YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

From the Estate of
Professor Gustav Grulner

Wt ^fatotfcal Bible
THE HEROES AND CRISES
OF
EARLY HEBREW HISTORY
FROM THE CREATION TQ THE DEATH OF MOSES,

THE HISTORICAL BIBLE
By CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Ph.D.
Professor of Biblical Literature in Yale University

ARRANGEMENT OF VOLUMES:
I. The Heroes and Crises of Early Hebrew His-
tory. From the Creation to the Death of
Moses. (Beady.)
II. The Founders and Rulers of United Israel.
From the Death of Moses to the Division
of the Hebrew Kingdom. (Ready.)
III. The Kings and Prophets of Israel and Judah.
From the Division of the Kingdom to the
Babylonian Exile.
IV. The Leaders and Teachers of Post -Exilic
Judaism. From the Fall of Jerusalem to
the Beginning of the Christian Era.
V. The Life and Teachings of Jesus. In the
Light of the Earliest Records.
VI. The Work and Teachings of the Apostles.
From the Death of Jesus to the End of
the First Century.

15 3«

me ItJistorkal IBidle

THE HEROES AND CRISES
OF
EAR1T HEBREW HISTORY
FROM THE CREATION TO THE DEATH OF MOSES

BY
CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Ph.D.
WOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN TALE UNIVERSITY

WITH MAPS

NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1909

Copyright, 1908, by
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS

PREFACE
Every man consciously or unconsciously makes his own working
canon of the Bible. Sometimes this working canon includes every
thing that is found in the Scriptures, irrespective of relative values;
sometimes it is pitiably limited, and fails to include many exceedingly
important passages. To use the Bible intelligently and profitably it is
important to realize that it is a great library, containing many different
books, written by a great variety of authors, who lived in periods widely
remote, and who wrote with diverse aims and points of view. Over
twelve centuries lie between Moses and Paul, and each century contrib
uted its part to the gradually growing records of God's revelation of
his character and will in the experiences, the hearts and the minds of men.
The men of later ages, who have given us our present canons of the
Old and the New Testaments, in their zeal to preserve all the existing
records, included certain writings, which possess only a secondary
historical and religious value. Sometimes, as in the case of the Gos
pels, they have also preserved three or four distinct yet parallel records
of the same events; and sometimes, as in the case of the opening books
of the Old Testament, they have closely blended together the older and
later records into one continuous narrative.
The great service of modern, constructive biblical scholarship has
been to distinguish and to restore the older records to their original form,
and to make it possible again to study the heroic characters and stirring
events in Israel's history as recorded by the earliest historians. In
simplicity, literary beauty and historical value, the oldest history of
Israel far surpasses the work of the later biblical historians. It includes
practically all of the peerless narratives which have commanded the at
tention and moulded the faith and morals of humanity. When the
later distracting parallels, the genealogical tables, the later Jewish tra
ditions regarding the origin of institutions, and the popular legendary

PREFACE
material have been removed, there remains the heart of the Bible — clear,
consistent, the earliest and noblest record of God's revelation of him
self in the life of humanity.
The aim of the Historical Bible is to make this older, vital record
available for popular reading and study. It also aims to arrange and
combine with the earliest historical record the more important songs,
prophetic addresses, laws, psalms, proverbs and epistles, so that the
biblical writers will present in their own language the literature, history
and religious belief of each succeeding age. This arrangement makes
it possible to study the character, work and message of each great prophet,
sage, or apostle in the full light of the events and conditions amidst
which he lived and labored.
The translation is based on the oldest and best readings of the He
brew, Greek, Syriac and Latin texts, and seeks to embody the construc
tive results of modern scholarship and discovery. It also aims to retain
all that is best in the classic Authorized Version. It is hoped that by
the means of a simple, dignified idiomatic translation the student may
be directly introduced to the thought of the original writers and thus
be largely relieved from the necessity of constantly referring to com
mentaries. The textual basis and the reasons for the different render
ings adopted will be found in the corresponding sections of the author's
Student's Old Testament.
The earlier system of dividing the text into sections and paragraphs
has been adopted. The chapter and verse references, first added in
the sixteenth century a.d., have been omitted because they distract the
attention of the reader, and because they often make misleading divisions
of the text. Those teachers and readers who desire to verify the chapter
and verse references will find them printed in connection with the text
in the corresponding sections of the Student's Old Testament, to which
detailed reference is made in the Table of Contents.
To each general section of the biblical text have been added such
brief connected historical, geographical and archaeological notes as are
necessary for the intelligent understanding of the biblical records.
The purpose throughout has been to fix the attention on the biblical
text itself and to put the reader in possession of those facts which are
essential to its full understanding and appreciation.
The Historical Bible is intended for use, (1) as a text-book for college,
seminary and preparatory school classes; (2) as a manual for teachers'
training classes; (3) as a basis of study for general readers who desire
to gain from the modern point of view a systematic knowledge of the

