principle to the sciences. A French writer has some capital remarks upon this point : Man is not a system which is divisible like a thread. He is not a mechan ical force which prolongs itself infinitely. Fanaticism in all things is the reduction of intelligence by passion under the yoke of an exclusive idea. — Remusat, De la Re form,, et du Protestantism, p. 52 f. 416 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. notice. are equally justified in the forum of science and before the pious consciousness, and that each serves to complement the other, though neither may be absorbed into the other.' The reconciliation of Roman Catholicism and Protestantism ap pears in a more difficult light up to this time, and the work of the dogmatic theologian will, for the present, be obliged to retain a ipolemical character in this field rather than assume an irenical na ture. The agreement has been carried so far, however, as to admit of the recognition that the differences between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, which have, upon the whole, remained unchanged. Modification of are to be very differently defined by science from what Uo and Protes- ^^^ ^^^ "^^^ ^* *^® beginning of the struggle. The re- tant polemics, lation between Scripture and tradition, for instance, is presented by the later theology of Protestantism in a form mate rially modified from that of former days. The same is true of justi fication and sanctification. The doctrine of the Church, also, is now, for the first time, approaching its thorough development and elab oration. In the Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, the contrast between the Romish and the more independent principle is steadily becoming more prominent. In proportion as the purely evangelical element shall attain to clearness, ,and be distinguished from vague liberalism through the efforts of the nobler spirits in that Church, will agreement, if not unification, upon the common ground of Christianity become possible.^ The idea of polemics is not exhausted, however, when justice has been done to confessional interest. For, while every thing that savours of conflict is termed polemics, it is also true that every science has its polemical side. Apologetics is polemical in one point of view,' and polemics, in the strict sense, involves an apolo getical element. We see illustrations of this in Melanchthon's Apol ogy and similar writings.* Schleiermacher distinguishes between apologetics and polemics, so as to conceive the former as facing outwardly and the latter as turning its attention within, and then ' " Many Lutherans have long since become Calvinists, and many Calvinists Luther ans ; it only remains necessary that the right methods of promoting and expressing this already existing unity be discovered." — Henry at the " Kirchentag " at BerUn (Verhandlungen, p. 34). ^ An attempt of this kind, as is well known, was recently made by Doellinger, the best representative of Old CathoUcism. ' " It is self-evident that no defence that should be simply defensive and not also offensive, and that should not especially lay positive foundations, is possible on scien tific grounds." — Lechler, ubi supra, p. 597. Comp. Hirzel, ubi supra, p. 13. ''Schleiermacher, § 52. Each one of the parties is obliged to defend itself against the charge of anarchy or corruption. POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 417 proceeds to regard polemics more generally as having to do with the repressing of morbid appearances in the Church at sehieiermach- large, as we call indifferentism and separation.' But '^'^''^ deflnition . _ -, 1 1. 1 1 ot relations ut it IS hardly necessary to establish a separate depart- apologetics ment for either this work or the restraining or partial and ""'^ polemics. perverted tendencies in the science generally. Such morbid tend encies '¦' are either to be dealt with theoretically, by dogmatics and ethics, or combated in a practical way, in the field of clerical work and that of general Church activities. But, in the latter case, the canon by which the contest must be regulated, the dXTj^svEiv iv dydTtf] (Eph. iv, 15), is likewise ethical. Both polemics and irenies have, for this reason, a place under practical theology. In con nexion with dogmatics it is better to regard them in the light of " applied dogmatics.'" SECTION VL THE HlSTOET OF POLEMICS AND lEElTICS. Christianity was born for confiict. Christ said that he came not to bring peace, but a sword. Christian polemics, accordingly, be gan with the beginning. Paul and John opposed false teachers. The fathers trod in their footsteps — Irenseus, with his work against a false Gnosis, and Tertullian, with his work on Prescription against Heretics, being especially prominent as fighters of heresy. The entire body of Church doctrine passed through the patristic po- surges of conflict. Irenies sometimes went hand in 'emics. hand with polemics; but such ill-timed attempts to promote. unity served only to increase the intensity and confusion of the struggle. The separation of the Western Church from that of the East, pro fessedly on account of the filioque controversy, introduced a long polemical contest between the two bodies, and also, sitoce the begin ning of the eleventh century, many attempts to bring about a reunion. Strict polemics begins with the division between the ' Sack has carried these categories still further ; Indifferentism (divided into Natur- aUsm and Mythologism) ; Literalism (into Ergism and Orthodoxy) ; Spiritualism (into Rationalism and Gnosticism) ; Separatism (into Mysticism and Pietism) ; and Theoc- ratism (into Hierarchism and Csesaro-Papism). H. Steffensen (in Theol. Mitarbeiten, Kiel, 1841, pp. 3-32) leads back these morbid forms to two fundamental states, ac cording as they obscure " the piety of the Church (the substantial life of the Church) or pious ecclesiasticism (the formal life of the Church "); ^ The attention is, of course, not to be fixed simply upon, the appearances, but, as Sack says, they are to be " traced back to the inward dispositions from which doc trinal differences are developed, as from their root." ' This is done by J. P. Lange in connexion with Dogmatic Statistics and General Therapeutics. 27 418 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. Churches in the Reformation, and the number of the controversial works called forth by circumstances during that period is legion. But similar works continued to issue from both camps in the Church in later times. In the lioniish Church the Spanish Fran ciscan Alphonso de Castro (died 1658 at Brussels) wrote, in the reign of Philip IL, Against all Heresies (libri xiv, Paris, 1534); the Jesuit Francis Coster issued a Controversial Manual (1585); and Gregory de Valentia wrote on Controversial Matters of Faith in this Time (1591). Special prominence attaches to Bellarmine (died 1621) and his work. Disputations on the Controversies of Christian Faith and also to Martin Becanus (died 1624, having been the con fessor of the Emperor Ferdinand IL), the author of a Manual of Controversies of this Period. This Church found a skilful and somewhat peaceably disposed defender in Bossuet, the Bishop of Meaux, who wrote an Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church on Controverted Matters (Paris, 1671). Among Lutherans the following deserve mention: Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent (1565); Nic. Hunnius (died 1643), Examination of the Fundamental Dissent of Lutheran and Calvinistic Doctrine (Vit., 1616) ; Conrad SchliJsselburg, superintendent at Stralsund, Catalogue of Heretics (1597-99) ; and Abr. Calov, Synopsis of Controversies. Other dogmatical writers also mingled a large measure of polemics with the dogmatical material in their works. Among Reformed theologians we may mention Hospinian, Con- Eeiormed writ- cordia Discordant (Zurich, 1607), replied to by Hutter in era. his Concord Concordant (Vit., 1614); Daniel Chamier (at Montauban), The Whole Catholic Army (1626); Joh. Hoorn- beck. Sum of Controversies (1653); Fr. Turretin, Institutes of The ological Summary (1681-85); and Fr. Spanheim, the elder (died 1649), and the younger (died 1701), in a number of works. The irenical tendency occasionally progressed side by side with the polemical, or took its place when polemical zeal had spent its force. Thus, Nicolas de Cusa wrote, in the fifteenth century, his Dialogue on the Peace or Concord of Faith (ed. by Semler, 1787). The irenical tendency was represented in the Protestant Church by G. Calixtus, whose efforts led to the Syncretistio controversies. An Introduction to Polemical Divinity was written, in 1762, by J. G. Walch, of Jena. The zeal for polemics diminished after the middle of the eight eenth century, and particularly toward its close, and writings and maunderings were composed about unity, generally emanating from the position of indifferentism. The newly awakened confessional zeal of Protestantism in the nineteenth century, however, called THE HISTORY OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS. 419 forth a large number of controversial writings in the conflict against Ultramontanism and Jesuitism; but the purely scientific interest was often subordinated by the fervour of the combatants to the practical questions of the hour. The scientific treatment of polemics was even relegated to the more peaceable field of symbol ics; and it is quite recently that Hase has restored polemics to honour as a science in the strict sense, and has again incorporated it with the circle of theological studies.' The scientific status of irenies, on the other hand, is altogether of recent date, scientific status and its system is not yet developed to any considerable "' h-enics. extent. It secured a foothold as a factor in the domain of practical life, but often served only to provide new material for polemics. Thus the union which was consummated in Prussia and elsewhere in the course of the second decade of the century, called forth a multitude of works and counter-works. We may mention J. Schu- deroff, on the General Union of the Christian Confessions (Neust., 1829); H. Steffens, What Lutheranism is to Me (Breslau, 1831); Rudelbach, Reformation, Lutheranism, and the Union (Leipz., 1839) ; K. F. Gaupp, Union of the German Church (Breslau, 1843) ; J. A. G. Woltersdorff, The Ecclesiastical Union (Stendal, 1851); and* Jul. Mueller, The Evangelical Union (Berlin, 1854). Of historical work are the following : Nitzsch, Archives of the Evangelical Union (Berlin, 1853); R. Stier, Unlutheran Theses (Brunsw., 1864); and Carl Schulz, The Union: An Inquiry into its History and Doctrine (Gotha, 1868). LITERATURE OF POLEMICS AND IRENICS. J. G. Planck, Ueber die Trennung und Wiedervereinigung der getrennten christi. Hauptparteien. Tiib., 1803. '- Worte des Friedens an die katholische Kirche gegen ihre Vereinigung mit der protestantischen. Gott., 1809. Ph. Marheineke, Ueber das wahre Verhaltniss des Katholicismus und Protestantismus und die projectirte Kirchenvereinigung. Heidelb., 1810. K. H. Sack, Christi. Polemik. Hamb., 1838. J. P. Lange, Die gesetzlich-kathol. Kirche als Sinnbild der freien evangelisch-kathol- ischen Kirche. Heidelb., 1850. D. Schenkel, Unionsberuf des evangelischen Protestantismus. Heidelb., 1855. Fr. Jul. Stahl, Die Lutherische Kirche und die Union, eine wissenschaftliche Erorter ung, etc. Berl., 1859. 2d ed., 1S60. For wider circles of readers : D. Sehenliel, Gesprache iiber Protestantismus und Katholicismus. Heidelb., 1852, 1853. 2 vols. ' It is true, indeed, that Schleiermacher already assigned to it an honorary place among such studies, and that Sack wrote, in A. D. 1838, a textbook of this science ; but the example produced no lasting consequences. 430 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. William E. Gladstone, Rome and the Newest Fashions in Literature : an Answer to Reproofs and Replies. Svo. N. Y., 1875. W. Archer Butler. Letters on Romanism. Lond., 1858. Samuel Edg.ar, The Variations of Popery. Revised. N. Y., 1849. Charles Elliott, Delineation of Romanism. 2 vols., Svo. N. Y., 1851. Julius Charles Hare, The Contest with Rome. Cambridge, 1856. W. Howitt, History of Priestcraft. New ed. Lond., 1846. F. D. Maurice, The Religion of Rome, and its Influence on Modern CiviUzation. Lond. 1855. J. Michelet, Priests, Women, and FamiUes. Lond., 1846. N. Murray (Kirwan), Letters to Bishop Hughes. Revised and Enlarged ed. N.Y., 1856. Napoleon Roussell, Catholic and Protestant Nations Compared in their Tlireefold Relations to Wealth, Knowledge, and Morality. Boston, 1855. R. W. Thompson, The Papacy and the CivU Power. N. Y., 1876. Richard Whately. Errors of Romanism Traced to their Origin in Human Nature. New ed. Lond., 1856. J. Blanco White, Practical and Internal Evidence Against CathoUcism. Lond., 1835. SECTION VH. THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS. The method of arranging and dividing the material of dogmatics is, beyond all question, dej^endent on the underlying dogmatical view, since it is no small question which doctrine shall control the others, or what relations the v,arious articles of the creed are to sustain to each other, or what is their bearing upon the entire body Theological of Christian truth. The traditional method, by Theolog- Heads. jcal Topics, or Heads, has, on that account, not only been variously modified, but has also been superseded to some extent by other modes of division, and in part combined with them. The question concerning the particular doctrine which is to be placed at the base, so to speak, the npibTov kivovv of dogmatics, reaches back into apologetics. What is the essential feature of Christianity? what is the principal subject of its teaching? what are fundamental articles? Upon these questions will depend the entire structure of the dogmatics. If it be held that the doctrine about Dogmatics de- Christ is less important than what he taught, and that senra of Christ *^^ essential thing in connexion with Christianity is tianity. that it has thrown light upon the doctrines relating to God and his attributes, and also those which concern human des tiny, the entire system will assume a character different from what it would be if it be assumed that the central point of Christianity • Excellent hints for the cultivation ol Ironies are lurnished in the work by Liicke : Ueber das Alter, den Verlasser, die urspriingliche Form und den wahren Sinn des kirchl. Friedensspruches : In necessariis unitas, in non necessarils Ubertas, in utrisque caritas. GOtt., 1850. THE METHOD OF DOGMATICS. 431 lies in the personality of the God-man, or in the fact of redemption, or in the justification of the sinner before God by faith, or, finally, in the mystery of the Trinity. Each of these views will necessitate a plan on which to dispose of the separate doctrines within the gen eral structure. The traditional method began with God and his attributes, pro gressed through the creation until it arrived at man and his sin, passed through these to the Redeemer and his work, and then dis cussed the Church and the sacraments, until it closed with an out look into the future, or the last things. This has been ^ne Local or denominated the Local or Topical method, from locus Topical Method. or Tonog, which corresponds to the terms caput or pars fidei, or articles of faith (apBpov ryg rlarEug).' It is already found with John of Damascus and the scholastics, and it has been the usual method with Lutherans since Melanchthon, though the latter him self had followed a different method in the first edition of his Loci Communes, which begins with man and his need of salvation. Dif ferent principles of arrangement were .attempted from time to time in the Reformed Church. Thus we may mention the Federal method (methodus foederalis) of Cocceius and Witsius in the 17th century," which was adopted among moderns by Augusti ; ' and the division according to the Persons of the Trinity, by Melchior Ley- decker, in the same century,* which is followed by Marheinecke in his Dogmatik, Schirmer in his Biblical Dogmatics, and Rosenkranz in his Encyclopaedia. Schleiermacher's method is peculiarly founded on the contrast between sin and grace as constituting the turning point schieiermach- in the Christian conception of the world. His Dog- er's method. matics falls into two principal parts : 1. " The pious feeling of dependence, without reference to the contrast between personal in ability and imparted ability;" 2. With a substantial recognition of such contrast. Hase divides dogmatics into ontology and Chris tology. Anthropology and theology are classed under the former head, and eschatology is discussed under anthropology, while the doctrines of the Holy Spirit, the Church, and the sacraments con- ' See Bretschneider, Entwicklung der dogmatischen Begriffe, p. 191. The proof texts in Scripture were also termed loci classici, loci probantia, dicta classica, sedes doctrinae, and the science which treated proof passages was termed topics. " Foedus naturae et operum and foedus gratiae with economies ante legem, sub lege, and jDosi legem, Comp. Al. Schweizer, Ref. Dogm., p. 103 sqq. ' 1. Of the state of sin; 2. Of the state of grace; 3. The facts of Christianity (which hobble along at quite a distance). * Oomp. Schweizer, ubi supra, p. 115 sqq. 433 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. stitute a part of his Christology.' Like Schleiermacher, he places the Trinity, " as the sum and consummation of Christology," at the end. Kling argues that Christology is entitled to the first place." He agrees with Hahn in considering the doctrine of Christ as the Son of God and of man, the Saviour of the world, the fundamental doctrine of the Christian religion, but, diverging from that scholar, prefers to begin with the doctrine of the person of Christ.' It is more correct, however, to regard the person of Christ as ^ ._^, forming; the centre of Christian dogmatics, to which Chnst s person ° ./-in the centre of all our knowledge respecting God and man refers in a dogmatics. prophetic way, and from which it again proceeds, as having been satisfied by Christ. While the character of Christi anity is the " divinely human," * it yet appears to be a more natural method to consider, first, God in his relations to man apart from the mediation of Christ, as the Creator, Lawgiver, and Judge ; next, man in his relations to God while unredeemed ; (a) as the creature and image of God, (b) as a sinner, and (c) Christ as the God-man and Redeemer, the latter constituting the centre from which man kind as redeemed by him, as glorified in him, but also as progress ing toward its consummation in him, is discussed. In this way the separate doctrines of salvation, or soteriology, and of the Church, the sacraments, and eschatology will form the completion of anthro pology, on the one hand, while, on the other, the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, which finds its jiroper place at this point, in connexion with the exaltation of Christ and his kingly ofiice, brings the doc trine of God in the Trinity to a full completion. There is no propriety in discussing Christ before attention has been directed toward God and man, but it is not, on the other hand, possible to finish either the doctrine of God or of man with out including Christ. The whole of the doctrine of the Trinity is left in the condition of an uncomprehended speculative problem, if it be not prefaced by Christology, and eschatology comes under notice too far in advance when treated, as it is by Hase, before the doctrine of Christ. The topical method, as a whole, may, there fore, be retained, but so that each topic shall find its completion ' Evangel. Dogmatik, 2d ed., p. 46 sqq. ° Gestalt der evang. Dogmatik in Tiib. Zeitschrift for 1834, No. 4. 'Hahn's division is as follows: 1. Theology, consummated in the Son of God; 2. Anthropology, in the Son of man ; 3. Soteriology, in the Redeemer ; 4. The doc trine cf the Church, as founded, governed, and consummated by Christ, the promised and glorified King of truth. '' Comp. Ebrard's Inaugural Address, Die Gottmenschlichkeit des Christenthums, Zur., 1846. THE METHOD OP DOGMATICS. 433 in the others, and that, for that reason, it shall not be brought to a conclusion without bringing the others into account. Betention oi This is the meaning which underlies the federative topical method. method, and, also, the arrangement of Schleiermacher. Both these methods seek to destroy the invariable and mechanical arrangement by which the articles succeed each other under regular rubrics, and to establish living relations among the various doctrines. We would not, therefore, argue in favour of the traditional method without modifications, as does Pelt,' though we see no reason for rejecting the customary terminology, such as theology, anthro pology, and the rest. The outlines of a system of dogmatics, such as we outline oi dog- should prefer, would be as follows : 1. God, and his relation to the world and to man as his creature. Natural, legal, and prophetical theology. 2. Man, as related to God and the world, so long as they have not been brought together through the mediation of Christ. The doctrine of man's primeval state ; the destination of man, and sin. 3. The doctrine of the personality of the God-man and his work for the redemption of mankind. Christology and objective soteri ology — the heart of Christian dogmatics. 4. Man as related to Christ, and through Christ to God. The doctrine of salvation, subjective soteriology, the ordo salutis. The doctrine of the Holy Spirit. 5. Man as related to Christ, and through Christ to the world. Communion of believers, the Church, and sacraments. Hence, also, man's changed relation to nature — death, the resurrection, and the whole of eschatology. 6. God, manifested in Christ, in his relation toward himself. The Christian doctrine of the Trinity in its immanent meaning. 7. God in his relation to the world, viewed in connexion with the fact of redemption. The kernel of the whole, Christology, is thus inclosed within theology, and the interior connecting links wiU constitute the anthropology. The attributes of God need not, in this arrangement, be separ ated from each other, as Schleiermacher's method requires. They may be placed under the first head, but would, of course, attain their full significance only at the end. A method that corresponds, in the main, to the above, and that commends itself to favour by its clearness, is that of AL Schwei- ' Encyklopaedie, p. 502. 424 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. zer.' It possesses the additional advantage of having taken the so- schweizer's called prolegomena, generally constituting a separate part, method. ju which the fundamental elements are laid down, from its isolation, and bringing it into organic connexion with the remain der of the system of belief. In this way he obtains the following division into three parts : 1. The laying of foundations, or the con sciously realized faith of Christianity in the Evangelical Church as a whole; the apologetic, or better, the grounding part. 2. The elements contained in the pious Christian consciousness which do not involve the specifically peculiar character of Christianity — the elemental part. 3. The specifically Christian side or part. It is evident, of course, that the two former divisions will be more ab breviated than the latter. SECTION VIIL THEOLOGY. Comp. Nitzsch, in Herzog, Encyklopaedie, s. v. GrOtt. Article Theology, in M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopasdia, vol. a. Theology is, in Christian dogmatics, used to designate the doc trine relating to God, and more especially God as he has appeared Meaning ol t^ man. Such theology has nothing in common with theology. scepticism, which everywhere professes to know nothing about God, nor with that false dogmatism which claims to know more about God than he has permitted man to know. In treating his nature and attributes it, accordingly, has respect not to metaphysi cally ontological questions as it does to religious considerations, and is conscious of the figurative character of the language and modes of reference it must employ, as well as of the real and substantial basis upon which such language and modes rest. We may appropriate to ourselves the assertion of Feuerbach, that theology is, at bottom, merely anthropology, without accepting it in the sense of Feuerbach. In fact, his definition may even be employed against him. We concede that, in a certain sense, the ology is anthropology, and that it must be anthropological through and through, if it be acknowledged, on the other hand, that anthro pology is also modified by theology, or that the two are simply diverging members of a single body, which body is religion. The ^ ., u „„ Bible everywhere teaches a human God, that is, a God God, human •' ^ . r-, and superhu- for man. This is the true anthropopathy. He is a God '"™' who is likewise superhuman, but whatever of the su perhuman is revealed always has reference to the human element. ' Christliche Glaubenslehre nach Protestant. Grundsatzen, p. 86. Comp. the entire section, Methode der Glaubenslehre, p. 70 sqq. THEOLOGY. 435 The entire Old Testament speaks of God as dwelling in the midst of his people; the entire New Testament describes him as mani fested in Christ, and through Christ become the father of humanity. Even the creation of heaven and earth is narrated in a human method, that is, from a human point of view, and is adapted to the needs of man, whose home is in the earth. This constitutes religion, which dogmatics is to apprehend, in all wisdom and humility, as the religion that emanates from God, and is willed and ordered by him. It does not seek to comprehend God as he exists from eternity to eternity ; it is satisfied to know that he is. But it desires to know every thing respecting his nature that he has revealed to man, and also the relation into which he has en tered with man, who is modelled after the image of God. Hence, all sound dogmatic theologians have, from the beginning, asserted the incomprehensibility of God as strongly as they have incomprehensi- taught that, with reference to our salvation, he is com- ^'^^^ °' '^°^- prehensible by us,' and they have demonstrated, in the works of creation and redemption, the glories of his character which have been made known to us. Their position is at once that occupied by reason and the Scriptures. Dogmatics is not obliged to prove the existence of God. But it, nevertheless, takes that slender thread which runs through the history of the human race which inquires after God, and points out how the consciousness that he exists is manifested in connexion with the different forms of argument — the physico-theological, cos- mological, ontological, historical, moral, and the rest — and that the very fact that search for such proof is made, is, in this case, of itself a sufficient proof." It treats the attributes of God, not as coming upon him from without, and attaching themselves to him in an ex ternal way, but as being the unfolding of his nature in behalf of our natural and moral consciousness. Here, then, is the place in which to discuss the relation of God to the world and the human spirit, but in an ethical and religious light, ' Comp. the citations from the Fathers in Hagenbach, History of Doctrines, § 27 (Smith's ed.). ' " More than one hundred demonstrations in geometry have been made of the Pythagorean theorem, all of which accomplish the same object. Innumerable proofs of the existence of God have likewise been constructed, but they failed to accompUsh what they promised to achieve. . . . God is not a right-angled triangle, and it is not possible to invent either numerous or striking evidences respecting him. There is but one proof for God, and this he wields himself." — Rosenkranz, Encyklopaedie, p. 6. Hamann, already, remarks that "if he is a fool who denies God, he is a much greater fool who attempts to prove his existence." Comp., however, G. A. Fricke, Argumenat pro Dei existentia exponuntur et judicantur. Lips., 1846. 436 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. rather than in that of pure speculation. The idea of the divine per- cod's relation sonality is here to be investigated in its religious bear- to the world, ings, and anthropomorphism and anthropopathy here find their psychological basis and theological corrective, the language of the Bible and the needs of the human heart being duly recognized.' The doctrines of the creation and preservation of the world, of Providence and the government of the world, as well as of sin (theodicy), all depend on theology. Here, again, dogmatics is re quired to fix a clear boundary between matters which belong to the religious conception of the world and those which are proper ly cosmical in their character. The older dogmatic theologians, even John of Damascus, included physics, natural history, and astronomy. But the more recent science has properly thrown over all such ballast. Still, there is constant temptation to wander off into foreign fields, such as geological researches with reference to the narrative of the creation. Theology must content itself with the idea of creation as such. The doctrines of angels and of demons are usually connected Angeioiogy and with that of creation, though the second one stands demonoiogy. more particularly related to the doctrine of the fall, and hence with that of sin. It is to be remembered, however, that the idea of angels was in existence when Christianity appeared, and that the latter adopted the existing views without formulating them into a distinct doctrine, or founding on them any material feature of revealed religion. Here, again, we meet the temptation of straying off into false metaphysics, of identifying, without quali fication, the poetic with the didactic, and popular figurative notions with definite scientific statements, all of which are not easy to keep asunder in the given case. Or, we are exposed to the danger of a gross realism, by which the one element is mistaken for the other. EeHgious ele- It is, therefore, necessary to commend at this point that Sineshouidbe j^dioious dogmatical procedure which aims, first of all, prominent. to bring the religious element of a doctrine into promi nence, and thereby naturally preserve the true medium between coarse literalism and superficial negation.^ ' Comp. § 29. " Human forms of speech, anthropomorphisms, are most frequently applied to God when piety is vital and communion with him is habitual; and the Bible leads in this direction ; so that, in this very matter, and even in expressions that are at iirst offensive to reason and exposed to ridicule, there is reason for admiring the high degree of pedagogical wisdom in religious things, however great the naivete, and for observing that even the pious naivete alone has the best of the argument." — Hirzel, in the Kirchenfreund, 1873, No. 10, p. 154, article Zum Streit und Freiden. ^ Comp. the article Engel, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, iv, by Boehmer. It is not ANTHROPOLOGY. 427 SECTION IX. ANTHEOPOLOGT. Theological differs from physiological anthropology in that, al though it proceeds upon the basis of man's natural condition, it does not regard him in his relation to nature, but as he stands related to God. It is divided into the two leading sections of a doctrine of man's original state prior to the fall, and a doctrine of the fall and of sin, which was thereby introduced into human nature, and has since perpetuated itself and been actualized in the experience of every individual Theological anthropology of a scientific character is, of course, impossible apart from physiological anthropology; that Theological an- is, apart from all acquaintance with man as naturally thropoiogy. constituted. But the latter serves merely as a natural foundation. The most perfect familiarity with human nature in its anatomical and physiological, and even in its psychological, asjjects, in so far as psychology restricts itself to psychological limits, will not be com petent to disclose to our view the religious nature of man.' It is allowable, of course, to find mere accommodation in the discourses of our Lord which relate to the world of angels and demons, which are not only based on a religious idea, but also on an earnest reality. The doctrine concerning Satan, for instance, rests on the fact of the power of evil, which reaches down into the deepest abysses of dark ness (Daub's Ischarioth). It has been wittily said by Rougemont, with reference to this point ; Men have pretended that all the demonoiogy of Jesus was only an accommo dation to the prejudices of his people and his age. This is as much as to say that the battles of Alma and Inkerman are only an accommodation of Napoleon IIL to the prejudices of the French against the Russians. What struggle has ever been more real, more terrible, more gigantic, than that of the Son of God and of Satan in the wilderness? — Christ et ses Temoins, vol. i, p. 152. But this yields no stronger proof for the personaUty of Satan than for that of death, sin, or hell, which, likewise, are powers that were overcome by Christ in a real sense, and not figuratively only. The figurative designation of "the thing is here interchanged with the thing itself,' whose reality continues unchanged. Schenkel, foUowing in the footsteps of Schleier macher, has subjected the doctrine of the devil to the light of a rigorous criticism -(Dogmatik, i, p. 247 sqq.). On the other hand, persons are not wanting who hold that effects are still produced, and persons possessed, by demons at the present time. ' Tbe remark of Rosenkranz (Encykl., p. S3), that " theological anthropology has nothing to do with the physical and intellectual nature of man," is too strong. But it is true that "it must turn over the consideration of that nature to philosophical an thropology, and fix its attention on the relation in which man stands to God." Comp. Harless, in preface to his Ethik (4th ed.) : " I beheve that our divines would do well by not restraining their interest in the field of physical research too far ; for it is only in the light of unjustifiable abstraction that the latter can seem to have nothing in common with the mind." Darwin's theory of the descent of man, tracing him back 438 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. true that this religious nature of man may be apprehended to some extent by psychological inquiry, but, by this method, man appears only as an isolated specimen of his race ; and a penetrating observation of his nature is afforded only by the history of mankind iu connexion with the revelations made by God. We, therefore, urge that, as in dogmatics, theology is required to be anthropolog ical, so, in like manner, must anthropology be theological.' The questions which relate to body and soul, or body, soul, and spirit, and to the origin of the latter (pre-existence, traducianism, crea- tionism), are in place here only in so far as one theory or an other becomes necessary for the understanding of man's religious nature. The proper course of dogmatical procedure will be to apprehend in their real spirit the few grand indications of the Scriptures upon such matters as the image of God, and to so present them to our spirit through the medium of exegesis, history, and philosophy, as The high idea to enable US to grasp the more exalted idea of human- of humanity, ^j i^eneath the figurative language by which it is ex pressed. Upon the correct apjjrehension of that idea depends the correct view of sin, whether it is to be considered a mere negation, or natural deficiency, or a privation, depravation, and perversion of human nature. These are the terms that distinguish between the Protestant and the Roman Catholic views. The history of man's fall into sin is likewise involved in great difficulties when regarded as simple history. But the genesis of sin, as repeated daily, may, nevertheless, be demonstrated from the masterly and matchless narrative. It is impossible to deny that the consciousness of a common guilt, of which every individual par takes, is profoundly religious in its nature, and attested by both Scripture and experience. Nowhere do psychological inquiry and Thedoctrineoi the study of God's word, considered as the judge of ^'°- human thoughts, more fully complement, or rather ex plain, each other than in the doctrine of sin. Does not Paul speak on this point (Rom. vii) with reference to his own experience, and from out of the depths of human nature as a whole ? The same holds true of Augustine and Luther. Abstract reason will, of course, always incline toward Pelagianism upon such doctrines, since it affords a necessary corrective in many particular respects. to an ape, which has been so much discussed of late, will not at all disturb the scholar who knows how to distinguish between the domain of religion and that kind of nat ural science which must often take a backward step ; but it will afford food for reflec tion and for profounder thought with respect to the Umitations of our knowledge. ' Comp. Bunsen, Hippolytus i, p. 289 sqq. ANTHROPOLOGY. 439 But the mind derives no satisfaction from that course, inasmuch as it is continually reminded of a rupture that is more profound than refiection is able to perceive.' SECTION X. CHRISTOLOG T. Comp. Khng, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, a. v. ii, and article Christology, in M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopsedia, vol. ii. Inasmuch as the religious relation subsisting between God and man finds its historical exemplification only, and in a peculiar man ner, in the person of Jesus Christ, the God-man, Christology must constitute, not merely an essential part, but the very centre of a system of dogmatics. Its task will be to conceive Jesus „„_, , , •' ° Christology the as sinless man, as free from error, in so far as this centre of dog- stands connected with sin, and, for that reason, as being '"^*"^- the only-begotten Son of God, and God manifest in the flesh. It will be required to harmonize the qualities which Jesus possesses in common with the race, or human nature, with tliose which stamp him as unique, and exalt him above the race, and, therefore, of the divine nature, without, on that account, being authorized to set aside his real and complete humanity, or to obscure the greatness of his specific deity. The life of Jesus forms the historic basis of Christology. But the latter has to cultivate thorousrhly a ground which ,., , ^ ^ J i^ ^ ^ _ Life of Jesus the former, in its character as a purely historical sci- the basts oi ence, could not include within its territory.'' There has cnnstoiogy. been no lack, however, of theologians who assert that Christology is superfluous, and who thereby stab Christian dogmatics, consid ered as specifically Christian, to the heart.' Their dogmatics is ' Comp. Hundeshagen, Der Weg zu Christo, i, p. 136. ,' Rothe, among others, points out the necessity of apprehending the divine nature of Christ from the study of the picture of his human life : " To speak of recognizing and acknowledging the divine element in Christ without having observed it shine forth from what is human in him, or having caught its reflection in the mirror of his hu manity, is merely to bandy idle words. . . Apart from the underlying oasis of hu manity, the whole of the sacred life and work of Jesus by which redemption was effected becomes a magnificent phantasmagoria, an empty pageant, upon which no one may depend for comfort and for hope either in life or death. The unavoidable conse quence, in short, is unmitigated Docetism." — In Schenkel's Zeitschrift, pp. 380, 383. ^Thus by Henke, in the preface to his Linsementa, p. 12: " Ut omnis haec in Christum religio ad religionem Christi magis revocetur, omni opera contendendum est." Comp. Riihr, Briefe iiber Rationalismus, p. 36 : " What supernaturaUsts term Christolog)' in their dogmatics does not appear in my system as an integral part at all ; for, while it constitutes a religion which Jesus taught, it is not one whose object he 430 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. confined altogether to theology and anthropology, and in the prog ress of their works Christ appears simply as one theologian and an thropologist among others, to whom an occasional appeal is made, but not as the ¦d-Eav^ptonog, who is himself the central feature of dogmatics. But objection against this very ¦dedvSpconog idea has been raised . . . from many quarters. The term, it is true, is not biblical, term "God- and cannot be found in the Bible Dictionary. But can all '^^'^' the terms with which the attributes of God are desig nated, and others with which dogmatics has been enriched, be found in the Bible ? The term " God-man " may, no doubt, be so under stood as to involve a contradiction. If the idea proceeds on the assumption of an un-human God and an un-divine man, wbo are to be joined together in an outward form, the one will necessarily ex clude the other; in other words, the ancient "finite is not capable of the infinite." But it has been correctly shown that the divinely human character of Christianity and the divine humanity of the Saviour condition each other.' It is only necessary to remember, in this matter, that language of this character is developed on the soil of religion, and not on that of abstract speculation. The entire doctrine of the person of Christ may be apprehended in a very irra tional way, either as describing the mechanical contact of two dis similar things, the two members of the Form of Concord, or as a mixture of divine and human elements, as we see in Apollinar- ism.' In this way the one is disturbed and obscured by the other rather than modified and complemented by it. The doctrine of the Church itself has not always been free from Doctrine ol the abstruse and confusing definitions, though it has, with prop^eHy de- correct judgment, continued to insist on the davyx'i'Tug, fined. drpsnTUg, dSiaiperug, and a%wpt(TTWf. The truth upon this subject cannot be intuitively understood, but may be appre hended in its character as a truth to be accepted by faith; and while the truly wise may arrive at an understanding with regard to it, a satisfactory agreement and a logical settlement upon its merits are utterly impossible to persons who are merely puffed up with their knowledge. The history of doctrines affords the most striking evidences of might be himself." The most recent rationalizing theology seems inclined to return to this Ebionitic view. Vide the " Sohlussbetrachtung " in Strauss' Life of Jesus for the German People. ' Ebrard, ubi supra. ^ Comp. the History of Doctrines. Guizot, however, still speaks of a. " continual mixture of the divine and the human.'' CHRISTOLOGY. 431 this fact. Whenever the attempt is made to bring Christology to a logical conclusion, and formulate it, the difficulty of avoiding Ebionitism or Docetism, Nestorianism or Monophysitism, which stand on either side like Scylla and Charybdis, will present itself, and the history of doctrines will require to defend itself against the attacks of various forms of heresy in the manner best suited to re pel the antagonizing error. The, reason for this fact does not, how ever, lie in the doctrine itself, with its infinite significance, but in the human limitations which affect the dogmatics of each particular age.' SECTION XL SOTEEIOLOGT. Most intimately connected with the doctrine of the Redeemer's person is the doctrine of the salvation which depends on him, and of the appropriation of this salvation on our part by faith. This is soteriology. Its objective side is found in the work of Christ, in the redemption and atonement wrought by him. Its subjective side is found in the work of the Holy Spirit upon the human heart, ' The merely complementary relation sustained by the two leading confessions of Protestantism to each other is pointed out by Schneckenburger, Vom doppelten Stande Christi, Pforzheim, 1848. Jul. Miiller beautifuUy observes that "at this point evangelical theology needs a new development out of the Holy Scriptures as the orio-- inal source of doctrinal life, and accompanied with a rejection of the entire ballast of formulas, which, in the dogmatics of former times, was connected with the idea of the communis naturarum. In such development the leading object must be held to the preservation in doctrinal form of the evangelical picture of the life of Jesus Christ in its human truthfulness and comprehensibiUty, undeterred by monophysite, docetic, or Nestorian opinions, but accompanied by the declaration that this man Jesus Christ is the logos, in the flesh, God of God, born in eternity of the Father. . . . The thought that he who, as the eternal logos, is with the Father, is at the same time a true Son of man, contains such au inexhaustible fulness of knowledge respecting the common sal vation, that every division based on the effort to definitely formulate the relation be tween the divine and human natures in Christ becomes a, sin committed against the God-man himself, to whom all profess a common allegiance. — Die evangel. Union, ihr Wesen und ihr Gottliches Recht, 1st ed., Berl., 1854, p. 316 sqq. Comp. also Rothe, ubi supra, p. 384 : "When this shall have become clear, that moral unity with God is to be conceived as not ideal only, but as real, as the result of a more thorough ac quaintance with the interior nature of moral being, then shall we also, for the first time, have grasped the key to Christology, and behold a living Christ, in sharp and vivid outlines, before the eye of the mind — a Christ who is bone of our bone, and flesh of our flesh, and at the same time the only begotten of the Father, in whose pres ence we are constrained to bow and exclaim with Thomas, ' My Lord and my God ! ' Then will the breathings of our faith be deep and joyous, when it has seen the dawn ing of this bright light in the midst of darkness — it is faith in Christ, instead of unbe lief, which has penetrated through the dogma." 433 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. the different gradations of which are denominated the order of sal vation. The principal points to settle are, the relation of justifica tion to sanctification, of divine grace, to human freedom, and of faith to works. The confessional opposition between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism is more sharply defined in this field than in any other. The doctrine of Christ's person would, indeed, belong to the realm Christ the Me- oi idle Speculation if its only purpose were to conceive diator. q£ Jesus as an isolated marvel upon the page of history, or as a God man who appears and vanishes away like some meteor. But this is not its object. Christ, as being the Son of God and Son of man, becomes the Mediator between God and man. He atones and redeems. His death is made to appear as the crowning point of his redeeming work, and Christ himself is the basis of reconcilia tion, the IXaojiog. In him the old dies, and the new attains to life. Death and resurrection are the pivots upon which his character turns for the history of his world. The dogma concerning the death of Jesus belongs, in one respect, to Christology, as having proceeded out from the person of Christ, But, in its results, that death forms the condition of salvation, and the doctrine, therefore, belongs to soteriology. To apprehend this death in its religious significance, not from the idea of mere abstract right, as a satisfac tion, nor yet from the idea of mere moral influence, as an example, but rather as a free thought of love, executed under a divine neces sity in harmony with God's eternal decree, and as therefore fraught with infinite consequences for the entire human race, constitutes one of the highest problems of Christian dogmatics. In the solution of it the religious spirit is required to participate, as well as the rea son, with its combining and analytical processes.' But it is as improper to isolate the work of Christ as to isolate his person. The death of Jesus is most intimately and organically con nected with his life previous to his death, and with the development of the kingdom of God subsequent to his resurrection, and also with Subjective so- the regeneration of each individual. This is subjective terioiogy. soteriology, the order of salvation. The process which was regarded as dynamical by the Christianity of apostolic times, that is to say, the change wrought in man by the Spirit of God — repentance, regeneration, renewing of the spirit, and sanctification — was, in later days, classified under the heads of illumination, con version, sanctification, and perseverance, and the whole made to tend toward the goal of a most intimate communion with God, a ' Comp. Hagenbach's articles on this subject in the Kirchenbl. fiir die Ref. Schweiz, 1864, Nos. 7 and 9. SOTERIOLOGY. 433 itnio mystica cum Deo. The two ideas which are chiefly important here, however, and which the Protestant doctrine, as distinct from the Roman Catholic, clearly distinguishes from each other, are justi fication and sanctification. The former term is made justification and to denote the acquittal of the sinner on the part of sauctttication. God, considered simply as a declaratory act, while the latter desig nates the gracious process by which the personal life of an individ ual is developed into the divine. Although it is difficult to separate one from the other, their separation in the idea is required by the principle of evangelical Protestantism, that man is justified solely by the grace of God to the exclusion even of every consideration arising out of the good which God has wrought in man. This latter is simply a consequence resulting from the new relationship. But the determining of the exact relation of the grace which makes man free to the will of man which thus attains to freedom — which must always enter into the account as a will, and, therefore, as relatively free — is among the most difficult of doctrinal problems, which so easily admit of a turning aside to either the right or left. Both the Scriptures and experience assert that, on the one hand, man is unable to perform any thing without the aid of God, and that, on the other, he possesses the power of choosing to obey the call of grace or to refuse its authority. The whole history of doctrines shows that, in some periods of the Church, the greate'r emphasis was laid on the freedom of the will, while in others its fettered state was made more prominent. This is the point at which it becomes neces sary to develop the idea of freedom into clearness, and here, espe cially, the philosophy of religion and that of dogmatics flow into each other.' A profound study of the problem will always result in the inclination to set aside the contrast, and to distinguish between free dom and license, between necessity and compulsion, and between what is done by God in man and man in God, and what is done by man without God and by God without man.^ The letter of the symbolical definitions in the doctrine of the Protestant Church is often too harsh and unmanageable, and cannot be fully maintained ' In our arrangement the doctrine of freedom will come under notice twice in the system ; first in connexion with the doctrine of sin, and next in connexion with that of grace. Anthropology, in general, will also fall into these two halves. ° " The solution of the great problem is found by turning the attention away from an abstract consideration of man and his separation from God, and fixing it upon the constant divine influence by which man becomes a higher personality ; thus the possibility of a free self-determination even toward the good is always preserved. The idea of a separation between divine causality and the free activ ity of man must be given up ; both are with and in each other," etc. — KUng, ubi supra, p. 32. 28 434 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. in every feature of such definition. But the evangelical principle, which finds expression in that form, will eventually be recognized as the true and the only principle that can abide every test. SECTION XH. THE CHUECH AND THE SACEAMENTS. The salvation which proceeds from Christ reaches the individual through the medium of the religious community. The individual, however, enters into a living relation with that community only through faith in Christ. Thus the doctrine of Christ and the doc trine of the Church condition each other. Dogmatics has to deal with the idea of the Church only on its interior or religious side, the external relation of the Church to the State and its political organization falling within the province of ecclesiastical law. Dog matics, however, is obliged to furnish the governing ideas for the guidance of the latter. Its office with relation to the means of grace to be administered by the Church — the word of God and the sacraments — is, in like manner, to apprehend them in their religious significance, while the careful determination of the most appropriate mode of conducting the administration belongs to liturgies. "The importance of the doctrine of the Church," says Kostlin, " for the science of Christian teaching, while it has been remarkably misapprehended during an extended period, has more recently been recognized the more clearly and emphatically." ' But many an error has been committed in the process, and what is outward has been made prominent to a degree that suggests danger, and in a manner that can hardly be reconciled with the spirit of the reformers, or even with that of Luther, the authority of whose example is in voked." Whether, as Schleiermacher states the contrast, the Ro- ' Luther's Lehre von der Kirche (Stuttg., 1853), p. 1. There is much conflict of opinion upon this doctrine at the present time ; " but so much is settled that Protes tantism is divided among itself not so much with reference to the idea ot the Church as concerning the relation of the phenomenon to the idea." — Schenkel, ubi supra, p. 589. The point at issue is whether the Church should be regarded in the light of a remedial institution in which persons are to be trained for citizenship in the king dom of God, or in the light of an organized community, in which the kingdom of God is, however imperfectly, already apparent and actually present. ^ " It is undeniable that, despite its blessings, a disagreeable element of darkness has, in most periods, attached to the Church through which the most exclusive church men have, as a class, obtained the greatest prominence, namely, a passionate insisting on the correctness of received views, a mania for fastening the charge of heresy upon opponents, an exaggerated love for the form they represented. If this old ecclesias tical Adam should ever be restored, a certain distinguished theologian (R. Rothe, in THE CHURCH AND THE SACRAMENTS. 