PREFACE
history, literature and teachings of the Bible; (4) as a text-book for senior
and adult Bible classes.
For many years the conviction has been deepening that, if the alert
young men and women of to-day are to be held in the Bible schools,
they must be launched at the critical age of sixteen or seventeen upon a
systematic course of Bible study which will hold their interest and at
tention, answer their critical questions, and give them the constant in
spiration of definite and progressive achievement.
To give definiteness to the study a selected group of questions, with
references for further study in connection with each section, are given
in the Appendix. There is also being prepared for the use of Sunday-
school teachers a special manual with suggestions regarding the method
of presentation and application of the practical truths and principles
illustrated by each general section.
To Mr. Charles Scribner I am under great obligation for many valu
able suggestions in developing the plan of the series, and to Miss Ruth
D. Sherrill and to Professor Irving F. Wood, of Smith College, for aid
in revising the proofs.
C. F. K.
Yale University.
May, 1908.

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

I. The Old Testament World.

I. The Influence of Environment. — II. The Scene of Early
Human History. — III. The Lower Tigris-Euphrates Valley.
— IV. Mesopotamia. — V. Syria and Palestine. — VI. The Nile
Valley. — VII. The First Chapter in Divine Revelation. —
VIII. The Original Home of the Semites. — IX. Semitic Races
of Arabia and Africa. — X. Babylonians and Assyrians. —
XI. Arameans. — XII. Amorites and Canaanites. — XIII. Am
monites, Moabites and Edomites. — XIV. Hebrews.
II. The Babylonian Background of Early Hebrew His
tory  5
I. The Dawn of History. — II. Early Babylonian Systems of
Writing. — III. Different Industries. — IV. Merchants and Com
merce. — V. Effect of Commerce on Institutions. — VI. Scien
tific Knowledge. — VII. Organization of Society. — VIII. Period
of Small City States. — IX. Period of Unification and Expan
sion. — X. Supremacy of Babylon. — XI. Effects of Hammu
rabi's Policy. — XII. Decline of Babylonia and Rise of Assyria.
HI. The Egyptian Background  10
I. The Beginnings of Egyptian History. — II. The Fourth
Dynasty.— III. The Twelfth Dynasty.— IV. Rule of the Hyk-
sos. — V. The Victorious Eighteenth Dynasty. — VI. The Nine
teenth Dynasty.— VII. The Transitional Twelfth Century B.C.
IV. The Early Palestinian Background  13
I. Data Concerning Early Syria and Palestine. — II. Early
Babylonian Influence. — III. Pre-Semitic Inhabitants of Pales
tine. — IV. The Amorite Migration. — V. Story of Sinuhit. —
VI. Origin of the Canaanites. — VII. Egyptian Conquest of Pal
estine. — VIII. Egyptian Rule in Palestine. — IX. Testimony
of theel-Amama Letters. — X. Letters from Jerusalem. — XI.
The Habiri.— XII. Decline of Egyptian Power.— XIII. Israel's
Heritage. is

CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
V. Israel's Religious Heritage  18
I. Prominence of Religion in Early Semitic Life. — II. The
Semitic Instinct for Religion. — III. Early Semitic Religion. —
TV. The Many Local Gods. — V. Development of the Pan
theon. — VI. Transfer of the Religious Centre to Palestine. —
VII. Religion of the Canaanites. — VIII. Israel's Religious
Heritage.
VI. The Oldest History of Israel  21
I. The Gradual Growth of the Early Historical Books.
— II. Evidences of Their Composite Character. — III. Contents
of the Oldest History. — IV. Its Literary Characteristics. —
V. Its Religious and Ethical Ideas. — VI. Its Purpose and
Value.— VII. Its Sources.— VIII. The Place of Its Composi
tion. — IX. Its Date. — X. Later Additions.
VII. The Later Parallel Histories  26
I. The Northern Prophetic History. — II. Its Purpose. —
III. Its Contents. — IV. Blending of the Two Prophetic His
tories. — V. Point of View of Later Judaism. — VI. The Late
Priestly History. — VII. The Final Blending of the Prophetic
and Priestly Histories. — VIII. The Heart of the Old Testa
ment.
THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN HISTORY
§ I. The Story of Man's Creation  31
Gen. 2">-». "-a (St. O. T., I, § 2).
I. Literary Form and Character of the Story. — II. The
Original Introduction to the Biblical Story. — III. Man's
Creation. — IV. Traditional Site of the Garden of Eden.
— V. The Provisions for Man's Higher Needs. — VI. Aim
and Teachings of the Story. — VII. The Oldest Baby
lonian Account of Creation. — VIII. The Later Babylon
ian Version. — IX. The Later Biblical Account of the
Creation. — X. Other Creation Stories. — XI. The Tree
of Life.— XII. The Tree of Knowledge.— XIIL The
Story of Eabani.
§ II. Man's Sin and Its Consequences  37
Gen. 2!«-31!l- 2S- 21 (St. O. T., I, § 2).
I. Literary Form and Origin of the Story. — II. The
Character of the Serpent.— III. The Real Nature of
Temptation and Sin. — IV. The Effects of Sin. — V. The
Element of Hope.— VI. Aim and Teachings of the
Story.
§ HI. The Story of Cain and Abel  42
Gen. 32°, 4>-»» (St. O. T„ I, § 6).
I. The Background of the Story.— II. Origin of the
Story.— III. The Reason why Cain's Offering was Re-

CONTENTS

jected. — IV. Cain's Crime and its Punishment. —
V. Meaning of the Mark of Cain. — VI. Aim and Teach
ings.
§ IV. The Traditional Origin of Early Semitic Insti
tutions. . 46
Gen. 426'b. 26. 1. 2b. 17-23. 52s, 920.20 (St.O.T.,I, §§3-5).
I. Literary Form and Character. — II. Origin of the
Genealogical List. — III. Babylonian and Phoenician
Traditions Regarding the Origin of the Arts. — IV. In
terpretation of the Genealogical List. — V. Origin of the
Enoch Tradition. — VI. The Lamech Stories. — VII.
Meaning of the Earliest Tradition Regarding Noah.
— VIII. Aim and Teachings.
§V. The Story of the Great Flood. 52
Gen. 61-822, 9*-" (St. O. T., I, §§ 7, 8).
I. Literary Form of the Flood Story. — II. Origin of
the Story Regarding the Sons of God and the Daughters
of Men.— III. Ancient Parallels— IV. The Oldest Baby
lonian Story of the Flood. — V. Similarity Between the
Oldest Babylonian and the Oldest Hebrew Accounts.
— VI. The Later Babylonian Version. — VII. Similar
ity and Contrast Between the Later Babylonian and
Hebrew Versions. — VIII. History of the Common Sem
itic Flood Story. — IX. Transmission of the Babylon
ian Story to the Hebrews. — X. Flood Stories Among
Other Peoples. — XI. Meaning of the Story Concerning
the Sons of God. — XII. Interpretations of the Oldest
Biblical Story. — XIII. Aim and Teachings.
§ VI. The Traditional Origin of the Nations . . 65
Gen. II1-8, 918"- '*», 10">, 9I9b- W», 108-16"- ">¦ »•• *¦ 2?-30
(St.O. T.,'l,§§ 9,10).
I. The Two Explanations of the Origin of Languages
and Races. — II. Origin of the Story of the Tower of
Babel.— III. Meaning of the Story of the Tower of
Babel. — IV. The Hamitic Races. — V. Nimrod the
Mighty Hunter. — VI. The Old Babylonian and Assyr
ian Empires.— VII. The Egyptians.— VIII. The Ca-
naanite Races. — IX. The Hebrews and Their Arabian
Kinsmen. — X. Aim and Teachings.