435 man Catholic view, that the individual must come to Christ through the Church, be maintained, or the Protestant, that he can come to the Church only through faith in Christ — the former is empirically true, the latter ideally so — it is yet undeniable, from any point of view, that the religious character of the doctrine of the Doctrine of Church can only be understood through the doctrine of Christ neces- Christ. The doctrine of the Church is, in the next stand doctrine place, connected with the doctrine of the Holy Spirit, °^ church. in conformity with the expression of Irenaeus, " Ubi ecclesia, ibi et Sf^ritus Sanctus; et ubi Spiritus Sanctus, ibi et ecclesia." Schleier macher, therefore, brought the doctrines of the Holy Spirit and of the Church into the closest connexion, as the Apostles' Creed had also done at a much earlier period. The Protestant distinction between the visible and the invisible Church would assign the latter only to the province of dogmatics, as essential to the faith, while the former would belong to the do main of politics; and questions relating to the constitution of the Church do, in point of fact, seem to be sadly out of place in a doc trinal work, particularly a Protestant one. But inasmuch as the invisible cannot be absolutely separated from the visible, and inas much as it does not manifest itself by the side of the visible, and as exterior to it, but rather in the visible, it will always be necessary for dogmatics to recognize the vessel in which the spirit of the religious community manifests itself. The task of settling the fun damental forms of ecclesiastical life, by which alone that life can maintain its ecclesiastical character, is thus devolved upon dogmat ics. While pointing out the spiritual nature of the Church, dog matics is required to guard the Church, as being holy, against degenerating into worldliness; against divisions and dismember ment by insisting upon her unity ; and against separatistic schisms by asserting her universal character. The purely external adminis tration of the Church, as variously modified by conditions of time and place, is turned over to another department, that of ecclesiasti cal politics and ecclesiastical law. The same reasoning which applies to the constitution of the Church applies also to Church worship. The order- Liturgies based ing of the latter devolves upon liturgies. But liturgies o" dosmatics. is based on dogmatics, and derives from it the instructions upon which it is to proceed. The fundamental, unchangeable, and his Theol. Ethik.) would be obliged to gain new adherents to the opinion that Chris tianity can attain to itself and its real nature only by the process of completely strip ping off its ecclesiastical envelopments." — A. Schweizer, Die Prot. Central Dogmen, vol. i, p. 19. 436 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. divinely ordered types of Christian worship, the word and the sacra ments, are most intimately connected with the life of believers, and thus constitute an essential part of dogmatics. Considered as means of grace, an adminicula gratice, they will stand connected with the doctrines of salvation and grace in general, while in their character as institutions of the Church they will need to be placed under the doctrine of the Church. The idea of a sacrament is not of scriptural origin,' but was grad ually developed in the consciousness of the Church. The institu tion of the so-called sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Sup]*er, however, is of biblical origin.'' The signification of these ordinances is still the ground of much controversy between denominations and schools. Much depends upon a profound penetration into the nature of a religious symbol, so as to prevent it from degenerating into a merely arbitrary ceremony, and from becoming involved in the Faith the con- magical notion of a purely objective efficiency, an opus necting link, operatum.' The connecting medium is faith. But in the proportion in which misapprehension prevails on the part of the principal confessions of Protestantism themselves, should dogmatics be intent upon discovering a term which will be satisfying to the religious feeling, without doing offence to a simple apprehension of the pure word of Scripture and its sound interpretation. SECTION XIH. ESCHATOLOGT. Inasmuch as the kingdom of God, which manifests itself on earth under the form of a church community, is progressing toward an ultimate consummation, dogmatics groups the aggregate of the hopes dependent on Christianity into the prophetical doctrines 'Calixtus saw and insisted upon this; Epit., p. 128 (Henke, Calixt. i, p. 299). Even Melanchthon objected to the term " sacramentum " at first, as being un-biblical (Loci Comm. of 1521, in Bretschneider, Corp., p. 210). Comp. Hagenbach, Hist. Doctr., § 258, note 2 (Smith's ed.). ^ The institution of baptism has, of course, been questioned by the sort of criticism which remands everything to the realm of vision which the Gospels record concerning the risen Jesus. Such house-cleaning labours by the radical method will not cause any considerable damage, however, while a community of believers exists to whom the form of the risen Lord is more than a phantom. ^Schenkel has emphasized the objective theological side of a sacrament on the Protestant view in opposition to the merely subjective anthropological conception. Comp. his Wesen des Protestantismus i, p. 395, and the preface, p. xi ; but comp. also his Dogmatik, and other writings of later date, in which a different view is advo cated. ESCHATOLOGY. 437 of death, the resurrection, the judgment of the world, and eternal life. These are denominated the last things, and the teaching iu which they are presented is termed eschatology. The question whether the soul be immortal may be raised in con nexion with the doctrine of the creation of man, or immortality not anthropology. But the question concerning immor- ^[^r^Xtoi- tality, in the most general acceptation, must not be ogy. confounded with the inquiry respecting the last things, which has less to do with the natural constitution of the soul and the destiny of individuals after death than with the world's development as a whole and the ultimate consummation of the kingdom of God. For this reason the position, in connexion with the doctrines of man and before the Church has come under notice, to which Hase assigned eschatology, is inappropriate. The most proper place for the doctrine respecting death is not, indeed, among the four last things; it may, more appropriately, be connected with the doctrine of sin. Its only claim to a place under eschatology lies in the teaching that death also shall be swallowed up in victory (1 Cor. XV, 54). The doctrines of the resurrection and the last judgment are characte-rized wholly by the scriptural mode of representation; the figurative form is unmistakable; but the vision is required to look beyond the figure to the eternal truth reflected in its imagery,' even though it will not be possible to comprehend these several doctrines within a fully rounded circle of adequate conceptions." 'See de Wette, Kirchliche Dogmatik, p. 213: "The diifioulties can be obviated only by distinguishing the purely doctrinal elements from those which are symboli cally historical. . . But the two must be re-combined into a living hope which is not ruled merely by an obstinate concern for the destiny of individuals, but which, like wise, has regard to the fate of the whole. The eternal and the temporal, which are always involved in and connected with each other, are thus conjoined." " Comp. ¦ the prophetical doctrines in Schleiermacher's Glaubenslehre. The extra- scriptural chiliastic vagaries and fancies, together with the hypotheses of soul- sleeping, hades, etc., have, without exception, been able to maintain themselves only within the sphere of the most narrow formulations of doctrine. Such doctrines have, however, been discussed with greater confidence in recent than in the older theology. Eothe, in his Ethik, u, pp. 164-169, 480 sqq., has sought, in a very pecuUar manner, to open the way toward a more elevated solution of the problems of eschatology. Comp. also the labours of Auberlen and others. We cannot refrain, however, from directing attention to a statement by Palmer, which deserves consideration at this par ticular juncture : " The Jewish scribes, before the manifestation of Christ, were unable to construct, from the prophecies of the Old Testament alone, a picture of the Mes siah whose truthfulness might still be recognized after he had appeared, although every person who would use his eyes was, after his appearing, compeUed to see that the Old Testament predictions were fulfilled in the person and work of Christ. So is it improbable that we should ever succeed in obtaining from the scriptural indications 438 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. If this might be accomplished, hope would cease to be hope and Christian hope ^^^^^ become realization, and faith would be trans- onty to be real- formed into sight. In opposition to a sentimental, and ^^ '" ¦ often selfish, doctrine of immortality, it becomes neces sary to insist upon the truth that Christianity knows no other hopes than such as shall be realized in and through Christ; and that, con sequently, it can return to the numerous questions which arise no other answer than that which is already contained in its christolog- ical creed — namely, that Christ himself is the resurrection and the life, and that in him all his children shall live.' SECTION xrv. THE TEINITY AND PEEDESTINATIQN. The doctrine of God in his tri-unity comprehends all theology. But this aggregation can only be brought to pass after the practical and religious signification of Father, Son, and Spirit has been as certained in its connexion with the historical development of the kingdom of God. The whole is comprehended by this one doctrine, as constituting the sacred mystery of Christianity, and the doctrine Election con- °^ election is most intimately connected with it. Both nectedwiththe the eternal nature of God as related to himself, and his "^'^- eternal decree, lie outside of the relation of God to finite being, and consequently outside of the sphere of practical religion. They are, therefore, in the strictest sense, of a speculative nature, and move wholly within the realm of the absolute. The terms triad and trinity, together with the idea upon which they rest, are extra-biblical. But it does not follow that the idea is, on that account, unscriptural. The very contrary is true; for the whole of New Testament theology is erected upon a mono- respecting the future and the consummation of the kingdom of God a harmonious and completely rounded whole which might deserve the name of a system, while we are equally certain and assured that the ultimate fulfilment will authenticate the prophecy as being entirely true and consistent with itself. In such matters, even a thirst for theological knowledge will do better to restrain itself to moderate bounds than to as sume the air of knowing what, nevertheless, is not known, and to look contemptuously down from the height of such yvuatc upon the ^fiily mari^ with which the Church has contented itself for well-digested reasons." It may also be well to recommend special care with regard to a phrase of Oetinger's that has recently been much used and much abused, namely, " that corporeity is the end of the ways of God," as it may lead into a religious materialism which may become as dangerous as the irreligious sort, because unconsciously promoting its designs. ' Comp. Hermann Schultz, Die Voraussetzungen der christliohen Lehre von der Un- sterblichkeit, Gottingen, 1861. THE TRINITY AND PREDESTINATION. 439 theistic, but trinitarian, foundation, since God the Father chooses mankind in Christ. Christ, as the Son, has redeemed it, and the Spirit imparts the assurance of salvation to believers, and completes the work of sanctification. Neither work is conceivable apart from the others; and it is for this reason that believers are baptized in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and that the sub stance of the Christian doctrine of redemption is concentrated into a trinitarian formula in the apostolic benediction in 2 Cor. xiii, 14, and elsewhere. But it is equally certain that the Bible does not emphasize the relation subsisting between the Persons' of the Trinity Trinity less em- so much as the relation sustained by God to man. Gto^'/^reiaaon When John opens his prologue with " In the beginning to man. was the Word," he yet turns at once to his principal theme, the theme upon which he makes all else to depend, Kal 6 Xdyog adp§ kyEVETo. He regards the manifestation of God in Christ as the most essential feature, and therefore emphasizes it again in .his first epistle, where he asserts that the Son of God came into the flesh. The scriptural Triad is, consequently, predominantly a triad for purposes of revelation, while the relations immanent to it are, at most, simply alluded to. Nor should it be forgotten, that the Logos idea itself is not a new or strictly Christian thought, but was already present, as we see in Philo, in the speculative culture of the time. But inasmuch as God has manifested nothing except his nature, it will not be improper to retain the names of Father, Son, and Spirit, not, with Sabellius, as mere names, but as " distinguish ing hypostatical terms.'"' The salvation taught by dogmatics should not, however, be made to depend on such subtleties. We have every respect for the speculative doctrine of the Trinity ; but it is a dependent "on theological sanctuary which only anointed and approved subtleties. minds, with pure intentions, may seek to penetrate. The doctrine, has, moreover, been loaded with many absurdities from time to time, and even pantheistic infidelity has concealed itself behind such intricacies in order to attack historical Christianity from behind such cover. The same is true of the mystery of predestination. Who has ascertained God's decree? A religious faith, as con trasted with the superficial creed of Pelagianism, is compelled to ' The word "Person" is Ukewise extra-biblical, and in many respects inappropriate. " The very terms ' Father ' and ' Son ' indicate that they have reference to the mani festation of God, and not to his immanent and extra-mundane being " (p. 296). ' Kling considers this expression to observe the correct medium between the Sabel- Uan and the Athanasian theories (ubi supra, p. 38). 440 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. acknowledge that salvation is not the result of accident, and not wrought out primarily by ourselves, but that it is a salvation that is willed and decreed by God, based on a foreknowledge of character and works. The problem of God's foreknowledge, and rewards and punishments based on it, we may not solve. It is wiser and more edifying for us to recall continually to mind the narrow limits of the human 'understanding, and to stand reverently still, with the apostle, before the riches both of the knowledge and the grace of God. SECTION XV. OETHODOXT AND HETEEODOXT. Schleiermacher, § 303 sqq., and the discussions on orthodoxy and orthodox views by Eiickert, Krause, and Hase, in the Protest. Kirchenzeitung fiir das Evangl. Deutschland lor 1854 ; Pelt, in Herzog's Encyklopaedie, x, s. v. James F. Clarke, Orthodoxy : Its Truths and Errors. Boston, 1875. John W. Donaldson, Christian Orthodoxy Eeconciled with the Conclusions ol Modem BibUcal Learning. Lond., 1857. Daniel Dorchester, Concessions ol Liberalists to Orthodoxy. Boston, 1878. A dogmatical system is said to be orthodox in so far as it is in harmony with the doctrine of the Church, as contained in its sym bols, and with the conclusions deduced from such doctrine. It is heterodox in so far as it departs from the accepted belief of the .Church. This distinction should not be identified with that made between supernaturalism and rationalism, which has already been discussed, although it has many points of contact with the latter. The term orthodox is to be taken in its historical rather than its etymological meaning in this connexion, for it is to be presumed that every instructor will aim to teach the truth, and to be ortho dox in this sense of the w^ord. The conservative in ecclesiastical matters may, accordingly, be regarded as constituting the orthodox feature, while the mobile will characterize the heterodox. Ortho- 'Orthodoxy not doxy, moreover, is not to be identified with super- ed^wX's"i^°er- naturalism. The two ideas, to say the least, are not naturalism. coextensive. A great number of heterodox notions had their origin in a period when supernaturalism was generally ac cepted. Socinianism, for example, is, to the half at least, supernat- uralistic, and yet heterodox ; and even ultra-supernaturalist opinions may turn over into heterodoxy, as we see in patripassianism. The Church and its creed, rather than the Bible, though Bible-ortho doxy is sometimes spoken of, constitute the measure of orthodoxy, in the strictly technical meaning of the word. It follows, that even the strictest supematuralist will be heterodox, in so far as his rela tion to his own Church is concerned, whenever he diverges from her doctrine — for instance, a Lutheran who should incline toward ORTHODOXY AND HETERODOXY. 441 Roman Catholicism, or a member of a Calvinistic Church who should incline toward Lutheranism. Rationalism is, no doubt, a hetero dox phenomenon, in all its tendencies. But as con- „ „ '^ ' Eationahsm a trasted with the supematuralist, the rationalist himself heterodox phe- might have the support of orthodoxy upon a given ''°™'^™'i- question. He might, for instance, take ground with the Reformed Church upon the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, or with the Luther an Church upon the question of predestination. Nor is it difficult to show that pietism, with all its biblical supernaturalism, includes many heterodox elements. Where, indeed, can a thoroughly ortho dox person be found in our day, whose views shall be so correct as that the defenders of the old-time Lutheran or Reformed ortho doxy will find no feature that is open to objections? The genuine dogmatic theologian should pursue no other purpose than to present the truths of the Christian faith in purity, and in harmony with the Bible and the results of historical development, recognizing the goal toward which such development tends, and the requirements of the present age. He will obey the apostolic canon, "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good." He will, accordingly, be both conservative and reformatory in his methods ; for " the endeavour to retain, in the dogmatical development, mat ters which have become wholly antiquated in the public promulga tions of the Church, and which exercise no definite influence upon other questions in the process of scientific discussion, is a false orthodoxy. To antagonize such formulas as have a well-established support in the formularies of the Church, and whose scientific ex pression is not confused by the relation sustained by them to other doctrines, is false heterodoxy." ' ' Schenkel says : " No greater error and no more hurtful notion can be found than exist in the fancy that the work of the Reformation was accompUshed, and even completed, three hundred years ago, and that every step beyond the original position of the reformers is apostasy from the Reformation itself ; that to go back to the fin ished theological system of Protestantism, as contained in confessional writings, and to settle down in them for all time to come, constitutes the chief duty of a believing theology and of a Church which has attained to greater freedom and independence." — Wesen des Protestantismus, iii, 1, Pref., p. iv. Similar language is employed by a French writer : " The Reformation is not the last word of Christianity, and the God who has revealed himself to us in his Gospel has yet many revelations to make to us on the tjioughts, the concealed riches, and the infinite applications of the word of life. . . . Ignorance believes voluntarily in the absolute truth ; but education and expe rience teach us to see shadows where we find contrasts, and simple differences where all seemed apparition." — Lettres i. mon Cure, p. 47. Geneva, 1854. Hase remarks (Dogmatik, Sth ed., p. 9), with entire correctness : " Orthodoxy, as designating una nimity with regard to the teaching of the Church as sustained by the written law, is authorized in the evangelical Church. But so, likewise, are individual divergences 443 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. SECTION XVI. THE HlSTOET OP DOGMATICS. Comp. Ch. G. Heinrich, Versuch einer Geschichte der verschiedenen Lehrarten der christ lichen Wahrheiten, etc., Lpz., 1790 ; J. H. Schickedanz, Vers, einer Gesch. d. christi. Glaubens lehre, Braunschw., 1837 ; W. Herrmann, Geschichte der prot. Dogmatik, von Melanchthon bis Schleiermacher, Lpz., 1842; J. P. Lange, Christi. Dogmatik, 1, p. 56 sqq.; W. Gass, Gesch. der prot. Dogmatik, etc. (vol. i. Construction of Basis and Dogmatism ; vol. ii, Syncretism, the For mation ol the Eelormed School ol Theology, Pietism ; vol. iii, the Transition Period ; vol. iv. En lightenment and Eationalism. The Dogmatics ol the Philosophical Schools. Schleiermacher and his Times), Berl., 1854-67 ; Heppe, Dogmatik des deutschen Protestantismus im 16. Jahrhun dert (§ 76) ; * Dorner, Gesch. d. prot. Theologie, Munich, 1867 (Engl, translation by Eobson and Taylor, 2 vols., Edinb., 1871) ; Mucke, Die Dogrtatik des 19. Jahrhunderts, etc., Gotha, 1867. Hodge : Systematic Theology (3 vols.), N. Y. 1872. Introduction (in Vol. I), pp. 1-188. The earliest systematic collections of the doctrines of belief are found in the symbols and the confessions of faith. Origen, among the Church teachers of the first period, furnished a sketch of what we denominate a system of dogmatics, in his work on Principles. Of Augustine's works the following belong to this class : Manual Augustine's '^^ Laurentius (on Faith, Hope, and Charity), on Chris- works, tian Doctrine and the Kingdom of God (each of the latter but partially), on Faith and Symbol, and on the Doctrines of the Church. He was followred by Fulgentius of Ruspe, Gennadius, and Junilius. In the Greek Church were produced the Catecheses of Gregory of Nyssa (Larger Catechetical Treatise), and of Cyril of Jerusalem (Catechism for the Baptized and to be Baptized), though they were more particularly designed for practical uses. The first to construct a dogmatics, in the strict sense, that is, a sys tem of doctrine, was John of Damascus (730), in the work. Precise Statement of the Orthodox Faith, though the compiler, Isidore of Seville (died 636) had led the way with his Statement (3 books). The dogmatics of the Middle Ages found its chief expression in schoiaaticisra Scholasticism, which latter obtained a necessary comple- and mysticism, ment in mysticism. John Scotus Erigena (died about 880) was eminent as a philosophical thinker of the 9th century. But his principal work, on the Division of Nature, is not a dogmatics in the strict meaning of the term. From the close of the 11th and the beginning of the 12th centuries downward, Anselm of Canter bury, Roscellin, and Abelard aroused the dogmatic spirit from and variations, provided only that they maintain a Christian and Protestant character. They both are placed under the law of a higher orthodoxy, namely, the perfect truth of Christianity, and it is incumbent upon Christian charity that it preserve the feeling of unity in the midst of such differences, and even of dispute. Whatever antagonizes Christianity, however, must be excluded as heretical, even though it lay claim to the Christian character." On the distinction between heterodoxy and heresy, comp. Schenkel, Dogmatik, i, p. 186, and Martensen. THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 443 various directions, and sought to bring about a reconciliation be tween knowledge and faith. But a properly systematic treatment in obedience to established rules dates back only to Peter Lombard, who died in 1164. The authors of such works, Robert Pulleyn, Peter of Poictiers, and others, were designated Sententiarii. The Victorines, on the other hand, sought to combine mysticism, which rises to the surface from out of the depths of religious feeling, with dialectics. An increased knowledge of Aristotle, after the Crusades, led to a still further development of scholasticism. Alexander Hales (Doctor irrefragabilis,' died 1245), Albert Magnus (died 1280), and Thomas Aquinas (died 1274), the head of an entire school which was represented by the order of Dominicans, composed so-called Summoe. These were loosely constructed works, in which every proposition was subdivided into a number of ques tions, distinctions, and the like — a gigantic labour of the mind. The scholastic spirit, however, soon degenerated into the invention of hollow subtleties, a tendency which was especially facilitated by the prevalence of nominalism. The school of Thomists soon came to be opposed by the mystical school of Bonaventura (Doctor seraph- icus, died 1274), and also by the dialectic school of Duns Scotus (Doctor subtilis, died 1308), both of which originated with the order of Franciscan monks. The dispute between the schools became at the same time a quarrel of the orders. The Summse were now superseded by so-called Quodlibets; the number of the Degeneration of various questions approached infinity, and dogmatics dogmatics. was ultimately left without substance and worth. The free-think ing but sceptical William Occam (died 1347) was succeeded by the last of the scholastics, Gabriel Biel (died 1495), while mysticism, which had made progress in the practical field in the persons of Master Eckart, Tauler, Ruysbroek, and Suso, received scientific form at the hands of Gerson (Doctor christianissimus, died 1429). The cultivation of humanistic studies gave to dogmatics a many- sided spirit, but left it, at the first, without fixed princi- Melanchthon pies for its control. The regeneration of dogmatics does p"of'^^ "t not begin earlier than the Reformation. Luther was a dogmatics. preacher rather than a dogmatic theologian. The foundation for evangelical dogmatics as a science was laid by Melanchthon, the Prseceptor Germanise, in his Commonplaces (Loci Communes, Viteb., 1521; afterward Loci Praecipui Theologici). He was fol lowed, in the Lutheran Church, by Martin Chemnitz (Theological Syllabus), Aegidius (died 1603), Nic. Hunnius (died 1643), and the rigidly zealous Leonh. Hutter (Lutherus Redivivus; died 1616), 444 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. whose work (Loci, 1619) was directed especially against the milder school of Melanchthon. Twesten published Hutter's Compendium in a second edition in 1863. A work of leading importance. Theo logical Commonplaces (Loci Theol., Jen., 1610-25, ix vols. 4to, edited Lutheran dog- by Cotta, Tub., 1772-81, XX vols. 4to, supplemented by matic writers. Q j-j. Miiller, vols. xxi and xxii, 1788-89; latest edition E. Preuss, 1863-70, vols, i-viii, unfinished), was published by J. Gerhard (died 1637); and the works by Quenstedt (died 1688), Konig, Calov, Hollaz, Baier, and others are also deserving of men tion. A new scholasticism unfolded itself in these works, which was counterbalanced by a new mystical tendency in J. Boehme, Weigel, Arndt, and others. In the Reformed Church exegetical studies were prosecuted with .. ,.. more energy than dogmatical, and the latter were more Dogmatic liter- "•' o ' ature in the Ee- dependent on the former than in the Lutheran Church, formedchurch. ](,Q(.a,use the letter of the symbol was less authoritative in its influence over them. Zwingli's dogmatical labours (Brief and Pious Introduction to Protestant Doctrine, 1523; Commentary on the True and False Religion, 1525; Brief and Clear Exposition of the Christian Faith, 1536, et al.) are deserving of attention. But Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion (Basle, 1535) Calvin and his is a work of the first importance, and comparable with successors. ^jjg Lq^j pf Melanchthon. His successors were Bullin ger, Musculus, Peter Martyr, Hyperius; and, in the seventeenth century, Keckermann, Polanus of Polansdorf, Alsted, Alting, Wol- leb, Burmann, Heidanus, F. Heidegger, and others. The synthet ical method having been usefully followed in the Lutheran Church after Melanchthon, Cocceius (died 1669) and Leydecker now began to attempt different methods; for example, the Federal Theology and the (Economical, in the order of the three persons of the Trin ity. But a new method, the analytical, was introduced into the Lutheran Church by Calixtus. It begins with the end or final cause, the " final method," toward which the entire system of belief must tend. Many, including some of the writers already men tioned, followed in his track, the strictest of all being Dannhauer (died 1668) in his Christian Introduction, 1649. A milder tendency, diverging from rigid orthodoxy, began to assert itself in Germany at the opening of the eighteenth century, toward whose introduction various phenomena in the spheres of both religion and philosophy contributed. This we see in Spener and Pietism, and in the Cartesian, Leibnitzian, and Wolfian philos ophies. In the Reformed Church the Arminian tendency, repre sented by Limborch (died 1712; Christian Theology, 1686), gained THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 445 a continually increasing number of adherents to its milder views, as did also the related tendency which went out from the school of Saumur. In the Lutheran Church a method increasingly controlled by the influence of the new period was introduced by Pfaff, in his Institutes (1720); Buddseus, in his Institutes of Doctrinal Theology (1723, 1741); Reinbeck (1731-41, 4 vols.), continued by J. G. Conz, (1743-47, 5-9 vols.); Carpov, (1737-65); Rambach (1744), and, un der the determinate influence of the Wolfian philosophy, by Jac. Siegm. Baumgarten, in his System of Doctrine, published by Semler (1759 and 1760, 3 vols.). This tendency was also commended, with more or less fulness, by Semler, in his Institutes (1774), and Attempt at a Free Theological Method of Teaching (1777); and hy Michaelis (1760, 1784), Teller (1764, 1782), Toellner (1775), Do- Transition to ederlein, Morus, and others, who thereby brought about fationahsm. the transition into rationalistic modes of thought, though they guarded themselves with many qualifications. After Gruner and Eckermann had prepared the way, Hencke compressed dogmatics, which had once extended ovei' forests of folios, into a few " lineaments," in which process he threw over board " Christolatry and Bibliolatry, as being mere „„„„,. „ ./ ^ ^J ^ o _ Eeactionary remnants of an old-time superstition." Kant intro- tendency of duced a new era, and was joined, more or less fully, by "^"^^ "'^' Tieftrunk, Staudlin, and Ammon. Storr and Reinhard held fast the orthodox system, but rather with respect to its formal super naturalism than as a rigid conformity to ecclesiastical tradition. Augusti, on the other hand, sought to restore the ancient, system of doctrine, whose consisteney even Lessing had conceded, to its place of honour, but without laying a deep foundation for it in philosophy, or bringing logical discrimination to bear on the ques tion. The latter was much more efficiently done by De Wette, the former by Daub and Marheineke. In opposition to this reactionary movement of dogmatics, as understood by rationalism, the latter, with entire consistency, took separate ground, finding its most adequate expression in Wegs- cheider's work, which must be regarded as the Corpus Doctrinse of the tendency. Bretschneider pursued an intermediate course, though starting out with the fundamental ideas of rationalism. He also furnished a serviceable historical apparatus. Dogmatics thus seemed likely to be resolved into speculation in the one direc tion, or to sink beneath the mass of historical matter with which it was loaded down, or, finally, to be evaporated in the schieiermach- crucible of rationalistic hypercriticlsm. At this point er's dogmatics. Schleiennacher appeared with his System of Doctrines, in which he 446 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. did not base dogmatics upon either historical authority or philo sophical speculation, but regarded it as representing the conscious ness by which the Church is animated. From him dates a new period in the treatment of this science generally, though many con tinued even afterward to move in the ancient ruts. Knapp, Hahn, and Steudel, for instance, simply attached themselves to the older biblical and ecclesiastical system, while Hase, proceeding upon the basis of the doctrine of the Church as historically developed, strove to bring about its reconciliation with the advanced culture of the day, accomplishing the task with spirit and taste under the influ ence of modern philosophy, beginning with that of Schelling. The spirit of Schleiermacher made itself positively felt, however, Twesten and pre-eminently through Twesten and Nitzsch, each of Nitzsch. whom contributed, in his own way, to the securing of friends for the revealed faith of Christianity, which rationalism had given up as lost, even among the younger generation of theolo gians.' Other writers have sought to open newer paths, e. g., Tob. Beck, who sought to comprehend the substance of Bible teaching in a corresponding system with a specially prepared terminology, while avoiding the road which had been trodden hard by the schools. In opposition to serious efforts of this character arose the system of Strauss, which assumed the form of a dialectical process for the annihilation of dogma, but which, after it had reached its culmination in Feuerbach, could only lead to a new and thorough investigation of the dogma, based on a recognition of the inde structible basis upon which the life of the Christian faith is estab lished. The more important works which have since been issued afford the happiest evidence of this fact, and prove that Christian dog- _ , matics has not yet reached its final from, but that it is Progress ol ^ -' ^ ' most recent rather passing through a metamorphosis, from which it ogma ics. s]^a,ll come forth with its youth renewed, and with a re newed disposition to clothe doctrine with fresh and appropriate forms, that shall prove to be more perfectly adapted to the deep est needs of our age. The dogmatics of the Reformed Church ' On Nitzsch comp. the Biography by Beyschlag, p. 179. Nitzsch's " crowded, Heracli- tian style, which never presents more than the half-opened bud of the thought," does seem not only to present difficulties which " all feeble or ease-loving minds " will dread to surmount, but also to place frequent obstacles in the way of those who do not seek to avoid the labour needed to penetrate into such a depth of thought. The forceful ele ments in the works of Nitzsch are an exalted earnestness and a cool criticism, which enable him to be just toward a more independent mode of thought, while standing firmly upon the positive foundations of Christianity. THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 447 has found a well-informed and capable interpreter in Schweizer, who has been joined in the free exercise of thought by Schenkel. In the Reformed Church, Ebrard represents the confessional point of view, while Vilmar, Thomaslus, Philippi, and Kahnis repre sent the Lutheran. The masterly work of A. Ritzschl aims at a positive remodelling of the orthodox system on a biblical basis. The dogmatic works of Biedermann and Lipsius represent the so- called liberal theology. One of the most important of the recent doctrinal systems is the System of Christian Doctrine (Glaubens lehre) of Sulzberger, published in Bremen in 1877. He is Professor of Theology in the Theological Seminary of the Methodist Epis copal Church at Frankfort-on-Main, and his work is a terse and skilful presentation of the doctrinal system of his communion. The Roman Catholic Church, whose older dogmatic theologians, Bellarmine, Canisius, Maldonat, Becanus, and others, had, to a great extent, conformed to the scholastic method, was jiomau catho- likewise unable to avoid being influenced by the Intel- 'i" dogmatists. lectual revolution of the times. A more simple and independent doctrinal method,' from which the mass of scholastic and Jesuitical rubbish was eliminated, was introduced as early as the time of Noel (Natalis Alexander, died 1724). Among German dogmatists the older method was followed by Kliipfel (died 1811), Stattler, Gmeiner, Schnappinger, Zimmer, Dobmaier, Buchner, Liebermann, and others. A new movement was begun by Georg Hermes (died 1831), in his Introduction to the Christian Catholic Theology (Munster, 1834). He, while fully regarding doubt as the necessary condition for the determining of truth, sought to press through it into orthodox Catholicism, as con stituting the ultimate goal of a really profound speculation. But by that very effort he came into formal conflict with Roman Ca tholicism and its cardinal principle of ecclesiastical authority. A similar process was passed through by the system of Giinther. Franz Baader, influenced by Schelling's Natural Philosophy, was more speculative than any of his compeers. But a similar tendency had been previously apparent in Schwarz (died 1 794), and Cajetan Weiler (died 1826). Among later Roman Catholic theologians, Brenner, Thanner, Klee, Staudenmaier, and others, appear also to be similarly inclined. In England, some of the leading doctrinal systems have been translations from the Continental writers. Among the Scotch, whose theological type has been Reformed, Calvin's Institutes has always been recognized as the standard. The Independents and Presbyterians of England have exhibited a similar attachment. In 448 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. the Church of England, Pearson on the Creed and Burnet on the Thirty-nine Articles, old as they are, have largely supplied the dogmatic treatment. Among the Wesleyans, Wesley's Sermons, which are mostly of doctrinal character, have held the foremost place. The first Methodist writer of a full doctrinal system was Richard Watson, whose Institutes (Lond., 1823) have been the standard fof the last half century. Pope, in his Compendium of Christian Theology (3 vols.. New York, 1880), is the first British Wesleyan writer of a dogmatic system at all comparable with Watson. In the United States, there has been large dependence on the German sources, the works of the German dogmatists being trans lated and freely read. Knapp's Theology has had a wide accep tance. This has been succeeded by Storr and Flatt's Elementary Course of Biblical Theology (1836), Nitzsch's System of Christian Doctrine (1849), the Christian Dogmatics of the Danish Martensen, the Christian Dogmatics of the Dutch Van Oosterzee, and Schmid's Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. But American theology has not been without its original writers in the dogmatic department. Even during the colonial period there were vigorous doctrinal authors, whose works have had an important bearing on the whole later course of theological belief. Each Church has had its own dogmatic system. Dwight's Theology, originally delivered as sermons, has had large endorsement among Congrega tionalists and still wider circles. Hodge, in his Systematic Theol ogy, represents the doctrinal system of the Presbyterian Church. This work is the product of a lifetime of reverent study, of broad scholarship, terse and exact style, and of just recognition of the na tive and foreign literature of the department. Raymond's Syste matic Theology embodies the Methodist theology, and is marked by careful thought, a rich and warm diction, and a most attractive perspicuity and vigour of style. Both these works, as well as A. A. Hodge's Outlines of Theology, and Ralston's Elements of Divinity, indicate a disposition of the American theological mind to lean no longer on Continental authorities for doctrinal statement. LITERATURE OP DOGMATICS.' J. C. Doederlein, Institutio theoiogi christ. in capp. relig. theor. nostris tempp. accom. Norimb. et Alt., 1780. Ed. 6., emend, et acta a Ch. Gf. Junge. Ib., 1797. 2 vols. Christi. Religionsuntericht nach den Bediirfnissen unserer Zeit. From the Latin, and continued from vol. 6 by C. G. Junge. Niirnb. and Alt. 12 vols., 1775-1803. " More fully described in Whier's Handb., pp. 295-308, ErgSnzungshelt, pp. 48-50. TIIE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 449 S. F. N. Morus, Epitome theoiog. christ. Lips., 1789. J. H. Tieftrunk, Censur des christl.-protest. Lehrbegriffs nach den Principien der Re- ligiouskritik. Beri., 1791-95. 3 vols. J. Cp. R. Eckermann, Compend. theol. christ. theor. bibl.-hiator. Alt., 1791. Handb. fiir das system. Stud, der christi. Glaubenslehre. Alt., 18U1-3. 4 vols. H. Ph. C. Henke, Lineamenta institt. fidei christ. hist.-critt. Helmst., 1793-95. G. Chr. Storr, Lehrbuch der christi. Dogmatik. Edited by K. Ch. Flatt. Stuttg., 1803; 4th ed., 1813." J. E. Ch. Schmidt, Lehrbuch der christi. Dogmatik. Giessen, 1800. K. F. .StaudUn, Religionslehre oder Dogmatik und Dogmensgeschichte. Giitt, 1800. F. V. Reinhard, Vorlesungen iiber die Dogmatik, publ., with additions to the Utera ture, by J. Berger, 1801. 4th ed., with new additions to the literature, by H. A. Schott. 1818. Cp. A. Ammon, Summa theol. christianae. Gott., 1803. Inbegriff der evangelischen Glaubenslehre, etc. Gott., 1805. Ausfiihrlicher Unterricht inder christL Glaubenslehre. Niirnb. and Altd., 1807- 1808. C. Daub, Theologumena. Heidelb., 1806. J. Ch. W. Augusti, System der christi. Dogmatik nach dem Lehrbegriffe der luther. Kirche im Grundrisse dargestellt. Lpz., 1809. H. A. Schott, Epitome theol. christ. dogmat. Lips., 1811. * J. A. L. Wegscheider, Institutiones theol. christ. dogmaticae. Hal, 1815. 7th ed., 1833. *K. G. Bretschneider, Handbuch der Dogmatik der evangel.-luther. Kirche. Lpz., 18 14. 3d ed. Also Systeme in den dogm. Lehrbiichern von Schleiermacher, Mar heineke, und Hase. Lpz., 1828. 2 vols. 5th ed., 1860. * Systemat. Entwicklung aller in der Dogmatik vorkommenden Begriffe. 4th ed. Lpz., 1841. *W. M. L. de Wette, Dogmatik der evang.-luther. Kirche nach den symb. Biichern und den altern Dogmatikern. Berl, 1816. 1. f F. Brenner, Freie Darstellung der Theologie in der Idee des Himmelreichs, oder neueste kathol. Dogmatik. Hamb., 1815-18. 3 vols. Katholische Dogmatik. Frankf., 1827-30. 3 vols. f J. Thanner, Wissenschaftl. Aphorismen der kathol. Dogmatik fiir akad. Vorlesungen. Salzb., 1816. F. A. Klein, DarsteUung des dogm. Systems der evang.-protest. Kirche. Jena, 1822. 3d ed., 1840. Ph. Marheineke, Die Grundlehren der christi. Dogmatik. Berl, 1819. System der christi Dogmatik. Berl., 1847. * F. Schleiermacher, Der christliche Glaube nach den Grundsatzen der evangel. Kirche im Zusammenhange dargestellt. Berl, 1821, 1822.^ 2 vols. * A. D. Ch. Twesten, Vorlesungen iiber die Dogmatik der evangel-luther. Kirche nach de Wette's Compendium. Hamb., 1826-29. *K. Hase, Lehrbuch der evang. Dogmatik. Stuttg., 5th ed., 1860. Gnosis, od. evang. Glaubenslehre fiir die GebUdeten. Lpz., 1827-29. 3 vols. ' The title ol the older original is : Doctrinae christ. pars theor. e libris sacris repetita. Stuttg., 1793, 1807. ^ Comp. vrith reference to this work, the criticisms ol Ratze (1833K Branlss (1825), Delbruck (1887), Schmidt (1835), Rosenkranz (1836), die Uebersicht des Systems by Gess (1837), Weissen- bom, Darstellung und Kritik der Schleiermacher'schen Dogmatik. Lpz., 1849. Martin, Etude sur les londements de la dogmatique de Schleiermacher. G&eve, 1869. 29 wo SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. *(K. Hase) Hutterus redivivus, oder Dogmatik der evang.-luther. Kirche. Lpz., 1829. nth ed., 1868. *G. Ch. Knapp, Vorlesungen iiber die christi. Glaubenslehre nach dera Lehrbegriife der evang Kirche, publ. by K. Thilo. Halle, 1827. 2 vols. 2d ed., 1835. Amer. ed. Andover, 1836. A. Hahn, Lehrbuch des christi. Glaubens. Lpz., 1828. 2d ed., 1857, 1858. 2 vols. H. G. Tzschirner, Vorlesungen iiber die christi. Glaubenslehre nach dem Lehrbegriff der evang.-protest. Kirche, publ. by K. Hase. Lpz., 1829. L. F. 0. Baumgarten-Crusius, Grundriss der evang.-kirchlichen Dogmatik. Fiir Vor lesungen. Jena, 1830. E. F. Gelpke, Evangel. Dogmatik. Bonn, 1834. J. Chi F. Steudel, Die Glaubenslehre der evang.-protest. Kirche nach ihrer guten Be griindung. Tiib., 1834. J. P. Mynster, Betrachtungen iiber die christi. Glaubenslehre; from the Danish by Th. Schorn. Hamb., 1835. f H. Klee, System der kathol. Dogmatik. Bonn, 1831. j Kathol. Dogmatik. Mainz, 1835. 4th ed., 1861. f J. G. Hermes, Christ-katholische Dogmatik. Miinster, 1831-34. 3 vols. J. D. F. Strauss, Die christliche Glaubenslehre in ihrer geschichtlichen Ent wicklung und im Kampfe mit der modernen Wissenschaft. Tiib., 1840, 1841. 2 vols.' J. J. Cheneviere, Dogmatique chretienne. Geneve, 1840. W. Bohmer, Die christi Dogmatik oder Glaubenswissenschaft. Bresl., 1843. Vol 1. II. Schmid, Die Dogmatik der evangeUsch-lutherischen Kirche, dargestellt und aus den Quellen belegt. Erlang., 1843. 5th ed., 1863. Amer. ed., transl. by Hay and Jacobs. Phila., 1876. f F. A. Staudenmaier, Christi. Dogmatik. Freib., 1844-52. 4 vols. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. 1. General. Arminius, James, The Works of. From the Latin, in 3 vols. Auburn and Buffalo, 1853. Binney, Amos, and Steele, Daniel. Theological Compend Improved. New York, 1875. Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edinburgh. Dwight, Timothy. Theology: Explained and Defended in a Series of Sermons. 5 vols. New York, 1846. Hodge, A. A.' Outlines of Theology. Svo, pp. 678. New York, 1878. Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. 4 vols. (vol. iv being an Index.) New York, 1873. Hovey, Alvah. Outlines of Christian Theology. Providence, 1870. Knapp, George C. Lectures on Christian Theology. Translated by Leonard Woods, Jun. London, 1831. Martensen, H. Christian Dogmatics. Edinburgh, 1866. Pond, Enoch. Lectures on Christian Theology. Boston, 1867. ' Comp. the Critique ol Strauss' Glaubenslehre in Its principles, by Fischer (1841). K6ster (1841), and Rosenkranz (1845). The destructive tendency inaugurated by that work has been carried to an extreme in Feuerbach, Wesen des Christenthums (Lpz., 1841 and 1848), and In other works issued by that school. THE HISTOEY OF DOG.-VIATICS. 451 Pope, William B. A Compendium of Christian Theology. 3 vols. New York, 1880. Raymond, Miner. Systematic Theology. 3 vols. Cincinnati, 1877-79. Schmid, Heinrich. The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Philadelphia, 1846. Van Oosterzee, J. J. Christian Dogmatics. From the Dutch. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 388, 430. New York, 1874. Watson, Richard. Theological Institutes. 2 vols. New York, 1836. 2. Theology : The Divine Nature. Charnock, Stephen. Discourses upon the Existence and Attributes of God. 2 vols., 8vo. New York, 1874. M'Cabe, L. D. The Foreknowledge of God, and Cognate Themes. Cincinnati, 1878. Divine Nescience of Future Contingencies. New York, 1882. 3. ChriMology. Bickersteth, Edward H. The Rock of Ages ; or. Scripture Testimony to the One Eternal Godhead of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. New York, 1861. Coulin, Frank. The Son of Man: Discourses on the Humanity of Jesus Christ. PhUadelphia, 1869. Dorner, J. A. History of the Development of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ. 5 vols. Edinburgh, 1878. Ecce Deus. -Essays on the Life and Doctrine of Jesus Christ. Boston, 1869. Gess, W. F. The Scripture Doctrine of the Person of Christ. Andover, 1870. Liddon, Henry Parry. The Divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. London, 1867. Sartorius, Ernest. The Person and Work of Christ. Boston, 1848. Smith, John Pye. The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah. Sth ed., 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1868. TurnbuU, Robert. Theophany ; or, the Manifestation of God in the Life, Character, and Mission of Jesus Christ. 12mo , pp. 239. Hartford, 1849. Ullmann, Carl. The Sinlessness of Jesus ; an Evidence for Christianity. Edinburgh, 1858. New ed., 1870. Van Oosterzee, J. J. The Image of Christ as Presented in Scripture. London, 1874. Wilberforce, Robert J. The Doctrine of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. Philadelphia, 1849. 4. The Holy Spirit. Buchanan, James. On the OfBce and Work of the Holy Spirit. Edinburgh, 1856. Hare, Julius Charles. The Mission of the Comforter. 3d ed. London, 1876. Paraclete, The. An Essay on the Personality and Ministry of the Holy Ghost. New York, 1875. "Walker, James B. The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit ; or, Philosophy of the Divine Operation in the Redemption of Man. New ed. Cincinnati, 1880. 5. Atonement. Atonement, The. Discourses and Treatises by Edwards, SmaUey, Maxey, Emmons, GriflSn, Burge, and Weeks. With an Introductory Essay by Edwards A. Park. 3d ed. Boston, 1863. 453 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. Barnes Albert. The Atonement in its Relations to Law aud Moral Government. Philadelphia, 1869. Beecher, Charles. Redeemer and Redeemed. Boston, 1864. Browne Edward H. Sermons on the Atonement, and Other Subjects. London, 1859. Bushnell, Horace. Forgiveness and Law, Grounded in Principles Interpreted by Human Analogies. New York, 1874. The Vicarious Sacriiice. New York, 1866 Campbell, John M. The Nature of the Atonement. 4th ed. London, 1873. Candlish, Robert S. The Atonement : Its Reality, Completeness, and Extent. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1867. Crawford, Thomas J. The Doctrine of Holy Scripture Respecting the Atonement. Edinburgh, 1875. Dale, R. W. The Atonement : being the Congregational Union Lecture for 1875. 3d ed. New York, 1876. Magee, Wm. Discourses and Dissertations on the Scripture Doctrine of Atonement and Sacrifice. From the Sth London ed. 2 vols. New York, 1839. Malcom, Howard. The Extent and Efiicacy of the Atonement. PhUadelphia, 1870. Maurice, Frederick Denison. The Doctrine of Sacrifice Deduced from the Scriptures. Cambridge, 1854. MUey, John. The Atonement in Christ. New York, 1879. Oxenham, H. N. The Catholic Doctrine of the Atonement. London, 1869. Smeaton, G. The Doctrine of the Atonement, as Taught by Clirist Himself. 2d ed. Edinburgh, 1868. Symington, WUliam. On the Atonement and Intercession of Jesus Christ. 3d ed. New York, 1849. The Doctrine of the Atonement, as Taught by the Apostles. Edinburgh, 1870. Wardlaw, Ralph. Discourses on the Nature and Extent of the Atonement. New ed. Glasgow, 1844. 6. Justification. Buchanan, James. The Doctrine of .lustification. Edinburgh, 1867 Davies, R. N. A Treatise on Justification. Cincinnati, 1878. Heurtley, Charles A. Justification. Bampton Lecture for 1846. London, 1846. Newman, John H. Lectures on the Doctrine of Justification. London, 1874. 7. Evil, Origin of. Lovett, H. Thoughts on the Causes of EvU, Physical and Moral. London, 1810. Naville, Ernest. The Problem of Evil. New York, 1872. Young, John. Evil not from God. New York, 1868. 8. Tlie Church. Arnold, Thomas. Miscellaneous Works : The Church. Pp. 9-72. New York, 1846. Augustine, St. The City of God. Edited by Marcus Dods. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1881. Bannerman, James. The Church of Christ. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1868. Coleman, Lyman. The Apostolic and Primitive Church, Popular in its Government and Simple in its Worship. PhUadelphia, 1869. Litton, Ed. Arthur. The Church of Christ in its Idea, Attributes, and Ministry. 8vo, pp. 468. PhUadelphia and New York, 1856. Maurice, Frederick D. The Kingdom of Christ. New York, 1843 M'EUiinney, John J. Doctrine of the Church, with a BibUography of the Subject. PhUadelphia, 1871. THE HISTORY OF DOGMATICS. 453 Palmer, WiUiam. A Treatise on the Church of Christ. 2 vols. New York, 1841. Wliately, Richard. The Kingdom of Christ. New York, 1843. 9. Re^irrectipn. Bush, George. Anastasis ; or. The Doctrine of the Resurrection of the Body. New York, 1845. Hanna, WiUiam. The Resurrection of the Dead. Edinburgh, 1872. Westcott, Brooke Foss. The Gospel of the Resurrection. London, 1869. SECTION XVII. CHRISTIAN ETHICS. The theological ethics of Christianity, called by the elder writers Theologia Moralis and Ethica Christiana, describes the theory of the moral life as it should find expression in a Christian feeling, which is produced by a living faith, and approves itself in a Christian life. It occupies, in common with dogmatics, the ground of posi tive Christianity, and, therefore, derives its fundamental principles from Christianity. In another direction, however, it pi^ce oi chris- stands connected with the general or philosophical ethics ''™ Etnics. of human origin ; and while it differs from the latter with regard to its scientific form, and its starting points and motives, their sub stance can never be contradictory to each other. This science has been erroneously called practical theology by some writers, who contrasted it with dogmatics, and regarded the latter as a theoretical department, dogmatics being held to deal with things to be believed, and practical theology with things to be done. For, although ethics has to do more particularly with man's powers of action and volition, while dogmatics is concerned with his powers of perception and cognition, it would yet be highly un scientific to regard ethics as a mere collection of practical rules. It is even true that, in certain respects, ethics may be called a theory with more propriety than dogmatics, since every theory requires a corresponding practice.' Ethics is certainly employed upon the ' This holds true of practical theology properly so called. A word here with re gard to the designation of this science. Dorner, ubi supra, decides in favour of ethics, as compared with " morals." " Mos, mores (whence comes moral discipline), .efers more especially to the outward appearance than to the interior source, and does not, by far, approach the meaning of the Greek ti&oq. Mores describes character, in deed, but not its unifying source. 'HiJof, originally the Ionic form of E^of, involves, on the other hand, what is customary, the moral as generally accepted ; not only em pirical manners (mos), which may be bad, but also what has been sanctioned, and is according to method and rule." Comp. Ersch and Gruber, Encykl. s. v. Ethos. Nor wiU it escape the notice of any who may study the usage of our time, that, while the word morality was formerly of universal application, it is now held to be more refined to lay stress upon " the ethical." 454 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. practical side of the dogmatical system, but it is requisite that the practical side itself be theoretically, and, therefore, scientifically, apprehended, and it was for this reason that the necessity for a sep arate treatment of ethics, apart from dogmatics, was acknowledged in a former connexion.' Such a separation does not by any means involve a division by which ethics becomes independent of dogmat ics. Por even as faith and works are most intimately connected in the practical sphere of Christianity, so that works become the fruit age of faith, so is Christian ethics everywhere based upon dog- christian Eth- ™^ti''S- ^^^^ absence from a system of Christian, morals ics based on of indications which everywhere give evidence of the dogmatics. doctrinal views of its author, is always a bad sign." As dogmatics, moreover, reaches back with its most general ideas into the philosophy of religion, so must Christian ethics join hands, in its scientific expression, with philosophical ethics ;° and it will even resemble it more closely in outward appearance than dogmatics can resemble the philosophy of religion. This results from the fact that the features which are peculiar to a positive religion are more clear ly apjDarent in its doctrinal statements than in its moral precepts. Every historical religion, nevertheless, possesses definite moral convictions, through which it governs peoples and times — a fact which may be traced down through all the subdivisions of Protes tantism and Roman Catholicism.* It will, therefore, be necessary for philosophical ethics to descend to the level occupied by the his torical phenomena of the moral life which come under the influence of positive religions, in order that it may derive life for the general from particulars — unless it should prefer to move about in the midst of dead abstractions. But its work will consist in utilizing whatever is gained in this way in the determining of the character of universal morality, while Christian ethics is concerned to dis cover the concrete and historically defined, and especially the char acteristically Christian features, for their own sake. Its task is. Christian Eth- therefore, as de Wette has shown,' analytical in its na- te anamicai; ^^j.^^ while that of philosophical ethics is synthetical. synthetical. The differences which exist between the two may, ac cordingly, be stated as follows: ' Section 1, Part 1. ^ Schleiennacher, § 229. Comp. also ibid., Christliche Sitte, p. 3 sqq. ' It wUl, doubtless, be apparent that one philosophical system cannot possess au thority in Philosophical and a different one in Christian ethics. — Schleiermacher, § 227. •• Comp. Schleiermacher, § 228, note ; Marheineke, System des KathoUoismus, Ui, pp. 20-29. ' Lehrbuch der Sittenlehre, § 8. CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 455 1. Philosophical ethics has to do with the determining of man toward morality as a whole,' while Christian ethics represents the manifestation of the divinely human life in the person of Christ as constituting the ideal of morality, and, consequently, requires of each individual that he should become like Christ. This forms the Christian doctrine of the highest good." 2. The startingpoint of philosophical ethics lies, necessarily, in the moral self-determination of man, which involves the evidence of its own truth, in opposition to any determination on the part of nature, while Christian ethics regards the Spirit of God as the de termining power through the effectual working of his grace in the believer's heart. This is the Christian doctrine of virtue which re sults, without the slightest modification, from the teachings of Christian dogmatics. 3. Philosophical ethics regards man in the relations which he sustains toward the world, and determines his duties by that rule; Christian ethics has regard primarily to the relations sustained by hira toward the kingdom of God. This is the Christian system of duties. The above distinctions should not give rise to the misapprehen sion that a philosophical and a Christian morality, which could con flict with each other, may exist, or that a thing may be moral according to the principles of the one and not so according to the principles of the other. The truth is, that the one serves merely to confirm the other. Morality, which presents to view the Harmony oi human element, can no more be contradictorv to that philosophical . . J andChnstian which involves the Christian element than the ideas man ethics. and Christ can contradict each other. Even Christian morality is ' The obUgations of Christian ethics are binding only upon Christians ; philosoph ical ethics puts forth a universal claim, for its object is to secure the control of every person who is able to comprehend the philosophical principles from which it is de duced." Schleiermacher, Christliche Sitte, p. 2; comp. p. 7 sqq.; de Wette, ubi supra. Rothe likewise agrees with this view at bottom (Theol. Ethik., p. 35), although he does not distinguish Christian so much as theological ethics from philosophical. "The latter begins with the moral consciousness considered simply in that character, while the theological proceeds from that consciousness as it exists in the individual, under the determinate religious form assumed through the influence of the particular Christian Church to which he may belong, and also from the historical ideal of moral ity as found in the Redeemer's person, of which the former is but a reflection." But Christian and philosophical ethics do not come into contrast with each other on his view, because philosophical ethics and philosophy in general are essentially Christian within the bounds of Christendom. Rothe concedes a relative contrast, however, in so far' as mankind have not been altogether penetrated by the influence of Chris tianity. ^ See Schleiermacher, ubi supra, p, 36. 456 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. required to adapt itself to the conditions of mankind generally,' and the philosophical must tend toward the Christian as its goal. The foremost principle of the one, in each instance, is the ultimate aim of the other. Religion, when regarded from the standpoint of philosophical ethics, constitutes the crown and beauty of the moral life, while from that of Christian ethics it forms its root. In the view of philosophical morality, the Christian community is but one society beside others, in the State, in behalf of which certain duties are doubtless to be performed ; but the human society of the State, as being the most general form of a moral organism, is the under lying idea. Christian ethics, on the other hand, starts out from the idea of the Christian community as a distinctively religious organism, and, spreading outward in constantly expanding circles, it comes to in clude at last the duties which men owe to the State. Brotherly love {(ptXa3eX(pia), which has its origin in love to Christ, is by it extended into universal love. The supreme law in philosophical ethics, on the contrary, is respect for the dignity of human nature in other people, from which most general conception it afterward de scends to the level of the several conditions of actual life, in which righteousness becomes spiritualized, and transformed into the prin ciple of love. The latter result would, of course, be beyond its powers of attainment, did not Christianity itself afford it a clearly defined embodiment of the idea; for "it is able," in its character as philosophical ethics, "to do no more than set up pattern speci mens of the moral life in general outline, while Christian ethics sets forth in detailed examples and precepts the problems which have actually been solved in the pages of Revelation." " Christian ethics, ' De Wette, § 9 : " Christian ethics is required to be human, to adapt itself to human capabilities and needs, since it could not, on the contrary principle, bring an effective influence to bear on man." Bruch, p. 19 : " The more thoroughly the ethics of Christianity is apprehended, and the spirit by which it is animated is understood in its purity, the more wiU the conviction grow that it is nothing else than the truest reflection of the legislation which is woven into the nature of the human mind, and which, asserting itself in living power in the mind, is designed to lead man toward the goal of his destination." Pelt, Encyklopaedie, p. 520: "True reason is always one, and finds its highest and purest mode of expression in Christianity; the i.ask remains the same." " De Wette, § 4; or, in other words. Pelt, Encykl, p. 620: "The process of the unification of nature and reason is only indicated in the philosophical realm, while it is accomplished in the Christian." But comp. Dorner, ubi supra, p. 190: "The sep aration of the two branches of philosophical and theological ethics, which must con tinue at least as long as philosophical ethics may desire, causes conflict. This, how ever, is beneficial, not only to the end that reason, outside the pale of Christianity, may recognise with increasing clearness that its truth and purity are attainable only CHRISTIAN ETHICS. 457 therefore, passes beyond the philosophical. To the former be- long the recognition of moral conditions and an abun- „ . ^. ° ° . Chnstian ethics dance of moral forces which are in thorough harmony transcend phii- with human nature, though imparted to it rather than °^°p'''''^'- originating in it. It may be said, accordingly, that to this extent philosophical ethics has to do simply with the moral nature of man, while Christian ethics is engaged upon the positive and Divine qualities which have been introduced into that nature, with grace and its salutary effects. It is, of course, necessary that a correct idea be obtained of this positive element, and of its relation to the natural man. It is the task of dogmatics to secure this idea. SECTION XVIII. CHEIST's work THE BASIS OF ETHICS. The positive element of Christian ethics does not consist in any authoritative letter of either the Old or the New Tes- „ .,. , The positive ele- tament, but in a course of life which was introduced ment oi christ- into human conditions, and typically actualized, by '^^^ '^' Christ, and which, through the influence of his Spirit, is to be con tinued in the community of believers, and to approve itself as a moral force upon the outside world. It was long customary to so conceive the positive feature of Christian ethics, and the characteristics by which it is distinguished from philosophical ethics, as to warrant the statement that the lat ter acknowledges the authority of reason only, the former that of the Bible. Two entirely different authorities were thus opposed to each other in a form altogether outward, it being assumed that the Bible contains a collection of Divine commands, which were even characterized as "arbitrary," as contrasting with the autonomous requirements of reason.' The idea bears only against a false and merely formal supernaturalism, which assumes that the Bible is simply a code of faith and morals, and grounds the positively re vealed ethics in the good pleasure of God. The Old Testament may through the religion of the incarnated Xoyof, but also on account of the non-Christian elements in Christian theology itself, which- afford a partial endorsement of the ethics of the general human reason as against theological ethics, until the ethical self -con sciousness of the Church, which coincides with the ideal process by which the first and the second nature interpenetrate each other, is complete." Comp. also Gelzer's Monatsbl, ubi supra. ' Ernesti, Vindiciae arbitrii divini in religione constituenda (Opuse. theol. i, p. 171 sq.). Per contra, Toellner, Disquisitio, utrum Deus ex mere arbitris potestatem suam legislatoriam exerceat, etc., Lugd. Bat., 1770; de Wette, ubi supra, p. 4. Comp. Dorner, ubi supra, p. 188, against this false positivism. 458 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. possibly correspond to such an idea, and the Decalogue, although it might' with but little difficulty be traced back to the general foundations of morality, has, in point of fact, been long compelled to serve as a framework for Christian ethics. But it is also true that they who have correctly regarded the teaching of Jesus as the regulative feature, have too constantly considered it as merely statutory, without sufficiently remembering Jesus not a that the profound significance of that teaching can only Sid'^ ^statutory ^® Comprehended in connexion with the life of Jesus teacher. and with the entire work of salvation. Jesus did not aim to enunciate disconnected moral maxims, like Epictetus, nor is his example, to which appeal is made, mere superadded example; and it cannot, in many circumstances, be example even for us.' For a Christian disposition does not consist in the imitation of his ex ample in special matters, but in the imitating or appropriating of his spirit (Phil, ii, 5). As dogmatics builds upon the foundation laid by apologetics, whose work is to prove that Christianity is a religion, and indeed the absolute religion, so is ethics required to begin with taking its stand upon the apologetical result that Christ is the sinless One, the actualized moral ideal for humanity, and that, therefore, Christianity is not simply a general sort of moral , ,_ phenomenon, but the universal moral power which rules Christianity the ^ , , p i , . tt universal moral over the whole ot modern history. Hence its positive I... ...jr. feature is not a letter, but an act — the revelation of God through Christ incarnated in human nature. Its question, therefore, will not be merely, " What is written ? " but rather, "What is in harmony with the spirit of Christ?" Likewise, as dogmatics already entertains ideas which are not expressly con tained in the Bible — for example, the Trinity — so is Christian ethics, in the course of its development, imperatively required to pass be yond the letter of the Bible, and is, therefore, required to engage in the exact definition of moral ideas. The most blessed fruits of Christianity are fruits of which but the germ exists in the Bible— for example, the idea of a Christian State, of Christian marriage and all that it involves, of the abolition of slavery, of respect for ' The situation that one comes to occupy when he demands for every particular act a warrant from the moral deportment of Christ, may be learned from the example of Thomas a Kempis, who deduced the duty of writing books from John viU, 6. Vide Ullmann, Reformers before the Reformation, ii, p. 161. Schleiermacher's words re lating to the individual bearings of Christian ethics (Die christliche Sitte, p. 48 sqq) are very significant in this connexion. The setting up of a pattern in the field of morals is always a questionable procedure. An ideal, such as that to which we seek to attain, is more than a pattern which we strive to copy. CHRIST'S WORK THE BASIS OF ETHICS. 459 individual life, and of religious services on the Christian Sabbath. These have been freely developed in the course of human life, with out any direct command or statute in the Scriptures imposing the duty. Hence, as dogmatics presupposes the history of doctrines, so does Christian ethics have regard to the entire development of the Christian life, in which connexion such malformations as Montanism, Pantheism, Gnosticism, Asceticism, Jesuitism, Quietism, also come under notice, as marks of warning, similar to the study of heresies in dogmatics. SECTION JJX. DIVISION OF ETHICS. Christian, like philosophical, ethics falls into general principles and particular or applied ethics. The former is concerned with the settling of the moral principle, or, better, of the objects . and motives of moral action, and hence, with the inves- ics general and tigation of man's moral nature and capacities, the cor- ^p®''"'- rect bounding of the ideas of good and evil, of sin and imputation, and of grace and freedom. It also has to do with the work of set ting forth the goal of all moral effort, with the doctrine of the highest good, all of which leads back again into the profoundest depths of the doctrines of the faith. Special ethics, on the other hand, has to do with the particular manifestations and expressions of the moral life in given circumstances, and is subdivided into the particular doctrines of virtue and of duty. The division into general and special ethics is, of course, only relative. Rothe's observation, in opposition to this view, that it is "merely external and formal, in a thoroughly abstract way,"' is correct if the division be taken as an absolute one, and if it be car ried out in an abstract and lifeless manner. But an examination of Rothe's work itself will show at once that the first two volumes contain general ethics, together with matter that is usually includ ed under dogmatics, and that the third is devoted to special morals, although the author, at this point, in connexion with the doctrine of duties, again distinguishes between the general and the par ticular. He justly declares, that, with reference to general ethics, the discussion relating to a "supreme moral principle" views oi Eothe is confusing and without result. He demands, instead, Hariess, and a threefold object, which he disposes into the doctrines ° ^^' of good, of virtue, and of duties. Other writers have preferred a different division. Harless sets forth the following three parts; ' Theol Ethik, i, p. 199. 460 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. the good, the possession, and the preservation, of salvation. The last named of these has to do with " the concrete manifestation of Christian virtue in the fundamental relations of human life," and hence coincides, in this regard, with special ethics. Pelt likewise divides ethics into three parts:' (1) The actualizing of the highest good upon earth in the form of the kingdom of God ; (2) Of the will of the individual, to be developed in conformity with the doctrine of duties ; and (3) The realizing of the highest good in the habitual character of individual Christians, or the doctrine of virtue. Rosen kranz, following the antithetical method of the Hegelian school, di vides the whole of ethics into, the two diverging ideas of good and evil, and of human freedom." By this method the first and second form the general, and the third the special, part.' Schleiermacher's division is in harmony with his fundamental views of Christianity.' The end of Christianity is held to be bless- schieiermach- edness in God, which, however, has been disturbed by er's method. ^jjg consciousness of sin. This fact gives rise to a feel ing of disinclination, out of which comes an impulse to act in the direction of restoring the idea, now violated, of the relation between the higher and the lower potencies of Hie, or, in other words, of restoring human nature to its normal condition. This is restorative action. Over against such disinclination, moreover, is an inclination, or voluntary desire, to yield to the authority of the higher require ment, and this gives rise to expansive or extensive action. But, in addition, there are elements of satisfaction, intermediate between the inclination and the disinclination, which do not, indeed, corre spond to absolute blessedness, but yet are a relative blessedness; and these originate action, designed, not to introduce changes, but, while remaining without any proper efliciency, to serve as an ex pression of the individual's inward state. This is descriptive action, whose only object is to recommend the personal experience of the individual to the favour of others. Its general expression compre hends everything which we are accustomed to include under the name of Christian worship. Whatever may be the method, however, by which it is intended to formally connect theological ethics with dogmatics, on the one hand, and, on the other, to combine or isolate philosophical ethics from dogmatics, and whatever may be the mode by which we seek to distribute the proper tasks of philosophical ethics over different departments, and to trace the various radii from the centre to the • Encyklopaedie, p. 519. ° Ibid., p. 67. ' Other methods of dividing are given in Pelt, p. 623. ^ Christliche Sitte, p. 44 sqq. DIVISION OF ETHICS. 461 circumference of life, everything will depend upon the discovery of the centre itself, in order to trace, in the spirit of the Gospel, "the main outlines toward a thorough regeneration of the moral life in both State and Church." ' Asceticism and pedagogics are sometimes regarded as special subdivisions of ethics, the former as teaching man how Asceticism and to train himself for morality, the latter as showing how pedagogics. he may train others. But since every exercise of moral power re acts upon the moral disposition, while the good cannot be secured without conflict, it follows that asceticism is already conditioned in morality. Many forms of exercise occur in the practice of godli ness (yvfivaala, 1 Tim. iv, 7, 8), being at times largely negative, and aiming to avert the evil by reacting against the power of sensual allurements, as we see in the mediseval asceticism, fasting, mortifi cations, voluntary abstinence, and in other abnormal forms. Then, again, they are largely positive, stimulating the good by meditat ing upon the supreme good itself, and by absorbing the emotions in the divine ideals. All o^ this, however, finds a place in moral ity itself. According to Schleiermacher's division, the former would belong to the class of restorative actions, and the latter to that of descriptive actions. The moral principles involved in education must likewise be dis cussed in ethics, and more especially under the head of expansive actions." The art of training, however, the technics of education, forms a distinct science, which is properly termed pedagogics, but which is not a theological, but a philosophical, science, in so far as it deals with man as a whole. It belongs to practical theology in so far as it is concerned with a training for ecclesiastical life. Casuistry, too, has been treated as a distinct branch. It has to do with cases in which duties come into conflict with each other (de casibus conscientiae). Kant designated ^"'^ ^^' it as the "dialectics of conscience." It is, however, merely the outgrowth from a scholastic and Jesuitical morality, and, as such, is to be banished from a sound system of ethics, inasmuch as it does not present actual cases of conflict to view, and merely resolves apparent cases by a higher law. ' Gelzer, Protest. Monatsbl. fiir innere Zeitgeschichte, 1864, Preface to vol. iv. The author includes among the most indispensable prerequisites for such a work, a profound understanding of modern history from the Reformation to our times, and incessant energetic investigation of original sources, and inquiry into the original meaning of Christianity, and also into the laws ot its transformations in the field of secular and ecclesiastical history. " See Schleiermacher, ut)i supra, p. 53 ; 'Eothe, iii, p. 679 sqq. 463 SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. SECTION XX. THE HISTOEY OF ETHICS. E. Feuerlein, Die Sittenlehre des Christenthums in ihren geschichtlichen Hauptformen, Mb., 1855 ; A. Neander, Vorlessungen iiber die Geschichte der christlichen Ethik, pub. by Erdmann, Berl., 1864; C. S. Wake, Evolution ol Morality; being a History ol the Development ol Moral Culture, 3 vols., Lond., 1878; A. Thoma, Geschichte des christlichen Sittenlehre in der Zeit des N. Test., Haarlem (Lpz.), 1879; Wuttke, Christian Ethics, 2 vols., N. Y., 1873, treats the History in vol. I. The Bible presents to our notice neither a system of morality nor one of doctrines; but it has a wealth of moral precepts, all of which are animated by, and borne upon, the spirit of the theocracy, and which are interwoven with the history of God's kingdom, like pearls in a diadem. Nor did the apostolic fathers refrain from moral ad- Ethicai labours monitions. In the progress of the conflict with the ol the Fathers, heathen, or antique, conception of the world, the more rigid view of Montanism soon came to occupy a place beside the milder tendency. In another direction, mistaken views of Christian liberty, on the part of the Gnostics, led into the dangerous errors of the Carpocratians, and the later pantheistic sects of the Middle Ages. It thus became the task of Christian theology to more ex actly determine and regulate Christian morality. Certain prelimi nary labours had already been performed by the apostolic fathers and the apologists. We see this especially in Clement of Rome and the Shepherd of Hermas. Clement of Alexandria followed, giving many moral precepts, carried down to particulars in the pedagogics, and treating in his Miscellaneous works the moral law and virtue as the chief good. A considerable number of treatises of a moral nature are found in the works of Tertullian, which must be divided, into classes, ac cording as they were written before or after his conversion to Montanism, e. g.. On Theatricals, Idolatry, The Soldier's Crown, The Pallium, Patience, Veiled Virgins, Exhortation to Chastity, Monogamy, Modesty, and other works. In a similar spirit Cyprian wrote an Exhortatioh on Martyrdom, on Good, on Patience, and on Works and Alms. The preachers Macarius, Basil the Great, the two Gregories, Chrysostom, Ephraim Syrus, and Cyril of Jerusalem made extended use of moral references, and many of their sermons are purely moral. Ambrose, too, in his works on Virgins, and on the Duties of Ministers of the Church, and Augustine, in his works on the Morals of the Catholic Church and on Continence, furnished Ethical works of moral and ascetic treatises. Jerome rendered profit- eariy writers, able service, especially to monastic asceticism, in his polemical conflict with Jovinian and Vigilantius, and his Morals of THE HISTORY OF ETHICS. 463 Gregory the Great (died 604), in his work on Job, indicate the na ture of their contents by their title. In this department, as in dog matics, the work of compilation preceded that of systematic ar rangement, as we see in several of the works of John of Damascus. The dogmatical works of scholasticism include ethics also, it be ing largely controlled by the " four cardinal and three theological virtues" of Aristotle. Casuistry, also, was developed under its in fluence, Raymond de Pennaforte (died 1275) obtaining special celeb rity by his Summary on Penitence. The Victorines and the later Mystics penetrated more deeply into the foundations of the religi ously moral life, but committed the error of not basing asceticism upon the spirit of Christian liberty. This applies also to the valu able Imitation of Christ of Thomas ^ Kempis. The Ethical reaction continually increasing corruption in the Church after 'i 'he church. the removal of the papal chair to A'vignon, and the separation of the churches, produced a mighty reaction. The forerunners of the Reformation, such as Wycliffe, IIuss, and others, pointed out, among other things, moral infirmities, and the reawakened interest in classical studies, likewise, intro- Humanism and duced a new feature into ethical teaching. Morality etnics. was exalted into a guide to the wisdom of Christianity for the practical government of life by Petrarch (died 1374), Marsilius Ficinus (died 1499), Louis Vives (died 1540), Erasmus (died 1563; Manual of the Christian Soldier) and others. Savonarola (died 1498) wrote his Simplicity of Christian Life in a spirit of larger sympathy with Christian faith. While the Reformation must be regarded as a moral renovation, not as a reform of abstract doctrine, it was yet, first of all, necessary that the new principle should be apprehended in the way of conquering the faith of men. The reformers, therefore, appear as moral heroes and The reiormers inaugurators of a new period, but not as moralists in ™ ^^'^^ ^^ ^^^' essential that the religious nature of led. youth be studied in so far as it is the object of cate chetics, and this not merely with reference to its powers of appre hension, but in every direction in which it is displayed. Al this point catechetics has general pedagogics for its basis, and this, ac cordingly, would be the proper point for discussing the relation of religious instruction as imparted by the school to that dispensed by the Church. Much has been said upon this point from the peda gogical point of view. But it is further essential that the subject- matter of the instruction, which is distinctively Christian in its yet dawned in any wise upon their understandings." — Rosenkranz, p. 336. Mar heineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 315. Zezschwitz shows, however, that the abuse of the method of developing a subject by question and answer does not set it aside, but that its further development is a task of the art of catechetics, vol. i, p. 4 ; comp. p. 11 sqq., vol. iii, p. 23, sqq., and vol. iv entire. CATECHETICAL METHODS. 491 character, be handled in accordance with clearly defined theolog ical views, and also that the grading of the instruction, the object to be attained thereby, and the means to be employed, be clearly determined. The grading might be about as follows: 1. For the period of childhood, the exciting of religious feeling and reflection by means of repeating Scripture narratives and teaching simple texts, verses from hymns, and the like; 2. At the riper stage of youth for boys and girls the connected teaching of Bible history, accompanied with the teaching of the catechism. At this stage the didactic element will predominate; 3. At the stage of incipient manhood the instruction proper for all candidates for Church mem bership, their preparation for the sacrament, and their initiation into the deeper unity of the Bible, in both history and doctrine, as well as into the teaching of the Church. With the latter process may be connected a survey of Church history, introduction into the life of the Church as a community, and into the life of devotion gener ally. To what extent a stage of instruction beyond that for candi dates for Church membership should be assumed is a question of practical importance, but upon the answer to which the catechetical function is no longer dependent, since, in the nature of the case, its task was ended at joining the Church. All that is subsequent to that act belongs to ecclesiastical didactics and to pedagogics in its broad acceptation; for instance, the religious instruction imparted in Bible classes, in Sunday-schools, Church lyceums, lectures, and similar ways. Here we see the value of catechisms, of sacred histo ries, of volumes of selected passages from the Bible, and many sim ilar works. Every pastor should always have in mind the instruc tion, and use of proper methods thereto, apart from his pulpit ministrations. But the true catechist has not fulfilled his task when, in his offi cial capacity, he has conducted a session for the in- catechetica a struction of the children. He will bear in his heart the part of pastoral youth entrusted to his care (John xxi, 15: Pogke to dp- ™'''^' via iJ,ov). With this feature catechetics reaches over into the field of pastoral care. It is also customary, in many places on the Con tinent, to connect the instruction of children with the public wor ship, and in this respect catechetics comes into contact with the homiletical and liturgical functions — the arranging of an appro priate worship for children. But where no such custom prevails the hour given to religion must not become one of instruction sim ply,' but must at the same time be made an hour of edification, of ' " The catechetical function must not be confined to instruction, but must consist pre-eminently in developing a chUdren's worship, the soul of which is prayer, and it 493 • PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. training in the practice of godliness, and hence a branch of worship. The summit of the catechetical function, finally, consists in the reception into Church fellowship, the recognition of whose signifi cance and relation to the whole belongs to liturgies, SECTION VIL MENTAL AND SPIRITUAL ENDOWMENT. The study of catechetics must not be confined to oral instruction merely, but must also invohe appropriate practice, an opportunity for which should be afforded the student. Occupation with the general instruction of children will furnish a useful introduction to such practice; and the student who has enjoyed the benefit of thorough instruction in religion and of a thorough preparation for joining the Church, and who has preserved the blessed influence of such a course in his own heart, will, in a special sense, possess a great advantage over others. Diligent attention given to sound catechetical methods, and a general interest in the religious and intellectual life of the young, are also of advantage. The opinion is strongly entertained by many that catechetical knowledge will spontaneously develop itself. But precisely that which seems easy, even to children, is the most difficult of alL Let Luther be remembered, who owned that he was obliged to give his entire life to the study of the catechism, and yet never could ex haust the study. By way of contrast let a young minister, dried up with speculative and critical knowledge, be imagined as the centre of a circle of animated and joyous children. Does conceit lead one to despise these little ones, and is there in him nothing of the feeling which attracted Christ toward those of whom he said, Necessltyof " of such is the kingdom of heaven"? In that case it syrapattwvriuf were better to acknowledge one's bankruptcy than to childhood. sin against the sanctuary of childhood. But if the love exists, and only practice be lacking, the needed remedy may yet be found. It is the task of the Church to provide that remedy. The end in view is not to be attained by hiring a few children through offering rewards, or forcing them into the auditorium as horses are driven in a riding-school, for the purpose of experimenting with them. must involve a disciplinary element." — Pelt, Encykl., p. 676. " The children's wor ship must go hand in hand with catechetical instruction and with the several depart ments of catechetics. It must preserve, nourish, make, and keep alive what these have planted."— Hirscher, p. 663 ; Vinet, Past. Theol., pp. 229-235 ; Palmer, p. 536, syj'. / Kraussold, p. 179, sg'. / Zezschwitz iii, p. 615. In the language of the early Protestants of Germany, recitations from the catechism were expUcitly termed " pray ings," a usage still in vogue in some sections of Switzerland. MENTAL AND SPIRITUAL ENDOWMENT. 493 The pastor should seek out the children in their sphere as he would look for plants in their natural soil. All young pastors, even those who are not constrained thereto by motives of economy, should endeavour to secure opportunity for the teaching of chil dren. Even the scientific instruction of the young forms a valua ble preparation for religious teaching, and the teaching of language and history especially will afford those gymnastic advantages which were elsewhere looked for from the Socratic method. The ability to tell a story or relate an incident well is a special art to be ac quired only by practice. But the religious disposition and con tinued participation in the religious life are, here as elsewhere, a prime necessity. Every opportunity afforded the theological can didate to teach a Bible class, or conduct a Sunday-school, should be thankfully embraced all through his theological studies. To observe a thorough catechist while surrounded by the children, and with him to enter into the thought and feeling of the children, will quicken the mind and impart courage. Hirscher beautifully says: " Fortunate art thou if nature has provided thee with rich endow ments; but, however this may be, let there be no lack of effort to secure what may depend upon thyself. A real enthusiasm will richly supply what nature might have bestowed in but inferior SECTION VIH. HISTORY OF CATECHETICS. Comp. Langemack (died 1740), Historia Catechetica (Stralsund, parts 1-3, 1729-40) ; KScher, Katechetlsche Geschichte der pHpstllchen Kirclie, Jena, 1753 ; Schuler, Gesch. d. katechet. Rel.- unterrichts unter d. Protestanten vou der Reformation bis 1762 (1766), Halle, 1802; Gilbert, Christ. Catechet. hist., P. I., tres prlores aetates complectens. Lips., 1835 ; Dithmar, Beitr. zur Gesch. d. katechet. Unterrichts, Marburg, 1848 ; Ehrenfeuchter, Gesch. d. Katechismus mit bes. Beriicksichtigung d. Hannover. Landeskirche, Gott., 1857 ; Mayer, Gesh. des Katechumenats u. d. Katechese in d. ersten sechs Jahrhunderten, prize essay, Kempten, 1868 ; Weiss, Altkirchl. Psedagogik dargest. in Katechumenat u. Katechese der ersten sechs Jahrhunderte, prize essay, Freiburg, 1869; Vinet, Pastoral Theology (Skinner's Translation, 2d. ed.). New York, 1861; Kidder, The Christian Pastorate, Cincinnati, 1871 ; Elliott, Hermeneutical and Pastoral Lec tures, New York, 1880 ; Phelps, Men and Books, New York, 1882. The catechumens of the ancient Church were not children; but childhood is already designated in the New Testament ^ + j^ (Mark x, 13-19; Eph. vi, 4; 2 Tim. iii, 15) as called to the ancient participate in the kingdom of God. With regard to ^^^''^¦ the relation held by catechumens, and the different classes to which they belonged (dKpouiJ.evoi, yovvKXivovTsg, KaTTjxovixsvoi, (jxon^oiiEvoi), consult the best works on ecclesiastical history. Zezschwitz says:' " Ecclesiastical antiquity has no knowledge of a texvi] Karrixrfr lkti, or catechetical art. The latter appears in that character at a time > Page 724. = Page 15. 494 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. when the governing idea is no longer the catechumenate, but the function of teaching." The Apostles' Creed furnished the subject matter of instruction at an early period. But distinctively cate chetical discourses were also in vogue, together with addresses deliv ered on the occasion of reception into membership. This we see in Cyril of Jerusalem, and in the Catechetical Discourse of Gregory Early catechet- of Nyssa. A guide for the instruction of adult cate- icai works. chumens was given by Augustine in the treatise on Catechetical Questions, addressed to the deacon Deogratias, at Carthage. The situation was changed when the baptism of children had be come more general, and Christianity had been made the religion of the state. Then catechetics became, in consequence, more largely what it is in our day — a teaching of the young. Charlemagne ren dered valuable service by providing for such teaching. The Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer were taught in addition to the Creed. These were termed Leading Articles, which extended also to the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper. The monks Otfrid, of the Weissenburg monastery in Alsace, and Kero The flrst cate- and Notker Labeo, of St. Gall, wrote the first cate chisms, chisms. A clear view of the position of catechetics in the fifteenth century is given in the Picture Catechism, published by Geffeken, in Leipzig, in 18o5. The Waldensian Catechism repre sented an evangelical tendency. The Wicliffites and Hussites (Bohemian Brethren) were also interested in the religious education of the young, which had been so terribly neglected by the Church in the lifeless and mechanical state in which it had become immersed.^ Among Roman Catholics, upon the Reformation, the Chancellor Charlier Gerson constituted a notable exception, assuming the posi tion of catechist in his own person, and also furnishing the priests with a guide for catechization, though in very general outlines merely, in his treatise on Drawing the Poor to Christ. The first agency to perform thorough work, however, was tbe Luther's two Reformation. Luther, while engaged in the visitation catechisms. ^f ^j^g churches, in 1528, became convinced of the need for providing the people with a " good, simple, unvarnished cate chism," a " lay Bible which should embrace the entire contents of Christian doctrine." This called forth his two catechisms, the smaller being intended for children and the larger for teachers." ' Comp. Herzog's Waldenser, 4, supplement, p. 458 ; and Zezschwitz, Katechismen d. Waldenser u. Bohmischen Briider, Erlangen, 1863. ^ Different editions by Stier, Parisius, Purgold, etc. See Winer, Handbuch d. Lit eratur, complementary vol., p. 199. HISTORY OP CATECHETICS. 495 They constituted the basis of religious instruction during a long period, and engaged the attention of numerous commentators. Luther is still a model as respects the true catechetical style in point of hearty and naive mode of expression.' The Reformed Church, too, did not remain behindhand. CEcolampadius, in his Report on Children," and Leo Judsus,' and Calvin,* led the way. The Heidelberg Catechism, composed by Zacharias Ur- xheHeideiberg sinus and Caspar Olevianus, became as famous as the catechism. catechisms of Luther, having been translated into nearly every lan guage, and been made a symbolical book of the Reformed Church.' The older catechists did but little theorizing, the amount contrib uted in this direction being limited, upon the whole, to noteworthy hints in individual works. But a special emphasis was placed upon the matter in the state churches by the ordering of sermons on the catechism by the authorities of the Church." But there was no absolute lack of theoretical instruction. The catechism of David Chytraus, at Rostock (1554-1604), assumed the form of popular dogmatics, but secured a wide acceptance by reason of its clear arrangement and precision.' We may mention the following addi tional works: Hyperius, on Catechetics (1570, republished by A. Schmidt, Helmstedt, 1704); Alsted, Catechetical The- Leading au- ology (Hanov., 1622); Dietrich (died 1669), Catechet- ^uTheTand ical Institution (1613); Maukisch, the commentator of spener. Dietrich (1653); Kortholt, Encouragement for Catechetical Instruc tion (1669), and Trotzendorf. These authors are the most widely known theorists between the time of Luther and that of Spener. ' " The catechism of Luther," says Herder, " must be fervently committed to mem ory and retained forever." Comp. Harnack, Der kleine Katechismus Luthers iu seiner Urgestalt, Stuttg., 1856. Comp. Vilmar (Pastoraltheol., p. 104) with reference to its advantages over the Heidelberg from a pedagogical point of view. Zezschwitz (Katechetik, ii, p. 265, sqq) furnishes a " historico-critical estimate " of the material of catechetics. ' Reprinted in the Leben u. ausgewahlte Schriften d. reform. Kirche, vol. ii, pp. 296 ff. ^ Newly pubUshed by Grob, Winterthiir, 1836. ^ Henry, ii, pp. 160, sqq. ' Originally issued in 1563. An edition in the form of the original edition, pub lished by Welters, 1864. Bethune, Lectures on the Heidelberg Catechism, N. Y., 1868. See a judicious estimate of this work, as contrasted with the depreciatory treat ment accorded to it in the days of rationalism, in G. Miiller, Theophil., Zurich, 180], p. 313. Comp. also the more recent works of Zyro, Sudhoff, Giider, Bender, Krum macher, and others. ' Comp. Rudelbach, Amtliohes Gutachten iib. d. Wiedereinf uhrung der Katechismus- examina, etc., Dresden, 1841. ' Krabbe, Chytraus, pp. 45, 46. 496 PRACTICAI; THEOLOGY. The last-named theologian, Trotzendorf, gave a new impulse in this field by the publication of his Catechetical Tables (1683), and also by his Thoughts on Catechetical Information, published by a friend in Halle, in 1815.' The principal query with Spener was, " How shall we connect the head with the heart ? " Seidel, of Ber lin (1717), and others, followed in his track. CEtinger, too, is im- j)ortant in this connexion because of his Historical and Moral Store house of Catechetical Directions, which appeared in 1762.'' In the orthodox school, Fecht, of Rostock (died 1716), delivered Orthodox writ- lectures on catechetics, and combined catechetical prac- ^''^- tice therewith. Additional guides to catechization were furnished by Rambach in his Well-Instructed Catechist, which ap peared in 1722; by Buddaeus (died 1729), in his Catechetical Theol ogy, which appeared in two volumes in Jena, in 1752, and by others. In the Reformed Church, Osterwald (died 1747) endeav oured to bring into vogue, through the medium of his widely circu lated Catechism (Amsterdam, 1707), a more independent treatment, v^rhich should accord with the needs of the time. But his effort resulted in his substituting the subjectively abstract element of natural religion and morality for the earlier concrete and objective ihodes of expression sanctioned by the usage qi the Church. The Catechetics al- rationalistic revulsion in education, caused in the latter tictrpedagog- ^^^^ °^ *^^ eighteenth century by Basedow, Salzmann, ics. and other philanthropical schoolmen, reacted also upon catechetical instruction.^ The aim was to counteract, by the proc ess of a free development of the faculties of the soul, a merely me chanical method and a dead orthodoxy. But the result was a lapse into the opposite extreme. The posi tive subject matter was frequently lost in the process of shallow argumentation, and in this way a false Socratism came into being, which could be confined within appropriate limits only after long- continued struggles. The so-called " philanthropic " method f oUnd "Philanthropic" adherents, though with modifications, in Miller, in his method. Directions in the Art of Catechising (1778, 1782, 1788); in Rosenmuller, Directions in Catechising (1763, 1793), and others. Schmid treated catechetics in an entirely formal way, as we see in his Catechetical Handbook (Jena, 1791, 1792-99, 1801, 3 vols.). Graeffe, finally, carried the rationalistic formalism of questions to 'Comp. ThUo, Spener als Katechet., Berlin, 1840. 2 Comp. the Siid-deutscher Schulbote, 1855, 1-4. ^ Comp. Salzmann, Die wirksamste Mittel Kindern Religion beizubringen, 3d ed., Leips., 1809. In his Konrad Kiefer he raves against the catechism, and allows little Konrad " to pluck pigeons " instead of handing him the book ! HISTORY OP CATECHETICS. 497 its highest point. He may, therefore, be considered the repre sentative of the older rationalistic catechetics, based on Kantian principles in religion and morals, while Dinter, on the other hand, succeeded in overcoming formalistic narrowness and dryness by a more vivid and original apprehension of the matter of religious teaching. Still, in his dogmatic opinions, he did not forsake the rationalistic point of view. The religious element, and, more particularly, the peculiarly Christian features of that element, was regarded by Daub and SchAA-arz as being the essential thing, a view that was in the strong est contrast with the former method. A more profound apprehen sion of the whole subject, however, has been attained through the influence of the Schleiermacher school — as we see in services of Riitenik and Schweizer — though the process was not schleiermacher. unaccompanied by the danger of making the dialectical element prominent at the expense of the emotional. The Jesuits and related orders acquired entire control of the educa tion of youth in the Roman Catholic Church, the Larger (1554) and Smaller (1566) Catechisms of the Jesuit, Peter Canisius (died 1595), being highly esteemed, in addition to the Roman Catechism, which received the sanction of the Council of Trent, in 1566. The theory of catechetics, likewise, was not neglected by the Jesuits.' But even Roman Catholic catechetics did not escape the in- Roman catho- fluence of the age in later times.' Here, too, an ani- U" catechetics. mated and Christian mode of treatment obtained the victory over every sort of lifeless formalism. LITERATURE OF CATECHETICS. Riitenik, Uebersicht der katechetischen Literatur, in Theol. Stud. u. krit., 1831,. p. 188 if. Tholuck, Literarischer Anzeiger, 1830, No. 18. J. F. C. Graffe, Vollst. Lehrbuch der aUgem. Katechetik. Gott, 1795-98. 3 vols. Grundriss der allgem. Katechetik, nach kantischen Grundsatzen. Gott., 1796. G. F. Dinter, Regeln der Katechetik. Neustadt a. d. 0., 1801. C. Daub, Lehrbuch der Katechetik. Frankf. a. M., 1801. F. H. Ch. Schwarz, Katechetik oder Anleitung zu Unterredungen mit der Jugend im Christenthume. Gies., 1818. G. Thierbach, Handbuch der Katechetik. Frankenhausen, 1822, 1823. 2 vols. Die Katechisirkunst. Nordhausen, 1826-31. 5 vols. Lehrbuch der Katechetik. Hannov., 1830. W. Stern, Erfahrungen, Grundsatze und Grundziige fiir bibl.-christl. Religions-unter- richt. Karisr., 1833. •f J. B. Hirscher, Katechetik oder der Beruf des Seelsorgers. Tiib., 1841. Lor. Kraussold, Katechetik. Erl., 1843. ' Comp. Possevin's (died 1611) Letter on the Necessity, Utility, and Eeason for Teaching the Catholic Catechism (ed. W. Eder, Ingolstadt, 1583). ' See M. Vierthaler, Geist der Socratlk, Salzburg, 1798. 32 498 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. *Ch. Palmer, Evang. Katechetik. Stuttg., 1844. A. Keller, Anleitung zum katechet. Unterrichte. Aarau, 1851. 2 vols. C. N. Kiihler, Katechetische Baukunst. Kiel, 1851. J. G. Hanschmann, Christi. Katechetik. Lpz., 1852. G. G. K. L. Plato, Lehrbuch der Katechetik. Lpz., 1853. H. Puchta, Handbuch der praktischen Katechese. Stuttg., 1854. *C. A. G. V. Zezschwitz, System der christlich-kirchlichen Katechetik. Lpz., 1863. G. A. F. Edelin, Leitfaden zur Ertheilung des Confirmandenunterrichts und zur Wie- deriiolung dieses Unterrichts mit Erwachsenen. Basel, 1872. K. A. Riitenik, Der christi. Glaube, nach dem luther. Katechismus in katechet. Vor tragen zusammenhangend dargestellt. Berl., 1829. Al. Schweizer, Leitfaden zum Unterricht in der christi. Glaubenslehre fiir reifere Katechumenen. Ziirich, 1840. See Winer, Handbuch der Theol. Literatur, vol. U, p. 213, sqq. ; M'CUntock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, articles Catechetics, Catechism, and Catechumens, vol. u, pp. 148-154. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN CATECHETICS. There have been many English works on the Catechism of the Church of England. Among these we may mention : Barry, Notes on the Catechism. 2d ed. Lond., 1868. Williams, A Brief Exposition of the Church Catechism, with Proofs from Scripture. A new ed. Loud., 1841. The individual Churches have each produced their catechism, which, in many cases, have undergone important modifications. For the names of these, aud works written on them, we refer to the denominational literature of each of the great communions. See Hurst, Bibliotheca Theologica, pp. 264, 267, 328. New York, 1883. SECTION IX. THE THEOEY OP WORSHIP — LITUEGICS. To comprehend the nature of Christian worship as a whole, and The field of of the various elements by which it is modified in par- liturgics. ticular, is the scientific task of liturgies. Upon the manner in which it is performed will depend, in great measure, both the general organization of the public Christian worship and the administration of its several details. The former is included in the department of Church government, the latter in that of Church ministrations. It is the task of the philosophy of religion and of ethics to point out the necessity of public worship. It is, first of all, important to arrive at the understanding of such worship as being a necessity of the common life of Christianity instead of a mere court-ceremonial; or, at most, a moral stimulus for the masses. The nature of wor ship, which Hegel terms " the highest deed of the human spirit," ' • In harmony with that view, aud carrying the idea further into its detaUs, Rothe calls worship an action, and more particularly an action to be performed in common — an internal, ethical, spiritual action, the highest which, the Christian may perform. THE THEORY OF WORSHIP— LITURGICS. 499 must be deduced from the nature of religion and of Christianity. It is, therefore, the first duty of liturgies to apprehend the idea of public worship as an ethically justified and obligatory act on the part of the congregation. The constituent elements of the worship are afterward to be recognised in harmony with their liturgical importance and their relation to each other, as they stand upon the basis of that fundamental principle. This is also the point at which the relation of worship to art, in the strict sense, is to Relation of be determined. The Church is not simply an educational worship to art. institution, as those seem to suppose who centre the entire worship in the sermon, and regard everything else, such as singing, prayer, the sacraments, and the benediction, as mere additions. Bahr says: "In no other religion does the religious community appear to be so necessary and essential as in Christianity. The idea of a church, whether -local or embracing the whole of the Church, is eminently peculiar to Christianity, and attains to the full dignity of truth in it alone. Christianity assumed the form of an independent religion for the first time when it appeared in and with, the form of a community, and it lives and continues on from age to age only in that form. . . . The Church, united by the ties of a common Lord and a common faith, not only sustains a doc trinal relation to Christ, but also a vital connexion like that of the body to the head. But it appears as such, as a whole, only in the public worship." ' Also Palmer, in his treatise on Practical The ology, says: "In the celebration the Church presents herself in bridal array; at such times we should, before all else, be filled with joy and exultation, excited by the reflection that it is a glorious privilege to belong to the Church, to be identified with and live in it." " Schenkel's idea, shared, however, by many others, that public worship is merely a means for the exciting of piety, and that it has no end in itself, grows out of his warped view of religion generally. Worship must be conceived as the common act of the congrega tion in which the religious life of its members finds „ , „ ^ , ° j, , ,. c , Worship defined. expression under the form of devotion. Such expres sion takes shape partly in the word and partly in the symbol.' ¦ Page 351. ' Comp. supra, § 12. We concede fully that a mere participating in the worship is not necessarUy reUgious, and that facility in the use of forms of worship cannot be a substitute for universal piety (p. 171); but this is pronouncing jndgment upon mock- worship merely, which stands related to the true and sacred worship of God as arti ficiality does to art, or hypocrisy to religion. Here, too, the rule applies : abusus non toUit usum. — Dogmatik, p. 172. 