TRADITIONAL ANCESTORS OF THE HEBREWS
j VII. Abraham's Call and Settlement in Canaan. . . 73
Gen. II28- B, 121-4"- '-8, 132- •¦ Bb- **¦ 8"u- I2b' I3' Is (St.
O. f., I, §§ 11, 12, 15, 16).
I. Literary Form of the Abraham Stories. — II. Origin
of the Stories. — III. Abraham in Later Jewish Tradi
tions.— IV. The Prophetic Element.— V. The Two
xi

CONTENTS
PAGE
Names.— VI. The Home of Abraham.— VII. The Di
vine Promise. — VIII. The Sanctuaries Associated with
Abraham. — IX. Lot's Choice. — X Historical Signifi
cance of the Stories. — XI. Aim and Teachings.
§ VIII. The Promise of a Son to Sarah  79
Gen. lls°, 16">- 2. J-u, 181-16 (St. O. T., I, §§ 18, 19).
I. Literary Form and Origin. — II. Meaning of the
Story of Hagar and Ishmael. — III. Abraham's Divine
Guests. — IV. Historical Significance of the Stories. —
V. Aim and Teachings.
§ IX. The Destruction of Sodom  84
Gen. 1816- *>-&, 19i-28- ">¦ «¦ '» (St. O. T., I, §§ 20, 21).
I. Origin of the Tradition. — II. Interpretation of the
Story. — III. Sites of the Cities of the Plain. — IV. His
torical Significance of the Story. — V. Aim and Teach
ings.
§ X. Birth and Sacrifice of Isaac  90
Gen. 21>»- 2*- ', 22'-" (St. O. T., I, §§ 22, 23).
I. The Institution of Human Sacrifice. — II. Parallels to
the Story. — III. Meaning of the Biblical Story. — IV.
Aim and Teachings.
§ XI. Securing a Wife for Isaac  94
Gen. 222°-2<, 241-", 256- ¦• llb, 24«-«, 232 (St. O. T., I,
§§ 24, 25, 26).
I. Literary Form of the Story. — II. Abraham's Faithful
Servant. — III. His Successful Mission. — IV. The Re
turn. — V. Historical Significance of the Story. — VI.
Aim and Teachings.
§ XII. Jacob and His Brother Esau  101
Gen. 25a-28a- 27»°- «•-», 27u- •• 8- <•>¦ »b. ». 7ao. is. isb-20.
24.27. 22ac. 30ao. 31b-34. 41b-42. 43b. -15a (g£ O T I $$ 28 29
30).  SS ' '
I. Jacob's Efforts to Supplant Esau. — II. Jacob's Base
Deception. — III. The Underlying Tribal History. —
IV. Significance of the Portrait of Jacob. — V. Aim and
Teachings.
§ XIII. Jacob's Experiences as a Fugitive  107
Gen. 28">-a», 29<-Jt, 309-»- 1-6. 17-25. w. mji,. Bt). „_j9
«¦» (St. O. T., I, §§ 31, 32, 33, 34).
I. The Divine Promise.— II. The Vision at Bethel —
III. The Wooing and Winning of Rachel.— IV. Jacob's
Family.— V. His Dealings with Laban.— VI. Historical
Significance of the Stories. — VII. Aim and Teachings.
xii

CONTENTS

§XIV. Jacob's Return to Canaan  115
Gen. 31'- 3- "¦ 18"- 2Uc- 23. 25b. 27. 90. 32-40. «. 4B-59. si-ei.
323-Ia. 13b -22 a. 23b -29. 31-32 33I-IJ. 18ao. 19. 20 (gt 6 T i'
§§36-41).I. Jacob's Flight from Laban. — II. The Supreme Crisis
in Jacob's Life. — III. The Meeting with Esau. — IV. The
Historical Facts Back of the Stories. — V. Aim and
Teachings.
§ XV. Joseph Sold by His Brothers Into Egypt  121
Gen. 373b-u»- «•-»»• '">• "-2»- 28i>- »-», 39>-23 (St. O T , I,
§§45, 46).
I. General Characteristics of the Joseph Stories. —
II. Joseph, the Spoiled Child. — III. Joseph's Tempta
tion. — IV. The Character of Joseph and Its Significance.
§ XVI. Joseph Made Governor of Egypt  127
Gen. 40<-23, 41'-«- 1HS- «• «-", 4718-28 (St. O. T., I,
§§ 47-50).
I. Dramatic Contrasts in the Story of Joseph. — II. The
Prisoner Raised to High Authority. — III. Aim and
Teachings.
§ XVII. Joseph and His Brothers   =  134
Gen. 421-26* 29-35. 28b. re. 37. 4314. i-7f 4288. 438-13. 16-34. 441*.
sac-a 451-2U (St. O. T., I,' §§ 51, 52).
I. Literary Beauty of the Story. — II. Joseph's Test of
His Brothers. — III. The Crucial Test of Joseph's Char
acter. — JV. Teachings of the Story.
§ XVIII. Joseph's Loyalty to His Kinsmen  ,  143
Gen. 452lB- *7». 28, 46la* 28-M, 47' -*- 6b- is. 27a. 29-31. 482b.
»b. 10a. 13-19. 33bc, 501-H- 14-23 '(gt. 6. T., I, §§ 53-57).
I. Joseph's Provision for His Kinsmen. — II. Israel's
Dying Blessing. — III. The Various Elements in the
Joseph Stories. — IV. Archaeological Exactness of the
Joseph Stories. — V. The Josephs of Egyptian History.
— VI. The Age at Which Joseph Lived. — VII. The
Primary Value of the Patriarchal Stories.
THE BONDAGE AND DELIVERANCE FROM EGYPT?