'Ehrenfeuchter's conception (§ 33) of Christianity, as the end of aU symbols, can hold good only in so far as the symbol is regarded as being veUed and obscure; 500 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. The nature of the religious, or, more exactly, the Christian, symbol, as distinguished from the legal types of Judaism and heathen nature-symbols, and the relation of the symbol to the Word, can only be understood from the peculiar nature of the religious or Christian life. Ehrenfeuchter says: "It would be as silly to apolo gize for religion because it has a system of worship as to excuse the soul for having a body. Some desire to attribute the worship to the sensuousness of man alone. . . . But on this method no one would suspect the eternal law of life, by which everything that is real is also possessed of the power to express itself in figurative form, and to manifest itself in the fulness of life and energy." ' The place of the sermon in the worship is likewise determined by liturgies, so that homiletics itself is, in a broad sense, a part of liturgies." In a, different point of view the sermon, nevertheless, extends beyond purely liturgical limits, and unfolds in«its independent movement a conformity to law which is no longer included in the domain of li turgies. All worship is based upon action and reaction, upon mutual incitement according to settled laws, which modify its organism, and upon which its earnestness, dignity, solemnity, practical fruit- fulness, and power to edify, depend. This, accordingly, is the place for discussing the contrast between the formally restricted and the free, the established and the mova ble, the devotional and the festal, what has been historically trans mitted, and what is demanded by the present time. A sound theory of worship will maintain a true medium between Province of a *^^* settled uniformity of a lifeless mech.inism which sound theory moves in the world of empty ceremonies, and a frivolity 0 worship. .^hich is possessed of a mania for novelty and adherence to the fashion of the times, and which elevates its unsettled and superficial notions to the place of what has been tested and shown to be of worth.' It also distinguishes between a superabundance mystification has an end. But Christianity has, on the contrary, developed a noble, free, consciously-spiritual symbolism, upon which the worship is necessarily based, and which Ehrenfeuchter himself has profoundly and fervently apprehended under the idea of an "ideal art." Pp. 253, 275, and elsewhere. ' Page 51. ^ This is also the view of Palmer, p. 352. Comp. Hagenbach, Liturgik u. Homi letik. ' Even a better and really religious subjectivity has its limits. Ehrenfeuchter, ubi supra, p. 76, observes with justice that " when the attempt is made to enforce the universal acceptance of an individual poetic view, which may possibly be profoundly true for the individual, and afford him wondrous comfort, the only result will be a hardening of the poetic element and a petrifaction of the reUgious. For the poetic feeling of an individual is transitory, and even has its highest charm in the fact of its THE THEORY OP WORSHIP— LITURGICS. 501 of what may be perceived by the senses, and that rationalistic soberness which dreads all that is imaginative.' It will know how to discover those elements of art which are most nearly related to the religious life, and be obliged to carefully distinguish between the sacred and the profane, the necessary and the accidental, that which has been made from that which has developed. Fluctuating and unsettled states, in this regard, will increase in proportion as our stay upon the soil of practice without principles, on the one hand, and of impractical theories on the other, is protracted. A general interest in the liturgical regulation of our Church affairs has, however, been aroused, and the theory of worship has been re constructed from its foundations. It is only to be regretted that bridges leading over from the region of speculation to that of prac tice are so few, the result being that the learner, whose immediate object is to qualify himself for the service of the Church, is, wdth all the abundance of theory at command, left in ignorance with re spect to the course he should adopt. The simple restoration of what is old, toward which the tendencies of the present age are di rected from certain quarters, will by no means furnish a solution of the problem. What is needed is a living worship, which jjeed of a iiv- shall address both the intellect and the feelings. Upon i°K worship. this consummation science needs to fix its eye, pursuing its course evanescent character, in the isolation of each separate moment which blooms forth with enlivening influence from the prosaic conditions of the actual world. . . . Such play of the imagination and the feelings gives rise to the arbitrary character of par ticular services [k^sTioSprjaiceia)." "A misunderstanding of the significant difference which exists between public and family worship works serious injury at this point." — Ibid., p. 79. ' " This is the pietistic view, which attaches no importance whatever to the outward features of the worship, and perhaps regards it as being in contradiction with itself, or with the idea upon which it rests. With this coincides the rationalistic view, in that it separates the interests of freedom from those of necessity, and maintains that tbe Christian religion is only designed for the needs of individuals, and requires that each one should be pious for himself; that no value is to be attached to outward union for the purposes of a common worship, because this will constitute a limitation of individual liberty." — Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 75. Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, Liturgie, § 38. On the relation of Protestantism to art, comp. Meyer, Das Verhalt niss der Kunst zum Cultus, Zurich, 1837; Grueneisen, De Protestantismo artibus haud infesto, Stuttg., 1839, 4to; Protestantismus u. Kunst, in Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift, 1839, 4, No. 8, pp. 287-322; Der Protestant. Gottesdienst u. d. Kunst in ihrem gezenseitigen Verhaltnisse, St. Gall, 1840; Lange, In welchem Verhaltniss steht die Reformirte Kirche nach ihrer Lehre u. nach ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung zur Kunst? An essay in the Verhandlungen d. Schweiz. Predigergesellschaft, St. Gall, 1844 ; Schnaase, Verhaltniss d. Kunst zum Christenthum u. besonders der evangel. Kirche, Berl., 1852; Koopmann, Der evangel. Cultus u. d. Kunst, Darmst., 1854, and Kottmeler, Darstellung des HeiUgen durch d. Kunst, etc., Bremen, 1857. 503 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. until the time shall arrive when the understanding, having been matured by thorough study, shall yield its fruitage as well in the practical life as in other domains. SECTION X. CONTRAST BETWEEN PEOTESTANT AND EOMAN CATHOLIC LITUEGICS. In the Protestant minister's circle of studies that part of liturgies which relates to ministrations in the Church, or to direct administra tion, will require less space proportionately than that which has to do with the government of the Church, and consequently with the devising of methods. The contrary to this is the rule in the Roman Catholic Church. The word liturgies points primarily to the already existing service for the Church, the Liturgy.' The more complicated such service is, the more time will be needed for acquiring the mechanical readi ness which is necessary to its perfprmance. It is apparent that theology will be in a very low state where the whole of the theo logical course is expended upon a mechanical training of this sort ... ^ . , ,., for the clerical office. Regions still exist within the Mechanical lit- o urgy in Roman Roman Catholic Church where nothing more than such oicismj ^ mechanism is required. But Roman Catholic theol ogy is not at its best in such localities. Wherever it bears the character of a science, it seeks, rather, to penetrate by the way of speculation into the inner sanctuary of worship, and to justify its meaning and importance to the thinking mind.' But there is no ' Comp. the lexicons on ^eiTovpyog, \eiTovpyelv, ^eirovpyla (Luke i, 23; Heb. viii, 2; ix, 21 ; X, 1 1), formed out of TiHrng (X-fj'iTO^, from '^,ab(, Acuf), the equivalent of Siipdaioc, and ipyov (munus publicum) ; hence epyov tov AEiJ=rot) Xdov is equivalent to ?i,elTov Ipyov. See also the Apol. Conf. Aug., p. 270 (ed. Hase), where the ancient use of the word is well expounded. On the ecclesiastical and Levitical meaning of the word in the New Testament, comp. Bleek on the respective passages in the Epistle to the He brews. The derivation from 'knri (\iTal, preces, whence is derived the word litany) is erroneous. The Latin word cultus (Gr. 'Karpsla) answers to the German words " Got tesdienst " (divine service) and "Gottesverehrung " (worship of God), which have been frequently objected to, especially the former, though unjustly. See Pelt, p. 100. Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 63, says, that " he only who has been made free by God, and been born again into the liberty of the children of God, can resolve to enter upon the service of God, in which alone man can be truly free." ' "In our days," observes a Roman CathoUc writer, "praise will be given by all ra tional persons to him who has sufficiently sharpened his intellectual vision to enable him to find again in the worship of the Church the royal robe with which the incar nated Son of God was enveloped, and to interpret all its forms in the spirit to which its origin is due."— Most, Die liberalen Principien auf dem Gebiete des Cultus, in Tiib. theol. Quartalschrift, 1847, No. 1. PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. 503 breaking through the bounds of what has been traditionally received and what already exists, and Roman Catholic liturgies is, therefore, compelled to struggle always with the same task in reference to worship, which oppresses the scholastic theology of Roman Catholi cism with reference to dogma, namely, to secure an after under standing of matters which already exist. "The theory has more the character of a statute than of an internal and necessary law." * This is not the case with Protestant liturgies. This is continu ally employed upon the task of constructing a system pj-otestant u- of worship which shall perfectly correspond to the turgics. Protestant principle, and to the needs of each particular time. It does not become contemplation merely with reference to the already finished edifice of the temple, but is essentially constructive, and we always find it engaged with line and compass in the study of the plan. It does not aim to secure a definite conclusion of its labours for all subsequent time, but to carry forward the development, within certain limits to be by itself appointed, of what is capable of being developed. There can, accordingly, be no idea of a mech anism in the performance of liturgical services, and the specifically technical features connected therewith can only consist in the per sonal appropriation of things that are prescribed, and in a personal entering into the spirit of the worship. The liturgical capability of the Protestant clergyman will, therefore, be manifested by a spiritual reproduction of what ig prescribed by the Church, and is to be attained less in the way of practice than in that of inward consummation. For, it is certain that even the simplest of litur gical services, such as the offering of prayer in the presence of the congregation, the administering the sacraments, and the j)ronounc- ing the benediction, are more appropriately and fervently performed by him who has penetrated the mystery of religious Necessity of re- feelings and their public representation, than by him ugious feeling. who, having no sympathetic feeling, simply performs a duty which is oflioially assigned to him. Every opus operatum is a negation of the Protestant principle, the death of liberty, and a turning away from the internal to the external. This leads to a further distinction between Roman Catholic and Protestant liturgists, namely, that the Protestant clergy- Difference be- man, in his liturgical functions, sustains a different re- tween Eoman Catholic Qriid. lation toward the congregation from that sustained by Protestant u- the Roman Catholic. While the latter ministers in turgists. sacred things by virtue of his priestly character, even where no ' Ehrenfeuchter, ubi supra, p. 63 ; compare § 16, and Marheineke, Prakt. The ologie, § 198. 504 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. congregation is present, or, when it is present, still only before it, and never in and with the congregation,' the Protestant liturgist repre sents in person the priesthood of the whole congregation. He ex presses in Church prayers only what all mentally repeat, and, if he sing, his voice is lost in the volume of praise by the whole con gregation. The sacraments, even, are administered by him as the oflicer designated by the congregation, and set apart by the Church. He shares with the Roman Catholic liturgist, indeed, in being bound by the rule established by the Church, but not in the same degree, nor in the same manner. Many consider it, no doubt, a prerogative of Protestantism to afford absolute license, and such license has occasionally been carried to a high pitch, certainly not to the ad vantage of real Protestantism.^ To assume that the preacher offers prayer simply as a preacher. Distinction be- since " the prayer must be his own work as much as tween horaiiet- ^-^ germon," is erroneous. A clear distinction must be leal and litur- ' ^ ^ gicai elements, made, at this point, between the homiletical and the liturgical elements.' No restraint is imposed upon him with respect to the former by homiletical rules, and he is certainly expected to come before the congregation with prayer as well as speech. The more the congregation recognises in the preacher's personal piety the acme of the religious life of the community,' the less will he refuse to perform a service which he must consider, in this precise form of service [XBiTovpyia), as being the necessary complement to the more independent sermon. The sermon is an inadequate and incomplete feature when not sustained by the whole economy of the worship. Liturgies in re- Liturgics touches upon the fields of ethics and eccle- anTecoiesia^ siastical law. Here, too, arise the ethical questions con- ticai law. cerning the extent to which the liturgist is required to represent the ritual in his own person, and whether he is simply to ' Ehrenfeuchter, p. 223. ^ "The further development with which such a formal Protestantism violently breaks in upon, and interrupts, the course of liturgical tradition, is a progress into vacancy, and the setting to rights and clearing up are a transferring into the hands of the individual of what is designed for the Church as a whole." — Marheineke, Prakt. Theologie, § 227. Remarks on the license assumed by Protestant clergymen to the injury of the liturgical rights of the congregation occur in Bahr, ubi supra. ' Comp. Al. Schweizer, Wiefern liturgische Gebete bindend sein soUen ? Zurich, 1836, p. 22, sq., and the discussions of this subject by H. Lang, Bitzius, and Riifli in the Swiss Reform, 1873, Nos. 10, 12, and 15. * " The bond of union which embraces the entire body must also appear in the sin gle individual, and the organism of the whole show forth in the particular member." — ^Ehrenfeuchter, ubi supra, p. 65 ; comp. p. 346. PROTESTANT AND ROMAN CATHOLIC LITURGICS. 505 make use of its forms of expression.' Upon this follows, in imme diate sequence, the legal question respecting the authority in which the right to prescribe a ritual is vested, and the extent to which it is allowable for the individual administrator to depart from the established form. Pedantry in Church government may work as injuriously at this point as self-will and arbitrary measures may in connexion with the ministrations of the public worship. Such differences can only exist, however, where the life of the church is hampered in some direction, either because the liturgy has been im posed without the consent of the congregation, or the liturgist has intruded himself into his place. When the minister ceases to be the organ of his congregation and of the Church he is no longer in his proper place. But where he possesses the confidence of the congregation it will not be diflicult for him to decide how far he may go in any given case. The being governed by forms, laid down by the legislative authority of his Church, will not be regarded as a burdensome constraint, but as a duty imposed on him by his own convictions as a servant of the spirit rather than the letter. He will thus be enabled to move with freedom and dignity even when guided by such authority. After all that has been said, however, the question may yet be raised whether Protestantism can recognise a science of „ ^ ^ ^ o _ Protestant reo- liturgics at all ? and whether we are not to be guided ognition of u- in such matters, also, simply by the Holy Scriptures '? '"^'^¦ The latter must certainly be the authoritative standard here as everywhere. Principles such as are contained in John iv, 24, and Matt, vi, 7, will ever continue to be governing principles, and the Lord's Prayer will remain a model for all other prayers. But this does not imply that the liturgical forms of the apostolic age, which are not even well understood by our age, should be retained as an inalienable heirloom for all subsequent time. A literal retention of this kind would even destroy the higher conception of worship. The idea of the Lord's Supper would be entirely lost if, for exam ple, it were maintained that exactly twelve should be seated at one table whenever it is administered. What could be more erroneous than the assumption that, since the early Christians did not yet possess the New Testament Scriptures, it is requisite that only Old Testament Scriptures be made the subject of preaching and Old Testament psalms be sung ? On this view it would be wrong to celebrate Christian festivals, and we should be obliged to observe ' The above follows a distinction made by Schleiermacher, and has been opposed by V. CoUn and Schulz (Leips., 1831). Comp. Schleiermacher in Stud. u. Krit., 1821, No. 1, and the replies of the above, Leips., 1831. 506 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. the ancient Sabbath with the Jews and the Sabbatarian sects. It is, therefore, with entire propriety that Ehrenfeuchter observes,' that it certainly is the aim of Protestantism to restore primitive Christianity, not, however, in the sense of actualizing its begin nings, but rather its principles. Hence " the sphere of worship in cludes more than that of the Holy Scriptures.'" Hence, also, Prot estant liturgics is presented with the great and far-reaching task of " ascertaining and representing the eternal forms of worship." ' SECTION XL FOEMS OP WOESHIP AND THEIE EELATION TO AET. The essential elements of Protestant worship are the sermon. Elements of which is based upon the word of God, the united prayer worship. and singing of the congregation, and the benediction, which concludes the service. The highi'St point of Protestant wor ship is attained in the periodical celebration of the Lord's Supper, whose lending characteristic is that of a feast. The distribution of the various liturgical observances, the relation they are to sustain toward each other, and the more or less festal character they are to bear, will be determined by the ecclesiastical year, the periodically recurring festal seasons which if includes, and the wisdom and care of the pastor. All forms of art which have no immediate relation to the living Word are referred to the background at this point, and are designed at most to promote anauxiliary object, not directly aiming at an increase of devotion. It must be conceded that not all Protestant liturgists are agreed The eucharistic npon the above statements. Many have maintained element. ^jj^t the eucharistical feature especially should not be wanting in any form of divine service, and that all else should, as in the Roman Catholic Church, tend to give prominence to it as the principal end in view, even the sermon being made to occupy ' Page 72. 'Ibid., p. 166: "The sphere of worship is always extended over an existence of actual joy in God, over a present filled with the consciousness of God, while the sacred writings always, by their form, refer back to what is past." 2 Ibid., p. 75 : The ancient Church in general deserves, next to the apostolic age, to be consulted, together with its forms of worship, whenever a reconstruction of the worship is in question, but it is not necessary that their example be anxiously imi tated. It should be discriminately used with reference to the needs and conditions of the present time. Comp. Simon, Die apostol. Gemeinde-u. Kirchenverfassung, Poted., 1851 ; Abeken, Der Gottesdienst der alten Kirche, Berl., 1853; Harnack, Der christi. Gemeindegottesdienst im apostol. Zeitalter, Dorpat, 1853. FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 507 a secondary position in this regard.' It cannot be denied that the Lord's Supper constitutes the summit and crown of the common worship. But it is to be questioned whether its too frequent repe tition would not lead to a loss of real solemnity and fervour of dis position, and to its being degraded into an opus operatum. This assertion of the eucharistical feature with which the demand for a purely liturgical service, without the sermon, is connected, has its excuse in the one-sided view which led Protestantism, particularly of the Reformed type, to lay stress for a time upon the sermon as being the only element of worship which is absolutely essential. That the sermon should constitute the central feature ^ . . Planoftheser- ot the service, even though but in a formal way, is mon m wor- entirely proper, and in harmony with the position every- ^^^^' where assigned to the word of God in the organism of Protestant worship. But it should be remembered that the word of God does not secure a proper recognition through the sermon only, and that the latter is not in any sense its only exponent.'' The original representative of the word of God is the Bible itself. For this reason the reading of a section from the Scriptures is included among the elements of public worship.' But it is neces sary that the congregation be afforded opportunity for self-edifica tion, upon the basis of God's word, for giving expression to the ' E. g., by Kliefoth, Die urspriingliche Gottesdienstordnung, Rostock, 1847, 2d ed., 2 parts, 1858-59, and since then by many others. " Bahr, uhi supra, has directed attention upon this point with emphasis, and often with keen irony ; but he goes too far in the direction of undervaluing the sermon. Ehrenfeuchter (§ 87) assigns to the latter its true position among the different ele ments of the worship by conceiving of it as their formal centre. Comp. also Vinet : It is being recognised with increasing clearness in the Reformed Church that the at tention is not to be fixed alone upon the hearing of a sermon in connexion with the public worship, but that the direct participation of the congregation is absolutely requisite. Comp. Coquerel (fils) : What is adoration and worship but an art by which he who adores puts himself in true and actual relation with Him whom he adores ? . . . Nothing which is passive alone constitutes the highest worship. The being present and listening is not an act, and consequently not worship. Le Culte tel que Dieu le demande (Paris, 1853). This is a rationalistic view, and should be qualified. ^ These lessons are not simply needed for the purpose of acquainting the people with the Scriptures, although this was formerly the case, when the Bible was not so generally circulated as at the present. But the united listening in the Church is very different from the private reading at home. Comp. Palmer, HomUetik, p. 370. R. Rothe wrote from Rome, " The mere listening to the reading of the Scriptures in the Christian congregation has always been a rich blessing and enjoyment, to me at least, although I have not unfrequently been deprived of them by their discussion pro and con.'' In Nippold, p. 360 : In the Reformed Church it is usual, in some localities, to read the Decalogue, but it is better to make independent selections suited to each separate occasion. The ancient Church had its lectors. 508 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. impressions received, and to elevate itself into immediate com munion with God. Prayer and singing are exponents of the word of God equally Prayer and with the Sermon, in so far as they are based upon, and singing. originate in, that word. Even the sermon can only be a word of God to the congregation when it is not only based upon the Bible, but is supported by the common devotion, and, so to speak, grows from it as its appropriate soil. It is necessary, there fore, that prayer and singing on the part of the congregation should both precede the sermon, for the purpose of exciting devotion and collecting the minds of the people, and follow it, to reproduce and fix the impressions received.' They form a species of antiphony to the sermon, while the benediction which follows constitutes the symbolical conclusion of the whole.'' It is for liturgics to decide what is the relation sustained by prayer and singing to each other and to the sermon, and in what order the several parts are to succeed and support each other. Probably a hymn of general character, not directly related to the sermon, will furnish the most appropriate introduction for divine service, to be followed by the prayer. The prayer should conclude with the Lord's Prayer. Its character involves that it should be introductory, and calculated to excite devotion, but at the same time adapted to call forth that contrite disposition whence springs Orderof ser- ^ ^^^^ desire for salvation. Then follow Scripture selec- ¦^<^- tions, and then singing, with special reference to the sermon, and afterward the sermon. The closing prayer may have direct bearing on the sermon, and be shaped by its thought. It is designed to fix the impression wrought by the sermon, but must lead over into the general worship again. At this point inter cession is in place. The closing hymn and benediction form the end. It is of advantage to the nature of devotion that the different services of the Church be not equal in the extent and fulness of their liturgical elements. The average medium is found in the Sunday services, which are more extended than the week-even- ¦ ing services. The more joyous a divine service is designed to be, the more largely may forms of art be drawn upon in its ar rangement, though under the presumption that such forms will possess a strictly religious character. If we examine the available ' " The singing falls chiefly to the lot of the congregation, and the preaching is the service of the clergyman; while the functions of both are combined in the prayer, as in a common centre." — -Marheineke, ubi supra, § 250. " Rosenkranz, Encykl., p. 340. FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 509 forms of art we shall find them to consist in discourse, music, and action. A large field is open to music. Should it be employed only when connected with words, under the form of singing? jy[„g(g j^ .^„j.. Should it be congregational only? Ought it to be in- ship. terspersed with solo and choir singing, or accompanied with instru mental music, and to what extent?' How far may instrumental music be allowed without the accompaniment of song? The limit lies here. As action may, as a rule, be regarded only as an auxil iary to speech, so instrumental music may be regarded only as an aid to the singing. Religious architecture ' also deserves a prominent place among the arts connected with Protestant worship, and beside that gaored arohi- of discourse and that of song, not only for reasons of teoture. propriety, but also because of the religious and symbolical idea which the edifice is to embody and express.' But a church edifice, even when the embodiment of an idea, together with the symbolical features introduced into the structure, is not to be regarded as in volving any essential element, but merely as an aid to the exciting of devotion, and as exercising an influence to stimulate and support, rather than to direct and govern, the worship. ¦ The architectur.il symbol, therefore, stands upon the border line, upon the same foot ing as the music of the organ and the ringing of church bells. For it is possible to conceive of a truly elevating Protestant worship from which all of these are wanting, while such worship could find no expression at all in the absence of the sermon, singing, and prayer, and the celebration of the Lord's Supper. The essential feature, in which Protestant worship differs from Roman Catholi cism, is simply its inward nature, freedom, and life — qualities which must not be allowed to give way before any degree of sesthetical refinement. However, it would be equally improper to renounce ' " It may be said of the Christian Church, that in the organ it has invented an in strument which combines within itself all the tones which existed singly in separate instruments before its discovery." — Rosenkranz, p. 337. Comp. Herder's poem, Die Orgel. Harms pronounced against the organ, as did also the ancient usage of the Reformed Church, which had no better name for it than the "pope's lyre " (!). Comp. Bahr, ubi supra, p. 112, sq. ^ Vetter, ubi supra. " There is no grander cathedral than St. Peter's Church in Rome ; but more beautiful than this, says the cherished Neander, is that Church which consists of two or three Christian souls assembled in the name of Christ." — Merle d'Aubigne in the Verhandlungen des sechsten evangel. Kirchentags zu Berlin (Berl., 1863), p. 48. ' Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, p. 290, sqq. This field embraces also the external sur roundings of the church edifice, particularly burial grounds and their monuments. 510 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. all natural connexion between worship and art, in so far as the latter enters modestly into the service of the Church.' Lange says : " Worship is the festal representation of the ideal in the real; while art is the festal representation of the real life in the ' ideal;" or, "art represents the manifestation of the new world in symbolic form, while longing that it shall come into being; and worship represents the hidden character and the growth of ihe new world with a yearning that it may appear." Ehrenfeuchter shows ingeniously how man becomes in worship both the material and the manager of it : " The art of comprehending himself in the inner most relations of his life, and of entering into relations with God, is what we demand of every human being. This constitutes the profoundest and truest element of life." F. W. Krummacher beau tifully remarks, in one of his sermons, that "art is entitled to a place in the Church. This admits of no doubt; but it is the product, and not the creator, of the new life. The promise is restricted altogether to the word, and the word is accompanied by the generating, while art has only the preserving and refresh ing, spirit. Art, moreover, belongs rather to a Solomonic period of the Church than to a Davidic. In the latter it is necessary that the sword of the word should first perform its work. Not until the victory was achieved did the harp and psaltery ring out their notes."" It follows from this, that worship through the Word still consti tutes the heart of Protestant liturgics. To deal with the Word in preaching is the office of homiletics; and liturgics, accordingly, is Limitations ot restricted : 1. To the word as connected with the sing- uturgics. ing (Church hymnology) ; 2. As emanating from the common feeling in the form of prayer (Church prayer) ; and 3. As it introduces and accompanies the performance of sacred actions, as in the benediction and the sacraments. The two latter form the ritual. Hence hymn books and the ritual constitute the liturgical apparatus which each Church government is required to provide for the use of the ministrations of the Church, and liturgics is required to furnish the fundamental principles by which the work of provid ing such apparatus is to be governed. With reference to hymn books, or the text of hymns, it is by no means a question how to provide the Church with hymns which should be modelled upon ' " Art," remarks a Swiss pastor (Ritter of Schwanden), " is that St. Christopher who seeks out a lord, serves him faithfully, and does not admit into his mind the thought of being lord himself ; and yet so feels his own worth as to be resolved to remain with him only who is the strongest." " Die Sabbathglooke, Beri., 1853, pp. 178, 179. FORMS OF WORSHIP AND THEIR RELATION TO ART. 511 any particular liturgical theory. On the contrary, liturgics boldly and gladly makes use of the existing treasures of hymnology in the Church.' Hengstenberg says: "The poetry of Protestantism evi dently finds its culmination in the Church hymn. In „ , ,. •' I . 1 . Hengstenberg oppcsition to ' the widespread notion which still con- on religious trois many weak natures, that the worship of Romanism i'°®"'y- is more poetic than that of Protestantism,' it is asserted, and with truth, that this would be a correct opinion 'if poetry consisted in all manner of mechanical forms and outward ornaments.' But poetry is spirit whi.ih speaks to spirit, and the unadorned sing ing of one of Luther's or Paul Gerhard's hymns with the heart of a living congregation is more poetical than all the allurements which attract the eye and ear in the splendid worship of Roman Catholicism." To sift our hymns, and discover the gold contained in them, is one of the highest arts of theology. Here, again, it is easy ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ for a view that is based upon the taste of individuals necessarily to assert itself, whether it be the fanciful pedantry of ^°° ' affecting what has the fiavour of antiquity or the rationalistic soberness which eliminates everything that breathes the aroma of poesy. Not everything that is old is also good. Even among the old there is much that is antiquated, either because it is involved in a dogmatical or ethical conception of the world which has passed away, or because it can no longer be compre hended and enjoyed.' The thing demanded is, accordingly, that hymns of a truly sterling character be sought out with accurate judgment, and that the heart of this class be discovered. But the claims of the new are also to receive due recognition beside the old, though the purity of tone and colour in the latter should be preserved. The Church hymns of the former days often become mongrel forms through an " improvement " which results to their damage, and through their being dressed up a la mode, by which means they assume a character which cannot be approved either by good taste or historical judgment. Changes are required in occasional instances, no doubt, but they should be executed with the utmost caution, and it is one of the principal problems ' The Reformed Church has long been content to use psalms only. Here, too, it would be a misapprehension of the idea of scriptural worship were the text of spirit ual songs to be confined to psalms only. Many of the most beautiful Church hymns are usually revised psalms. ' Evangel. Kirchenzeitung, vol. Ixxiv, No. 4, p. 374. ' See Marheineke, ubi supra, p. 256, and Stier, Erneuerte Kechenschaft iiber das evangeUsohe Gesangbuch, Brunswick, 1832. 613 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. in liturgics to determine the principles on which they are to be introduced.' If the Church hymn belongs to the department of poetry, the prayer involves a form of language which expresses the Public prayer. ,, .^ j, ^ , » 2 S, ^ • .. . j. " unity ot poetry and prose — that is to say, of free and yet elevated speech. Every infusion of merely reflective, dog matizing, moralizing, and logically connecting elements, is to be avoided. The older written forms of Church prayers, while con taining much that is strong and robust, were yet often pervaded with a dogmatizing and polemical spirit which could not be edify ing; and modern forms often include much sentimental verbiage, or are couched in the tone of merely moralizing preaching. It will be necessary that the appropriate manner and tone of the Church prayer, by which it secures an aspect of due veneration, be retained, and that all effeminacy and insipidity be excluded, while at the same time the structure of sentences is kept sufficiently flex ible to avoid the impression of stiffness.' With reference to the administration of the Sacraments, we may say that they constitute the most fixed and immovable element of worship, especially with regard to the words of institution and con secration, which liturgics is not at liberty to change. The addi tions, such as preliminary and supplementary prayers, exhortations, and the like, are iiot so immovably fixed. Such other formulas as relate to specific occasions may receive a more independent and fiexible treatment, though the true spirit of the Church may always be retained even in tbe framing of such formulas. ' The preface to Knapp's Liederschatz contains valuable directions for this work. Comp. also Herder's preface to the Weimar Gesangbuch. Numerous discussions of this question have been had in recent days at Church conferences and synods, and in periodicals, but without arriving at any agreement respecting the principles on which a hymn book for the common use of the evangelical Churches should be composed. 2 Ehrenfeuchter, § 81. 'Kapp (in the work mentioned below) has set forth some excellent principles. Comp. also Hebel, Ideen zur Gebetstheorie (in Werke, vol. vii) ; we are not to pray " as the awkward members of a guild, and the foremen address each other in a sworn form of greeting, but as dear children approach their beloved father." There is dan ger, however, that the Church prayer express too great famiharity, as if addressing a mere "friend of the family." THE METHODOLOGY. 513 SECTION SII, THE METHODOLOGY. The nature of liturgics forbids that facility in its use should be acquired by practice, as may be done with catechetics and homi letics. But the liturgical sense may be variously cultivated, and especially by making of the divine service a vital element for the pastor, in which he feels himself at home. The understanding of liturgical matters is likewise aided in a special degree by familiarity with the older and more recent liturgies, though we may not use them, and particularly by familiarity with the treasures of hym nology which belong to the Church. To this may be added personal practice in singing, — if we have the gift, — an acquaintance with the theory of Church singing, and also an insight into the nature of Christian architecture. Practice in the leading of the prayers of the congregation may be connected with practice in preaching, but the true The necessity anointing of the liturgist must be derived from a Higher °^ divine help. Power. Fessler says: " The school and extensive reading, industry, and practice, may, when joined to distinguished ability, produce excellent orators, but the forming of a divinely inspired liturgist, who holds full communion with God, is exclusively a work of grace — i. e., of the illuminating, inspiring, and anointing influence of the Holy Spirit.'" Frcelich observes, with striking truth, that "to strike the proper tone with a certainty which shall excite the congre gation to join heartily in prayer, and to fill it with devotional feel ing, and to hold it fast, and harmonize it with the different turns of the prayer, demands not only all the fervour of which the leader is capable, but also all his skill." ... In the biography of Spleiss, superintendent at Schaffhausen, he is credited with having prepared himself for the conduct of his liturgical services with the same indus try and care which he bestowed upon a sermon;, and thus, while his sermons frequently burst forth with excessive vivacity, his li turgical delivery was quiet and restrained. But each word was em phasized with the proper degree of force, and made to express its full meaning, especially in the more important passages. Every part of the service connected with the worship, and not the sermon alone, must be minutely studied. An expressive and unaffected presentation of these various parts is very rare. Even the ablest preacher may utterly destroy the good influence of the sermon by carelessness in the conduct of the other portions of the ' Ruckblicke auf meine 70 jahrige Pilgerschaft, Breslau, 1826, p. 416. 33 514 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. service, while the lack of personal eloquence may be readily o\'er- looked in the case of a faithful administrator in holy things. The proper reading of the Scripture lessons is highly essential. The preacher's ^^^J should be selected with great care, their spirit relation to the Studied, and then read with calm fervour.' With re- sm^ ng. gard to singing, the minister is not required to accom plish more than any other member of the Church. But he is still expected to direct the singing to the extent of selecting the hymns which are to be sung. For this purpose, if for no other, a thor oughly intimate acquaintance with the hymn book, unfortunately so rare an acquirement, is of great advantage. Luther went too far when he said, " I will not look at a preacher who cannot sing." The pastor should do all he can, in his appropriate sphere, toward the improvement of the singing by seeing that the congregation are supplied with hymn books, and all possible helps. He cannot, therefore, permit himself to remain in ignorance of tbe poetical and musical ti-easures of the hymnology of his individual denomi nation, or of that of the Church as a whole. The opportunity of attending public worship while travelling should never be neglected, from religious as well as homiletical and liturgical considerations, the object being to enlarge one's spiritual and mental horizon, and the combatting of prejudices that were previously entertained. A visit, for example, to a congregation of the Moravian Brotherhood will yield to every mind a profitable picture of Christian propriety and liturgical simplicity. Besides, every opportunity for a better acquaintance with the better speci mens of ecclesiastical art and architecture should be seized upon cheerfully. No preacher visiting the older countries should neg lect any privilege, both in services in the churches and in observa tion, to enrich his mind for better ministrations after his return home. With regard to every part of the service, and more especially the administration of the sacraments, everything depends upon a sense of propriety, which itself results from thorough moral culture. At the communion table and the baptismal font the most learned pedant, the keenest critic, and the profoundest speculator, may be put to shame sooner than a simple, properly trained, modest, and inwardly consecrated and anointed servant of God. Such a man as that the preacher — if not that already — should endeavour to become. ' Such reading should not be declamatory, but suited to the spirit of the passage, and recitative. Comp. Ehrenfeuchter, p. 362 ; Bahr, p. 72. THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 515 SECTION XIII. THE HlSTOET OF LITUEGICS. Christian worship has developed itself out of the Jewish worship. It was at first simple synagogue worship, then, to an christian wor- increasing extent, levitical priesthood and temple ser- from'thTjew- vice, and, finally, a return to the simpler form through ish. the agency of the Reformation. From that point it is possible to distinguish three periods: "The stormy period of the Reformation; then the quiet and often stagnant intermediate period; and, finally, the active and struggling period in which we live." ' Liturgics is conformed in its method to these successive stages: The apostles already furnished hints respecting the proper behav iour at the time of worship (1 Cor. xi, 22; Eph. vi, 19; Col. iii, 16; James ii, 2, 3). The apostolical constitutions and the liturgies which were promulgated under the names of the Apostle James and the Evangelist Mark, of Jerusalem and Alexandria, are, as is well known, rejected by criticism. With them were connected, in the East, the liturgies of Basil and of Chrysostom, and, in the West, those of Gelasius and Leo I. These last, however, were superseded by the Roman Missal of Gregory I. Milan alone pre served its special liturgy.'' When the Romish worship, under the supervision of the papacy, had developed into the ritual of the Romish mass, and the functions of the priesthood had extended over a wider area, it became necessary to provide guides for their conduct, such as Durandus (died 1 296),' in his Reason for Divine Offices, and similar works. Luther transformed the mass into a simple observance of the Protestant ceremony of the Lord's Supper, and the Reformed theo logians rejected both the name and the thing." The symbolical books contain the earliest liturgical principles, and they reappear occasionally in dogmatical works in connexion with the Church and the sacraments. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the flour ishing period of German Church hymnology, did more in the way of furnishing a liturgical apparatus, such as hymn books and form ularies, than in that of discussing the worship itself. It was not until a beginning was made, from the standpoint of modern ration alism, in the work of setting aside the ancient, or of conforming it ' Lange, ubi supra, p. 109. ^ Comp. Assemani, Codex liturgicus, Rom., 1649-65 ; xiu, fol. ; Renaudet, CoUectio Liturgiarum orientalium, Paris, 1716; Daniel, Codex liturgicus ecclesia; universte. Lips., 1847, sqq. ^ Comp. J. C, Funk, Geist u. Form des von Luther angeordenten Cultus, BerUn, 1818. 516 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. to the so-called " demands of the spirit of the times," or the period of diluting the hymnology of the Church, that new theories were Eationaiistic provided to accompany the new liturgical forms. This works. .^yas done by Zollikoffer, Seller, Diterich, Hufnagel, Wag nitz, and others, first in the journals of the period, and afterward in books. Specimens of these works may be seen in Bastholm's Improvement of the Outward Worship (Leips., 1786); Spazier's Frank Thoughts on the Protestant Worship of God (Gotha, 1788); Wolfrath, Questions on Liturgical Subjects (Hamburg, 1793-94); Burdorf's Hints for the Improvement of the Festivity of Public Worship (1795); Jenisch's Worship of God and Ecclesiastical Re form (Berlin, 1803), and Reinhold's Ideas on the Outward Worship (Neustrelitz, 1805). To these may be added Tzschirner, in his Cautious Impuovement of Sacred Services (1815), who demands a natural worship of God, and Hebel, in his Liturgical Contributions, who admits the emotional element, but too strongly from a subjec tive point of view. The mystical and Romanizing tendencies, stim ulated by the romantic school, likewise asserted themselves by the side of the rationalizing and sentimental tendencies in worship, in Horst's Mysteriosophy, and in the works of Fessler, and others. Gass (died 1831), stimulated especially by Schleiermacher, was the first to provide a really scientific basis for evangelical liturgics, of which the writers mentioned in the literature below availed themselves in the further development of this branch, though gen erally governed by speculative rather than practical motives. Kapp was more largely practical than any other author. The latest Eecent diver- movements within the ecclesiastical territory have given Bity of views, pjgg ^q g, great diversity of views. This we see in the union of the two Protestant Churches of Germany, and the con nected dispute, extending into ecclesiastical law, respecting the ritual, in which Schleiermacher took part. We observe it also in the reaction against the Prussian service book, which emanated from the Old Lutheran party. To these must be added Puseyism, which originated in the Oxford School, and whose fundamental views in relation to ecclesiastical law and liturgics found acceptance in Ger many as well. We see it also in Irvingism, which sought to restore a levitical worship. In the Reformed Church it was felt to be necessary that at least a justification of the peculiar form of worship be furnished. Greater sobriety and caution were manifested from that point, in opposi tion to an sestheticising, mystifying, and speculative transcendent alism, which does not exclude, the recognition of whatever may be more valuable among the possessions of other churches. It is in THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 517 place here to recall the unfortunate dispute concerning the ritual in the Grand Duchy of Baden, and the hymn book contro- ...1- 1-. 1 i- , • . . , , . - , Controversy in versy in the Jr'alatinate, m connexion with which such Baden and tbe a quiet discussion of principles as was to be desired, P'"*'''""^. and as would have yielded fruit to the Church and to science, was not, in all probability, secured — a, proof that not all times are equally prepared to admit of liturgical reforms, and that some will warn against retrogression in matters where others see only prog ress. Nor has the Roman Catholic Church been free from attempts to reconstruct the worship anew since the close of the last century. Not to dwell upon the Theophilanthropists of France (1796), who endeavoured to introduce a sentimental deism, and the church of the Abbe Chatel at Paris (from 1830), it may be sufficient to men tion, in the theoretical department, the Principles of Liturgical Theology, of the Benedictine, Kohler (1788), and Winter's What the Liturgy should Be (Munich, 1809), together with the works of Schmidt, Hnogek, Liift, and others. Ignatius of Wessenberg ren dered especially meritorious service in the ennobling of the wor ship and the introducing of a German hymnology. His ideal, at all events, was to build up a German Catholic Church, though not of the kind produced in the fourth decade of this century, to which that name was applied. It remains to be seen how far the Old Catholicism of DoUinger and others will succeed in construct ing a liturgy. LITERATURE OF LITURGICS. German and French. M. F. Scheibler, Josias seu de restituendo Dei cultu. Solisb., 1814. L. A. Kahler : Sendschreiben an einen Freund iiber die Erneuerung des Cultus. Lpz., 1815. * J. C. Gass, Ueber den christlichen Cultus. Bresl., 1815. G. Kr. Horst, Mysteriosophie, oder iiber die Veredlung des protestantischen Gottes dienstes. Frankf., 1817. 2 vols. J. H. Fritsch, Ueber die zweckmassigsten Mittel zur Wiederherstellung und fleissigen Benutzung des offentUchen Gottesdienstes. Magdeb., 1817. Philadelphus Alethes (J. A. C. Lohr), Die kirchUchen Dinge. Lpz., 1823. J. J. Fessler, Liturgisches Handbuch. Riga, 1823. * G. F. W. Kapp, Grundsatze zur Bearbeitung evangel. Agenden. Erl., 1831. *Sal. VogeUn, Welche Veranderungeu und Verbesserungen soUten in unserm evang.- reform. Cultus vorgenommen werden? Frauenfeld, 1837. J. W. F. Hofling, Von der Composition des christi. Gemeindegottesdienstes. Erl., 1837. *K. W. Vetter, Die Lehre vom christi. Cultus, nach den Grundsiitzen der evang. Kirche. Berl, 1839. G. A. F. Goldmann, Der sonntagl. Hauptgottesdienst. Hannov., 1840. *F. Ehrenfeuchter, Theorie des christi. Cultus. Hamb., 1840. F. F. Klopper, Liturgik oder Theorie der stehenden Cultusformen. Lpz., 1840. 518 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. J. D. Seisen, Genius des Cultus. Heidelb., 1841. * A. Ebrard, Versuch einer ¦ Liturgik vom Standpuukte der reformirten Kirche. Frankf. a. M., 1843. *Th. KUefoth, Theorie des Cultus der evangel. Kirche. Ludwlgslust, 1844. Die urspriingliche Gottesdienstordnung in den deutschen Kirchen lutherischen Bekenntnisses. Rostock, 1847. K. Bahr, Der protestantische Gottesdienst vom Standpuukte der Gemeinde aus be trachtet. Heidelb., 1850. E. Closter, Der Gemein-Gottesdienst und das Kirchenbuch. Lpz., 1853. K. A. Dachsel, Ordnung des evang. Hauptgottesdienstes. Berl., 1854. F. Nees v. Esenbeck, Der christliche Gottesdienst nach dem Bediirfniss der evang. Kirche. Kreuzn., 1854. L. Schbberlein, Der Evang. Gottesdienst nach den Grundsatzen der Reformation. Heidelb., 1854. Das Wesen des christi. Gottesdienstes. Gott., 1860. Ueber den Uturgischen Ausbau des Gemeindegottesdienstes in der deutschen evang. Kirche. Gotha. 1859. Th. KUefoth, Liturgische Abhandlungen. Schwerin, 1854-61. K. R. Hagenbach, Grundlinien der Liturgik und HomUetik. Lpz., 1863. By Roman Catholics ; F. X. Schmid, Liturgik der christkatholischen Religion. Passau, 1832. f Jos. Marzohl and Jos. Schneller, Liturgia sacra. Luzern, 1834-41. 4 vols. \ Hnogek, ChristkathoUsche Liturgik. Prag, 1835-42. 5 vols. f Liift, Kathol. Liturgik. Mainz, 1844, 1847. 2 vols. f Joh. Hepp, Der Gottesdienst der kathol. Kirche. Mainz, 1853. \ M. Terklau, Der Geist des kathol. Cultus. Wien, 1853. •j-Fluck, Kathol. Liturgik. Regensb., 1853, 1855. 2 vols. Historical Works. H. Alt, Der christliche Cultus, nach seinen verschiedenen Entwicklungsformen und seinen einzelnen Theilen hlstorisch dargestellt. Berl., 1843. f Probst, Liturgie der drei ersten christlichen Jahrhunderte. Tiib., 1870. H. Jacoby, Die Liturgik der Reformatoren. Gotha, 1871. The hymns of the ancient Church are given in a collection by * H. A. Daniel, Thesau rus hymnologicus s. hymnorum, canticorum, sequentiarum coUectio amplissima. Lips., 1841-56. 5 vols. Comp. F. G. Lisco, Dies irae, Hymnus auf das Weltge- richt. Berl., 1840. 4. Ibid., Stabat mater. Berl., 1843. 4to. Simrock (Lauda Sion. 1850. 2d ed., 1868). Mone, Lat. Hymnen des Mittelalters, etc. 1853,1854. 2 vols. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE. Each of the denominations has its own form of service, and its special collection of hymns. Architecture and Art. .loseph Bingham, Origines Antiquitates. 10 vols. Lond., 1843. M. Didson, History pf Christian Art in the Middle Ages. Lond., 1851. C. L. Eastlake, History of the Gothic Revival. Lond., 1872. C. I. Hemans, History of Ancient Christianity and Sacred Art in Italy. 3 vols. Flor ence and Lond., 1866-72. Anna Jameson, Sacred and Legendary Art. 2 vols. Lond., 1879. W. Liibke, Outlmes of the History of Art. 7th ed. N. Y., 1878. THE HISTORY OF LITURGICS. 619 0. E. Norton, Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle Ages. N. Y., 1880. G. A. Poole, History of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England. Lond., 1848. J. E. Riddle, Manual of Christian Antiquities. Lond , 1843. G. G. Scott, History of EngUsh Church Architecture. Lond., 1881. SECTION XIV. HOMILETICS. Liturgies determines the nature and form of worship. But homiletics has to determine the nature and form of the Christian sermon alone, and to furnish instruction respecting the mode of ex pounding the word of God in the congregation, and of presenting it in discourse. Liturgics directs attention to the en- „ , ,. ° . Eelation of 11- tire contents ol Christian revelation, whence the sermon turgics to hom- is to derive its material; and the latter operates partly '^'^"''^¦ in the field of hermeneutics and partly in that of rhetoric, though with constant reference to the peculiar nature of sacred discourse, as distinguished from other forms of oratory. The- word homiletics is derived from biiiXia. It is usual to under stand homilies as denoting only a single class of sermons, namely, those whose unity does not inhere in a theme which is propounded, but in the text, and which apj)roximate to popular forms of speech in their language more than do those of other classes.' The ancient usage covered a broader ground with this term, however, and in conformity therewith we use the term homiletitjs to designate not only the theory of this single form of discourse, but that of the sermon in general. At this point, however, we must fix the limit. Homiletics must not be expanded into a theory of sa- jjo^jigygg „„|. cred, or even Christian or religious, eloquence, in gen- a theory of sa cral. It is possible to conceive of Christian addresses •'''ed eioauence. which are .not included in the department of homiletics proper; for example, the missionary address (icripvyiia). The latter may be de nominated a sermon, in the peculiar biblical meaning of the word ; but it, as well as the preaching of the apostles, is nevertheless un like what our sermons can be, since they are not the product of the impulse of the moment, but bear the character of a regularly re peated and integral part of public worship. Herder remarks," .that " as soon as the sermon ceased to be what it really was in the mouth ' Opinions differ greatly with regard to the propriety of homUies. While Herder has advocated their use. Harms has decided adversely to it, and says : "they fill, but do not satisfy." Schleiermacher was Ukewise not inclined to regard them with special favour. He considered homilies to be a mere aggregation of separate sermons. ' In Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie, No. 40, the whole of which should be read in this connexion. 530 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. of the apostles, a message, it became an exposition of the word of God, its writings and teachings, and an application of what had been read in the midst of a quiet Christian assembly. This was termed a homily, and was not properly an oration." If it be desired to set forth a theory for the awakening jDreaching of an apostolic herald, or for the proclamation of the Word among the heathen, it will be found convenient to appropriate to it the name keryktics — a term first formed by Stier from the Greek word, KTjpvaao), to proclaim.' Such preaching precedes, in point of time, even catechetics, while the sermon, as ordinarily understood, is ad dressed to persons who already belong to the Christian community, so that homiletics carries forward the work of catechetics. We would not assert that the usual sermon should involve no ele- ., , ment of keryktics, for many nominal Christians exist Necessity of con- j ' j tinuai preaching to whom the Call to repentance needs to be continually of repentance, addressed, and Schleiermacher pivoted the question upon too fine a point when he excluded all hortatory sermons of this kind. Vinet urges the reality, which is stronger than any the ory. It is equally certain, however, that many of our most zealous hortatory preachers miss the mark by incessantly driving the plough, instead of pausing to sow the seed and water it, and cherish the growing blade. By preaching only repentance w'e always tarry in the court of the Gentiles, and never enter into the most holy place. The needs of advanced Christians and growth in grace should not be disregarded. The treatment accorded to cold and formal Christ ians within the Church, moreover, is specifically different from that which the actual heathen, who " are without," can receive. An ap peal may be addressed to their nominal Christianity, or, better, to the Christian name they bear. They may be reminded of their baptism, and everything may be presumed of them in an ideal sense, though it does not exist in a real form. Their conscience differs from that of the heathen, and discourse addressed to that conscience must differ from that which aims to reach the heathen mind. Still other forms of discourse might be mentioned which belong ' Comp. Nitzsch in Stud. u. Krit., 1832, No. 3, p. 725: "Since it must be admitted that the word homily — whether so used in the New Testament or not, is immaterial in this connexion — does yet, when historically considered, and taken in the meaning assigned to it in the early usage of the Church, denote the function which embraces the whole of the service of the /loyof mi ^eov, it follows that homiletics is always to be regarded as a leading branch of practical theology by the side of catechetics. The combination of the two is, only in the case of the missionary, however, to be denomi nated keryktics, provided it is still necessary to retain the Greek designations for the sake of brevity, and of associating the conditions of the present with those of antiq uity and history.'' HOMILETICS. 531 to the keryktical, and not the homiletical, department; for exam ple, the preaching of the crusades in the Middle Ages, and such free discourses in the open air as the mediaeval friars were wont to deliver, or the bazar and street preaching of the most recent period. There is also a class of discourses which belongs within the circle of parliamentary speech, such as conference and occasional addresses. Occasional discourses stand at the very boundary line, and are in cluded more especially under the pastoral or the liturgical function, as they are directed to the peculiar condition and religious needs of the respective persons concerned, or relate entirely to the particular occasion to be utilized. The ordination sermon, for example, grows out of the position held by the ordaining minister under the economy of Church government. We, therefore, confine our attention to the sermon within the limits of the regular services of the Church, in which it assumes various characters in accordance with the solemnity, be it more or less, of the particular service, being either a Sunday morning or evening sermon, or a more popular discourse in familiar language, as the homily, or a practical exposition of some Scripture. The feature which makes a sermon of the sermon, and distinguishes it from other forms of religious or Christian discourse, is the text ' or passage of Scripture which does not serve merely as a motto, but is the root from which the sermon must grow. This . ^ The text determines not only the contents of the sermon, which must be scriptural in any case, but also its form. The preacher is not simply a speaker, but also an expounder, with the single quali fication that at one time the former function will be more promi nent, and at another time the latter. The art of preaching has its ' Textus (from texo), a texture. Applied to the texture of discourse in Quinet., 8, 6 ; Ammian. MarceUin., 15, 7. Comp. Stephani Thesaur. In the Middle Ages the term textus was applied to the Bible itself ; comp. du Frene. It is here given to a partic ular section taken from the Scriptures, which Campe not inappropriately renders by " Grundspruch " (fundamental theme). Examples are not wanting, in the history of homiletics, of sermons which have no other texts than verses from hymns or sections from the Catechism. But such discourses do not belong within the range of the ser mon as fixed by the requirements of a fully developed Protestant worship. They may be serviceable for the work of edification in other directions, but they cannot replace the sermon. Addresses not founded upon a text are, as a rule, better adapted for occasional discourses, but they are termed occasional discourses for that very reason. Texts taken from secular books are even worse than no texts at all. In the Middle Ages sermons were based on Aristotle, later, in the fifteenth century, on Brandt's Ship of Fools, and the Rationalist Unitarians of England still draw their texts from Schiller and Byron. An instructive discussion as to whether a text is needed or may be dispensed with, and concerning the special difficulties involved in the being re stricted to a text, is contained in Vinet, Homiletics, chap. 3. 533 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. field of exercise both in the department of hermeneutics and in that of rhetoric. With regard to the former branch we refer to the department of exegesis, treated in this work. With reference to the oratorical branch it is important to assure to pulpit discourse its special field. As religion itself is neither a formal know ing nor a doing, religious discourse likewise differs from those forms of discourse which direct their aim chiefly upon knowing or upon doing. The former class, of course, are not discourses, in a strict sense of the word, but approximate in chaj.'acter to treatises, such as academical addresses or lectures. The sermon should not be a lecture or treatise. It aims to The sermon not enlarge and correct the religious apprehension, but a lecture. Qj^jy jn order that the religious state of the soul may be more clearly understood and be more unimpeded in its expres sion. The preacher may not rest satisfied with having wrought conviction in the mind unless it make itself felt upon the hea»rt. It should also pass over into action. The pulpit discourse differs, however, from all such addresses as aim directly to produce action, and in connexion with which the speaker is content with having the object realized which he has in view, without regard to the motive from whicli it is performed. This is the case with parlia mentary and juridical addresses. The older homiletical writers of France distinguished between " eloquence of the bar " and " elo quence of the pulpit." It will be apparent, from this consideration, to what extent Demosthenes and Cicero may be regarded as our models. "The person," says Herder, "who, without qualification, regards the forensic orations of Demosthenes and Cicero as models to which our sermons are to be conformed, has no proper idea of the nature of either the sermon or the forensic address; he has not apprehended the design of either.'" He elsewhere says: "Preach ers cannot, like Demosthenes and Cicero, call forth sudden decis ions and resolves to action; they cannot, because they should not; and they should not, because they cannot. There are no Philips before our walls that we should at once rush in wild enthusiasm to guard our gates — this is true, and who has ever wrought to secure that end? There are no felons to be instantly condemned or ac quitted — who has ever spoken as if this were the case ? But let it be supposed that something of this kind were yet to be devolved upon the speaker, then, teacher, you are compelled to perform the work, and will need to display ability in its accomplishment, or you speak but poorly. If a Christian duty, of whatever kind, ought to be instantly performed, and it were devolved upon you to make 'Briefe, No. 40, Werke x, p. 18. HOMILETICS. 533 it clear and urge to action, it were weak not to do this despite whatever theory might be employed to furnish an excuse." ' Should the sermon then aim simply to influence the religious feeling ? By no means. A mere gush of feeling is not at all a discourse. The sermon should not be a mono- sermon to the logue, an expanded prayer, a meditation in which the ^''sregation. preacher appears only in his relation to God and Christ (after the manner of the ancient " speaking with tongues," 1 Cor. xiv, 2), and not in that sustained toward the congregation. This is a fault in which many emotional persons become involved, whose discourses soar upon the air, instead of being directed upon the heart like ar rows from the quiver. A discourse is distinguished from the poem by the very fact that it is not a mere outburst of the feelings, but rather a homily, in the etymological meaning of the word — that is, a conversation with the hearer, who is to be regarded as not merely a recipient, but as joining with thought and feeling in oratory a con- the discussion, and possibly as replying to it and raising versation. doubts. "Vinet says: "Oratorial discourse thus appears as a con test, a combat; this idea is essential to it. At one time the orator combats an error by a truth, at another he opposes one sentiment to another sentiment. In its just use oratory is a combat waged against errors of the mind and heart with the warfare of speech! " " " The oratorial discourse is a drama, each word of the preacher is a question to which the auditor replies in himself, and his reply be comes a new question to which the orator replies. There is an in terior in every oratorical art." Cicero, when asked to point out the result of rhetoric, replied: "Actio, actio, actio." We must, accordingly, include the dialectical element also, al though this, again, must rest upon a profounder basis, namely, the common feeling of Christianity. But w^e must not resolve every thing into dialectics. The sermon must necessarily be of a pare- netic or hortatory character, and aim to excite to resolve and action. But such resolution must likewise grow out of the feeling which has been excited, and out of definite convictions. The sermon is a testimony of Christ and of life in him, and at the same „,. ^ ^^ „ ¦ ^ J ... The sermon a time a proclamation of that life." It is discourse to an testimony to extent, perhaps, not equalled by any other form of ad dress, inasmuch as it addresses the entire man, takes hold upon the inmost depths of his being, discloses that being to his thought, and raises him above himself.'' ' Provinzialblatter, p. 374. ' Homiletics, Skinner's edition, p. 26. 3 Ehrenfeuchter, p. 358, assigns the latter only to the sermon, the former to prayer. * Comp. Herder, Der Redner Gottes (Werke zur Relig. und Theol., x, p. 475, sqq.). 534 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. The individuality of the speaker is, doubtless, more fully dis played in the sermon than in the liturgy. But this must not be understood as implying that his individuality, in the form of per sonal views, should assert itself in this work, or that the preacher should preach simply himself, or merely human doctrine. Christ attains to a distinct form in each separate individual, and it follows that the individual life can only be properly manifested in the higher peculiarities which it involves, and for the benefit of the common life of the Christian community. We will not, therefore, say that the preacher is required to renounce his individuality. This view presumes a conflict, which, unfortunately, arises in many cases between the convictions of the preacher and those of the Church. It should, rather, be the aim of the preacher to make the asserting of his individuality subserve the spiritual elevation of the congregation, and his human teaching reflect the word of God. For the preacher's individuality is not, in point of fact, to be con sidered a channel through which water fiows, or a glass for the pas sage of the rays of light. On the other hand, we hold that the preacher is not to annihilate, but to perfect and idealize, his indi viduality. The speaker, carried along by the peculiarity of his Christian life, pours out upon the congregation what has been de veloped into life in his own personal experience, and thereby awak ens new life in his hearers.' But he does this in an artistic form by first stripping off the evil features attaching to his individuality, including everything that is merely subjective and accidental, by permitting the product of his mind to become clear to himself through the process of meditating upon it, and to become, in a true sense, a part of his inner life, and by assuring himself, with an inward certainty that extends down to the individual expression, that he is justified in appearing in this precise manner, and not otherwise, before the congregation, as its speaker, and that he is called to labour precisely in that form. We do not question whether the preacher, by virtue of his official posi tion, is alone competent to perform this function, and Lay preaching. i r ^ not other members of the Church as well. Laymen officiated as speakers in the early Church. We consider it proper ' Beyer, ubi supra, p. 25, separates the idea of the sermon into three parts : (1) The creative ; (2) The receptive ; and (3) the mediating principle. He finds these three in (1) The word of God ; (2) The congregation ; and (3) The person of the preacher. " The word of God furnishes the sermon with its life-giving and saving contents, the life derived from God ; the adaptation to the congregation gives to it historical and local form ; and the mind of the preacher, in which the preceding elements are combined into unity, bestows upon it the power and colouring of personal life." HOMILETICS. 535 that our worship be so expanded as to admit of other than settled and stationed ordained preachers. Lay preaching, however, should have clearly defined limits. To judge of the sermon altogether from the pastoral, instead of from the liturgical and lay, point of view, and to consider the pulpit simply as an elevation upon which the one shepherd stands to feed his flock, appears to us an entire misunderstanding of the nature of the sermon. We do not disre gard the benefits arising from the bond which joins pastor and peo ple together, but all the gifts and graces for preaching are not con fined to him who may be pastor. SECTION XV. HOMILETICAL AEEANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. Homiletics is divided into two parts, the General and the Special. The latter embraces, 1. Invention; 2 Disposition; 3. The Division of elaboration and delivery of the discourse. Care is re- homiletics. quired, however, to avoid- the danger of regarding such division in thought as having brought about a real separation in the concrete, and to guard in general against losing sight of the essential charac ter and meaning of pulpit discourse, because of the influence of the arbitrary rules of the schools which have intruded themselves into the different divisions of homiletics. The theory may be divided in conformity with the two questions, What shall be preached? and How shall it be preached? The limit of sa- This was the plan pursued by Augustine in his Christ- '^^'^ eloquence. ian Doctrine. The mutter may be considered in its general and its particular aspects, the general inquiry being, How far does the limit of sacred eloquence extend? That limit is determined by the Christian character. Nothing but what is connected with the Christian life as such,' and aims to establish, purify, and perfect that life, may properly be made the subject of homiletical discourse. But nothing that belongs within that circle can be excluded from the range of such discourse. This is, consequently, the place for determining the character of Christian preaching. The sermon should be pervaded by both doctrinal and ethical preaching. The two should interpenetrate each other, though the doctrinal element may at times predominate, and at other times the ethical. To what extent may political matters be discussed? How far may the course of nature, as the changes of the seasons, be regarded? In all these ' We assume as self-evident the fact that the standard to which such Christian life is to be conformed is given in the word of God, and particularly in the teaching of Christ and the apostles. 536 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. matters good taste and sound wisdom must be observed. There is a time for everything. The first division of homiletics is the theory of invention. No direct invention, in the ordinary meaning of the word. Invention. •' ° ' must be understood, ihe matter for our preaching was invented long ago. But the duty is devolved upon us of de ciding what portion of the existing treasure shall now be presented to the congregation. With what subject should the preacher deal on this day, at this hour, in this particular instance ? At this point we again meet the opposing elements of the prescribed and the free. There are certain great general topics, such as Christmas, the new year, Easter, important national days, and public events of par amount interest, which require special treatment, but the device of the text and mode of treatment are the province of the preacher in his individual capacity. To what degree may a preacher be guided by his personal mood ? How far may outward circumstances gov ern his choice ? Should he, in his regular ministrations, undertake a doctrinal or an exegetical series ? Whieh parts and books of the Scriptures deserve to be separately treated ? Should he select his texts chiefly from the Old or the New Testament ? Should he pre fer historical to doctrinal passages? Should he choose parables; larger or smaller sections; texts from the gospels, or the epistles, or the apostolic history? Guiding principles are needed in all these matters. There should be no accident or personal whim. Even eminent preachers have allowed themselves to be misled into the effort of exciting curiosity either by selecting peculiar texts or dis cussing piquant themes. Reinhard and Draseke in Germany, and many preachers in both England and America, have erred in differ ent directions upon this point; the one being misled by his ingenu ity, the other by his wit. Reinhard, however, was tempted to go astray because of the restriction imposed by the topics prescribed by the ecclesiastical calendar. The custom of selecting abbreviated texts, mere starting points of texts, so to speak, prevails especially in the Reformed Chunh of France. This is very prominent in the sermons of Adolph Monod and Alexander Vinet. A frequent and living intercourse with the Scriptures, the obser- . vation of its practical features, an acquaintance with essary for prop- the human heart, a correct estimate of the preacher's personal disposition, and especially a candid observa tion of the time and its needs, and of the Church at large as well as the local church, comprehend the secret of homiletical invention, and protect against the intellectual bankruptcy cf being preached out, while they also cut off, at the beginning, all temptation to HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 537 make use of unworthy artifices, such as an attempt to surprise by novelty and originality. A text that has been judiciously selected is worth half a sermon, and brief and striking texts are certainly very effective. Palmer remarks: " It is a beautiful and grand thing for the preacher to have succeeded in striking the proper chord in the very enunciation of his text, and an electrical effect is often produced when the congregation is made to realize at the outset that this is to be the subject which ought to be discussed to-day." ' When the theme and text have been selected the work of arrange- ing is in order. It is, first of all, necessary to determine tlie exact relation sustained by the text to the theme, and this decision will govern the further progress of the sermon, the theme being either at once evoked from the text, and then developed more extensively, or, being gradually developed before the hearer's mind, the dis course is strung upon the thread of the text. The former method is synthetic preaching; the latter, analytical. The two „,,.,. , , „ ^' . - . ; , . Synthetic and methods may frequently be combined and mterpene- analytical trate each other, especially when but little attention is '"®*'""^- bestowed upon unnatural and inflexible divisions, and more regard is had for a natural and attractive grouping of ideas. Arrange ment is certainly needed, but not arrangement only. Connexion is also requisite. By this we mean a just distribution of effective points, not only in harmony with the laws of logic, but also with those of rhetoric and art. Herder strikingly observes of a true disposition of the sermon: " There must be no figure, no clause, no comma, which does not grow, as it were, necessarily out of the theme as a branch and its limbs, or a fiower and a leaf of the tree grow out of the root or the trunk. If it be not in this place it is nowhere, and the discourse is incomplete; it has a gap, a vacant pbice, as we say of paintings. A totally different question is that which asks whether the disposi tion should be set forth like a naked skeleton. Nature does not fol low that plan, and the sermon should be the last to adopt it. Natural arrangement, and a continued analysis of the word of God, form the best disposition for its use." ' The best mode of division, however, will always be that in which the connexion of the text determines the structure of the sermon, and where the latter grows out of the text. This, likewise, settles the question concerning the relative value of synthetical or analytical sermons. The sermon should not be a mere unorganized agglomeration and aggregation of saws and sentences any more than it should resem ble a skeleton, A fine human figure is resolved into its component ' Page 384. ' Briefe iiber das Studium der Theologie, No. 45. 538 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. members before the observer, but the members have an elastic con nexion, and are not articulated with wires. The bones may no more stand out than they may be buried in obesity from sight. So with the sermon. This involves the entire secret of so-called ser- monic division. Much pedantry has taken root in this field, but it is once more dying out. The aim was to divide off with the aid of Artistic divis- I'ue and compass, and an external symmetry, as in the '™- closely clipped French gardens, came to be considered the law of beauty. A Procrustean bed was made ready, and every thing was stretched or cut off until the parts, and secondary parts, were all of equal length. The utmost conscientiousness was em ployed in measuring and weighing whether a sermon should be divided into two or three parts, or whether more than three could be allowed, and how much space should be allotted to the introduc tion and every other member. Many preachers even made use of an arrangement obtained from others, as if theft were not a crime, and as if the arrangement and the execution did not mutu ally determine each other. A master must be competent to fit his own goods; only a bungler will construct a patchwork article. Much has been said upon the delivery of the sermon. It cannot be denied that the pulpit has its own peculiar style, any The dehvery. j j j more than it can be denied that there is a special style of praying or singing, or of architecture, in the Church. The preacher should not talk, but speak, and speaking is an art. His tone should not be simply argumentative, nor merely hortatory, nor yet merely pathetic. The beauty of the discourse is dependent on its truthfulness. Beyer well says: "If the idea of the beautiful requires that thought should find its adequate expression in the con crete form, a sacred beauty must always be ascribed to the sermon. Its divine substance is to be presented to view under the form of human speech, and, therefore, must penetrate with glorifying power through the whole discourse, and appear in its structure, and even in the separate words. But the beauty of the sermon is for this very reason not such as may be intentionally sought out and arti ficially manufactured. It is no tinsel ornamentation." ' The more fully justice is done to the sermon the richer will it be in fulness of expression, resembling the word of God, in which it has its origin. In its moments of elevation it may approximate to the poetical character, but without becoming poetry." Everything ' Ubi, supra, p. 348, and also p. 667. ^ Comp. Palmer, Ueber das Malen in den Predigten, p. 85, sqq. We would not agree with him in designating Krummacher absolutely as a model, since his colours are at times altogether too glaring. HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 539 that is unworthy, all that resembles the Capuchinade, all meretri cious ornamentation, both that which recalls to mind the grosser affairs of ordinary life and that which involves the terminology of the schools and books ; in a word, all that is purely teoh- , Useless orna- nical, should be carefully excluded from the sermon, ment to be All foreign terms which are not contained in the Bible ^™"*'"'- are, therefore, to be avoided whenever possible. Dignity and sim plicity should combine in it "into the higher unity of Christian ear nestness. Poi^ularity of style should not be carried to the extreme of triviality. The language should be select, but not strained. A true popularity, an adaptation to the level of common minds,' may most readily be secured by the study of the Scriptures and of the good, robust preachers of the earlier days. Such older forms of thought need to be recast into modern phraseology, however, in order that an adventurous pulpit jargon, having no affinity with actual life, may be avoided. Whether the sermon should be written and memorized, or merely elaborated in the mind, will depend upon personal considerations, and theory has but little concern with the question. Palmer says: " The congregation does not ask, and has no right to ask, how you prepare to speak readily, whether by writing your sermon or other wise. Your mode of occupation while in the study is your business alone. You may, if you choose, compose your sermons in Latin or in French; if you employ your language, the tongue of the congre gation, readily while in the pulpit, the other processes involved in the sermon concern yourself alone." Schleiermacher has expressed the opinion that persons of placid disposition may venture upon ex temporaneous speech, while emotional natures would do better to fix both thought and its expression by previous writing. The old Zalansky says a blunt word: "A young preacher should sit out and sweat out his sermons; first write them, and when they have been thoroughly finished present them to the people. . . . Shame upon them who even make it their boast that they have not in many years devoted a sheet of paper to the writing of their sermons." It does not follow from this that sermons should smell of the lamp. Artis est artem eel are. The internal process of preparing the sermon must never be al lowed to appear in the delivery. The sermon, even The sermon to though a written one, must always be mentally con-, be mentally structed with a view to its being spoken, and not as if ' The popularizing of preaching was never more strongly urged than at a time when the true Christian life of the people had been wholly lost sight of. The best discus sion of unction, is given by Vinet, in his Pastoral Theology, pp. 214, 215. 34 530 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. it were an article to be read.' It must lie in the mind as a speech, and be continually upon our tongues; the imagination must always picture us, as was always Guthrie's method, as standing in the pul pit with the open Bible before us, and the congregation assembled iu our presence. Only thus shall we be able to retain sufficient freshness of mind to prevent the sermon from becoming stale in the process of protracted preparation, and to cause it to be constantly new and fresh while we meditate upon it, so that the time of deliv ery may become the real natal hour of the sermon, and the hearer may be impressed that it comes freely and directly from the heart at that moment. It is self-evident that a sermon which must be read, as a whole, can produce no such effect. Rosenkranz says: " The unfortunate habit, begun in early life, of relying upon read ing and writing, and the fact that people have not been sufficiently accustomed to think, form the reason why free speech, which can only arise from an assured state of the mind, is kept down, espe cially in the case of persons of liberal culture." But a school-boy-like and poorly memorized sermon, and also one that is so completely extemporized that the pangs of labour under which the speaker brings forth his thoughts may be observed, will produce a painful, and, even if joined with much facility of speech, a repulsive im pression. As a final direction, it must be observed that the various opera tions of invention, arrangement, and elaboration are not to be sepa rately employed in a mechanical way, but each must be made to ex ert a determining, supplementing, and correcting influence over the others, if the sermon is to retain its vital colouring. The entire sermon must already be present in the moment of mental composition, as the plant exists in the germ. It is simply to be resolved before the mind into its elements, and be precipitated and clarified, as in some chemical process. The arrangement often leads to a more exact fixing of the theme, and the elaboration reacts upon the disposition, while the written word cannot be corrected until the spoken word has been heard. A sermon may be excellent in point of style, and yet read by the preacher to himself to better advantage than it can be heard by a congregation. It is, therefore, necessary that the preacher Possible effect should not only think himself into the sermon, but also bl^'studTeTb? *^^^ ^ ^'^^^ estimate of the effect it will produce upon the preacher, the ear. Often the repeating of the sermon aloud, or at any rate its imaginary delivery in thought, instead of merely ' Gossner remarks that the Holy Ghost at Pentecost distributed tongues of fire, but not pens for writing. Bengel's motto was, " Think much, and write little ; " and yet he conscientiously wrote down at least the plan. HOMILETICAL ARRANGEMENT AND MATERIAL. 531 thinking it over, will be very beneficial. Bishop Burnet was accus tomed, when riding or walking, to speak upon a given text in a loud tone of voice, and without any preparation, by which practice he attained to such readiness that he became able to speak appropri ately upon any subject without much previous thought. The sermon should be transfigured and spiritualized to its very centre down to the moment of delivery, in which it is thrown off as a ripened fruit from the mind of the preacher. If a sermon be delivered a second time, or many times, it should be improved for every new delivery. Thus only can there come the joy of creating with each repetition. To ride an old sermon to death is a sad business. " Dissatisfaction with old sermons," says Palmer, "should continue while life re mains." Augustine was always dissatisfied with his sermons after they had been delivered. When shall the immorality of presenting in numberless churches a fossil sermon that has once, like a part in a play, been committed to memory, come to an end? The rules with reference to delivery are generally of a negative character. Harms fancifully comprehends the whole under the three L's, "langsam, laut, lieblich" — slow, loud, pleasant. Canon Kingsley said : " Keep sacredly to the habit of breathing at every stop. Read and speak slow; and take care of the consonants, and the vowels will take care of themselves." ' Upon the subject of gestures especially, in which much depends upon the speaker's individuality, it is possible only to indicate precautions of the most general kind. Much depends upon the theme. The gesture should be the outgrowth of the thought and feeling. It is only effective when unconscious, like the breathing of a child. Be sure the gesticulation is imperfect, unnatural, if the speaker can remember afterward what it was. Herder had no ges ticulation, and Schleiermacher next to none. The elder Edwards had almost none, even in his most overpowering discourses. The young preacher should guard against imitating some favourite ges ticulate r. Some use the mirror as a help in preparation. But a faithful friend, who directs attention upon our mistakes of emphasis and our faulty gestures, is the best kind of mirror within reach. Goethe's words, in Faust, will cover all our remaining ground: If feeling does not prompt, in vain you strive; If from the soul the language does not come, By its own impulse, to impel the hearts Of hearers, with communicated power, 111 vain you strive — in vain you study earnestly. ' Letters and Memoirs of the Life of Charies Kingsley, p. 384. The entire letter addressed to Miss is on Stammering, but wiU apply weU to pulpit elocution. 533 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. Toil on forever ; piece together fragments ; Cook up your broken scraps of sentences, And blow, with puffing breath, a struggling light. Glimmering confusedly now, now cold in aslies; Startle the schoolboys with your metaphors ; And if such food may suit your appetite. Win the vain wonder of applauding children! But never look to win the hearts of men. And mould the souls of many into one. By words which come seductive from the heart! Be honest, if you would be eloquent ; Be not a chiming fool with cap and bells ; Reason and genuine feeling want no arts Of utterance — ask no toil of elocution ; And when you are in earnest, do you need A search for words ? O, tliese fine holiday phrases. In which you robe your worn-out commonplaces, These scraps of paper which you crimp and curl, And twist into a thousand idle shapes, These filigree ornaments, are good for nothing. Cost time and pains, please few, impose on no one ; Are unrefreshing, as the wind that whistles, In autumn, 'moiig tlie dry and wrinkled leaves. SECTION XVI. THE METHOD OF HOMILETICS. Exercises which afford a preparation for preaching are: (1) The Preparationsfor Cultivation and quickening of the practical faculty in the pulpit. the general study of the Bible; (2) The preserving of particular thoughts in writing, which contain the germs of future themes; (3) Practice in delivery. Constant and devotional listening to sermons in the services of the Church, and also the reading of homiletical productions, whether old or new, aid greatly in the form ing of the future pulpit speaker. Exegesis should not be studied alone with a view to the pulpit. But practical exegesis should, nevertheless, always be enjoined with critical. The person who studies the Scriptures as a preacher should must often be struck by their flashes of light even when engaged upon the driest subjects. Such flashes indicate fruitful seasons. Every preacher should keep a notebook, upon which to enter the seedthoughts gained from the Scriptures, together with brief hints with regard to disposition and elaboration. In all his walks and most leisurely moments his eye should be on his pulpit. THE METHOD OP HOMILETICS. 533 The most useful scrapbooks for preachers are those which each man compiles for himself. Exegesis in preaching can- i t i not be conducted on the same plan as surgical prac- ways before tice upon a skeleton. It is a skeleton, indeed, when a *''^'"""^- student is required to preach in the presence of his fellow students and a faculty of theologians, who are to personate the absent con gregation. We suppose there is necessity for this in theological seminaries, but no student is expected to do full justice to himself under such circumstances. Young Rothe, in his student days, wrote this to his father: "Frankly stated, it appears to me that an experiment of this kind is a questionable matter. It is surely a repulsive thought that a Christian congregation should sit like a sort of wig-block upon which a young bungler is to try his sermon; and yet in another direction such an experiment ean, in view of the entire nature of the sermon, be undertaken nowhere but in the congregation, and it must, therefore, be carried through in that way." A sermon may be read, or recited, or gone through somehow, before an audience of critics, but it cannot be delivered in the highest sense. Might it be proper in like manner to pray by way of test ? or to exhort, or to censure or comfort, all by way of practice? But there ought to be practice in delivery ? Yes, and the more the better, provided it is rightly done. The school should aim to promote this end, and do this work. Student associations for prac tice in speaking will also render valuable aid. But when it is re quired that a sermon should be preached by way of practice— and this should come to pass in the last year of the course — let it be undertaken with the help of God, and with full allowances for all the disadvantages of the hour. Many preachers attempt to display the whole of their theology in their first sermon; many others endeavour to concen- Delects of first trate in it all the feeling of their hearts. A wise re- sermons. straint is highly needed at this point. Persons who have not yet passed beyond the period of theological conflict should beware of troubling the pongregation with their doubts, or with the questions of the schools in general. Let them select themes which they are able to discuss, which have become transparent and concrete to their minds, and which they are competent to manage. Herder's paternal counsel has a general application here : " O friend, friend, do not hasten into the pulpit while too young or too thoughtless. You are not without other exercises whieh, though conducted in private, will forward you further on your way. If you insist on preaching, at least clothe yourself in modesty from head to foot. 534 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. Nothing is more attractive in a youthful speaker, and especially a pulpit speaker, than this." Many, however, are restrained from entering the pulpit by exces- „ . . ^ . ^ sive timidity, and by the fear of breaking down. Such Timidity no •'' •' . .. ,*' ground lor dis- difficulties, which have their origin as frequently in self- courageoient. j^,^ pride as in a really sacred awe respecting the char acter of the office, can only be overcome in a moral way. The true napprjala is a gift of grace. The best young preachers, however, have always been most alarmed. Pliny says: "Quod M. Cicero de stilo, ego de metu sentio. Timor est emendator acerrimus. Hoc ipsum, quod nos recitaturos cogitamus, emendat; quod auditorium ingredimus, emendat; quod pollemus, horrescimus, circumspicimus, emendat." Luther preached his first sermon in the convent of the Augustine monks before venturing to present himself before the public. Spener says that when he entered the pulpit for the first time he felt as though he were being led to the place of execution. Moeves testifies that he trembled far more while preaching his first sermon than when listening to the thunder of his first battle. Criticism may follow the sermon of the ydung preacher, but it should not be allowed to intimidate him beforehand. It is, more over, a fact that he only is able to feel and hear himself into the real spirit of a sermon who gladly and frequently listens to the ser mons of other men. One of the faults of our surfeited age consists in its unwillingness to hear other than distinguished orators. Some- Every sermon thing may be learned from every sermon, even though a lesson. j^ \,q g, poor one. But there is no objection to our be coming acquainted with what is best and most perfect whenever opportunity is afforded. In this direction the rich sermon litera ture of our English theology is of great assistance. The reading of a sermon is not, of course, equivalent to hearing it, but it possesses advantages of its own. Criticism may be applied with much less restraint in this case than when listening during the hour of wor ship in the church. The reading of sermons should be elevated into a study to a much greater extent than is actually the case. Artists are directed to examine works of art, and poets are obliged to read the works of other poets. Why should not a similar rule apply to sermons? To construct anew a sermon that has been read by a master in the pulpit, and to search out its effective points, penetrate into the mystery of its profound connexion with the Christian life, and compare its method with that of another, constitutes a valuable exercise for young ministers of the Gospel, and one upon which teachers of homiletics should lay greater stress. Such critical read ings, moreover, afford the surest defence against the danger of THE METHOD 6f HOMILETICS. 535 slavishly imitating so-called " sermon skeletons," in which undertak ing it generally happens that the imitators cojiy precisely their faults and excesses. Better study a great sermon than any skeleton. But do not steal either, or from either. SECTION XVII. THE HlSTOET OF HOMILETICS. I. HlSTOET OF THE ChEISTIAJST SeEMOK. Schuler, Gesch. der VerSudenmgen des Geschmacks im Predigen, Halle, 1792-94, 3 vols. ; and ibid., Beltrttge zur Gesch. d. Verand. des Geschmacks im Predigen, Halle, 1799; Ammon, Gesch. d. Homiletik, etc., Gottingen, 1804, Part I. (the first period from Huss to Luther, with historical introduction to the history of homiletics, from the rise of Christianity down to the be ginning of the fltteenth century) ; Schmidt, Kurzer Abriss d. Gesch. d. gelstl. Beredsamkeit u. Homiletik, Jena, 1790; Schuderoft, Vers, einer Kritik d. Homiletik, Gotha, 1797; Lentz, Gesch. d. christi. Homiletik, Brunsw., 1839 ; Paniel, Pragm. Gesch. d. christi. Beredsamkeit u. d. Hom Uetik, Leips., 1839 ; Schenck, Gesch. d. deutsch-Protest. Kanzelbereiisamkeit von Luther bis auf d. neuesten Zeiten, Berl., 1841 ; Doering, Die deutschen Kanzelredner des 18ten u. 19ten Jahr hunderts, Neustadt a. d. Oder, 1830; Leopold, Predigtamt im Urchristenthum, etc., Liineburg, 1846 ; Marbach, Gesch. d. deutschen Predlgt vor Luther, Berl., 1873 ; Beste, Die bedeutendsteu Kanzelredner d. altern Lutherischen Kirche, von Luther bis Spener (2 vols.), Leips., 1856-58 : Al. Vinet, Histoire de la predication parmi les R^f orm& de Prance au dix septifeme siSele, Paris, 1860 , Sack, Gesch. d. Predigt In d. deutschen evangel. Kirche, Heidelberg, 1866 ; Schmidt, Gesch. d. Predlgt i. d. evangel. Kirche Deutschlands von Luther bis Spener, etc., Gotha, 1872. For English and American bibliography, see below. The earliest preaching was a Krjptr/jMi, a declaration, a heralding, and the formal homily was not developed until a sys- The early hom- tem of Christian worship had been constructed, although ^^'^¦ it did not entirely supersede free discourse even then. Either hom ilies or free discourses were handed down by Origen, Eusebius of Csesarea, Eusebius of Emisa, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Ephraem Syrus, Macarius, Amphilojhius, and John Chrysostom. These were not always free from the influence of the ancient rhetoric learned from heathen schools. In the Latin Church the discourses of Zeno of Verona, Ambrose, Gaudentius, Augustine, Leo I., and others, are worthy of note. Preaching declined in the Middle Ages. In the Greek Church John of Damascus and Photius delivered addresses in Mediajvai honour of the Virgin Mary and of images; but the preaching. Trullan Council (692) had already directed the clergy to make use of old and approved homilies. In the Western Church recourse was likewise had at first to collections, postils, i. e., post ilia scil. verba Domini sive Scripturae Sacrae, the earliest of which were undertaken by Paul Warnefried and Alcuin, and followed by the similar collections of Raban Maur, Haymo of Halberstadt, and others. These collections were designed to serve as models for 536 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. imitation in the vernacular. But this design was gradually laid aside as the growth of the hierarchy and of externality in the worship became more pronounced. The power of Cliristian oratory was henceforth less apparent in the church than in the open air, frequent ly in the public streets. The preaching in convents was conducted in the Latin language. St. Bernard (Doctor mellifluus), and also the great scholastic Thomas Aquinas, attained to special eminence in this regard. The Begging Friars, from the thirteenth centuiy, gave a new impetus to jsreaching. According to the historians, Bertholdt of Regensburg (died 1272), a Franciscan monk, preached to sixty thousand people. Among the Mystics special importance attaches to Master Eckart, The Mystic Heinrich Suso, and particularly to John Tauler. John preachers. Melicz, the forerunner of Huss, and the latter reformer himself, likewise brought a beneficial influence to bear upon the work of preaching. Chancellor Gerson preached in both Latin and French, and the great Florentine, Girolamo Savonarola, was espe cially powerful of speech. The fifteenth century brought with it some strange contrasts, the comical being closely connected with the serious. This reflection will serve to explain the burlesque mode of preaching followed by Gabriel Barletta, Olivier Maillard, Michael Menot, and, to some extent, by the excellent Geiler of Kaisersberg. The Brothers of the Common Life, on the other hand, contributed toward the promotion of Protestant preaching. The Reformation of the sixteenth century, however, was pre eminently a regeneration of the Christian sermon as based on the Preaching by word of God, Luther himself being distinguished above the Reformers, all others, although Zwingli does not need, upon the whole, to take a much lower place. The personal traits and situa tion of these men were very different. Calvin was also peculiar, and most of the remaining reformers, as CEcolampadius, Bullinger, and Haller, were good preachers. The time, however, when men attained to eminence in such labours soon came to an end. Luther's "postils" were followed by others, of which still others availed themselves with more or less benefit. Of writers of postils we may mention Anton Corvinus, Brentz, Avenarius (Habermann), Chem nitz, Osiander (Peasant Postils), Matthesius (Mountain Postils), and Dietrich (Children's and Home Postils). Much insipidity prevailed at the close of the sixteenth century and during the seventeenth, and it was especially common to intro duce disputes into the pulpit, and to chastise heretics. But worthy and edifying preachers were not wanting, of whom we name espe cially Arndt (died 162'7), the author of the treatise on True Chris- THE HISTORY OP HOMILETICS. 537 tianity, Herberger (died 1627), Andrea,- and others. The structure of the sermon was now subjected to critical treatment, and all manner of artificial divisions were introduced ; for example, the five different usus: (1) didascalicus; (2) elenchticus; (3) paracleticus; (4) epanorthoticus; (5) paedenticus. In the end there were, literally, a hundred different methods, and all imaginable fancies Fanciiui divis- with regard to theme, exordium, and division. The '™s. want of taste reached its culmination — not, however, in a pedantic form so much as in a mere disposition to drift — in the Roman Catholic Church of Germany, in the person of the eccentric preacher, Ulric Megeiie (Abraham de St. Clara, court preacher at Vienna, died 1709), who displayed many excellent qualities, but carried the effort to popularize his sermons to the extreme of triviality, and in dulged his scurrilous method until his name became proverbial. A very different state of things existed in France, where both the Reformed and the Catholic Churches were served by the most celebrated of their pulpit orators at this time. We may mention of those belonging to the former Church, Mestrezal ^^g French (died 1657), du Bosc (died 1692), Claude (died 1687), p^ip"- and especially Saurin, who preached at the Hague, and died 1730. Of Roman Catholic preachers we may name: Mascaron (died 1703), and pre-eminently, F16chier (died 1710), Bossuet (died 1704), Bour- daloue (died 1710), and Massillon. The fame of these preachers is based upon their classic style, Chrysostom being their model, more than upon the depth and consistency of their Christian sentiments. Fenelon (dieil 1715), on the other hand, was distinguished for his fervour. After the Huguenots, expelled under Louis XIV., had settled in Germany, the French style, as represented in Ancillon, Abadie, Jacquelot, Lenfant, and especially in Saurin, came to be regarded as a model also in that country. To this must be added the English model, found in the perspicuous and moderate Tillot son, who died 1694. The preaching now became more mild in its doctrinal character, and gave greater attention to moral questions, besides making use of greater elegancies of style, its leading representatives being found in the Swiss preachers, Osterwald and Werenfels. The piet ism of Spener and Francke led, in Germany, to a re- sermons of the newed recognition of the profound conditions upon Pietists. which the life of the CJiristian sermon depends. But it was im possible that its influence should conduce to give it an artistic form. Spener's style was heavy. Wolfianism, too, was not favourable to the easy movement of discourse. The mania for definition and demonstration became highly ridiculous, in many instances of even 538 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. this kind of labour. Rambach (died 1735) represents, in Germany^ the transition from the pietistic to the philosophical method fol lowed by Reinbeck, who died in 1741. Modern pulpit oratory, in that country, had its origin with Mosheim (died 1755), who was termed the German Bourdaloue, and whose model was Tillotson. He was followed by Cramer (died 1788), the elder and the younger Sack, Jerusalem, Spalding, Zollikofer, Resewitz, Teller, Bartels, and others. The refiective and moralizing elements constituted the predominant quality in most works emanating from these, in some instances, very celebrated preachers. They also gave increasing expression to the utilitarian theory. Under such infinence sermons came to be degraded not only into dry disquisitions upon morality, but even into popular lectures on agriculture, hygiene, and simi larly inferior topics. The more strictly evangelical method was not left without representatives, however, who continually asserted its claims in the face of such aberrations. In Wiirtemberg, Rieger (died 1743) was considered a model, and in Prussia the "divine orator " Willamovius became an ideal for the imitation of Herder. Herder and Lavater apprehended the task of sacred oratory anew, Herder and ^^^ Came into decided contrast, not only with the more Lavater. strictly evangelical, but also with the rationalistic, method of preaching, which had its origin in Kantianism, and whose repre sentatives appear in the persons of LofHer (died 1816) and others. Both Herder and Lavater were rather guided by their own genius than by the methods of any school. Reinhard (died 1812) became the founder of such a school, and the representative of a strictly logical method. His sermons, collected in thirty-five volumes (1793-1813), were long regarded as models. They were charac terized by richness of thought, especially upon moral questions, clearness and definiteness of expression, force and dignity of style. Their deficiencies are, a farfetched and indirect treatment of the text, and, coupled with a degree of religious warmth, a certain dryness and prosaic rationalism. The method of Zollikofer and Reinhard found supporters among both rationalists and supranatu- ralists, and, in fact, occupies a theological position in which the con trast between their different principles has not yet been thoroughly overcome. The more eminent preachers who, while retaining more or less of personal freedom and individuality, followed in the track of these earlier models, were Marezoll, Ribbeck, Hanstein, Ehrenberg, Ey lert, Klefeker, Ammon, Bretschneider, Tzschirner, Schuderoff, Riihr, Zimmermann, Schmalz, Bockel, Alt, the Strasburgers Haffner and Blessig, the Swiss Mtislin, Stolz, Hafele, Heer, Fasi, and others. THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 539 The oratory of many of these men attained to a higher elevation than that of their models. Schleiermacher (died 1834) introduced a new life into the method of preaching,' as, indeed, he did into theology srener- o./ o Schleiermacher ally. The prevalent moralizing method predominates in his earlier sermons, the First Collection. But the specifically Christian element comes into greater prominence in his later efforts, though in the manner which was peculiar to himself. His dialectic method has been frequently imitated to the injury of his followers. His sermons deserve rather to be studied than imitated. The ser mons of Claus Harms, of Kiel — Sermons and United Postils — are constructed with a larger recognition of the condition and needs of the people, and are genuine models of Christian addresses in popu lar form, although it is necessary to distinguish between Claus Harms the earlier (1808-11) and the later (1824-27). Harms concedes that " much rationalistic sin still attaches " to the former. But this cannot be said of the latter class, or of his " Christological Sermons" (1821), since the controversy that called forth his Theses gave to Harms a plaoe among the most advanced defenders of Lu theran orthodoxy. It is also necessary to separate between an earlier and a later period in the case of Draseke, whose affectation of orig inality often destroys the profound impression otherwise produced, although a noble enthusiasm, akin to that of Herder, exhales from his sermons. Originality, carried to the verge of extravagance, and sometimes of insipidity, attains its highest point in the sermons of F. A. Krummacher. Theremin's sermons are characterized by great rhe torical talent and perfection of style. It may be stated, as a general fact, that the renewed infusion of life into theology restored life and individuality to preaching as well. A long list of names might be furnished of persons who are distinguished by logical keenness, or depth of thought, by intensity or elevation of feeling, or by the power of evangelical conviction and the fire of a newly awakened zeal, which, in some instances, assumes forms of every variety and with every degree of colour. It will be sufficient to recall the names of the more or less venerated persons without dwelling upon the different tendencies they represent — for example, Menken, ' Schweizer, Schleiermacher's Wirksamkeit als Prediger, Halle, 1834 ; Rhenius, Magdeb., 1837; Rienacker, in Stud. u. Krit., 1831, No. 2, pp. 240-64; Sack, ibid., pp. 350-85 ; Lucke, Erinnerungen an Schleiermacher, ibid., 1834, No. 3, p. 745, sqq. ; concerning Schleiermacher's political sermons, see Wehrenpf ening in the Prot. Kirchen zeitung for September, 1859; Baur, Schleiermacher als Prediger in d. Zeit von Deutschland's Erniedrigung und Erbebung, Leips., 1871. 540 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. Emmerich, Plossbach, Jonas, Sydow, de Wette, Al. Schweizer, Grtln- eisen, Tholuck, Nitzsch, Strauss, Harless, Jul. Muller, Tob. Beck, Arndt, the two Hofackers, Krummacher, Ahlfeld, Schenkel, Rust, Palmer, Ehrenfeuchter, Ebrard, Steinmeyer, Conrad, Gerock, Hoff mann, Kohlbrtigge, Sander, Mallet, Bernet, Buchsel, Kogel, Harms (of Hermannsburg), Langbein, Petri, Mtillensiefen, KajDff, Bey- schhig, Rothe, Bruckner, Kahnis, W. Baur, and others. Modern rationalism is represented, though with various modifica tions, by Schwarz of Gotha, H. Lang of Zurich, and Hausrath of Carlsruhe. The sermons of the French pulpit orators, Adolph Monod, Alex ander Vinet, Grandpierre, Bersier, and Pressens6, and, as represent ing freethinking tendencies, Colani, Coquerel, father and son, deserve to be studied. Among Roman Catholics, in addition to those already mentioned, the names of Sailer, Mutschelle, Boos, Brand, Forster, and Kalin deserve to be noted. Werner, of Vienna; Lacordaire; Father Hyacinthe, now practically separated in all but name from the Romish Church, and bearing the name of Loyson; Ventura, of Rome, Gavazzi, and the preachers of Protestant doctrines in Italy, have each, in his day, arrested attention. For the American and the Englishman their models must be the successful preachers in the English language. In modern times none have equalled the masters in English theology as the makers of sermons. In the earlier English period may be mentioned Far- indon, Atterbury, South, Tillotson, Charnock, Baxter, Hall, Taylor, Beveridge, and Howe, while in the more recent we may mention the Wesleys, Whitefield, Heber, Simeon, Robert Hall, Robertson, Spurgeon, Punshon, Kingsley, Dean Stanley, Farrar, and Liddon. II. HlSTOET OF the ThEOET OF PeeACHING. Christ preached with authority, and not as the scribes. The apostles proclaimed in Christ's stead, " Be ye reconciled to God." No human instruction was needed for their guidance; the Spirit taught them what they ought to say. " It is, therefore," as Beyer says, "a leading duty of theological science to thoroughly deter mine the nature of apostolic preaching in order to provide a stand ard for Christian preaching in general." After the Church had been founded, however, and conditions of human arrangement had Art of preach- been introduced, the art of preaching was developed theoiogSsci- ^J^ *^^ ^^^^ ^^ theological science. Origen laid down ence. the proposition, and secured its recognition, that the didactic sermon is a work of art. The teachers of Christianity, THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 541 moreover, were generally the pupils of heathen rhetoricians, such as Libanius and Tbemistius, and the theory was accordingly devel oped on the ground of the old time rhetoric, much in the same way as the ancient Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies were at first applied to the science of Christian theology. Augustine, starting with the recognition of the authority of rhetoric, gave instructions respecting the proper mode of presenting the doctrines contained in the Scriptures. In his Christian Doctrine he called attention to invention and expression in the sermon, and followed Cicero in many respects, though with an intelligent apprehension of the real task of Christian oratory. He was suc ceeded by Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, and Raban Maur, in the latter's Clerical Institutes. Alanus, of the Island (died 1203), wrote a Summary of the Preacher's Art, and Humbert the Roman, a Dominican (died 1277), wrote on the Learning of Speakers. The homiletical views of Thomas Aquinas were collected from the writ ings of himself and others under the title of Treatise for Preachers, upon which followed Leonard of Udine's (died 1470) Tractate on the Fundamentals for Preachers (Ulm, 1478), and Nicholas Bari- anus of Milan's Sixty-Seven Questions on the Matter of Preaching, which appeared in Boulogne in 1511. Reuchlin published a work upon the same subject, bearing the title of Book of Treasures in the Preacher's Art (Pforzheim, 1504). The Curate's Manual of the pastor Surgant of Basle, which imme diately preceded the Reformation, and discussed the method of preaching in its details, is especially deserving of mention. Luther was more practical than theoretical in everything, and we obtain only scattered hints from his works, the most valuable of which, in this respect, is Table Talk. This was collected for the first time by Porta, pastor at Eisleben, toward the close of the six teenth century, and subsequently by Walch. Luther made the dis criminating demand that the preacher should be both a dialectician and a rhetorician, but he also recommended that such Luther and a mode of preaching be adopted as would edify even Melanchthon. servants. In 1519 Melanchthon published his Rhetoric, and in 1536 he wrote his Office of Speakers. The Ecclesiastes of Erasmus was also extensively used. Directions for the art of preaching were given", among Protestants, by Hyperius, on the Function of Sacred Assemblies, or the Popular Interpretation of the Scriptures (1553); by Weiler, a pupil of Luther, on the Mode and Reason of Address (Norimb., 1562); by Hemming, a pupil of Melanchthon, on Pastoral Instruction, and How the Flock of Christ should be Fed with Sound Doctrine; by Osiander, on the Reason of Address (Tub., 1582); by 543 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. Andrea, on the Method of Address (Tub., 1595); and by Panera- tius (1571). We find similar directions in The Speaker, by Reb- han (1623), and the works of Hunnius, Hillsemann, Schleupner, Forster, the elder Carpzov, and Zalansky, the Lutheran pastor at Prague ; Muller, in his Ecclesiastical Orator (Rostock, 1670, 4to), Baier, a pupil of Arndt, in his Compendium of Homiletical Theol ogy (1677), and Leyser, in his Course of Homiletics (Viteb., 1701). Among Reformed theologians we may mention Gaussen, on the Eeformed writ- Reason of Address (1678), and the Hollanders van Til ers-- (died 1713), Vitringa (died 1722), and Hollenbeck, in the latter's Best Kind of Address (1668; 2d ed., 1770). We may also recall Fordyce, an Englishman, who wrote on the Art of Preach ing (1745). After Spener had, in Pious Desires, directed attention toward a truly awakening and edifying mode of preaching, his exposition speedily led to the publishing of textbooks written in harmony with his views, which, in their turn, called forth the opposition of the old-school writers. Thus Loscher wrote his Homiletical Brev iary (Viteb., 1720) in reply to Lange's Sacred Oratory (Francof., 1707). There was also a supply of insipid guides to flowery preach ing, an example of which is furnished in the Elegancies or Flowers of Orations, written by Christian Weiss, rector at Zittau, whom others followed in a similar direction. Hallbauer, of Jena, on the other hand, became noteworthy at the beginning of the eighteenth century by the writing of his Necessary Instruction in Wisdom in The woiflan Edifying Preaching. The Wolfian school produced school. Rambach, who wrote the Elucidation on Homiletic Precepts (Giessen, 1736), Reinbeck, the author of the Outline of a* Method of EdifyingPreaching, and Baumgarten, the author of Direc tions on Edifying Preaching (Frankf., 1752). This school carried the mania for definitions in the pulpit to an extreme, and was op posed by G. F. Meier of Halle, himself a Wolfian, in his Thoughts by a Philosophical Preacher (1762). Teller (1741), Kortholdt (1748), Simonetti (1754), Fortsch (1757), and others, issued additional works in this department about the middle of the century. The theories of Mosheim, in his Advice on Edifying Preaching (1771); of Teller, in his Outlines of Homiletical Lectures (Helmstedt, 1763); of Gruner (Halle, 1763); Bahrdt (1773); Steinbart (2d ed., Ziilli- chau, 1784); Marezoll, On the Destination of the Preacher (Leips., 1793); Schmidt, Guide for Popular Pulpit Oratory (3 vols., Jena, 179.5-1800); Thym (Halle, 1800), and Thiess (1801), all bear the stamp, in various degrees, of this same tendency with regard to preaching. THE HISTORY OP HOMILETICS. 543 This, too, was the period to produce the largest number of jour nals, magazines, archives, sketches of sermons, and the like. " For," as Palmer observes, "no mercantile house has sent out into the world a larger number of commercial travelers, intended to traffic with the article 'sketches of sermons,' than has the firm 'Rational ism & Co.' " ' The conclusion of the old, and more especially rhet orical, theory, is formed by the work of Schott, the scientific com plement to Reinhard, which, in its own way, is not without value. Theremin directed attention more especially to the inward source whence oratory has its rise, and a majority of the works, mentioned below, of recent times, have likewise treated homiletics in connexion with the ideas respecting the nature of religion, Christianity, the Church and its worship, as they have been brought out by philosophy and recent theology, and also in relation with the religious concep tions of art. The first among Roman Catholics, subsequent to the Reformation, to construct an Ecclesiastical Rhetoric, was Valerius of Verona (1574). He was followed by Alexander (1701); Gisbert, in Roman Catho- Ws Idea and Practice of Christian Eloquence (1728); lie writers. Fenelon, in his Dialogues on Eloquence in General, and that of the Pulpit in Particular (1788); and Maury, in his Principles of Pulpit and Forensic Eloquence (1789). Of German Roman Catholics, those deserving of mention are Ignatius Wurz (1769, 2 vols.), Rudolf Graser (died 1787), Brand, and Zarbl. THE LITERATURE OF HOMILETICS. GERMAN AND FRENCH. *A. H. Schott, Entwurf einer Theorie der Beredsamkeit. Lpz., 1807. Theorie der Beredsamkeit, mit besonderer Anwendung auf die geistl. Beredsam keit. Lpz., 1815-28. C F. Ammon, Handbuch der Anleitung zur Kanzelberedsamkeit. Gott., 1799. J. A. H. Tittmann, Lehrbuch der Homiletik. 2d ed. Lpz., 1824. Ph. Marheineke, Grundlegung der Homiletik. Hamb., 1811. J. Oh. W. Dahl, Lehrbuch der Homiletik. Lpz. and Rostock, 1811. F. Theremin, Die Beredsamkeit eine Tugend, oder Grundlinien einer systematischen Rhetorik. 2d ed., 1837. Amer. ed. by Shedd. N. Y., 1850. G. Ph. Ch. Kaiser, Entwurf eines Systems der geistlichen Rhetorik. Erl., 1817. J. G. Grotesend, Ansichten, Gedanken und Erfahrungen iiber die geistl. Beredsam keit. Hannov., 1824. J. J. Cheneviere, Observations sur I'eloquence de la chaire. Geneve, 1834. A. G. Schmidt, Die Homilie, eine besondere geistliche Redegattung, in ihrem ganzen Umfange dargestellt. Halle, 1827. W. H. van Hengel, Institutio oratoris sacri. Lugd. Batav., 1829. G. A. F. Sickel, Grundriss der christi. Halieutik. Lpz., 1829. R. Stier, Kurzer Grundriss einer bibl. Keryktik, oder Anweisung durch das Wort Gottes sich zur Predigtkunst zu bilden. Halle, 1830. 'jHomiletik, p. 38. 644 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. f J. Brand, Handbuch der geistl. Beredsamkeit. New ed. Const., 1850. 2 vols. f J. B. Zarbl, Handbuch der Katholischen Homiletik. Landshut, 1838. J. K. W. Alt, Kurze Anleitung zur kirchl. Beredsamkeit. Lpz., 1840. * Ch. Palmer, Evangel. Homiletik. Stuttg., 1842. Sth ed., ibid., 1867. *A1. Schweizer, Homiletik der evang.-protest. Kirche, systematisch dargestellt. Lpz., 1848. Gust. Baur, Grundziige der Homiletik. Giessen, 1848. ¦)• J. Lutz, Handbuch der Kathol. Kanzelberedsamkeit. Tiib., 1851. A. Vinet, Homiletique ou theorie de la predication. Par., 1853. Amer. ed. by Skin ner. N. Y., 2d ed., 1855. * J. H. F. Beyer, Das Wesen der christlichen Predigt nach Norm und Urbild der apos tolischen Predigt. Gotha, 1861. English and American Literature. Lyman Abbott, A Layman's Story. N. Y., 1873. J. W. Alexander, Thoughts on Preaching. N. Y., 1867. John A. Broadus, A Treatise on the Preparation and Delivery of Sermons. Phila., 1870. R. L. Dabney, Sacred Rhetoric. Richmond, 1866. Daniel P. Kidder, A Treatise on Homiletics. N. Y., 1864. Austin Phelps, The Theory of Preaching. N. Y., 1881. Ministerial Culture. Andover, 1868. Henry .1. Ripley, Sacred Rhetoric. Boston, 1849. W. G. T. Shedd, Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. N. Y., 1867. Abel Stevens, Essays on the Preaching Required by the Times. N. Y., 1856. R. S. Storrs, Conditions of Success in Preaching without Notes. N. Y., 1875. J. B. Sumner, On Apostolic Preaching and Ministerial Duty. N. Y., 1846. L. T. Townsend, The Sword and Garment. N. Y., 1871. C. Wordsworth, Outlines of the Christian Ministry. Lond., 1872. Yale Lectures on Preaching, by Various Authors, on the Sage Foundation, beginning 1872. For further literature, see Hurst's Bibliotheca Theologica, p. 304, ff. SECTION XVIII. PASTORAL THEOLOGT (iN THE LIMITED MEANIlfG OF THE TEEm). American Presbyterian Review, Vol. Ill, 3,S3. While Liturgics and Homiletics are concerned with the functions Objects of Pas- of the clergyman in the sphere of public worship. Pas toral Theology, toral Theology in its limited meaning has to do with the direction of the life of the Christian society and of individu als, or, in other words, with pastoral care and the cure of souls. Here, again, it is possible to distinguish between functions whose exercise is largely governed by official restrictions, and others which admit of a greater personal freedom. The former serve to display the faithfulness of the pastor, and the latter his love and devotion. The rules which apply to the former may be grounded in Church government, but those which control the latter must be derived from Christian Ethics. In the case of either it is requisite THE FUNCTION OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 545 that experience and practice should complete what the science is able to present only in its most general outlines. The term is not definitely fixed.' Many embrace the whole of Practical Theology within its scope, but incorrectly. Catechetics is most nearly allied to it of all the torai Theology branches hitherto considered, being the common basis " ^ '"^• of the entire body of ecclesiastical functions; while Homiletics and Liturgics are not to be regarded as Pastoral sciences. Harms cor rectly distinguished the preacher from the pastor. Only what has respect to the latter is Pastoral Theology. . But to . _ , r OJ _ Is Pastoral what extent is Pastoral Theology included in the do- Theoiogyasoi- main of science ? When Rosenkranz asserts " that there ™''''" can be no Pastoral Theology in the evangelical Church because there are no special Ethics for the clergyman, and because the care of souls cannot be comprehended under a system of rules, and when he even terms it " a beginning of priestcraft," and charges it with amounting simply to " a guide to hypocrisy," and to " a sys tem of belittling tricks which destroy the life of a true devotion," or " a low desire for the display of priestly greatness," his mind is evidently fixed upon the abuse of Pastoral Theology. There is certainly no special system of Ethics for the clergy; but a circle of special duties belonging to his calling exists for the minister as for any other man — duties devolved on him by reason of his office, or by a proper estimate of the position to which God has assigned him. The function of Pastoral Theology is to determine what may be justly required of the minister, and what he must accept, as be- longiii It has been wittily observed that they constitute " Pontius in the Credo" (comp. Graf, Prakt. Theol., p. 174). Very well; but a hint which prevents the inquirer from being sent from Pontius to Pilate, and gives him the necessary information at once, can do no harm. Our idea does not require that lectures should be delivered upon all such topics; many things may be preserved for the future ad notam. Harms asks his hearers (Pastor, p. 16): "Can you estimate architectural plans cor rectly ? Can you draft a lease ? Do you know what amount of clover seed should be sown to the acre ? Can you deal roughly with lazy artisans employed upon your house at the expense of the Church ? " We are entirely agreed with Schweizer that Theology proper has no answer to give to questions of this kind ; but such questions are not so much out of place as may at first sight be supposed, and constitute interrogation points which in their appropriate sphere serve to show the way beyond the borders of a different territory. PRACTICAL CHARACTER OF THE PASTORATE. 551 connected with pedagogics. If he is to render substantial aid in the department of public charities he will not find questions relat ing to pauperism, now so frequently discussed, to be wholly foreign to his position. It will be necessary that he should learn to know the sources of poverty which lie in existing social conditions, if he is to aid in bringing it to an end ; and for this reason a course in Political Economy, for instance, might be recommended to the theologian, in so far as it relates to the amelioration of pauperism. The clergyman will also need to understand the nature of „,, ,^ , '='' Should know the forms of business if he would be competent to es- the lorms of timate their influence over the physical, social, and "^ ^^^' moral welfare of the people. The opinion of religious teachers respecting the mighty progress of industrial enterprises in our day, for instance, is not an unimportant matter, for the latter not infre quently come into conflict with the Christian life, in appearance, at least, as appears from the low degree to which interest in the Church has sunken in a majority of manufacturing towns, the ne glect of the Sabbath, and of Christian schools, and the exclusive attention given to business, the fashions, luxury, and recreations. Can any thing be accomplished with reference to such matters by merely protesting against the spirit of the age, w"hile unable to resist its progress? And is not the cultivated clergyman compelled to learn the character of the time, with its requirements and its needs, if he would successfully deal with its excrescences and perverted tendencies ? Will he not be compelled to devise methods of relief for bread less sufferers who complain that they lack remunerative employment ? But all this can be accomplished only when he has obtained an insight into the conditions of the time. SECTION XX. THE METHOD OF PASTOEAL THEOLOGT. The Seminary and Vicariate. L. Hilftell, iiber die Errichtung praktischer Institute zur Ausbildung der angehenden evangel- chri'stl Geistlichen; Eine Vorarbeit fur die bevorstehende badnlsche Generalsynode und zugleich alien Eeglerungen gewldmet, denen das Wohl der protestantischen Ku-che am Herzen liegt. Karlsruhe, 1831 ; Hupfeld a. a. 0. S. 52-55 ; Derselbe : "Ist die Bildung, welche Theologen aul der Universitat erhalten, auch ausreichend fiir Ihren Seelsorgerberut ? " in den Annalen der gesammten Theologie und christi. Kirche, Jahgr., 1833; Sprague's Annals of the American Pulpit ; one ot the best exhibitions of practical pastoral life extant in English. See also J. W. Alexander's Thoughts on Preaching, p. 126, et seq. The student will not be able to do more in the period devoted to academical instruction than to secure a clear understanding of the task of Pastoral Theology in its general outlines, and to cultivate a sympathy for its work. The appropriate school for this, and all 553 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. other practical accomplishments, will be found either in the semi nary or in the period of candidature which opens the way to the Aids to a prep- ^^^^''i®^ °^ official functions. A practical school afford- aration lor the ing valuable aid in the work of preparation during the pastorate. years of candidacy, is found in frequent intercourse with people belonging to different classes in society, and particularly in a-;sociating with experienced clergymen, in observing the signs of the times, in aiding to carry forward the objects of the numerous associations for Christian work; and a further special aid will be found in the reading of the biographies of eminent pastors. To provide a bare sketch of Pastoral Theology is all that theory can accomplish ; and it is therefore a question what done lor prac- shall be done to furnish a thorough practical training tical traming? supplementary to that of the schools? Medical men have their hospitals and their clinics ; should not something sim ilar be provided for theologians ? The proposition is not devoid of difficult considerations. At this point we come to consider the practical or professional seminary which may exist under diverse conditions, either as forming a part of the university, or as entirely distinct from it. It might be asked whether the monastic aspect which seminary training may assume does not tend to unfit rather than to qualify for actual life; whether theory does not in this, as in other respects, predominate over practice. Every thing will depend upon the'spirit which pervades the different seminaries. The testimonies of persons who are familiar with such institutions Value and Um- ^^^ ^° their favor. But it is certaiii that even the semi- itations of the nary can produce no ready made preacher and pastor. seminary. j^ merely serves to lead over from the college or uni versity into practical life ; and lectures upon practical branches of study, which are often entirely too inadequate as delivered at the university, are certainly in place here. But who is to lead the seminary student to the bedside of the sick, or to the dwellings of the poor ? Who will furnish him with opportunities for intercourse with farmers, or for studying life in its manifold conditions ? Such considerations have led some minds in Europe to discuss the idea of founding seminaries in rural regions which should not be placed under the direction of professors, but of experienced and practical pastors. Such seminaries for Protestant clergyman wonld become a kind of model and metropolitan pastorates, from which surround ing villages and dependent churches might receive spiritual service, and to which the preachers might return, bringing new experiences, as bees bring honey to their cells. But it is to be questioned -whether such a scheme could be carried practically into effect THE HISTORY OP PASTORAL THEOLOGY. 553 Every candidate for the ministry should consider it a duty to visit clergymen in their fields of labor, and to be made ac quainted with the duties of his station, though it should wXexper°l- be at first merely as a non-participating observer. The ™ced pastors. preaching of a trial sermon, or the conduct of a catechization will be sufficient to entitle the youthful clergyman to enter a Christian home in the company of the resident pastor, or to visit the sick. Journeys of limited extent, and simple excursions, even, may likewise vield fruit, when it is sought after; and upon this, as other points, read ing must be employed to take the place of personal observation when the latter is deficient. The reading of good popular authors will create an interest for the life and manners of the people, their needs, prejudices, and modes of thought ; but it is necessary to guard against the forming of false ideals regarding the life of the people, and also concerning the life of the shepherd of the people. Least of all should one give way to the idyllic dreams of former days in an age like ours, which drives them even from the mind of the dreamer himself. The biographies of faithful pastors which describe their joys and sorrows, their lives, labors, and aspirations, are of greater value than the romantically tinged and imaginary pictures of model clergymen. The former constitute the true legends of saints for the evangelical theologian. SECTION XXL THE HlSTOET OF PASTOEAL THEOLOGT. The earliest pastoral instructions are those which were given by Christ to his Apostles (Matt, x), and those which they, „j^ „ , . in their turn, addressed to their pupils, especially structionsfrom throngh the pastoral epistles. Scattered elements are ^"^*" to be found in the early teachers of the Church, and in their works. When the care of souls became a priestly and hierarchical function, chiefly through the institution of auricular confession, the instruc tions provided for the use of confessors took on a similar character. The Reformation urged the importance of the pastoral work in addi tion to the work of preaching, with special emphasis. Zwingle wrote his Shepherd according to the Image of Christ and the Word of God, and many of Luther's letters afford rich materials for the use of pastoral learners. The literary and more or less systematic treatment of the subject begins with the Pastorale of First system- Erasmus Sarcerius (1558), which was followed by the atic treatise. Pastor of Kicol. Hemming (1566) and the Pastorale Lutheri com piled by Conrad Porta (1582). The guides to pastoral work which 654 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. appeared at a later day were again of a casuistical character (comp. Quenstedt, Ethica Pastoralis, 1678). Gottfried Olearius brought out a direct Pastoral Theology in his Collegium Pastorale, etc., which was written by him at the beginning of the eighteenth cen tury (Leipsic, 1718). Spener's Theologische Bedenken' unquestion ably originated in the recognition, according to the true spirit of Protestantism, of a priesthood which is common to all Christians ; but the later Pietism led the way back into the casuistical discussion of clerical ethics, and thereby introduced many inappropriate ele ments into the practical administration. The Sammlungen by Stein- metz, abbot of Klosterbergen, and the Sammlungen zur Pastoral theologie by Philip David Burk (1771-73) furnish a beautiful testi mony in favor of the better Pietism and its tendencies, especially as displayed in its Wurtembergian representatives. Rationalistic Pas toral Theology took go und in opposition to the Pietistic treatment, making of the clergyman a philanthropic educator of the people, and restricting his field of labor principally to the banishing of prejudices and the elevating of social conditions, and, in the loftiest theories, to the improvement of the schools for the people (Sebaldus Nothanker, by Nicolai). Modern Pastoral Theology is based on more correct views respecting the nature of religion and the spirit ual office, and must, therefore, be conceded to have divested itself of much of what Rosenkranz stigmatizes as savouring of priestcraft. English literature abounds in practical treatises upon the duties of English and *'^^ pastor, although the discussions of pastoral theol- American ogy On its theoretical side ave not very many. Proba- works. ^ly ^jjg ^jjg .^Qj.-|^ which has made the deepest impression is Richard Baxter's Gildas Salvianus, or Reformed Pastor (1656). It was prepared by a most successful pastor for a conferent.ie of pastors, and is still a model of its kind. Doddridge advised the reviewing "of the practical part of it every three or four years," and John Wesley made the reading of it one of the duties of his lay preachers. Bishop Burnet wrote A Discourse on the Pastoral Care, and John Fletcher of Madeley, The Portrait of St. Paul. Among modern works may be named The Ministry of the Gospel, by Francis Wayland; Office and Work of the Christian Ministry, by Francis M. Hoppin ; Homiletics and Pastoral Theology, by William G. T. Shedd ; and The Christian Pastorate, by D. P. Kidder. The Yale Lectures on Preaching contain, both directly and incident ally, valuable suggestions for the right ordering of the pastorate.'' ' Comp. the collection for the times made by Hennicke, Halle, 1838. ' Eor the English Literature of this subject, see M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopie dia, vol. vii, p. 757. FURTHER CULTIVATION OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES. 555 SECTION XXIL THE EUETHEE CULTIVATION OF THEOLOGICAL STUDIES. The Study of theology can never be exhausted,' more than that of any other science, and hence constant progress in its study never to development is required. The germs of knowledge ''^^^¦ imparted by the schools are to be thoroughly elaborated, and espe cially in the years subsequent to graduation. Much, therefore, de pends on a faithful improvement of the years of candidacy ; but intercourse with the science is never to cease, even after the pas torate has been reached. Theological science can only retain its vitality, however, so long as it is sustained by theological views which have been tried and approved in the conflict of life. Much has been said with reference to the tendency of clergyman to dete riorate as students. There was a time in Germany and Switzer land when more good bee keepers than Church guardi- g^^g wasteful ans, more capable florists and cattle raisers than capable occupations. trainers of human beings, were to be found among the clergy. They were more skilful in the plant nursery than in the village school, and more at home in their cattle stalls than in the sheepfold of Christ. But the Church derives no greater benefit from one sided philologists and critics, nor from authors in the department of belles-lettres, or even of theology or ethics, if such employments cause the interests of the congregation to be neglected. A pastor who has not yet completed his studies in this regard should, prefer not to be a pastor. His studies, in one word, ought not to be sepa rated from his practical life so as to assume the appearance of dX- Xorpta, but ought rather to be enlisted in the service of the practical life. This does not imply that he should read only devotional works ; at no time is he to remain unacquainted with the progress of theological science, because his entire efficiency must rise and fall with the Church, and Theology is the finger on the dial of the latter. But let him not study merely as a scholar or an amateur, but as a pastor, who has an eye to his congregation, and also to the Church, of which the congregation forms simply a part. Let ^ugtudyfor him carry his people in his heart, and cause them to profit theproatoi by all which he secures, and let him know how to obtain ^^^ People. new seed for the field he has to cultivate from among the .finest ' I have always been unable to regard the period of the university course other wise than as a time of sowing and collecting materials, and have believed that the collecting must precede the digesting.— Kothe (Studienjahre, in Nippold, i, p. 70). 656 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. fruits that science affords. The best means for preserving the vitality of scientific pursuits among clergymen are found, aside from socie ties for reading, in the conferences of preachers and pastors, and in the more extended ministerial associations which have been spring ing up in increasing number in recent years. The object for which such associations have been established differs from that of the synods. The latter are directly engaged in the service of the Church, the former in that of the clergy ; the latter fall within the department of Church government, the former in that of Church ministrations, to which they contribute a further incitement. The more thoroughly the two elements interpenetrate each other, the better it will be. The school affords training that fits for life, and life in turn becomes a school ; and thus it should ever be with each one. Life ripens through conflict, and character, disposition, with out which, beyond dispute, there can be no real theological science, are likewise steeled and purified by the heat of conflict.' THE LITERATURE OF PASTORAL THEOLOGY. GERMAN ANO FRENCH. I. In General. C. W. Oemler, Beitrage zur Pastoraltheoligie fiir Landprediger. Jena, 178.3. P. F. Ach. Nitsch, Anweisung zur Pastoralklugheit fiir kiinftige Landpfarrer. Lpz., 1791. J. Kriinitz, Der Landprediger nach seinen verschiedenen Verhaltnissen. Berl., 1794. C. B. Kindervater, Ueber niitzliche Verwaltung des Predigtamtes. Lpz., 1802-6. 2 vols. Sam. Baur, Eepertorium fiir alle Amtsverrichtungen eines Predigers. Halle, 1805-18. 12 vols. Ch. L. Mirow, Der Prediger in seinen verschiedenen Verhaltnissen. Hannov., 1808. J. F. Jacobi, Ueber Bildung. Lehre und Wandel protest. Religionslehrer. Frankf. and Heidelb., 1808. Fr. Strauss, Glockentone. Erinnerungen aus dem Leben eines jungen Geistlichen. Elberfeld, 1815. 7th ed., Lpz., 1840. 3 vols. J. G. Tobler, Gotthold oder der wackere Seelsorger auf dem Lande. Aarau, 1820. ' The pastor needs to possess a real creative faculty, a certain poetic element (¦!Toir]Tm6v ti). This creative faculty is primarily related to the sermon, of course, but afterward also to the other departments of clerical labor, to instruction and pastoral care. The clergyman needs to understand the requirements in either field, and must know how to meet them all. If, therefore, he does not carry about with him an ade quate fund, he can be, in his capacity as clergyman, only a sorry comforter, a chatterer, or a silent dog. Subordinate, unproductive, and otherwise contracted characters are usually able to make themselves useful in all offices, in some form, at least, but they are not qualified for the spiritual office. To be required, and yet not able to produce, is the most terrible torture conceivable by man. — Vilmar, p. 30. LITERATURE OF ECCLESIASTICAL LAW. 557 t J. M. Sailer, Vorlesungen aus der Pastoraltheologie. 3 vols. Sth ed. Sulzb., 18.35. W. Schroter, Lebens- und Amtserfahrungen in ihren psychologisch-geschichtlicheu Zusammenhange dargestellt. Altona, 1827. C. Wyss, Ueber Antinomien im Berufe des Geistlichen. Bern, 1828. f F. S. Hiiglsperger, Festabende im priesterlichen Leben, gefeieit mit Betrachtungen und Erinnerungen. Sukb., 1828-30. 3 vols. *Fr. Hoffmann, Pastoral-Grundsiitze. Stuttg., 1829. * J. C. F. Burk, Evangel. Pastoraltheologie in Beispielen, aus den Erfahrungen reuc. Diener Gottes zusammengestellt. Stuttg., 1838, 1839. 2 vols. E. L. Fecht, Der christliche Geistliche. Lahr, 1849. f F. Vogl, Pastoraltheologie. 6th ed. Regensb., 1851. 2 vols. 7th ed., 1855. F. Ch. H. Schonheit, Fingerzeige fiir junge Geistliche bei ihrem Eiutritt iu das Land- predigerleben. Weim., 1853. 0. Miiller, Die pastorale Seelsorge. Berl., 1854. f F. Herbst, Lebeusbilder aus der Seelsorge. Augsb., 1854. C. Wyss, Etwas vom Kern und Stern der Seelsorge. Basel, 1858. * Palmer, Evangelische Pastoraltheologie. 2d. ed. Stuttg., 1863. Emil Ohly, Vaderaecum pastorale. 3d ed. Wiesb., 1872. W. Lbhe, Der evangelische Geistliche. 2d ed. Stuttg., 1866. 2 vols. A. W. Schlag, Der Landpfarrer, oder ErfahrungenTind Beobachtungen, Ansichten und Wuusche. Lpz., 1865. *A. F. C. Vilmar, Lehrbuch der Pastoraltheologie. Giitersloh, 1872. Kirche und Welt oder die Aufgabeu des geistlichen Amtes in unserer Zeit. Zur Signatur der Gegenwart und Zukunft. Gesammelte pastoraltheolog. Aufsatze. Vol. 1. Giitersloh, 1872. *H. Guth, Pastoralspiegel. Erlangen, 1873. II. Ecclesiastical Polity. J. H. Boehmer, Jus ecclesiat. Protestantium. Hal., 1714 ss. Vols, i-iv, Sth ed., 1756- 89 ; vol. V, 3d ed., 1763 ; vol. vi, 6th ed., 1760. 4. Institutiones juris canonici. Hal., 5th ed., 1770. Ch. M. Pfaff, Juris eccles., libb. v. 2d ed. Tiib., 1727. J. L. Mosheim, Allgemeines Kirchenrecht der Protestanten. Helmst., 1760; new ed. by Ch. A. Giinther, Lpz., 1800. G. L. Boehmer, Principia jur. canon, speciatim jur. eccles. publ. et priv. quod per Germaniam obtinet, Gott., 1762; 8th ed., cur. Ant. Baur, 1819. A. J. Schnaubert, Grundsatze des Kirchenrechts der Protestanten u. KathoUken in Deutschland. 3d ed. Jena, 1805. 2 vols. G. Wiese, Grundsatze des gemeinen iu Deutschland iiblichen Kirchenrechts. Gott., 1793. 5th ed., by Kraut, ibid., 1826. Handbuch des gemeinen in Deutschland iiblichen Kirchenrechts. Lpz., 1799- 1804. 8 vols. J. Schuderoff, Grundziige zur evangel.-protestant. Kirchenverfassung und zum evan gel. Kirchenrechte. Lpz., 1817. Th. A. H. Schmalz, Das natiirliche Kirchenrecht. Konigsb., 1795. Handbuch des kanon. Rechts und seiner Anwendung in den deutschen evangel. Kirchen. Beri., 1815. 34. + S. Brendel, Handbuch des kathol. und protestant. Kirchenrechts. 8d ed. Hamb., 1839, 1840. 2 vols. f Ferd. Walter, Lehrbuch des Kirchenrechts aller christlichen Confessionen. Bonn, 1822. 13th ed., 186L 558 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. H. Stephani, Das aUgemeine kanonische Eecht der protestantischen Kirche in Deutsch land. Tub., 1825. Chr. A. V. Eschenmayer, Grundlinien zu einem allgem. kanon. Eechte. Tiib., 1823. W. T. Krug, Das Kirchenrecht nach den Grundsatzen der Vernunft und im Lichte des Christenthums dargestellt. Lpz., 1826. J. G. Pahl, Das offentl. Eecht der evangel.-luther. Kirche in Deutschland kritisch dargestellt. Tiib., 1827. \ C. A. V. Droste-HiilshofE, Grundsatze des gemeinen Kircljenrechts der Katholiken und Evangelischen. Miinster, 1832-35. 2 vols. C. Hase, De jure ecclesiastico commentarii historici. Lips , 1828, 1832. *K. Fr. Eichhorn, Grundsatze des Kirchenrechts der kathol. und evangel. Eeligions- partei in Deutschland. Gott., 1831-33. 2 vols. *H. C. M. Rettig, Die freie protest^ant. Kirche oder die kirchlichen Verfassungs- grundsatze des EvangeUums. Giessen, 1832. J. A. V. GroUmann, Grundsatze des allgem. kathol. und protestantischen Kirchen rechts. 2d ed. Frankf. a. M., 1843. fE. W. Klee, Das Eecht der einen allgemeinen Kirche. Magdeb., 1839, 1841. 2 vols. ^ F. J. Stahl, Die Kirchenverfassung nach Lehre und Recht der Protest. Erl., 1840. 2d ed., ibid., 1862. G. F. Puchta, Einleitung in das Eecht der Kirche. Lpz., 1840. *Aem. L. Richter, Lehrbuch des kathol. und evangel. Kirchenrechts. 2 vols. 6th ed. Lpz., 1867. Geschichte der evangel. Kirchenverfassung in Deutschland. Lpz., 1851. Otto Mejer, Institutionen des gemeinen deutschen Kirchenrechts. Gott., 1845. 2d ed., 1856. *Ch. J. F. Bunsen, Die Verfassung der Kirche der Zukunft. Hamb., 1845. Eng. ed., Lond., 1847. H. Thiele, Die Kirche Christi in ihrer Gestaltung auf Erden. Ziirich, 1844. Die Knechtsgestalt der evangelischen Kirche, oder Roth und Hiilfe. Ziir., 1846. * (Weisse) Ueber die Zukunft der evangel. Kirche. Reden an die Gebildeten deutscher Nation. 2d ed., 1849. J. W. F. Hofling, Grundsatze evangel.-luther. Kirchenverfassung. Erl., 1850. 3d ed., 1853. *G. V. Lechler, Geschichte der Presbyterial- und Synodalverfassung seit der Refor mation. (A prize essay.) Leyden, 1854. C. Trummer, Aphorismen iiber das christliche Kirchenrecht. Frankf., 1859. f G. Philipps, Kirchenrecht. Regensb., 1848-64. 6 vols. j J. P. Schulte, Catholisches Kirchenrecht. I. 1-8. II. 1, 2. Giessen, 1860-67. J. A. Ginzel, Handbuch des neuesten in Oesterreich geltenden Kirchenrechts. Wien, 1857-62. 2 vols. K. Kuzrhany, Lehrbuch des allgemeinen und osterreichischen evangel-protestant. Kirchenrechts. Wien, 1856. 2 vols. Fr. Bluhme, System des in Deutschland geltenden Kirchenrechts. Bonn, 1858. Th. Harnack, Die Kirche, ihr Amt, ihr Regiment. Grundlegende Satze mit durch- gehender Bezugnahme auf die symboUschen Biieher der lutherischen Kirche. Nurnb., 1862. C. F. Rosshirt, Beitrage zum Kirchenrecht. Heidelb., 1863. Encyklopadie des Kirchenrechts. Heidelb., 1865. R. W. Dove, Sammlung der wichtigsten neuen Kirchenordnuugen des evangel. Deutsch lands. Tiib., 1865. THE HISTORY OF HOMILETICS. 559 F. Brandes, Die Verfassung der Kirche nach evangelischen Grundsatzen. Elberfeld 1867. 2 vols. ' 0. Mejer, Grundlagen des lutherischen Kirchenregiments. Rostock, 1864. English and American Literatdke. I. Pastoral Office. Alfred Barrett, Pastoral Addresses : Adapted for Retirement and the Closet. 2 vols., 3d ed., 16mo, pp. 384. Eichard Baxter, The Reformed Pastor : Showing the Nature of the Pastoral Work. Svo. N. Y., 1860. Newed., 12mo, pp. xvi, 311. Lond. John Henry Blunt, Directorium Pastorale. The Principles and Practices of Pastoral Work in the Church of England. Svo, pp. 456. Lond., 1865. The Acquirements and Principal Obligations and Duties of the Parish Priest ; being a Course of Lectures delivered at the University of Cambridge to the Stu. dents in Divinity. 12mo, pp. 394. Lond., 1869. Chas. Bridges, The Christian Ministry ; with an Inquiry into the Causes of its Ineffi ciency. Svo. N. Y., 1868. John Brown, The Christian Pastor's Manual. A Selection of Tracts on the Duties, Difficulties, and Encouragements of the Christian Ministry. 12mo. Phila., 1837. Henry F. Burder, Mental Discipline ; or. Hints on the Cultivation of Intellectual and Moral Habits. Addressed Particularly to Students in Theology. 12mo. N. Y., 1830. J. W. Burgon, A Treatise on the Pastoral Office, Addressed chiefly to Candidates for Holy Orders ; or to Those who have Recently Undertaken the Care of Souls. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 470. Lond., 1864. Gilbert Burnet, a Discourse on Pastoral Care. 32mo. Lond., 1849. Geo. Campbell, Lectures on Systematic Theology, Pulpit Eloquence, and Pastoral Character. Svo. Lond., 1840. J. S. Cannon, Lectures on Pastoral Theology. N. Y., 1853. St. John Chrysostom, On the Priesthood. In Six Books. Translated by B. H. Cow per. 12mo,' pp. 239. Lond., 1866. Adiim Clarke, A Letter to a Preacher on his Entrance into the Work of the Ministry. 18mo. Lond., 1868. A. P. Douglass, The Pastor and his People : Discussion? on Ministerial Life and Character. 12mo. Lond., 1868. C. J. EUicott, Homiletical and Pastoral Lectures. Delivered in St. Paul's Cathedral before the Church Homiletical Society. Edited by C. J. EUicott. 12mo. N. Y. R. W. Evans, The Bishopric of Souls. 4thed., 12mo. Lond., 1866. P. Fairbairn, Pastoral Theology. A Treatise on the Office and Duties of the Christian Pastor. 12mo, pp. 386. Edinb., 1865. Micaiah Hill, The Principles of the Pastoral Function in the Church. 12mo, pp. 458. Lond., 1855. James M. Hoppin, The Office and Work of the Christian Ministry. Svo, pp. 620. N. Y., 1869. Alvah Hovey, The Christian Pastor, his Work, and the Needful Preparation : a Dis course, etc. ISmo. Boston, 1857. Heman Humphrey, Thirty-four Letters to a Son in the Ministry. 12mo. Amherst, 1 842. John Angel James, An Earnest Ministry the Want of the Times. 12mo. N. Y., 1849. Daniel P. Kidder, The Christian Pastorate : its Character, Responsibilities, and Duties, 12mo, pp. 569. N. Y., 1871. Wm. Meade, Lectures on the Pastoral Office : Delivered to the Students of the Theo logical Seminary at Alexandria, Va. Svo, pp. 241. N. Y., 1849. 560 PRACTICAL THEOLOGY. Thomas Murphy, Pastoral Theology ; the Pastor in the Various Duties of his Office. Svo, pp. 509. Phila. Ashton Oxenden, The Pastoral Office: its Duties, Difficulties, Privileges, and Pros pects. 12mo. Lond., 1864. Edwards A. Park, The Preacher and Pastor, by Fenelon, Herbert, Baxter, and Camp bell. Edited and Accompanied by an Introductory Essay. 12mo. N. Y., 1849. Joseph Parker, Ad Clerum ; Advices to a Young Preacher. 16mo, pp. 266. Boston, 1871. Pastoral Letters from the House of Bishops to the Clergy and Members of the Prot. estant Episcopal Church in the United State.s. 12mo. Phila., 1845. W. S. Plumer, Hints and Helps in Pastoral Theology. 12mo, pp. 381. N. Y., 1874. Enoch Pond, The Young Pastor's Guide ; or, Lectures on Pastoral Duties. 16mo, pp. 377. Bangor, 1844. William G. T. Shedd, Homiletics and Pastoral Theology. Sth ed., Svo, pp. 429. N. Y., 1870. George Smith, The Doctrine of the Christian Pastorate. Svo, pp. 123. Lond., 1851. Edward Spooner, Pastor and People ; or. Incidents in the Every-Day Life of a Clergy. man. 16mo, pp. 260. N. Y, 1865. James Stewart Wilson, The Life, Education, and Wider Culture of the Christian Ministry : its Sources, Methods, and Aims. Lectures delivered at Aberdeen, etc. Svo, pp. 284. Lond., 1882. Henry Thompson, Pastoralia. A Manual of Helps for Parochial Clergy of the United Church of England and Ireland. 2d ed., 12mo, pp. 263. Lond., 1832. Tracts on Ministerial Duties. 5th ed.,'8vo, pp. 443. Oxford, 1843. J. J. Van Oosterzee, Practical Theology. N. Y., 1879. A. Vinet, Pastoral Theology. 12mo, pp. 387. N. Y., 1854. Francis Wayland, Letters on the Ministry of the Gospel. 16mo, pp. 210. Boston, 1863. William Wisner, Incidents in the Life of a Pastor. 12mo, pp. 316. N. Y., 1851. II. Ecclesiastical Law. t L. Coleman, Manual on Prelacy and Ritualism. Phila., 1867. W. J. Henry and W. L. Harris, Ecclesiastical Law and Rules of Evidence. Svo, pp. 611. Cin., 1879. Charles Hodge, Discussions in Church Polity. From Contributions to the Princeton Review. Svo, pp. xi, 532. N. Y., 1878. Murray Hoffman, The Eitual Law of the Church ; with its AppUcation to the Com munion and Baptismal Offices. N. Y., 1872. Ecclesiastical Law in the State of New York. N. Y., 1868. Sandford Hunt, Laws Eelating to Eeligious Corporations. A Compilation of the Statutes of the Several States in Eelation to the Incocporation and Maintenance of Eeligious Societies. N. Y., 1876. James W. Joyce, The Civil Power and its Eelations to the Church ; Considered with Special Reference to the Court of Final Ecclesiastical Appeal in England. Svo, pp. xii, 240. Lond., 1875. William Strong, Two Lectures upon the Relation of Civil Law to Ecclesiastical Polity Property, and Discipline. 12mo, pp. 141. N. Y., 1875. R. H. Tyler, American Ecclesiastical Law : the Law of Religious Societies, Church Government and Creeds, Disturbing Religious Meetings, and the Law of Burial Grounds in the United States. 8vo. Albany, 1866. F. Vinton, Commentary on the General Canon Law and the Constitution of the Prot estant Episcopal Church in the United States. N. Y., 1870. APPENDIX. RELIGION AND SCIENCE. The following titles, chiefly of English and American works, upon the relations ot Beliglon and Science, may be useful to theological students. The Ust, though large, does not profess to be complete. Ackland, T. S. The Story of Creation as told by Theology and Science. 16mo. London. Agassiz, Louis. Contributions to the Natural History of U. S. of America. (An essay on classification. Vol. I, pp. 232. Boston, 1857. Methods of Study in Natural History. Pp. 313. Boston, 1871. The Structure of Animal Life. Svo, pp. 128. New York, 1870. (The last lecture is entitled : Evidence of an Intelligent and Constantly Creative Mind in the Plans and Variations of Structure.) Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. 1830-1880. Boston. (Contains a Critique of Darwinism by Prof. Hyatt.) 4to, pp. 635. Annual of Scientific Discovery. Edited by Spencer F. Baird, Secretary of the Smith sonian Institution ; formerly by David A. Wells. New York and London, 1860-62. (Gives frequent notices of the discussions of the antiquity of man, origin of life, etc.) Argyll, The Duke of. Primeval Man. An Examination of some Recent Speculations. Pp. 200. New York, 1869. Bain, Alexander. Mind and Body, Theories of their Eelations. 12mo. New York. Bascom, John. Science, PhUosophy, and Religion. 12mo, pp. 311. New York, 1871. Bastian, H. C. Evolution, and the Origin of Life. New York, 1880. The Beginnings of Life. Being some Account of the Nature, Modes of Origin, and Transformations of Lower Organisms. With Numerous Hlustrations. 2 vols., 12mo. New York, 1872. Beale, Lionel S. Protoplasm ; or. Life, Matter, and Mind. 12mo, pp. 160. 2d ed. London, 1870. (A scientific refutation of Huxley's protoplastic theoiy.) Birks, T. R. The Difficulties of Belief in Connection with the Creation and FaU. 12mo. Cambridge, 1855. The Scripture Doctrine of Creation, with Reference to ReUgious NihUism and Modern Theories of Development. 16mo. New York, 1876. Brace, Charles L. The Races of the Old World. A Manual of Ethnology. 12mo, pp. 540. New York, 1863. (Discusses the geological question of the antiquity of man.) Bruntin, T. Landon. The Bible and Science. London, 1881. 12mo, pp. 415. (Aims to show the agreement of evolution with the Pentateuch.) Buchner, Louis. Force and Matter. Empirico-Philosophical Studies, intelUgibly rendered. Edited by J. Frederick ColUngwood. 12mo, pp. 374. London, 1870. 38 562 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. Biichner, L. Man in the Past, Present, and Future. A Popular Account of the Rot suits of Recent Scientific Research as regards the Origin, Position, and Prospects of the Human Race. Svo. London, 1872. (Atheistic.) Cabell, J. L. The Testimony of Modern Science to the Unity of Mankind. 12mo, New York, 1860. Calderwood, Henry. The Eelations of Science and Religion. The Morse Lecture, ISSO. 12mo, pp. xiii, 323. New York, 1881. Chadbourne, P. A. Instinct : its Office in the Animal Kingdom, and its Eelation to the Higher Powers of Man. 16mo, pp. 307. New York, 1872. (Argues that man has an instinctive beUef in the existence of God.) Chapin, James H. The Creation and the Early Developments of Society. 12mo, pp. 274. New York, 1880. Christianity and its Antagonisms : Evangelical Alliance, Conf. of 1878. Division III. Svo. New York, 1874. Christlieb, Theodor. The Best Methods of Counteracting Modem Infidelity. A Paper read before the Evangelical Alliance, 1873. ISmo, pp. 89. New York, 1874. (Discusses scientific unbelief.) Church and Science (The). The Debate between ; or, the Ancient Hebraic Idea of the Six Days of Creation ; with an Essay on the Literary Character of Tayler Lewis. Andover, 1860. Claims of the Bible and of Science : Correspondence between a Layman and the Rev. F. D. Maurice on some Questions arising out of the Controversy respecting the Pentateuch. 12mo. London, 1863. Clark, Edson L. Fundamental Questions : Chiefly Eelating to the Book of Genesis and the Hebrew Scriptures. 12mo, pp. vi, 217. Clark, Henry James. Mind in Nature ; or, the Origin of Life and the mode of Development of Animals. With over Two Hundred Illustrations. Svo. New York, 1S65. Cook, Joseph. Biology. 15th ed., 12mo, pp. 325. Boston, 1878. (Wholly popular in its treatment of the subject.) Creation, Vestiges of. 12mo. New York. Dabney, E. L. The Sensualistio Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century Considered. Svo. Edinburgh. Dana, James D. Manual of Geology ; with Special Reference to American Geological History. Svo, pp. 814. Philadelphia and London, 1863. (Discusses the An tiquity and Unity of the human race.) 2d ed., pp. 828. New York, 1875. Darwin, Charles. The Descent of Man, and Selection in relation to Sex. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 409, 436. New York, 1876. The Origin of Species by Natural Selection ; or, the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 6th ed., pp. xx, 458. London, 1873. Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2 vols., pp. 494, 568. New York, 1875. Dawkins, W. B. Early Man in Britain, and his Place in the Tertiary Period. Pp. xxiv, 537. Dawson, J. W. Archaia ; or. Studies of the Cosmogony and Natural History of the Hebrew Scriptures. 12mo, pp. 400. Montreal, 1860. Fossil Men and their Modern Representatives. An Attempt to Illustrate the Character and Condition of Prehistoric Men in Europe by those of the American Races. 12mo. New York. Nature and the Bible. Lectures delivered in Union Theological Seminary on the Morse Foundation. New York, 1875. Pp. 257. APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 563 Dawson, J. W. The Chain of Life in Geological Time. London, ISSO. Pp. 272. The Story of the Earth and Man. 12mo, pp. 493. New York, 1873. Dick, Thomas. Christian Philosophy ; or, the Connection of Science and Philosophy with Religion. Revised edition. IUustrated with upward of 50 Engravings, 12mo. New York, 1857. Draper, John William. History of the Conflict between Religion and Science. New York, 1875. Pp. 373. Duns, John. Biblical Natural Science. Being the Explanation of all References in Holy Scriptures to Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Physical Geography. Super- royal Svo, pp. 1152. London, 1864. Elam, Charles. Winds of Doctrine. An Examination of Modern Theories of Atoma- tism and Evolution. Pp. 168. London, 1877. Farrar, Adam Storey. Science in Theology. Sermons preached in St. Mary's, Oxford. 12mo, pp. 260. Am. ed. Philadelphia, 1860. Figuier, Louis. Primitive Man. Eevised Translation. Illustrated with Thirty Scenes of Primitive Life, etc. Svo. New York, 1870. The To-morrow of Death ; or, the Future Life According to Science, translated by S. R. Crocker. 16mo, pp. 395. Boston, 1872. The World before the Deluge. Edited by H. W. Bristow. 12mo, pp. 618. New York, 1872. Fiske, John. Darwinism, and other Essays. 12mo, pp. viU, 283. London, 1879. Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, based on the Doctrine of Evolution. 2 vols., pp. 465, 623. Boston, 1875. Fly, E. M. The Bible True ; or, the Cosmogony of Moses compared with the Facts of Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1871. Fowle, T. W. The Reconciliation of Religion and Science. Being Essays on Im mortality, Inspiration, Miracles, and the Being of Christ. Svo, pp. 404. London, 1873. Fraser, WUliam. Blending Lights ; or, the Eelations of Nafiiral Science, Archseology, and History to the Bible. 12mo. New York, 1874. Geikie, Cunningham. Hours with the Bible ; or, the Scriptures in the Light of Mod ern Discovery from the Creation to the Patriarchs. (Discusses the geological age of the worid and the antiquity of man.) New York, 1881. (Vol. II is from Moses to Judges.) Geikie, James. The Great Ice Age and its Eelation to the Antiquity of Man. Pp. xxv, 545. New York, 1874. Gibson, Stanley. Eeligion and Science : their Relations to each other at the Present Day. Three Essays on the Grounds of ReUgious Belief. Svo. London, 1882. Gloag, Paton J. The Primeval Worid. A Treatise on the Relations of Geology to Theology. 12mo, pp. 194. Edinburgh, 1859. Gray, Asa. Darwiniana. Essays and Reviews pertaining to Darwinism. l2mo, pp. 396. New York, 1876. (Aims ,to show that natural selection is not incon sistent with natural theology.) Natural Science and Religion. Lectures to the Theological School of Yale College, 1880. 12mo, pp. 111. Haeckel, Ernst. The History of Oteation ; or, the Development of the Earth and its Inhabitants from Natural Causes. (A popular exposition of the doctrine of Evolu tion.) Translated by E. Ray Lancaster. 2 vols., pp. 40S, 874. London, 1876. Harcourt, L. V. The Doctrine of the Deluge, Vindicating the Scriptural Account from the Doubts which have been recently cast upon it by Geological Specula^ tions. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1838. 564 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. Harris, John. Man Primeval ; or, the Constitution and Primitive Condition of the Human Being. 12mo. Boston, 1870. The Pre-Adamite Earth. Contributions to Theological Science. 5th ed., 12mo, pp. 300. Boston, 1857.' Heard, J. B. The Tripartite Nature of Man : Spirit, Soul, and Body. 12mo, pp. xxiv, 874. Edinburgh, 1870. Hedge, Frederic Henry. The Primeval World of Hebrew Tradition. 12mo, pp. 283. Boston, 1870. Henslow, Geoige. The Theory of Evolution and the Application of the Principles of Evolution to Religion. Pp. 220. London, 1873. Hill, Thomas. Geometry and Faith. A Supplement to the Ninth Bridgewater ' Treatise. 8d ed. greatly enlarged. 12mo, pp. 109. Boston and New York, 1882. Hitchcock, Edward. Religious Truth Dlustrated from Science, in Addresses and Sermons upon Special Occasions. 12mo. Boston, 1857. The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences. 12mo, pp. 511. Boston, 1851. Hodge, Charles. What is Darwinism ? 12mo, pp. 17S. New York, 1874. (Argues that Darwinism is Atheistic.) Homo versus Darwin. A Judicial Examination of Statements recently Published by Mr. Darwin regarding " The Descent of Man." 12mo. PhUadelphia, 1872. Huxley, Thomas H. Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. 12mo, pp. 184. New York, 1862. Critiques and Addresses. Pp. 350. London, 1873. Lay Sermons, etc. London and New York, 1872. The Origin of Species ; or, the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature. Pp. 150. New York, 1872. The Theory of Evolution. Lectures delivered in New York. New York Trib une Extra No. 36. Popular Science Monthly, 1876 and 1877. Janet, Paul. The Materialism of the Present Day: a Critique of Dr. Buchner's System. From the French. 12mo, pp. 202. London and New York, 1866. Jevons, W. Stanley. The Principles of Science. A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 463, 480. London and New York, 1874. (Argues that Science as well as Religion rests on probable evidence ; and that there is no necessary antagonism between Science and Theology.) Kurtz, John Henry. The Bible and Astronomy ; an Exposition of the Biblical Cos mology, and its Relations to Natural Science. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1861. Laidlaw, John. The Bible Doctrine of Man. The Seventh Series of Cunning ham Lectures. Svo, pp. 897. Edinburgh and New York, 1879. (Discusses Evolution.) Langft, F. A. History of Materialism. With a Criticism of its Present Importance. 3 vols., Svo. Boston, 1880. Le Conte, Joseph. Religion and Science. A Series of Sunday Lectures on the Rela tion of Natural and Revealed Eeligion ; or, the Truths Eevealed in Nature and Scripture. Pp. 824. New York, 1874. Lenormant, Francois. The Beginnings of History, according to the Bible and the Traditions of Oriental Peoples. From the 2d French ed. 12mo, pp. 588. New York, 1882. Leslie, J. P. Man's Origin and Destiny Sketched from the Platform of the Physical Sciences. (Argues the consistency of evolution with theism, but rejects revelation.) Boston, 1881. 12mo, pp. 442. APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 565 Lewes, George H. The Physical Basis of Mind. Forming the Second Series. Svo. Boston, 1880. Problems of Life and Mind. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 434, 487. Boston, 1874-6. Lewis, Tayler. The Bible and Science ; or, the World Problem. 12mo. Schenec tady, 1856. The Six Days of Creation ; or, the Scriptural Cosmogony. 12mo, pp. 41G. New ed., 1879. Lubbock, Sir John. Prehistoric Times, as Illustrated by Ancient Eemains and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages. Svo, pp. 640. New York, 1 872. The Origin of Civilization, and the Primitive Condition of Man. Mental and Social Condition of Savages. Svo, pp. viii, 380. New York, 1870. Lyell, Sir Charles. Principles of Geology ; or, 'the Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, considered as lUustrative of Geology. 2 vols., pp. 671, 652. New York, 1873. (Furnishes, in his " Uniformitarian " theory, the ground for Darwinism.) The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, with Remarks on Theories of the Origin of Species by Variation. Svo, pp. 526. Philadelphia, 1863. Re vised edition, pp. xix, 672. London, 1878. The Student's Elements of Geology. Pp. 624. London, 1871. Macdonald, Donald. The Creation and Fall. A Defense of the First Three Chapters of Genesis. Svo. Edinburgh. M'Causland, Dominiok. Adam and the Adamites ; or, the Harmony of the Scriptures and Ethnology. 12mo, pp. 324. London, 1868. Sermons in Stones ; or. Scripture confirmed by Geology. 16mo. London, 1870. M'Cosh, James. The Development Hypothesis. Is it Sufficient? 12mo, 104. New York, 1876. Martineau, James. Modern Materialism and its Relations to Theology and Religion. With an Introduction by H. W. Bellows. ISmo, pp. 211. New York, 1877. Maudsley, Henry. The Physiology and Pathology of Mind. From the London edition. Svo, pp. 442. 1867. (Resolves Psychology into Physiology, and holds that mind is the highest form of force.) Mill, John Stuart. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Deductive. Svo, pp. 600. New York, 1S67. (Argues that we can give no account of the permanent causes in nature.) Miller, Hugh. The Testimony of the Rocks ; or. Geology in its Bearing on the Two Theologies, Natural and Revealed. 12mo, pp. 511. Boston, 1870. Mivart, St. George. Lessons from Nature as Manifested in Mind and Matter. 12mo, pp. viii, 462. New York, 1876. (Anti-Darwinian.) Man and Apes. An Exposition of Structural Resemblances and Differences bearing upon questions of Affinity and Origin. 12mo, pp. 200. London, 1874. The Genesis of Species. ]2mo, pp. 296. London, 1871. (An argument against Darwin for a Special Creation.) MoUoy, Gerald. Geology and Revelation ; or, the Ancient History of the Earth Con sidered iu the light of Geological Facts and Revealed Religion. 12mo, pp. 380. New York, 1870. Miiller, Max. Chips from a German Workship. 5 vols., 12mo. New York, 1876. (The essays in Vol. IV are chiefly on the science of Language.) Murphy, Joseph John. Habit and Intelligence in their Connexion with the Laws of Matter and Force. 2 vols., pp. 349, 240. • The Scientific Basis of Faith. Svo. London, 1878 566 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. Nott, Josiah, and Gliddon, George R. 'Types of Mankind ; or, Ethnological Researches. Svo. Philadelphia, 1854. Indigenous Races of the Earth ; or. New Chapters of Ethnological Inquiry Including other valuable contributions. Eoyal Svo. Philadelphia, 1867. Ormathwaite, Lord. Astronomy and Geology Compared. 16mo, pp. 179. New York, 1872. (An argument against Darwinism as atheistic.) Owen, Richard. Palseontology ; or, a Systematic Survey of Extinct Animals and their Geological Relations. 2d ed., pp. 463. Edinburgh, 1861. The Anatomy of the Vertebrates. 3 vols. London, 1S68. (Chapter 40 is especially important.) Paine, Martin. Physiology of the Soul and Instinct as distinguished from Material ism. With supplementary demonstrations of the Divine Communication of the Narratives of the Creation and the Flood. Svo, pp. 707. New York, 1872. Painter, K. B. Science a Stronghold of BeUef ; or. Scientific and Common Sense Proofs of the Reasonableness of Religious Belief. 12mo. New York, 1880. Paul, WilUam, The Scriptural Account of Creation Vindicated by the Teaching of Science. 12mo. Peabody, Andrew P. Christianity and Science. Lectures deUvered before the Students of the Union Theological Seminary. 16mo, pp. 287. New York, 1874. Pendleton, N. W. Science a Witness for the Bible. 12mo. PhUadelphia, 1860. Peschel, Oscar. The Races of Man and their Distribution. From the German. 12mo, pp. 528. Phin, John. The Chemical History of the Six Days of Creation. 12mo. New York, 1870. Poole, R. S. The Genesis of the Earth and of Man ; or, the History of Creation and the Antiquity and Races of Mankind. 12mo. London, 1860. Pratt, John H. Scripture and Science not at Variance. With Remarks on the His torical Character, Plenary Inspiration, and Surpassing Importance of the Eariier Chapters of Genesis. 7 ed., revised and corrected. 12mo. London, 1872. Pratt, Henry T. A. The Genealogy of Creation, Newly Translated from the Unpointed Hebrew Text of the Book of Genesis. Showing the General Scientific Accuracy of the Cosmogony of Moses and the Philosophy of Creation. Svo. London, 1861. Primeval Man Unveiled ; or, the Anthropology of the Bible. Crown Svo. London, 187L ProMems of Faith. A Contribution to Present Controversies. Third Series of Lect ures to Young Men delivered at the Presbyterian College, London, by the Duke of Argyll, Professor Watts, Dr. Donald Fraser, and WilUam Carruthers. Edited by Oswald Dykes. 12mo. London, 1875. Quarry, John. Genesis and its Authorship. Two Dissertations. Svo, pp. 635. London and Edinburgh, 1866. (Argues that revelation was not designed to teach any system of science.) Ragg, Thomas. Creation's Testimony to its God. The Accordance of Science, Phi losophy, and Revelation. A Manual of the Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion. 12mo. London, 1867. Rawlinson, George. The Origin of the Nations. 12mo, pp. 272. New York, 1878. (Aims to show the harmony between Genesis and the science of Ethnology.) Recent Scientific Conclusions, (Thoughts on,) and their Relation to Religion. 12mo. London, 1872. Eigg, A. The Harmony of the Bible with Experimental Physical Scieuce. A Course of Four Lectures. ISmo. London, 1869. APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. 567 Ritchie, A. T. The Creation. The Earth's Formation on Dynamical Principles, in Accordance with the Mosaic Record and the Latest Scientific Discoveries. 5th ed., revised, Svo, pp. 680. London, 1882. Sandys, R. H. In the Beginning. Remarks on certain Modern Views of the Crea tion. 2d ed., crown Svo. London, 1880. Saville, B. W. The Truth of the Bible. Evidence from the Mosaic and other Records of Creation ; the Origin and Antiquity of Man ; the Science of Scripture ; and from the Archseology of Different Nations of the Earth. Svo. London, 1870. Schmidt, Oscar. The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism. Pp. -384. London, 1875. Science and the Gospel ; or, the Church and the Nations. A Series of Essays on Great Catholic Questions. 12mo. London, 1870. Science and Eevelation. A Series of Lectures in Reply to the Theories of TyndaU, Huxley, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Lectures deUvered in Belfast in 1874-75. Belfast and New York, 1875. Sewall, J. B. Evenings with the Bible and Science. 16mo, pp. 151. Boston and New York, 1864. Sewell, William. Christian Vestiges of Creation. 12mo. Oxford, 1861. Shields, Charles W. Religion and Science in their Relations to PhUosophy. Svo. New York, 1876. The Final PhUosophy. A System of Perfectible Knowledge, issuing from the Harmony of Science and Religion. Svo, pp. 609. New York, 1 877. Smith, John Pye. Geology and Scripture ; or, the Relation between the Holy Script ures and Geological Science. 12mo, pp. 364. New York, 1840. Smyth, Thomas. The Unity of the Human Races proved to be the Doctrine of Script ure, Eeason, and Science. 12mo. New York, 1850. Smyth, William W. The Bible and the Doctrine of Evolution. Being a Complete Synthesis of their Truth, and giving a Sure Scientific Basis for the Doctrines of Scripture. 12mo. London, 1873. Southall, James T. The Recent Origin of Man, as Illustrated by Geology and the Modern Science of Prehistoric Archaeology. Svo, pp. 606. Philadelphia, 1875. Spencer, Herbert. First Principles of a New System of PhUosophy. 12mo, pp. 503. New York, 1864. (The fifth chapter attempts a reconcUiation of Religion and Science. The Principles of Biology. 2 Vols., pp. 492, 569. New York, 1871. St. Clair, George. Darwinism and Design ; or, Creation by Evolution. Pp. 359. Lon don, 1873. Stirling, James H. As Regards Protoplasm. In relation to Prof. Huxley's Essay on the Physical Basis of Life. ISmo, pp. 71. New Haven, 1870. Thompson, Joseph P. Man in Genesis and in Geology ; or, the BibUcal Account of Man's Creation tested by Scientific Theories of his Origin and Antiquity. 1 2mo, pp. 149. New York, 1870. TuUidge, Henry. Triumphs of the Bible, with the Testimony of Science to its Truth. 12mo, pp. 489. New York, 1863. TyndaU, Professor John. Fragments of Science for Unscientific People. A Series of Detached Essays, Lectures, and Reviews. New York. 12mo, pp. 422. 1871. (The second essay discusses prayer and natural law ; the sixth, the scope and Umit of scientific materialism.) Venn, J. On some of the Characteristics of BeUef, Scientific and ReU^ous. (Hulsean Lectures for 1869.) Svo. London, 1870. WaUace, Alfred RusseU. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. 2d ed., pp. 384. New York, 1869. 568 APPENDIX— RELIGION AND SCIENCE. WaUace, Alfred Russell. The Geographical Distribution of Species, etc. 2 vols., pp. 607, 508. New York, 1876. (Aims to apply certain facts in the distribution of species to the Darwinian theory of their origin.) The Malay Archipelago. Pp. 638. New York, 1869. Warring, Charles B. The Mosaic Account of Creation, etc.; or. New Witnesses to the Oneness of Genesis and Science. 16mo, pp. 292. New York, 1875. Warrington, George. The Week of Creation ; or, the Cosmogony of Genesis, con sidered in its Eelation to Modern Science. 12mo. London, 1870. WheweU) Wm. History of the Inductive Sciences. 3d ed., 2 vols., pp. 566, 648. New York, 1870. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences. 2 vols., pp. 586, 523. London, 1840. Whitney, M. Dwight. Language and the Study of Language. 12mo, pp. 505. New York, 1868. Oriental and Linguistic Studies. First and second series. 12mo, pp. 416, 431. New York, 1878, 1874. Wight, George. Geology and Genesis. A Eeconciliation of the two Eecords. Eec- ommendatory Note by W. L. Alexander. 12mo. London, 1867. WiUiams, Charles. The First Week of Time ; or. Scripture in Harmony with Science. 12mo. London, 1863. Wilson, Daniel. Prehistoric Man. Researches into the Origin of Ciivlization in the Old and the New World. 2 vols., Svo. London, 1866. WincheU, Alexander. Pre-Adamites ; or, a Demonstration of the Existence of Man before Adam. Svo, pp. xxvi, 500. Chicago and London, 1880. Reconciliation of Science and Religion. 12ino, xvi, 403. New York and Cincin nati, 1877. (Argues that there is no contradiction between evolution and direct creation.) Sketches of Creation. A Popular View of some of the Grand Conclusions of the Sciences in Reference to the History of Matter and of Life. With Hlustra tions. 12mo, pp. xu, 459. New York, 1870. The Doctrine of Evolution. Its Data, its Principles, its Speculation, and its Theistic Bearings. 12mo, pp. 148. New York, 1874. Wiseman, (Cardinal,) Nicholas. Twelve Lectures on the Connection between Science and Revealed ReUgion. 8vo, pp. xU, 404. London, 1837. Wright, G. Frederic. Studies in Science and ReUgion. 16mo, pp. 406. Andover, 1882. (The seventh essay discusses the Bible and Science.) The Logic of Christian Evidences. 12mo, xiv, 312. Andover, 1880. Wythe, Rev. Joseph H. The Agreement of Science and Revelation. 12ino, pp. 290. Philadelphia and London, 1872. Yorke, J. F. Notes on Evolution and Christianity. Svo, pp. 296. London, 1882. Young, J. R. Modern Skepticism Viewed in Relation to Modern Science. 12mo. London, 1865. See also J. W. Dawson's address before the American Association for the Advance ment of Science, Montreal, 1«75 ; John L. Leconte's address before the same, Salem, 1875 ; Huxley's article on Biology in ninth edition of Encyclopaedia Bri- tannica ; Professor Clerk Maxwell's article on Atoms in same ; Edward S. Morse's paper before American Association in Popular Science Review, 1876 ; Goldwin Smith's article on Ascent of Man, in Macmillan's Magazine for January, 1877 ; M. A. Wilder's article on Natural Law and Spiritual Agency, in the New Englander for October, 1874. For an account of recent German works on Theology and Science, Darwinism, etc., see Bibliotheca Sacra for April, 1877, pp. 886 and 387, and July, 1877, pp. 677-584. APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY 569 IL HiSTOEIES OF THE ChEISTIAN ChUECHES IIT THE UnITED StATES. The histories of the Churches in the United States are of so much importance to the theological student that we offer here a list of those most laccessible. As many of the denominational publishing houses, from which they are generally issued, are not well known, the location of each has also been stated. General. Baird, Robert. Religion in America ; or. An Account of the Origin, Eelation to the State, and Present Condition of the Evangelical Churches in the United States. With Notices of the Unevangelical Denominations. Svo, pp. xvii, 696. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1866. Eeligious Denominations of the United States. Their past History, Present Condi tion, and Doctrines, Accurately set forth in Fifty-three Articles by Clergymen and Lay Authors Connected w^ith the Eespective Persuasions. Svo. PhUadelphia : C. Desilver & Sons. 1S71. Rupp, I. Daniel. History of the Eeligious Denominations in the United States. Svo, pp. vi, 734. Philadelphia : J. Y. Humphreys. 1844. Sprague, William B. Annals of the American Pulpit ; or. Commemorative Notices of Distinguished American Clergymen of Various Denominations, with Historical Introductions. 10 vols., Svo. New York : E. Carter & Brothers. 1859-69. Baptist. Anderson, Geo. W. The Baptists in the United States. 18mo, pp. 72. Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication Society, 1420 Chestnut Street. Backus, Isaac. A History of New England ; from 1629 to 1804. With Particular Eeference to the Denomination of Christians called Baptists. 2d ed., with Notes by David Weston. 2 vols., Svo, pp. a, 538 ; ix, 584. Newton, Mass. 1871. Bailey, G. S. The Trials and Victories of Religious Liberty in America. A Centen nial Memorial, 1776-1876. ISmo, pp. 72. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society. Barrows, C. E. Development of Baptist Principles in Rhode Island. 18mo, pp. 104. PhUadelphia : American Baptist Publication Society. Benedict, David. General History of the Baptist Denomination in America and Other Parts of the World. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 970. New York: L.Colby. 1848. Bitting, C. C. Religious Liberty and the Baptists. ISmo, pp. 72. Philadelphia: Bible and PubUoation Society. Cramp, J. M. Baptist History. From the Foundation of the Christian Church to the Close of the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 698. Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication Society. , 1869. CroweU, W. Literature of the American Baptists During the Last Fifty Years. Missionary Jubilee Volume. New York. 1865. Curry, J. L. M. Struggles and Triumphs of Virginia Baptists. A Memorial Dis course. ISmo, pp. 71. PhUadelphia: Bible and PubUcation Society. Hovey, Alvah. Progress of a Century. ISmo, pp. 70. PhUadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society. Minutes of the General Conference of the Free-wiU Baptist Connection from 1829 to 1856. Pp. 444. Dover, N. H. 570 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. Moss, Lemuel, Editor. The Baptist and the National Centenary. A Record of Christian Work, 1776-1876. Svo, pp. 810. PhUadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society. 1876. Stewart, J. D. History of the Free-will Baptists for Half a Century. 12mo, pp. 480. Dover, N. H., 1S62. The Centennial Record of Free-wiU Baptists, 1780-1880. Pp. 266. Dover, N. H. Taylor, Geo. B. The Baptists and Eeligious Liberty. ISmo, pp. 36. PhUadelphia : Bible and PubUcation Society. Taylor, G. B. Virginia Baptists. ISmo, pp. 36. Philadelphia : American Baptist Publication Society. WUliams, A. D. Memorials of the Free Communion Baptists. Svo. Dover, N. H. : Free-wiU Baptist Printing Establishment. 1852. WilUams, WUliam E. Lectures ou Baptist History. PhUadelphia. 1877. Also various biographies of Free-wiU Baptist ministers, to wit : John Colby, pp. 316 ; WUliam Burr, pp. 208 ; Clement Phinney, pp. 190 ; John Stevens, pp. 120 ; Martin Cheney, pp. 471 ; David Marks, pp. 516 ; George F. Day, pp. 431. Dover, N. H.: Free-will Baptist Publishing House. Christian. Summerbell, N. History of the Christians. Dayton, 0. : Christian PubUshing Association. Congregational. Bacon, Leonard. The Genesis of the New England Churches. Svo, pp. xvi, 485. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1S74. Historical Discourses on the Completion of Two Hundred Years, from Begin ning of the First Church in New Haven, Conn. Svo. Boston: A. H. Maltby. 1849. Cambridge (Mass.) Platform of (Congregational) Church Discipline, 1648. Confes sion of Faith, 1680. Platform of Ecclesiastical Government, by N. Emmons. 12ino, pp. ii, 20-84. Boston : Congregational PubUshing Society, Beacon Street. 1856. Clark, Joseph S. Historical Sketches of the Congregational Churches in Massachu setts, from 1620 to 1858 ; with an Appendix. 12mo, pp. 844. Boston : Congre gational Publishing Society. Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of Connecticut ; Prepared under the Direction of the General Association, to Commemorate the Completion of One Hun dred and Fifty Years since its First Annual Assembly. Svo, pp. 678. New Haven : W. L. Kingsley. 1861. Dexter, Henry M. Congregationalism : What it Is, Whence it Is, etc. Svo, pp. 338. 4th ed.. Revised and Enlarged. 12mo. Boston : Lockwood, Brooks, & Co. 1876. The Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, as Seen in its Litera ture. With a Biographical Index. 4to, pp. xxxviii, 326. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1880. A Monograph. As to Roger WiUiams and his " Banishment " from the Massa chusetts Plantation, with a Few Further Words Concerning the Baptists, the Quakers, and Eeligious Liberty. Boston : Congregational Publishing Society. Felt, Joseph B. The Ecclesiastical History of New England ; Comprising not only Eeligious, but also Moral and Other Relations. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 664, 721. Boston : Congregational Library Association. 1855. APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 571 Government and Communion, Practiced by the Congregational Churches in the United States of America, which were Represented by Elders and Messengers in a National CouncU at Boston, A. D. 1865. Boston : Congregational PubUshing Society. Mather, Cotton. Magnalia Christi Americana ; or, Ecclesiastical History of New England, from 1620 to 1698. With Notes and Translations by Robbins and Rob inson. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 626, 682. Hartford : S. Andrus & Son.' 1853. Minutes of the National Councils of the Congregational Churches of the United States, from 1821 to 1S83. Boston: Congregational PubUshing Society. Morton, Nathaniel. New England Memorial, with Gov. Bradford's History ; an Ap pendix Containing the Views of the Pilgrims and Early Settlers on the Subject of Church Polity. Svo, pp. 536. Boston : Congregational Publishing Society. Palfrey, John G. History of New England During the Stuart Dynasty. 4 vols., Svo, pp. xxxi, 636 ; xx, 640 ; xxU, 659 ; xxiv, 604. Boston : Little, Brown, & Co. 1868-77. The Congregational Year-Book. 5 vols. 1S54-S9. New York. Also for Succeeding Years. Tracy. Joseph. The Great Awakening : A History of the Revival of Eeligion in the Time of Edwards and Whitefield. 12mo, pp. 433. Boston: Congregational Pub lishing Society. Tyler, Bennet. Memoir of Asahel Nettleton, D.D. 12mo, pp. 376. Boston : Con gregational Publishing Society. Uhden, H. F. The New England Theocracy ; a History of the Congregationalists in New England to the Revivals of 1740. Translated from the German by H. C. Conant. 12mo, pp. 308. Boston : Gould & Lincoln. 1858. Young, Alexander. Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth, from 1620 to 1628. Boston. 1841. Chronicles of the First Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, from 1623 to 1636. Boston, 1S46. Lutheran. Bernheim, G. D. History of the German Settlements and of the Lutheran Church iu North and South Carolina. 12mo, pp, 558. PhUadelphia: Lutheran Book Store. Christian Book of Concord ; or, SymboUcal Books of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Translated from the German and Edited by S. Henkel. 2d ed., Svo. New Market, Va. . Henkel & Co. 1854. Hazelius, E. L. History of the American Lutheran Church, from its Commencement in 1685 to the Year 1842. Pp. 300. Zanesville, 0., 1846. Jacobs, Henry E. The Book of Concord ; or, the Symbolical Books of the Evangel ical Lutheran Church. With Historical Introduction, Notes, Appendixes, and Indexes. 2 vols., Svo, pp. 429, 424. PhUadelphia : G. W. Frederick. 1883. Morris, J. G. Bibliotheca Lutherana : List of Publications of Lutheran Ministers in the United States. 12mo. Philadelphia : Lutheran Board of PubUcation, 42 North Ninth Street. 1876. (Contains notices of many local histories,) Schaffer, C. W. Early History of the Lutheran Church in America to the Middle of the Eighteenth Century. 12mo, pp. 143. PhUadelphia: Lutheran Board of Pub- cation. 1857. New ed., 1868. Sohmucher, S. S. The American Lutheran Church, Historically, DoctrinaUy, and Practically Delineated. Sth ed., 12mo, pp. x, 286. Philadelphia: E. W. Miller. 1862. 573. APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. Sohmucher, S. S. Retrospect of Lutheranism in the United States. Baltimore : 1841. Stoever, M. L. Memoir of the Life and Times of Henry M. Muhlenberg, D.D. Pp. 120, Philadelphia, 1856. Reminiscences of Lutheran Ministers. Evangelical Review, v, 616 ; vi, 1, 261, 412, 542; vii, 63, 151, 377, 527; viii, 105, 186, 398, 501; ix, 1; xi, 202,428, 585 ; xiii, 362, 661 ; xiv, 298 ; xv, 129, 428, 355 ; xvi, 470 ; xvn, 390, 486 ; xviii, 25, 232 ; xix, 89, 405, 622 ; xx, 381 ; xxi, 24, 171, 374. Lutheran Church in the United States. Congregational Quarterly, 1862. Strobel, P. A. The Salzburgers and their Descendants : Being the History of a Colony of German Lutheran Protestants, who Emigrated to Georgia in 1734, and Settled at Ebenezer. Pp. 308. Baltimore, 1855. Mbnnonite. Ellis, Franklin, and Samuel Evans. History of Lancaster County, Pa., with Bio graphical Sketches of many of its Pioneers and Prominent Men. Chap, xxvii. Churches of the Mennonites, Bunkers, Eeformed Mennonites, Eiver Brethren, and Amish. Funk, John F. The Mennonite Church and her Accusers. Elkhart, Ind. : Mennonite Publishing Co. 1878. Martin, E.K. The Mennonites. Svo, pp. 17. Philadelphia : Everts & Peck. 1883. Musser, Daniel. The Reformed Mennonite Church: its Rise and Progress, with its Doctrines and Principles. Lancaster, Pa. : Inquirer Printing and Publishing Co. 187S. METHOniST. Annals of Southern Methodism. 1855, 1 vol., 12mo; 1857, 1vol., 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Arnett, B. W. The Budget : Containing the Annual Reports of the General Officers of the African M. E. Church, etc., with Facts and Figures, Historical Data of the Colored Methodist Church, etc.. Together with Eeligious, Educational, and Political Information Pertaining to the Colored Eace. Pp. 136. Xenia, 0. : TorchUght Printing Co. 1881. The same for 1883, pp. 154. Dayton, 0.: Christian Pub lishing House Print. Asbury, Francis, Journal of. 12mo, 3 vols., pp. 524, 492, 502. New York : Meth odist Book Concern, 805 Broadway. 1852. Bangs, Nathan. A History of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 4 vols., 12mo. New York : Methodist Book Concern. Bascom, Henry B., Life of. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Bascom, H. B., Greene, A. L. P., Parsons, C. B. Brief Appeal to PubUc Opinion in a Series of Exceptions to the Course and Action of the Methodist Episcopal Church, from 1844 to 1848. Svo, pp. 202. Louisville, Ky. : Morton and Gris- wold. 1848. Bassett, Ancel H. A Concise History of the Methodist Protestant Church, from its Origin. Introduction by WUliam Collier. 12mo, pp. 424. Pittsburg: James Robinson. 1877. Bennett, . Methodism in Virginia. 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Bond, Thomas E. The Economy of Methodism Illustrated and Defended : In a, Series of Papers. Svo, pp. 391. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1852. APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 573 Deems, Charies F. Annals of Southern Methodism for 1856. 12mo, pp. 312. Nash- viUe, Tenn. : Stevenson & Owen. New York : John A. Gray. Drew, Samuel. Life of the Rev. Thomas Coke, LL.D. 12mo, pp. 381. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1837. EUiott, Charles. History of the Great Secession from the Methodist Episcopal Church in the Year 1845, Eventuating in the Organization of the New Church Entitled "Methodist Episcopal Church, South." Svo, pp. 1143. Cincinnati: Methodist Book Concern. 1855. Emory, Robert. Life of the Rev. John Emory. With an Appendix. Svo, pp. 380. New York: Methodist Book Concern. 1841. Finley, J. B. Sketches of Western Methodism. Cincinnati ; Methodist Book Concern. 1875. Formal Fraternity. Proceedings of the General Conferences of the Methodist Epis copal Church and of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in 1872, ] 874, and 1876, and of the Joint Commission of the Two Churches on Fraternal Relations at Cape May, N. J., Aug. 16-23, 1876. Svo, pp 87. New York: Methodist Book Concern. Nashville, Tenn. : A. H. Bedford. Goss, C. C. Statistical History of the First Century of American Methodism. 16mo, pp.188. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1866. History of the Organization of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South ; Comprehend ing all the Official Proceedings of the General Conference, ete. Svo, pp. 267. Nashville: Published by Order of Louisville Convention. WiUiam Cameron, Printer. 1845. Journal of the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, for 1854, 1866, 1870, 1874, 1878, 1882. Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Lednum, John. A History of the Rise of Methodism in America. Containing Sketches of Methodist Itinerant Preachers from 1736 to 1786, etc., etc. 12mo, pp. 484. PhUadelphia : John Lednum. 1859. Lee, L. M. Life and Tiines of the Eev. Jesse M. Lee. Svo, pp. 517. NashvUle, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. M'CUntock, J. Biographical Sketches of Methodist Ministers. Cincinnati : Western Methodist Book Concern. M'Ferrm, John B. Methodism in Tennessee. 3 vols., 12mo. NashviUe, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Methodist Church Property Case. Eeported by E. Sutton. Svo, pp. 372. Richmond and LouisviUe : John Early. 1861. Mood, F. A. Methodism in Charleston. Edited by T. 0. Summers. ISmo. Nash ville, Tenn. : PubUshing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Myers, Edward H. The Disruption of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 1844-1846. Comprising a Thirty Years' History of the Relations of the two Methodisms. With an Introduction by T. 0. Summers. 12mo. NashviUe, Tenn. ; PubUshing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Orwig, W. W. History of the Evangelical Association, from its Origin to the Year 1845. 12mo. Cleveland, 0., Publishing House. Lauer & Yost, Agents. Paine, Robert. Life and Times of William M'Kendree. 2 vols., 12mo. Nashville, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Redford, A. H. History of Methodism in Kentucky. 3d ed. Nashville, Tenn. : Pub Ushing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Sherman, David. History of the Revisions of the Discipline of the Methodist Epis copal Church, 12mo, pp. 422. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1874. 574 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. Simpson, Matthew. A Hundred Years of Methodism. 12mo, pp. 869. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1876. Cyclopsedia of Methodism. Revised ed., 4to, pp. 1031. Philadelphia: L. H. Everts. ISSO. Stevens, Abel. Centenary of American Methodism ; with an Introduction by John M'Clintock. 12mo, pp. 287. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1866. History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States of America. 4 vols., 12mo, pp. 423, 511, 510, 522. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1867. Life dnd Times of Nathan Bangs. 12mo, pp. 426. New York: Methodist Book Concern. Summers, T. 0. Biographical Sketches of Itinerant Ministers, Pioneers Within the Bounds of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Sd ed., pp. 176. NashviUe, Tenn. . Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Thrall, H. S. Methodism in Texas. 1 2mo. Nashville, Tenn. : PubUshing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Travis, Joseph, Autobiography of. Edited by T. 0. Summers. 12mo, pp. 331. NashviUe, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Wightman, Bishop. Life of William Capers, Including an Autobiography. Nash viUe, Tenn. : Publishing House of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Wood, E. M. Methodism and the Centennial of American Independence ; with a Brief History of the Various Branches of Methodism, and Full Statistical Tables. 12mo, pp. 412. New York : Methodist Book Concern. 1876. Moravian. Moravian Historical Society, Transactions of. Vol. I. Containing all the important and intere.sting papers published by the Society, from 1857 to 1S76. Svo. Beth lehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office. E. G. Klose, Manager. Ritter, Abraham. History of the Moravian Church in Philadelphia from its founda tion in 1742. Svo, pp. 281. Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office. 1857. Rondthaler, Edward. Life of John Heckewelder. Edited by B. H. Coates. 1847. Svo, pp. 150. Bethlehem, Pa. ; Moravian Publication Office. Schweinitz, Edmund de. The Moravian Manual, containing an account of the Mo ravian Church or Unitas Fratrum. Second enlarged ed., with historical tables, extending from the foundation of the ancient Church to the present day. Svo, pp. 208. Bethlehem, Pa. : Moravian Publication Office. The Provincial Digest. Supplementary to the Results of the General Synod of 1879. Ordered by the Provincial Synod of the Northern District of the Province of the Moravians, held at Bethlehem, Pa., May 18-30, 1881. Bethlehem, Pa. : Mora vian Publication Office. The Text-Book for 1SS4. English and German editions. Bethlehem, Pa. . Moravian Publication Office. Presbyterian. Alexander, Archibald. Biographical Sketches of the Founder and Principal Alumni of the Log College. Together with an Account of the Eevivals of Religion under their Ministry. 12mo, pp. 279. PhUadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication, 1334 Chestnut Street. Baird, Samuel J. A History of the New School, and of the Questions involved in the Disruption of the Presbyterian Church in 1838. Svo, pp. xii, 564. PhUadelpbia : . Claxton, Remsen, & Haffelflnger. 1868. Beard, Eichard. Why am I a Cumberland Presbyterian ? Nashville, Tenn. 1872. APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 575 Breed, Wm. P. Presbyterians and the Eevolution. 16mo, pp. 205. PhUadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. 1872. Brown, I. N. An Historical Vindication of the Abrogation of the Plan of Union by the Presbyterian Church. Svo. Philadelphia: W. S. Martien. 1855. Centennial Historical Discourses delivered in the City of Philadelphia, June, 1876, by Appointment of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. 12mo, pp. 300. Philadelphia : Presbyterian Board of Pub lication. 1876. Crisman, E. B. Origin and Doctrines of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. 2 parts, 12mo, pp. iv, 160. St. Louis : Perrin & Smith. 1877. Division of the Presbyterian Church (A History of) in the United States, by a Com mittee of the Synod of New York and New Jersey. 12mo, pp. vU, 278. New York, 1852. Gillett, E. H. History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 676, 605. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Publication Board. Hodge, Charles. The Constitutional History of the Presbyterian Church in the United States. 2 vols., Svo, pp. xxiv, 576; xu, 606. Philadelphia: W. S. Martien. 1839-40. Moore, William E. The Presbyterian Digest of the Acts and Deliverances of the Gen eral Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. Svo, pp. 718. Philadelphia: Presbyterian Board of Publication. Presbyterian Eeunion; A Memorial Volume, 1837-1871, with Map in separate vol., originally published in New York Evangelist. Svo, pp. viU, 568. New York : D. C. Lent & Co. 1870. Sprague, WiUiam B. Annals of the American Pulpit. Vols. Ill and IV. Svo, pp. 632, 836. Presbyterian. New York : Eobert Carter & Brothers. 1859. The Confession of Faith of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. Pp. 286. Nashville, Tenn. . Board of Publication of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. 1875. Webster, Eichard. A History of the Presbyterian Church in America, from its origin until the year 1760 ; with Biographical Sketches of its Early Ministers. Svo. Philadelphia: J. M. Wilson. 1858. Protestant Episcopal. Beardsley, E. E. The History of the Episcopal Church in Connecticut, from the Settlement of the Colony to the Present Time. 2 vols., Svo. New York : Hurd & Houghton. 1865. Caswell, H. America and the American Church. 2d ed., Svo. London : Mozley. 1851. Hawks, Francis L. Contributions to the Ecclesiastical History of the United States of America. Vol. I. A Narrative of Events connected with the Rise and Prog ress of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Virginia. Also an Appendix. Svo, pp. xvi, 17, 286, 332. Vol. II. History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Maryland. Svo, pp. 624. New York : Harper & Brothers. 1836-39. Lord, Samuel. A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America. 12mo, pp. 357. New York : Stanford & Swords. 1849. Meade, William. Old Churches, Ministers, and Families of Virginia. 2d ed., revised. 2 vols., Svo. PhUadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1858. Perry, WiUiam S. A' Hand-Book of the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church, giving its History and Constitution, 1785-1880. 12mo, pp. 365. New York : Whittaker. 1S81. 576 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. Perry, William S. Papers Relating to the History of the Church in Virginia. A. D. 1650-1776. 4to. New York: Protestant Episcopal Sunday-School Union. 1870. Same, in Pennsylvania, A. D. 1680-177S. 4to. New York : Protestant Epis copal Sunday-School Union. 1871. White, William. Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Svo, pp. xiv, 474. New York : Stanford & Swords. 1836. Reformed Church in America (Dptoh.) Anderson, James. Appeal to General Synod of the Eeformed Protestant Dutch Church on the Change of Name, November, 1867. Svo, pp. 15. New York: Board of Publication, 34 Vesey Street. Bentley, E. W. " The Classis of Orange." An Historical Discourse. Svo, pp. SO- New York : Board of Publication. Brinkerhoff, Jacob. History of the True Dutch Eeformed Church of the United States of America. 12mo, pp. 139. New York : Board of Publication. Brownlee, Wm. C, Editor. Eeformed Dutch Church Magazine. 4 vols., Svo. New York : Board of Publication. Centennial Discourses. A Series of Sermons Delivered in the Year 1876 by order of the General Synod of the Eeformed (Dutch) Church in America. Svo, pp. 601. New York : Reformed Church Board of Publication. 1877. Collegiate Dutch Church. Proceedings at the Centennial Anniversary of the Dedica tion of the North Dutch Church, May 26, 1869, etc. IUustrated. Svo, pp. 76. New York ; Board of Publication. Collegiate Reformed Protestant Dutch Church. Quarter Millennial Anniversary, Nov. 21, 1878. Svo, pp. 104. New York: Board of Publication. Demarest, David D. History and Characteristics of the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church. 12mo. New York : Reformed Church Board of Publication. 1856. Ferris, Isaac. Memorial Discourse ; or. Fifty Years' Ministry in the Reformed Church of America. February 26, 1871. Svo, pp. 38. New York : Board of Publi cation. First Reformed Church Memorial, Schenectady, New York. Two Hundredth Anni versary, 1680-1880. Svo. New York : Board of PubUcation. Hartley, J. S. Reformed Church, Utica, New York. Semi-Centennial Discourse. Svo. New York : Board of Publication. Matthews, J. M. "Fifty Years in New York." A Semi-Centennial Sermon. Svo, pp. 44. New York ; Board of Publication. Minutes of General Synod. Vol. I, 1771-1812. Svo. New York : Board of Publi cation. Stryker, Peter. Historical Discourse at the Last Service iu the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church, corner Broome and Greene Streets, New York, AprU 15, 1860. 12mo. New York: Board of Publication. Taylor, B. C. Annals of the Classis and Township of Bergen. 12mo. New York: Board of Publication. Thompson, Henry P. History of the Reformed Church of Peapack, New Jersey. Svo, pp. 68. New York : Board of Publication. ' History of the Reformed Church of Readington, New Jersey, 1719-1881. Svo. New York: Board of Publication. Wells, Theo. W. Brick Church Memorial, 1699-1877. Svo, pp. 96. New York : Board of Publication. APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. 577 Wells, Theo. W. The Classis of Monmouth, its Members, its Churches, and its Work for Twenty -five Years. A Statistical History, with a Eeview of the Past, by Rev. Wm. Reiley. Svo, pp. 30. New York : Board of Publication. The Reformed Church in the United States (German). Gerhart, E. V. Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol. XX, 1863. " The German Reformed Church." Andover : Warren F. Draper. Harbaugh, H. Fathers of the German Reformed Church. 4 volumes, 12mo. Vol. I, pp. 894. Philadelphia : Reformed Church PubUcation Board, 907 Arch Street. 1857. Mayer, Lewis. The History of the German Reformed Church. To which is prefixed a Memoir of the Life of the Author, by Elias Heiner. Vol. I, Svo, pp. 477. Philadelphia : J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1861. Russell, George B. Creeds and Customs : A Popular Handbook treating of the Doc trines and Practices of the Reformed Church in the United States. 1 2mo. Phila delphia : Reformed Church Board of Publication. Roman Catholic. Bayley, J. R. Early History of the Catholic Church in the Island of New York. 12mo, 2d ed., 1870. New York: Catholic PubUcation Society, 9 Barclay Street, New York. Lawrence Kehoe, Manager. Memoirs of the Rt. Rev. Simon Wm. Gabriel Brute, D.D., first Bishop of Vin cennes. 12mo. 1876. New York: Catholic PubUcation Society. Clarke, R. H. Lives of Deceased Bishops of the Catholic Church in the United States. 2 vols., Svo. New York : O'Shea, 37 Barclay Street. Finnotti, Joseph M. Bibliographla Catholica Americana. A List of Works written by Catholic Authors, and published in the United States. Svo, pp. 318. New York: CathoUc Publication Society. 1872. Grants of Land and Gifts of Money to Catholic and Non-Catholic Institutions in New York Compared. New York : Catholic Publication Society. Hewit, F. A. The Life and Sermons of the Rev. Francis A. Baker. Svo, pp. 504. New York ; Catholic Publication Society. Kehoe, Lawrence. The Works of the Most Reverend John Hughes, First Archbishop of New York, containing Biography, Sermons, etc. 2 vols., Svo. New York : Catholic Publication Society. Parkman, Francis. The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century. 18th ed., pp. Ixxxix, 463. Boston : Little, Brown, & Co. 1879. Shea, J. G. History of CathoUc Missions Among the Indian Tribes of the United States, from A. D. 1529 to A.D. 1854. 12mo. New York: T. W. Strong. 1854. Spalding, J. L Life of the Most Rev. M. J. Spalding, Archbishop of Baltimore. Svo, pp. 465. New York : Catholic Publication Society. 1S74. The Religious Mission of the Irish People, and Catholic Colonization. 12mo. New York : Catholic PubUcation Society. Quakers (Friends.) Biographies of WiUiam Penn, by Marsiliac, (1791,) Clarkson, (1813,) EUis, (1852,) Hepworth Dixon, (1856.) Janney, S. M. History of the Friends to 1828. 4 vols., 12mo. Philadelphia : C. H. Davis & Co. 1859-67. 37 578 APPENDIX— AMERICAN CHURCH HISTORY. Janney, S. M. Life of WilUam Penn : With Selections from 'his Correspondence and Autobiography. 12mo. Philadelphia : Friends Book Association, 706 Arch Street. Wagstaff, W. R. A History of the Society of Friends, complied from its Standard Eecords, and other Authentic Sources. Svo, pp. 400. New York : Wiley k Put nam. 1S46. Shakers. Evans, F. W. Shakers. Compendium of the Origin, History, Principles, Rules and Regulations, Government, and Doctrines of the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Coming. 16mo. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1859. Millennial Church, A Summary View of ; or, the United Society of Believers, com- mtmly called Shakers, comprising the Rise, Progress, and Practical Order of the Society. 12mo, pp. 820. Albany ; Packard & Van Benthuysen. 1823. Universalis!. Adams, John G. Fifty Notable Years. One Hundred Biographical Sketches of Well- known and Distinguished Universalist Ministers. (It also contains the rise and progress of the Universalist Church in America.) Pp. 836. Boston, Mass. : UniversaUst Publishing House, 16 Bromfield Street. Murray, John, Life of. Written by himself, with a continuation by Mrs. J. S. Murray. A new edition, with an Introduction and Notes, by G. L. Demarest. Boston, Mass. : Universalist PubUshing House. Proceedings of the Universalist Centennial held in Gloucester, Mass., September 20, 21, 22, 1870. Svo. Boston, Mass. : Universalist Publishing House. Thomas, Abel C. A Century of Universalism. Boston, Mass. : UniversaUst Publish ing House. Unitarian. Channing, W. E., Memoirs of. 8 vols., 12mo, pp. 1400. Boston, Mass. : American Unitarian Association, 7 Tremont Place. Ellis, George E. Half Century of the Unitarian Controversy, with particular refer ence to its Origin, its Course, etc. Svo, pp. 536. Boston, Mass. : American Uni tarian Association. Frothingham, 0. B. TranscendentaUsm in New England : a History. Svo, pp. ix, 395. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1876. Gannett, WiUiam C. Memoir of Ezra StUes Gannett. Boston, Mass. : American Uni tarian Association. Ware, WiUiam. American Biography. Memoirs of Individuals who have been Dis tinguished in the Cause of Liberal Christianity. 2 vols., 12mo, pp. 896, 452. Boston: J. Munroe & Co. 1850-51. United Brethren in Christ. Lawrence, John. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. Svo, 2 vols, in one. Dayton, Ohio : United Brethren Publishing House. (The same in German. Pp. 283.) Spayth, Henry G. History of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ. 12mo, pp. 344. CircleviUe, Ohio ; Conference Office. 1851. INDEX. Adhortatio, the, of Theobald Thamer, 122. .Esthetic feeling not the same as religious feeling, 34. .Esthetic religion as deficient as a merely legal religion, 21. Alexandrian classification of the Old Test ament books, 156. Allegorical interpreters, Origen the flrst of the, 246. Allegorical method of interpretation, rise of the, 246. Alsted, John Henrv, the Methodus of, 124. America, philosophical speculation in, 78. theological encyciopasdia in, 133. American Presbyterians, alliance of Churches of the Reformed faith with, 106. Angeioiogy and demonoiogy, 426. Anthropology, 427. the doctrine of sin, 428. Antiquities, Hebrew, German and EngUsh works on, 183. Apologetics, 403. an introduction to dogmatics, 405. Clement and Origen, 408. divinity and truth of Scripture in volved in each other, 407. earliest apologetics, the field of, 408. German apologies, 410. Grotius and Limborch, 409. history of, 408. literature of, 411. must precede dogmatic science, 404. philosophy and Christianity, conflict between, 409. relation of, to dogmatics, 403. relation of polemics and apologetics to dogmatics, 404. remote beginning of all departments in theology, 405. separate science, not yet a, 411. task of, a twofold one, 406. Apologetics and polemics, Schleiermach er's definition of the relations of, 417. Apostles, the, 2S3. literature on, 284. Apostolic age requires separate treatment, 284. Vol, ni. Apostolos, meaning of the term, 283. Arabic, a knowledge of, useful to the theologian, 168. Archseology, ancient writers on, 180. classification of the material of, 176. historical sketch of, 179. includes more than Hebrew antiqui ties, 176. narrowness of the term, 175. works on, of a general character, 182. Archseology, bibUcal, 175. related to exegesis and Church his tory, 262. scope of, 175. Archseology, ecclesiastical, 388. a history of worship, 389. history of, 390. necessarily related to the present, 389. Architecture, sacred, as related to Prot estant worship, 509. Aristides, apology by, 408. Art, Law, and Doctrine co-related, 23. Artists and legislators the teachers of mankind, 19. Arts and sciences among the Hellenes and kindred peoples, 178. Asceticism and pedagogics, 461. Astronomy not necessarily related to the ology, 71. Augustine, his instructions respecting the proper mode of presenting Scrip ture doctrines, 441. qualifications of the minister accord ing to, 118. Auxiliary sciences, the five, 169. Auxiliary sciences to Church history, 343. Bacon, Lord, strongly against confounding theology and philosophy, 82. Baden and the Palatinate, liturgical con troversy in, 617. . Basle and Saumur, the theologians of, 125. Bible, The: constitutes a sacred literature, 149. ethnography of, 177. evervwhere teaches a God for man, 424. geography of, 176. hermeneutics furnishes the key to, 230. 580 INDEX. Bible, The: historical form and development of the doctrine of, 286. its first exposition wholly practical, . 245. narratives of, are God's word to man kind, 149. natural science of, 177. nature of Biblical narrative, 266. the object of exegetical theology, 146. original languages of, 160. presents only a single body of truth, 148. providentially guarded, yet subject to human vicissitudes, 208. reasons why it needs care in its in terpretation, 229. reverence for the letter and style of, observable in English literature, 149. • study of the Bible, relation of ency clopaedia to, 147. the standard of judgment in Church history, 305. tie which binds the books of the Bi ble together, 148. BibUcal archseology, 175. history of, 179. related to exegesis and Church his tory, 262. scope of, 176. the Old Testament, always its princi pal source, 176. BibUcal characters, English and American literature on, 270. Biblical criticism : historical sketch of, 213. in the Middle Ages, 214. no one need be startled by the phrase, 202. objects contemplated by, 202. often paltry, 204. revival of, in the eighteenth century, 215. Biblical dogmatics, the natural point of transition from historical to sys tematic theology, 144. Biography of Christ, history of the, 276. Briefe, defects of Herder's, 130. Calixtus, separates ethics from dogmatics, 397. Canon, changes in the, unlikely, 207. New Testament canon in the early Church, 194. New Testament canon not formed at one time, 159. object of a history of the, 191. period of the first formation of the, 194. Canonicity, conditions of, 204. should criticism consider the question of? 206. Vol. III. ^ Canonics, the name proposed as a substi tute for Introduction, 192. Biblical, 191. Casuistry, 461. Catechetical methods, 488. Catechetics a part of pastoral work, 491. demands a love for chUdhood, 492. endowment for, mental and spiritual, 492. function of catechetics, 489. real art of the catechist. the, 490. religious nature of youth should be studied, 490. Socratic method of, 489. work of the catechist, 488. Catechetics, 486. literature of, 497. scope of, 487. difference between ethics and cate chetics, 488. Catechetics, history of, 493. affected by sceptical pedagogics, 496. authors, leading, between Luther and Spener, 496. catechisms, the first, 494. early catechetical works, 494. Heidelberg Catechism, the, 495. Luther's two catechisms, 494. " Philanthropic " method of, 496. Roman Catholic catechetics, 497. Schleiermacher, services of, to cate chetics, 497. Catechists, the older, did but Uttle theo rizing, 495. Catechumens in the ancient Church, 493. Categories of Practical Theology, 478. Causality, twofold law of, in Church his tory, 303. Centurial division of Historical Theology wrong, 299. Chaldee, certain portions of the Old Testa ment written in, 1 60. knowledge of, useful to the theolo gian, 168. Character, formation of, 55. importance of, to the theologian, 56. Characteristics of Hebrew, 161. Characters, Biblical, English and American Uterature on, 270. Christian Ethics, 855. Christianity : Church, the idea of a, eminently pe culiar to, 499. destined to develop into a system, 394. expansion and Umitation of, 297. moral power of, the universal, 468. not chargeable with narrow Church history, 808. Wolfenbiittel assault on historical Christianity, 65. INDEX. 5S1 Christian language, the New Testament obliged to create a, 170. Christian philosophy, conditions of a, 86. the only possible, theistic, 86. Christian sermon, history of the, 685. Christian teaching : has superseded the old conditions, 298. Christian theologians should study the Old Testament, and why, 151. Christian theology conditioned by the his tory of Christianity, 62. Deism and Pantheism antagonistic to, 84. origin of formal, 64. Christology, 429. center of dogmatics, the, 429. doctrine of the Church on, improperly defined, 430. Ufe of Christ the basis of Christology, 429. Chronology, ecclesiastical, 358. Chrysostom, beginnings of theological en cyclopaedia in, 118. Church, the : advantage of groupings in Church life, 298. both external and internal, 296. constitution of the, 297. guidance of the Cliurch the object of theology, 59. historical development of the, 296. must not be excluded from the school, 47. not alone social or theocratic, 296. not merely a society, 295. Pentecost the beginning of the, 295. philosophy in, after the Reformation, 76. sacraments, the Church and the, 434. soul-life of the, 297. the eariy theological science in, 63. theological tendencies in the early Church, 98. theology and the Church, 44. Church Fathers, the, 370. Church History: acquaintance necessary with Church history of our own countrv, 311. atomistic mode of treating, 303. cannot be understood without a knowledge of ancient and oriental history, 70. causality, twofold law of, 303. central point of historical theology, 294. centurial division of, wrong, 299. CouncU of Trent, the, an epoch in Church history from the Roman Catholic standpoint, 301. denominational character of, 31B. Vol. III. Church History: extremes to be avoided in, 304. God's word the standard of judg ment in, 305. great and exciting events in, demand a separate treatment, 299. great epochs in, 300. historian, the best, in sympathy with the people, 307. history of Church history, 313. individual Churches demand a sepa rate treatment, 299. in Middle Ages, necessity of under standing the, 311. intimate relations of general and Church history, 343. Latin Church historians, *he, 314. literature of, general and special, 316. Lutheran writers on, 314. method of, 309. moral and religious disposition of the historian, 307. Mosheim the reformer of, 315. Neander, the work of, 315. obscure causes, true value of, 304. parallels, necessity of, 312. prejudice in, damage from, 307. principle of Christianity must be ever present in, 306. proper treatment of, 302. Protestant emphasis on the history of teaching, 312. reciprocal influences in, 303. requires a knowledge of the ancient world and its faiths, 344. Reformation, effect of, upon, 314. Reformed writers on, 314. reports, difference in, 302. sciences auxiliary to, 343. sixteenth century, the division of the Cbnrch in the, an epoch in Church history, 301. twofold criticism of sources, 302. whole field of, must be understood, 309. Church symbols, the three principal, 381. Classic languages, value of the ancient, 69. Clergy, various designations of the, 48. Commentaries not to be too much relied on, 243. Commentator and interpreter, their func tions distinguished, 239. Commonwealth, structure of the, 178. Community, the religious, 42. Concordances and lexicons of the New Testament, 172. ConfessionaUsm, ecclesiastical, 104. Conscience, religious feeling becomes a steadfast disposition through, 40. 583 INDEX. Conscience, religious feeliug not resolva ble into, 40. Constitution, the, of the Church, 297. Critical methods, 208. Criticism, Biblical : carefully defined limits to be fixed to internal criticism, 210. conjectural attempts not forbidden in needful cases, 211. critical and exegetical skill the result of practice, 212. critical hypotheses, frequent fallacies in, 211. Criticism and exegesis act on each other, 213. destructive criticism as applied to N«w Testament not vet success ful, 205. external criticism defined, 209. first critical edition of the New Test ament, 215. higher and lower criticism, 208. historical criticism, the place for, 262. history of, 213. hypotheses, critical, frequent fallacies in, 211. leadership in criticism maintained by English scholars in the seven teenth and eighteenth centuries, 216. Middle Ages, criticism in the, 214. mischief done by dabblers in, 212. necessary for understanding of the Gospels, 273. negative and positive criticism, func tions of, 210. negative criticism no ground for alarm, 272. objects contemplated by, 202. office of internal criticism, 209 often paltry, 204. positive and negative, 210. prejudice, necessity of freedom from, in criticism, 264. relation of criticism to exegesis, 212. revival of, in the eighteenth centurv, 215. should criticism consider the question of canonicity ? 206. sometimes employed for perverse and frivolous ends, 203. spiritual sympathy necessary to a cor rect view of the life of Christ, 274. though often perverted, yet of great value, 203. Tubingen tendency critics, the, 216. Culture, uses of sesthetio, 72. Danz's division of theology, 140. Deism : application of the term, 84. Vol. Ill, Deism : incapable of Christian ideas, 84. in England in the time of Charles First, 76. pantheism and deism antagonistic to Christian theology, 84. Demonoiogy, 426. Denominational character of Church his tory, 315. DeWette and Grotius, rise of the school of, 249. Didascalion, the, of Hugo St. Victor, 119. Discussion, utUity pf oral, 64. Disputes, disorderly, antidote against, 54. Divine training of humanity, the notion of, 153. Division of Historical Theology into pe riods, 299. Divisions of knowledge — philosophy, na ture, history, 67. Doctrine, development of, in the Protes tant Churches, 65. no cessation in the development of, 394. relation of life and doctrine, 288. Doctrine, Christian, ethical character of, 396. Christian doctrine a unit, 361. Doctrine, Law, and Art co-related, 23. Doctrine of the Bible, historical form and development of the, 286. Doctrines, history of, 353. arrangement controlled by dogmatic character, 362. Baur's division of, 364. changes in, necessity of recognizing, 366. definition of, 359. difficulty of discovery of beginnings of change, 368. division of, into periods, 363. dynamic principle, in, important. 635. relation of history of Doctrines to symbolics, 382. task of doctrinal history, the, 359. Dogma, inability of philosophy to orig inate, illustrated, 81. Dogmatical systems, interpretation should be independent of, 239. Dogmatics : biblical, 286. apologetics an introduction to, 405. apologetics and polemics, relation of to, 403. a progressive science, 400. began with the Reformation, 289. both biblical and ecclesiastical, 414. central point, the, of all theology, 399. Christology the center of, 429. defined, 399. INDEX. 588 Dogmatics : difference between dogmatics and ethics, 897. ecclesiastical dogmatics, 395. ethics depends upon doctrine in the last analysis, 399. flexible treatment of, 288. history of BibUcal, 289. history, of doctrines presumes ac quaintance with dogmatics, 359. method of, 420. objection to Schleiermacher's defini tion of, 401. object of, 396. outline of dogmatical system, 428. Schleiermacher's method in, 421. Schweizer's method in, 424. Dogmatics, history of : Augustine's works, 442. Calvin and his successors, 444. degeneration of dogmatics, 443. dogmatic literature in the Reformed Church, 444. literature of the history of, 448. local or topical method, in, 421. Lutheran dogmatic writers, 444. Melanchthon the founder of Protest ant dogmatics, 443. progress of most recent dogmatics, 446. reactionary tendency of dogmatics, 445. Roman Catholic dogmatists, 447. Schleiermacher's dogmatics, 445. Scholasticism and mysticism, 442. summaries, 443. transition to rationalism, 445. Twesten and Nitzsch, 446. Dogmatizer, every judicious, a harmonizer, 415. Doubt, temper in which it should be met, 56. Doubt, true method of dealing with, 107. Early history of the Israelites, 267. Ecclesiastical confessionalism, 104. Eighteenth century, theology in the, 100. Eloquence, the limit of sacred, 525. Empirics theological, 12. Eneyclopsedia, Theological : as treated by Harless, Lange, and Pelt, 134. as treated by Pfaff and Buddseus, 128. contributions of Semler and Mo sheim to, 12S. Gerhard, John, the Eneyclopsedia of, 123. in the early part of the eighteenth century, 132. in the Lutheran Church, 126. Isidore, the Encyclopaedia of, 119. Vol. in. Encycloptedia, Theological : keeps pace with science, 11. made independent by Schleiermacher, 132. nature of, 9. relation of encyclopaedia to the study of the Bible, 147. Roman Catholic eneyclopsedia, 136. study of eneyclopsedia can never be exhausted, 11. study of eneyclopsedia necessary to the theologian, 16. England, theological eneyclopsedia in, 134. England, theological tendencies in, in the eighteenth century, 105. English Deism and Gibbon and Paine, 105. Episcopos and Presbuteros in the Apostolic Church, 47. Epoch, the Reformation a universal, 301. what constitutes an epoch, 301. Erasmus determines the proper aim of theological study, 120. merits of the work of, 121. preface of Erasmus to the New Test ament, 120. rationalistic tendencies manifested by, 99. Erasmus Sarcerius, the Pastorale of, 553. Ernesti the restorer of sound exegesis, 248. Eschatology, 436. Christian hope to be realized onlv m Christ, 438. immortality not to be confounded with, 437. Eschenburg the first to employ the title Wissenschaftskunde, 8. Ethics, Christian, 453. analytical, philosophical, synthetical, 454. based on dogmatics, 454. casuistry, 461. Christ not a mere moral and statutory teacher, 458. Christianity the universal moral pow er, 458. Christ's work the basis of ethics, 457. division of ethics, 459. ethical labors of the Fathers, 462. ethical reaction in the Church, 463. first separate treatment of, 464. general and special ethics, 459. harmony of philosophical and Christ ian ethics, 455. history of ethics, 462. Humanism and ethics, 463. includes duties which men owe to the State, 456. Kant's treatment of, 465. Uterature of, 466. 584 INDEX. Ethics, Christian: distinguished from philosophical, 465. Uturgics, relation of, to ethics, 504. place of Christian ethics, 453. positive element of, 457. Protestant ethical writers, 464. Reformers, the, and ethics, 463. Eoman Catholic ethics, 464. Eosenkranz's system, 460. Schleiermacher's method, 460. transcends philosophical ethics, 457. views of Eothe, Harless, and others, 469. works of early writers, 462. Ethnography, BibUcal, 177. Eusebius the first of Bible geographers, 180. Eusebius, work of, 313. Evangelical Union of Prussia, 415. Ewald's Life of Christ, 278. Exegete, the . New Testament, should be familiar with the Semitic lan guages, 168. Exegesis : additional reasons for making it a separate department, 142. application of exegesis, the, 241. as much an ecclesiastical as a reUg ious science, 140. complete exegesis dependent on re ligious growth, 241. critical and exegetical skill the result of practice, 212. criticism and exegesis act on each other, 218. definition of, 238. distinguished from hermeneutics, 288. effect of the Eeformation on, 248. Ernesti the restorer of sound exege sis, 248. includes both interpretation and expli cation, 238. influence of the Eef orniation on, 314. Kant's separation of dogmatical from ethical exegesis, 249. Latin Fathers, exegesis of the, 247. method of applying, 243. Middle Ages, exegesis in the, 247. neological exegesis, rise of, 249. New Testament, a knowledge of He brew necessary to tbe exegesis of the, 162. practical exegesis the result of the scientific, 241. process by which exegesis is made practical, 242. Eeformed and Lutheran exegesis, 248. relation of criticism to exegesis, 212. sciences auxiliary to exegesis, 169. should not be studied alone with a view to the pulpit, 532. student's self-training in, 244. Vol. III. Exegete, spirit of the true, 240. Exegetical theology, definition of, 146. first in order, 148. practical sciences auxiliary to, 176. reasons why exegetical theology should be a separate depart ment, 141. relations of exegetical theology with historical theology, 261. the Bible the object of, 146. Exposition of the Bible at first wholly practical, 246. False readings, how originated, shown by internal criticism, 210. Fathers, the Church, 370. ethical labors of the, 462. exegesis of the Latin Fathers, 247. Feeling, in what sense religion is rooted in, 33. Feeling, the theory of, 37. Five auxiliary sciences, the, 159. Founders of religions, 43. France, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. French pulpit, the, 537. General history, importance of familiarity with, to the Church historian, 843. Genuineness of books and passages to be determined by Biblical criticism, 204. Geography, Biblical, 176. writers on, in the eighteenth and nine teenth centuries, 180. Geography, ecclesiastical, 862. Gerhard, Andrew, the Theologus of, 123. Gerhard, John, the Encyclopaedia of, 123. German Catholic works on theological encyclopaedia, 137. Gesenius and DeWette, rise of the school of, 249. Gesticulation, pulpit, 531. Glassius, Solomon, the first to bring to gether the grammatical pecuUari- ties of New Testament diction, 171. God. See Theology. God-man, objections to the term, 430. Gospel, the : does not contradict itself, 272. spoken first, then written, 168. Gospels, the: criticism necessary for understand ing, 273. discrepancies in the Gospels may be admitted, 272. exposition of the Gospels an exeget ical, not an historical, task, 261. Grammars, Hebrew, 165. Grammars of the New Testament, 172. INDEX. 585 Greek, history of the exposition of the characterof New Testament, 171. Greek words, new meaning given to some current in the New Testament, 171. Growth of BibUcal Hermeneutics, 231. Gymnastic exercises for students, advan tages of, 57. Halieutics and Keryktics, 486. Harless, definition of encyclopaedia by, 10. Harless, Lange, and Pelt, their treatment of encyclopaedia, 134. Harms's scheme of practical theology, 481. Harmonies on the life of Christ, 282. Hase, his definition of reUgion, 25. Heads, theological, 420. Hebraistic character of the language of the New Testament, recognition of, 170. Hebrew language, a knowledge of, indis pensable to the exegesis of the New Testament, 162. characteristics of Hebrew, 161. derivation of the word Hebrew, 161. historical sketch of the study of, 163. included in school curriculum solely for the sake of theology, 66. necessity of a knowledge of, 161. not perfected before the time of Da vid, 163. study of Hebrew in several ages of the Church, 163. Hebrew antiquities, German and English works on, 183. Hebrew commonwealth, structure of the, 178. Hebrew grammars and chrestomathies, 165. Hebrew learning, Eeuchlin the restorer of, 164. Hebrew lexicons, 166, 168. Hebrews, art and science among the, 178. religious institutions of the, 178. HegeUanism, theological encyclopaedia treated in the spirit of, 133. Hegelian school, divisions of the, 76. Heidelberg Catechism, the, 495. HeUenistic-Greek the original language of the New Testament Scriptures, 169. Herder, great influence on theology of, 129. Herder and Schleiermacher, new direction given to theology by, 101. Hermeneutics : Biblical Hermeneutics a branch of general hermeneutics, 230. causes which make hermeneutics nec essary, 229. definition of, 228. Vol. III. Hermeneutics : distinguished from exegesis, 238. distinguished from rhetoric, 228. furnishes the key to the Bible, 230. gradual growth of, 231. has the right to require unconditional surrender to its rules by the ex positor, 231. literature of, 232. Heterodoxy, 440. Historian, the best, in sympathy with the people, 307. Historian, the, should be superior to the appeals of party interest, 307. Historical sketch of the study of Hebrew, 163. Historical Theology, 261. History and literature of theological en eyclopsedia, 118. History, biblical : difficulty connected with early periods of, 263. early history of the Israelites, 267. general and special, 361. must precede doctrine, 295. Christ's life the center of, 271. should precede dogmatics, reasons why, 144. study of, should follow philology, 69. History of the exposition of the character of New Testament Greek, 171. History, sacred, place of, 262. Hobbes, atheistic opinions of, attacked by Cudworth, 77. Holland, theological eneyclopsedia in, 134. Homiletics : arrangement and material, 525. artistic division of the sermon, 528. art of preaching, the, a part of theo logical science, 540. Christian sermon, history of the, 635. defects of first sermons, 533. delivery, 528. division of homUetics, 526. early homilies, the, 635. effect of a sermon to be studied by the preacher, 530. fanciful divisions, 537. French pulpit, the, 537. gesticulation, pulpit, 631. history of homiletics, 635. invention, 526. lay preaching, 524. lesson, every sermon may be a, 534. literature of, 643. mediaeval preaching, 686. method of homUetics, 532. Mystic preachers, the, 536. not a theory of sacred eloquence, 519. oratory a conversation, 523. Pietists, sermons of the, 637. 586 INDEX HomUetics : preaching, history of the theory of, 540. pulpit, preparations for, 582. pulpit, the, should be always before the mind, 533. pulpit, the, has its own pecuUar style, 528. Eeformed writers on homiletics, 542. Eeformers, preaching by, 586. relation of tbe sermon to the congre gation, 623. relation of, to liturgics, 619. repentance, necessity of a continual preaching of, 520. Eoman Catholic writers on, 643. sacred eloquence, the limits of, 525. secret of homiletical invention, the, 526. sermon, the, not a lecture, 522. sermon, the, should be mentally con structed, 529. sermonic division, 528. synthetic and analytical methods, 527. testimony to Christ, the sermon a, 523. text, the, 521. texts, conditions necessary for proper, 526. useless ornament to be avoided, 529. Homilist, the, needs to be an exegete, 474. Hugo St. Victor, the Didascalion of, 119. Humanism and ethics, 468. Humanity, notion of the divine training of, 153. Hymnology : ' existing treasures gladly used by lit urgics, 511. new hymns to receive recognition, 51L old hymns not necessarily good, 511. poetry of Protestantism culminates in the Church hymn, 511. Idealism and sensationalism both unchris tian, 83. Idiom, the New Testament, based on the later Greek, 170. Individual, the, and his relations to science, 16. Industry, private, the supplement to pub lic instruction, 53. Institutions, the religious, of the Hebrews, 178. Instruction, public, should be supplement ed by private industry, 53. Interpretation of the Scriptures : a reUgious disposition essential to the right, 240. need for care in the, 229. Vol. HI. Interpretation of the Scriptures : rise of the allegorical method of, 246. should be independent of dogmatic systems, 239. sketch of the history of, 246. Interpreter and commentator, their func tions distinguished, 239. Interpreters, the allegorical, Origen the first of the, 246. Introduction, Biblical : either general or special, 191. German and English Uterature on, 195. properly limited to history of the canon and criticism, 193. relation of general to special, 193. scope and limits of not, precisely de fined, 191. Isagogics, Biblical, 191. Isidore, the Encyclopaedia of, 119. Israelites, early history of the, 267. nation, history of the, 263. people of God, the, 266. people under the law, a, 21. sources for history of, 267. Israelites, history of : begins with the head of the race, 263. literature on the, 267. non-Jewish writers on, 267. writers on, among Christian Fathers, 267. Jansenists, the, opposed philosophy, 75. Jesuits, the, favored philosophy, 75. Jesus Christ : different views of, 275. his Ufe the center of history, 271. his person the center of dogmatics, 422. his walk the basis of ethics, 457. life of, the basis of Christology, 429. not a mere moral and statutory teacher, 468. parallels between Christ and Socrates, 277. worship of, in hymns and prayers, early manifestation of, 276. Jesus Christ, life of : absurdity of the mythical theory, 275. diverse views of different writers on, 275. does not come within the range of Church history, 295. efforts to eliminate the miraculous from the, 277. English and American literature on, 282. Ewald's Life of Christ, 278. harmonies of the, 282. history of the biographies of, 276. INDEX. 587 Jesus Christ, life of : importance of attaining to a satisfac tory view of, 271. is matter for history only so far as it is definitely human, 273. its own explanation, 274. Keim's work on the, 279. literature of the, 279. negative criticism of, no ground for alarm, 272. Eenan's Life of Christ, 278. separate historical study, a, 276. spiritual sympathy necessary for cor rect criticism of, 274. Strauss's Life of Christ, 277. Jewish Old Testament expositors in Mid dle Ages, importance of, 247. Jews. See Israelites. Justification and Sanctification, 433. Kant, categorical imperative of, 31. his separation of dogmatical from etiiical exegesis, 249. his treatment of ethics, 465. influence of Kant on phUosophy, 76. Keim, his work on the Ufe of Christ, 279. Keryktics, 486. Kliefoth, his division of doctrinal history, 864. Knowledge, divisions of — philosophy, na ture, and history, 67. Knowledge of Hebrew a necessity, and why, 161. .Lange, Harless, and Pelt, their treatment of eneyclopsedia, 134. Language of the New Testament, not pure Greek, 169. Languages of the Bible, the original, 160. Latin Fathers, exegesis of the, 247. Latin writers of Church history, 314. Law and medicine, relations of theology with, 60. Law, art, and doctrine co-related, 23. Lay preaching, 524. Learning and religion, a desire for both needful to the study of theology, 17. Lecture, preparation and repetition to be added to the, 54. Lectures, attendance on too many, works injury and confusion, 54. Lectures, true method of profiting by, 53. Legend and myth, difference between, 265. Letter, the, is not science, 14. Lexicons and concordances of the New Testament, 172. Lexicons, Hebrew, 166. Life the object of aU study, 12. Liturgics, 498. Vol. III. Liturgics : based on dogmatics, 435. contrast between Protestant and Ro man Catholic liturgics, 502. ethics and ecclesiastical law, liturgics in relation to, 504. field of, 498. homiletical and liturgical elements, distinction between, 604. limitations of, 510. literature of, 517. living worship, need of a, 501. mechanical liturgy in Roman Catholi cism, 502. Protestant recognition of, 505. Protestant liturgics, 503. relation of worship to art, 499. religious feeling, necessity of in litur gics, 603. Roman CathoUc and Protestant litur gists, difference between, 603. sermon, place of the, defined by, 500. worship defined, 499. Liturgics, history of : Christian worship developed from the Jewish, 515. hymn-book controversy, the, in Baden and the Palatinate, 517. methodology of, 613. rationalistic works, 516. propriety, every thing depends upon a sense of, 614. Scripture lessons, proper reading of the, highly essential, 514. service, every part of the, must be minutely studied, 513. singing, the preacher's relation to the, 514. Logographs and mythographs, 264. Lord's Prayer, the : prayer should conclude with, 508. Lutheran Church, encyclopaedia in the, 126. Lutheran dogmatic writers, 444. Lutheran exegesis, 248. Lutheran writers on Church history, 314. Luther, Martin: catechisms, his two, 494. his opposition to philosophy, 76. more practical than theoretical, 541. Maccabees, First Book of, importance of, to the post-exilian period, 267. Manuscripts, most important, of the New Testament, 214. Marheineke's method of practical theolo gy, 480. Mathematical knowledge, uses of, to the theologian, 70. Mathematics, has to do with form and numbers, 70. 588 INDEX. Mary Magdalene, her conduct incompre hensible to the banqueters, 32. Mass, the : Reformed theologians rejected the name and the thing, 515. transformed by Luther into a simple observance of the Lord's Supper, 515. Mediseval preaching, 535. Medicine and law, relations of theology with, 60. Melanchthon, Apology of, 416. founder of Protestant dogmatics, the, 443. Uttle tract of, the, 121. recommends the study of the Fathers with that of the Bible, 121. Methodology, dangers in the treatment of, 11. definition of, 11. Methodology of missions, 486. Methodology of systematic theology, the, 468. moral growth needed for the study of ethics, 471. of dogmatics both historical and phil osophical, 469, religious experience necessary for the understanding of dogmatics and ethics, 470. Methodus, the, of John Henry Alsted, 124. Middle Age sense~of the word theology, 63. Middle Ages, biblical criticism in the, 214. biography of Jesus Christ in the, 276. dogmatic tone of the, 64. exegesis in the, 247. nec^sary for Church historian to un derstand the, 311. theological tendencies in the, 99. Ministerial training, sketch of the history of, 51. Ministry, an undoubted religious impulse to the, has enabled many to sur mount great difficulties, 17. Missions, history of, 355. Missions in Theological Enc.yclopaBdia, 50. Missions, methodology of, 486. Moabite Stone, works concerning, 182. Mohammed, appearance of, an epoch in secular history, 300. Mohammedanism, history of, important to Church historian, 344. Modern rationalism, the, 106. Moll's method of practical theology, 481. Moral action determined by outward con ditions, 32. Moral feeling not identical with religious feeling, 35. Vo). III. Morality and reUgion have been found separated, 81. Morality based on independence, 33. Mosheim and Semler, contributions of, to enoyclopssdia, 128. Mosheim the reformer of Church history, 316. Music in worship, 509. Myth ; difference between myth and legend, 265. meaning of the term, 264. Mysticism, 442. the preparation for the Reformation, 64. Mystic preachers, the, 536. Mystic tendency, the,, in theology, 104. Mystics unconsciously borne in the direc tion of rationalism, 99. Mystics, the, their understanding of the term theology, 63. Mythical theory of Strauss, 277. Mythical theory of the Ufe of Christ, ab surdity of, 275. Narrative, the Bible, nature of, 266. sacred narrative as compared with pro fane, 266. Natural science of the Bible. 177. Natural sciences, acquaintance with the, important, 71. Neander, woi-k of, as a Church historian, 315. Negative criticism of Christ's life no ground for alarm, 272. Neological exegesis, rise of, 249. Nestorius and the school of Antioch, 98. New Covenant, revelations of the, 266. New Testament, a knowledge of Hebrew necessary to the exegesis of the, 162. concordances and lexicons of the, 172. covers only a single generation of men, 156. embraces but few nations, 157. Erasmus's preface to his Greek, 120. first critical edition of the, 215. grammars of the language of the, 172. Greek of the, varies with the writers, 171. Greek synonymes of the, 175. Greek text-books on the, 174. HeUenistic-Greek the original lan guage of the, 169. history of the exposition of the Greek of tbe, 171. its sub-divisions — history, doctrine, and prophecy, 158. most important manuscripts of the, 214. INDEX. 589 New Testament, new meaning given in the, ' to some current Greek words, 171. Scrivener's introduction to the, 217. TregeUes, text of, 217. various editions of the, 219. Westcott and Hort's text of the, 217. New Testament canon, the : in the early Church, 194. not formed at one time, 159. New Testament thought, form of, derived from the Old, 153. Nosselt's Introduction to Theology, 180. Old Catholic Party, the, 46. Old Testament : Alexandrian classification of the books of the, 165. always the principal source for Bib lical archseology, 176. contents of the, 154. covers a period of several thousand years, 156. critically revised portable editions of the, 217. different views as to the value of the, 152. its leading object visible throughout its contents, 156. Schleiermacher's treatment of the, 152. written mainly in Hebrew, 160. Oral discussion, utility of, 54. Oratory a conversation, 528. Origen : chief of the allegorical interpreters, 246. his threefold sense of Scripture, 247. Origin of formal Christian theology, 64. Origin of the term Theology, 62. Original languages of the IJible, the, 160. Orthodoxy and heterodoxy : orthodoxy not to be confounded with supernaturalism, 440. rationalism a heterodox phenomenon, 441. Palatinate. Uturgioal controversy in the, 517. Pantheism and Deism antagonistic to Christian theology, 84. Pantheism, theological and moral outcome of, 85. Pantheistic spirit has often donned the garb of superior orthodoxy, 102. ParaUels in Church history, necessity of, 312. Patristic polemics, 217. Patristics : Church Fathers, 370. Classic, the term, 372. history of, 378. VoL III. Patristics : limits of, in time, 371. literature of, 374. other terms for Church Fathers, 371. relation of, to doctrinal history, 372. the best works of the Fathers, 372. Patrology, 371. Pauline epistles, exposition of the, 284. Passion-plays, the, 276. Pastoral Theology, 544. Pastors, terms by which they are known, 47. Paul the apostle, 283. the founder of a body of doctruie, 283. Pedagogics, 461. Pelt, Lange, and Harless, their treatment of encyclopaedia, 134. Pentecost the beginning of the Church, 295. People of God, Israelites the, 265. Philology, ecclesiastical, 353. Philology the first of the preparatory stud ies, 68. Philosophic speculation in America, 78. Philosophic thought in England much in fluenced by Mill and Coleridge, 77. Philosophy : branches of, important to theologv, 87. cannot originate theological doctrine, 81. divisible into that of nature and that of mind, 88. hard terms of, should not be feared, SO. history of, 348. importance of a sound psychology to, 88. inabUity of phUosophy to originate dogma illustrated, 81. influence of Kant on, 76. in the Church after the Reformation, 75. leading object in the study of, 80. literature of, 348. Luther's opposition to, 75. no sound objection to philosophy from the variety of systems, 83. philosophy, object of all, 79. Platonic and AristoteUan division of, 88. Schleiermacher's division as to, 76. sense in which it must be Christian, 86. should be pursued in connexion with other studies, SO. theology not bound to any one philos ophy, 82. value of the several branches of phi losophy, 87. 590 INDEX. Philosophy and Christianity, conflict be tween, 409. Philosophy and theology, early relations of, 64. their relations traced historically, 74. Philosophy of religion — German literature on, 89. Physical qualifications demanded of the future servant of God, 57. Pietism : fondness of, for dabbling with philoso phy and natural science, 103. joins the older supernaturahsm, 103. position of, in the current conflict, 103. Spener's pietism, 290. Pietists, sermons of the, 537. Piety cannot take the place of learning, 18. Polemics, zeal for, diminished after the middle of the eighteenth century, 418. Polemics and Irenies : every judicious dogmatizer a harmo nizer, 415. history of, 417. literature of, 419. not separate departments, 414. Reformed writers on, 218. Roman Catholic and Protestant po lemics, modification of, 416. Positive science, theology as a, 58. Positive Theology : all divisions of, relative only, 144. departments of, 139. Rosenkranz's threefold division of, 140. Schleiermacher's division of, 140. Practical Theology, 472. Prayer : closing prayer, the, should have di rect bearing on the sermon, 508. effeminacy and insipidity to be ex cluded from prayer, 612. pubUc prayer, 512. should conclude with the Lord's Prayer, 508. Prayer and singing : as forms of worship, 508. should precede and follow the ser mon, 508. Preacher, the: should never cease to be a teacher, 24. should study the possible effect of a sermon, 530. Preaching : art of preaching, the, a part of theo logical science, 540. history of the theory of, 640. Predestination, 428. Vol. III. Predisposition, the so-called avoidance of a prejudice, 239. Preparation and repetition to be added to the lecture, 64. Preparatory and auxiliary sciences, dis tinction between, 66. Preparatory sciences, the, 66. Preparatory studies, philology the first of the, 68. Presbyterians, American, 106. Prevailing tendencies of theological thought, 98. Priest, the title of, cannot be entirely ap propriated by Protestant clergy, 48. Propaedeutics, theology as related to, 66. Protestant Churches, development of doc trine in the, 65. Protestant emphasis on the history of teaching, 312. Protestant student, the, during his aca demical studies, 50. Prussia, Evangelical Union of, 415. Psychology, importance of a sound, to philosophy, 88. Pulpit, the : has its own peculiar style, 528. preparations for, 532. Qualities which should be united in the theologian, 61. Quadratus, Apology of, 40S. Rational criticism, beginning of the, with Semler, 215. Rationalism : a heterodox phenomenon, 441. chief traits of modern rationalism, 100. has ceased to dispose of miracles, 239. largely a question of method, 109. modern Rationalism, 106. Rationalism and Supernaturalism: approaches of, to each other, 101. literature of the conflict, 109. Reason co-operative with religious feeling, 38. Recent theology, latest representatives of, 102. Rector, proper meaning of the term, 49. Reformation, the : a universal epoch, 301. effect of, on Church history, 314. effect of, on exegesis, 248. mysticism the preparation for the, 64. sprang from moral, not doctrinal, causes, 396. Eeformed and Lutheran exegesis, 248. Reformed Church, dogmatic literature in the, 444. INDEX. 531 Reformed writers on Church history, 314. on homUetics, 542. Reformers, the, and ethics, 463. preaching by the, 536. theological spirit of the, 99. Relation of life and doctrine, 288. Relations of philosophy and theology traced historically, 74. Religion a feeling of dependence upon God, 36. Religion and learning, a desire for both, needful to the study of theology, 17. Religion and morality, reasons for distin guishing, 30. Religion : a religion of reason impossible, 39. a subject in which the whole inner man is engaged, 41. based on dependence, 38. deflnition of, 25. evidence that it is not exclusively the product of the intellect, 28. in what sense is religion rooted in feeUng, 33. is original spiritual power, 31. not a transcendental knowledge of the absolute, 27. not bare knowledge as grounded in the memory, 27. not bare knowledge as grounded in the understanding, 27. not identical with morality, 80. not identical with a supposed spirit ual activity, 30. not merely action, 29. not merely knowledge, 26. requires more than action for its ex pression, 32. scope of the word, and distinction between it and other terms, 26. seeks to manifest itself symbolically in terms aud imagery, 32. Eeligion, Philosophy of, German Utera ture, 89. EeUgious disposition essential to the right interpretation of the Bible, 240. Eeligious disposition the only one that can apprehend a religious writer, 240. Eeligious doctrine, superiority of the teach ing of, to law and art, 20. Eeligious f eeling : becomes a steadfast disposition through conscience, 40. connects itself with the understand ing and the will, 38. common to a community, 43. is aided by the imagination, 38. not identical with moral feeling, 3^. not mere sensibility, 84. not resolvable into conscience, 40. Vol. III. Eeligious feeling : not the same as testhetic feeling, 34. school and home culture of, 73. synthesis of, with our other faculties, 37. the root of the religious Ufe, 39. twofold character in, 36. Religious teacher, the : position as to other teachers, 24. threefold task of the, 42. Remonstrants, the, 248. Renaissance of learning prepared the way for the Reformation, 28. Renan's Life of Christ, 278. Reuchlin the restorer of Hebrew learning, 164. Eevelation, a belief in, requires criticism of the historical books of the Bible, 263. Eoman Catholicism, mechanical liturgy of, 502. Eoman Catholic dogmatists, 447. Eoman Catholic encyclopaedia, 186. Roman Catholic ethics, 464. Roman Catholic theologians, scientific character of, 46. Roman Catholic writers on homUetics, 543. Eoman Empire, overthrow of the Western, forms an epoch in secular his tory, 300. Eosenkranz's threefold division of positive theology, 140. Eubrics, 298. Sacraments, the Church and the, 484. doctrine of the Church can only be understood through the doctrine of Christ, 435. faith the connecting medium, 436. Sacred history, place of, 262. Sacred writings : integrity of, necessary to their canon ical reception, 207. not the exclusive property of a priest ly order, 45. Salvation not dependent on subtleties, 439. Sanctification, 433. Saumur and Basle, the theologians of, 125. Schleiermacher : desired that phUosophy and theology should remain distinct, 76. did not advocate mere sensibility, 34. division of positive theology by, 140. dogmatics of, 445. definition of dogmatics by, 400. early life nourished in piety, 17. his aim as to philosophy, 76. his definition of the term reUgion. 26. his system of ethics, 460. sn INDEX. Schleiermacher : his preaching, introduced new life into the method of, 539. his treatment of Old Testament, 162. made encyclopaedia independent, 182. objection to his deflnition of dogmat ics, 401. relations of apologetics and polemics, his definition of the, 417. reserved for hira to allay the conflict between rationalism and super naturalism, 101. services of, to catechetics, 497. the whole of theology greatly indebt ed to, 10. Schleiermacher and Herder, new direction given to theology by, 101. Scholar, every, should be familiar with the history of the Church, the Ref ormation, and Protestantism in his country, 810. School and home culture of religious feel ing, 73. Scholasticism and mysticism, 442. Schoolmen and positive tlieologians, the quarrel between, 74. School, the, must not be bolted out of the Church, 47. Schweizer : arrangement of practical theology by, 479. defect of his division of practical theology, 480. dogmatical system of, 424. Science and leamed pedantry, difference between, 11. Sciences auxiliary to Church historv, 343. Sciences auxiliary to exegesis, 159. Sciences, the natural, acquaintance with important, 71. Sciences, the practical, auxiliary to exe getical theology, 175. Scientific instruction can only be conveyed in connected discourse, 62. Scientific spirit, dangers of the excess of the, 69. Scripture history,' Christ's life the center of, 271. Scripture lessons, proper reading of, highly essential, 514. Scriptures, the : considered as the object of exegesis, 147. Origen's threefold sense of, 247. when interpreted to be practically ap pUed, 241. Self training, helps to, 244. Semitic languages, 161. Semler, beginning with, of the rational criticism, 215. Vol. III. Semler and Mosheim, contributions of, to encyclopaedia, 128. Sensationalism and Idealism, both un christian, 88. Sensibility, religious feeling not mere, 34. Sermon, the : a testimony to Christ, 523. defects of first sermons, 533. effect of a sermon should be studied by the preacher, 530. essential element of Protestant wor ship, an, 506. fanciful divisions of, 537. history of the Christian sermon, 536. not a lecture, 522. not to become a mere intellectual dis course, 24. place of tlie sermon in worship, 507. prayer and singing should precede and foUow the, 508. relation of the sermon to the congre gation, 523. sermonic division, 528. should be mentally constructed,, 529. should be sustained by the whole economy of the worship, 504. the delivery of, 528. useless ornament in to be avoided, 529. Seventeenth century, theology in the, 100. Sin and repentance religious-ethical ideas, 31. Sin, the doctrine of, 428. Singing and prayer as forms of worship, 508. Singing, the preacher's relation to the, 514. Society, the Church not merely a, 295. Socrates and Christ, parallels between, 277. Soteriology, 431. Christ the mediator, 432. justification and sanctification, 433. subjective soteriology, 432. Spanish Jews, grammatical studies revived by, 163. Special Theological Encyclopaedia, 146. Specialty, devotion to a, should not begin too early, 15. Spener : contributions to theological encyclo paedia, 126. pietism of, 290. value of the work of, 127. Spurious works in the early Church, 204. Statistics, ecclesiastical, 390. best source for, 391. history must furnisli statistics, 891. text-books in, 392. travel, shallow books of, 392. Strauss : mythical theory of the life of Christ, 277. INDEX. 598 Strauss : numberless works issued in reply to, 278. ^ Strife, the old, in its newer forms, 102. Student, the : relation of, to rationalistic tendencies, 107. self-training of the student in exege sis, 244. teacher and student, relations of, 55. Supernaturalism, orthodoxy not to be con founded with, 440. Supernaturalism and Rationalism : approaches of, to each other, 101. literature of the conflict, 109. Sweden, theological encyclopaedia in, 134. Symbolics : a broad science to-day, 383. definition of, 380. integral part of the history of doc trines, an, 380. literature, 384. Lutheran and Reformed views, oppo sition between, 384. Lutheran symbols, 381. origin of modern symbols, 383. pragmatic method of discussing, 383. principal symbols, the three, of the Church, 381. relation of symbolics to the history of doctrines, 382. symbol, first and later office of, 380. Synonymes, Greek, of the New Testament, 175. Synthesis of religious feeling with our other faculties, 87. Syriac, knowledge of, useful to the theo logian, 168. Systematic and historical theology, relative positions of, 144. Systematic Theology, 394. Teacher, the : qualifications of the religious, 44. religious teacher, the, must he pene trated by reUgious principle, 42. student and teacher, relations of, 56. Teachers : an order of, necessary to the culture of mankind, 20. not an isolated order of society, 19. order of teachers, the, highest in so ciety, 18. 'Teaching function, the : superiority of, to law and art iUus trated, 22. more prominent in Protestantism than in Romanism, 23. Teaching, relation of, to art and legisla tion, 19. Testaments, the Old and the New : differences in the scope of, 157. Vol. III. 38 Testaments, the Old and the New : relations of, 151. Text, a pure, indispensable, 208. Text-books, elementary, 166. Texts, the, conditions necessary for proper, 526. Thamer, Theobald, the Adhortatio of, 122. Theistic method, the, in Church history, 805. Theologian, the : a knowledge of Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic useful to, 168. Hebrew, a knowledge of, indispensa ble to, 163. qualities which should be united in the, 61. relation of the theologian to school and Church, 50. uses of mathematical knowledge to the, 70. obliged to give attention to human matters, 62. personal character in, necessity of a pure and well-endowed, 403. should be thoroughly familiar with the Scriptures, 121. Theologians and practical Church teachers, how distinguished, 46. Theologians, scientific, and pastors co- related, 46. Theologians, testimonies of great, 108. Theologians, the, of Saumur and Basle, 125. Theological doctrine, philosophy cannot originate, 81. Theological empiricism, 12. Theological Encyclopaedia : both general and special aim to con centrate tbe mental faculties, 8. definition of, 7. demand for a proper science of, 8. differs from the Eeal Eneyclopsedia, or Dictionary, 9. German Catholic works on, 137. history and literature of, 118. history of, noticed, 8. in Holland, France, Sweden, England, and America, 134. its position, 7. missions as treated in, 50. relation of, to the body of theological science twofold, 10. separate contributions to, 138. Spener's contributions to, 126. treated in the spirit of HegeUanism, 133. Theological heads, 420. Theological learning rests on a classical basis, 67. Theological school, the, and the clergy, 46. Theological Science : in the early Christian Church, 63. 594 INDEX. Theological Science : must achieve its results through the Word, 14. true method of making it practical, 14. Theological spirit of the reformers, 99. Theological student, true spirit of the, 44. Theological study will increase faith, 108. Theological tendencies : in England in the eighteenth century, 106. in the early Church, 98. in the Middle Ages, 99. in the seventeenth century, 1 00. Theological thought, bias of, 98. Theologus, the, of Andrew Gerhard, 123. Theology : angeioiogy and demonoiogy, 426. approached by many with false ex pectations, 107. as a positive science, 68. as a practical art, 61. as related to the preparatory sciences, 66. centurial division of, wrong, 299. conditions of a fully developed the ology, 46. Danz's division of, into a religious and a Churchly science, 140. departments in theology, remote be ginning of, 405> departments of theology, and their relation to each other, 139. does not stand or fall with any one system of philosophy, 83. great influence of Herder upon, 129. has never been able to separate itself from philosophy, 78. historical development, 62. historical and exegetical theology, re lations of, 261. influence of the Woiflan philosophy on, 66. Middle Age sense of the word, 63. Nosselt's Introduction to, 130. not bound to any one philosophy, 82. origin of formal Christian theology, 64. origin of the term, 62. premonitions of a vocation to, 18. relation of to the arts and general culture, 72. relations of, with law and medicine, 60. relations of, to phUosophy, 74. • religious element of a doctrine should be prominent, 426. representatives of the recent theolo gy, 102. the Mystic tendency in, 104. Vol. in. Theology, Historical: worldly motives for the study of, not sufficient, 16. archaeology, 388. doctrines, history of, 368. doctrinal history, province of, 360. general history, elastic treatment of, necessary, 362. history and revelation, problem of, 360. missions, literature of, 356. missions, history of, 355. Theology, Pastoral : biographies, value of reUgious, to the student, 553. business forms, the pastor should have acquaintance with, 551. charities, the pastor as related to, 547. Christ the first instructor in, 553. congregation as a whole, relation of the pastor to the, 547. English and American literature of, 554. Erasmus Sarcerius, the Pastorale of, 553. experience, how it may be utilized by the pastor, 546. family, relation of the pastor to the, 548. history of, 553. indefiniteness of the term, 545. irreligious masses, problem of reach ing the, 548. literature of Pasttiral Theology, 686. method of, 551. objects of pastoral theology, 544. pastor, the, the head of the congre gation, 547. pastoral duties best learned from ex perience, 546. pastoral duties divided into three de partments, 546. pastorate, aids to a preparation for the, 561. pedagogics in relation to, 550. people, personal relation of the pastor to the, 547. practical sciences auxiliary to, 550. practioal training, what shall be done to furnish a, 652. preacher distinguished from pastor by Harms, 545. scientific pursuits among the clergy, best means of preserving, 566. special events — Marriage, Baptism, and Death — position of the pas tor in relation to, 548. wasteful occupations of pastors, 565. Theology, Practical : all modes of division important, 478. catechetical methods, 488. INDEX. 595 Theology, Practical : catechetics, 486. categories of, 478. clerical life, practical side of, 475. completes the theological course, 474. definition of, 472. former restriction of, 475. Harms's scheme of, 481. historical basis, of, 474. history of, 482. homiletics, 519. literature of, 484. liturgics, 498. Marheineke's distribution of, 480. method of treatment, 478. methodology of, 513. Moll's method, 481. necessity of emphasis on the prac tical side of clerical duties, 477. rationalistic teaching of, 483. Eeformers, works of the, 482. relation of the preacher to practical theology and other departments, 478. Schweizer's division of, 480. scientific character of, 473. systems of Nitzsch and others, 479. universities. Practical Theology in the, 483. worship, forms of, and their relation to art, 506. worship, the theory of, — liturgics, 498. Theology, Systematic : anthropology, 427. apologetics, 403. Calixtus emancipated ethics from dog matics, 397. Christian ethics as a part of, 453. Christianity destined to develop into a system, 394. Christology, 429. Christ's work the basis of ethics, 467. Church and the sacraments, the, 436. dogmatics, 399. dogmatics and ethics, difference be tween, 897. dogmatics, history of, 442. dogmatic interest, predominance of the, 896. dogmatics, method of, 420. dogmatics, object of, 395. ecclesiastical dogmatics, 395. eschatology, 436. methodology of, 468. orthodoxy and heterodoxy, 440. polemics and ironies, 413. soteriology, 431. theology, meaning of, 424. Trinity, the, and predestination, 438. Vol. III. Theology and Astronomy, not necessarily related, 71. Theology and Philosophy, eariy relations of, 64. Theology, Pastoral : Uterature, 544. Thirty Years' War, the, 301. Threefold sense of Scripture, Origen's, 247. Tractarian movement in the United States, 106. Tractarian movement, the, 106. " Tracts for the Times," the, 105. Training, general, must precede special, 16. Tregelles, basis of his text, 217. Trinity and Predestination ; salvation not dependent on subtleties, 439. Trinity less emphasized than God's relation to man, 439. Tiibingen School, the : destructive efforts of, 284. elder, the, 290. Tiibingen tendency critics, 216. United States, the Wesleyan revival in the, 106. Universities, the rise of, 61. University, the, 52. University lecture system, the, 52. Utility of oral discussion, 54. Value of Spener's work, 127. Vocation, choice of the theological, 15. Vocation to theology, premonitions of a, IS. Wesleyan, revival, the, 106. in the United States, 106. Westphalia, peace of, 800. Wissenschaftskunde, Eschenburg the first to employ the title, 8. Wolf opposed by the Pietists, 76. Wolfenbiittel assault, the, on historical Christianity, 65. Wolfenbiittel Fragmentist, the, 276. Wolfian philosophy, influence of, on The ology, 65. Woiflan school, the : homiletical writers, 642. Works, a mechanical doing of, no» reUg ion, 30. Worldly motives for the study of theolo gy not sufficient, 16. Worship altogether an expression of tbe feeUngs, 40. architecture, sacred, as related to Protestant worship, 509. Christian worship developed from the Jewish, 516. elements of worship, 606. eucharistic element, the, 506. 596 INDEX. Worship : forms of worship and their relation to art, 606. music in worship, 609. opportunity for attending pubUc wor ship when traveling should never be neglected, 514. < prayer and singing, 60S. service, the order of, 508. Vol. in. Worship : sermon, place of, in the, 607. singing and prayer, 508. theory of worship, 498. Writing both profitable and improving, 55. Writings, the sacred, accessible to all, 45. Zwingle more nearly related to rationalism than Calvin, 99. THE END. wWtrri ami ^ ISSUED UNDER THE EDITORIAL SUPERVISION OF GEO. E. CROOKS, D.D., and JOHN F. HURST, D.D. The Series will comprise the following Treatises : INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. By Henry M. Harman, D.D. (Revised Edition.) Svo. 84. BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. By Milton S. Terry, D.D. 8vo. ^i. THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA AND METHODOLOGY. By Drs. Crooks and Hurst. BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN ARCHEOLOGY. By Charles W. Bennett, D.D., and George H. Whitney, D.D. SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY. By James E. Latimer, D.D. EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY. By Henry B. Ridgavitay, D.D. HISTORY OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE. (Two Volumes.) By George R. Crooks, D.D. HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH. (Two Volumes.) By John F. Hurst, D.D. CHRISTIAN THEISM AND MODERN SPECULATIVE THOUGHT. By Prof. Charles J. Little, Ph.D. PHILLIPS & HUNT, Publishers, 80S Broadway, New York. NIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 08844 7389