§XIX. The Oppression of the Hebrews in Egypt  151
Ex. Is- ">• 8-u- "»• Mb- aJa (St. O. T., I, § 58).
I. The Stories Regarding the Bondage and Exodus. —
II. The Serf Class in Egypt.— III. The Discovery of
Pithom.— TV. The Pharaoh of the Exodus.— V. The
Absence of References to the Hebrews in Egypt. —
VI. Duration of the Sojourn. — VII. The Hebrew Tribes
in Egypt.— VIII. The Effects of the Egyptian Sojourn.
xiij

CONTENTS
PAGE
§ XX. Moses's Childhood and Training  I57
Ex. 2' B (St. O. T., §§ 59, 60).
I. The Moses Stories.— II. Moses's Birth and Early
Training. — III. The Great Crisis in MoBes's Life. —
IV. The Origin of the Jehovah Religion. — V. Influ
ence of the Wilderness Life upon Moses. — VI. Aim and
Teachings of the Stories.
§ XXI. Moses's Call to Deliver the Hebrews  161
Ex. 2Ma 419- 20a- 24*26, 32- 3- 4a0- B- 7- 8a* IB" 17a0" l8» 41*12,
31. Ibb. «. 916. 19. 20. 22Sb-25. 6212, 71"6, 429-31. 53. 6-23. gl
(St." O. T., I, §§ 61,' 62).
I. The Three Different Accounts of Moses's Call and
Commission. — II. The Earliest Version. — III. The
Later Prophetic and Priestly Versions. — IV. The Di
vine Assurance. — V. The Underlying Facts.
§ XXII. The Egyptian Plagues  169
EX. 7U- 16- I7a- ls- 21a- M- 25, 81-4- 8-1Ba- 20 32. Ql-7. 13. 17. 18.
23b. 24b. 2Sb-30. 33-34 101a. 3b-U. 13b. 14b. 16ae. 16-19. 24-23. 28. 29.
H4-8. 1221 .23. 27b. 29-34 (gt. O. T., I, §§ 64-71).
I. The Different Groups of Plague Stories. — II. The
Oldest Account of the Plagues. — III. The Egyptian
Background of the Plagues. — IV. Historical Facts
Underlying the Plague Stories. — V. The Significance of
the National Calamities. — VI. The Traditional Origin
of the Passover.
§ XXIII. The Exodus  179
EX. 1237b'39 1321-22, 145 6- 7b- 10a' u-u- 19b- 20b. 21b. 24b. 2S.
27b.' 28b. 80, 151-10 (gt. O. T.. I, §§ 72-73).
I. The Triple Tradition of the Exodus. — II. The Num
ber of the Hebrews. — III. Their Probable Route. — IV.
The Method of Travel in the Wilderness. — V. The
Great Deliverance. — VI. Similar Natural Phenomena.
— VII. The Song of Thanksgiving. — VIII. Significance
of the Great Deliverance.

THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS AND EAST OF THE
JORDAN
§ XXIV. The Revelation and Covenant at Sinai  185
EX. 1522-2Sa.37. 161a, 192b. llb-13. 18. 20-22. 2S. 341.4.6b. 10a. II,.
14a. 17. 18a. 19a. 21a. 22ao. 26. 28-28 197. 8 241. 2. 9-11 (gt Q T
I, §§ 74-76).
I. The Records of the Revelation and Covenant at Sinai
—II. The March Through the Desert.— III. The Situ
ation of Mount Sinai.— IV. Nature of the Revelation
at Sinai.— V. Meaning of the Covenant in Ancient
Semitic Life.— VI. The Giving of the Law at Sinai.—
xiv

CONTENTS
PAGE
VII. The Original Decalogue.— VIII. The Duty of
Loyalty to Jehovah.— IX. The Seventh Day of Rest.
— X. Ceremonial Laws. — XI. The History of the Oldest
Decalogue.
§ XXV. Man's Individual Duties to God and Man. . . 194
Ex. 20s- *•¦ '•• 8- «a- "-»» (St. O. T., I, § 76).
I. The Character of the Prophetic Decalogue. — II. Its
Literary History.— III. The Parallel Version in Deu
teronomy 5. — IV. The Real Character of the Deca
logue in Exodus 20. — V. Date and Authorship of the
Decalogue in Exodus 20. — VI. Meaning of the Different
Commands. — VII. The Law of the Sabbath.— VIII.
The Obligation to Parents. — IX. Obligations to
Others.
§ XXVI. Moses's Work as Judge and Prophet  198
Ex. 18>-2', 338-u (St. O. T., I, §§ 79-81).
I. Moses's Activity as Tribal Judge. — II. Moses's Re
lation to Hebrew Legislation. — III. The Tent of Meet
ing. — IV. Moses's True Prophetic Character.
§ XXVH. The Life of the Hebrews in the Wilderness . . 204
Num. 31. d. e. 26. 36. H4-8. 10b>- 10a. 11 -IS. 18-23. 24a. 31-36 1216
Ex. 17»- *>• »"¦ •->« (St. O. T„ I, §§ 86-89).
I. The Records of the Life in the Wilderness. — II. Geo
graphical Background. — III. The Life of the Wilder
ness. — IV. Duration of the Sojourn. — V. Tribal Or
ganization. — VI. The Tradition of the Manna. — VII.
The Battle with the Amalekites.— VIII. The Signifi
cance of the Ark.
§ XXVIII. The Attempt to Enter Canaan from the South 210
Num. 1317-20. 22.24. 26b-81. 33. 14U. I. 4-8. 9b. JJt. I32
Num. 1411-24. 31 -33a. 211, Iglb. 12. 13. 14a. 0. 16.26. 26. 27b. 28-31.
»»¦'¦ (St. O." T.,1, '§§ 90-92).
I. The Natural Approach to Canaan. — II. The Report
of the Spies. — III. Reasons for the Failure. — IV. The
Tribes that Entered Palestine from the South. — V. Re
bellions Against Moses's Authority. — VI. Significance
of the Wilderness Sojourn.
§ XXLX. The Journey from the Wilderness and Balaam's
Prophecy  „  216
Num. 2014-18- «»». Is- m- 21b- 22», 21?b-°- "i>-'6«. 17-20, 22">- ••
6b. 6i. 7. U. 17. 18. 21b-36a. 86. 37b. 39. 2328, 24' -" (St. O. T., I,
§§ 94, 96, 98).
I. Reasons for the Journey. — II. The Journey Around
Edom. — III. The Two Versions of the Balaam Stories.
— IV. The Balaam Oracles.— V. The People of Destiny.

CONTENTS

PAGE

§ XXX. East-Jordan Conquests and Moses's Farewell 224
Num 2121-31, 323»- ¦'¦ «, Dt. 31»- "5- a, 34'«M- «¦ «a- •• "
(St. 6. T., I, §§ 97, 104, 105).
I. Victories over the Amontes. — II. Importance ol tne
East-Jordan Conquest.— III. Moses's Farewell. — IV.
Literary Setting of the Book of Deuteronomy. — V. The
Real Work of Moses.— VI. The Desert Training.
APPENDIX I. The Late Priestly Story of Creation. . 231
APPENDIX II. A Practical Biblical Reference Library 233
APPENDIX III. General Questions and Subjects for
Special Research  236
LIST OF MAPS
The World of Oriental Antiquity  Frontispiece
Pre-Hebrew Canaan in the Light of the Egyptian Monu
ments and the Amarna Letters  to face page 73
The Land of the Exodus and Wilderness Wanderings to face page 185

INTRODUCTION i
THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD
I. The Influence of Environment. The character and history of a
people are largely determined by the nature of the land in which they
live. Mountains, valleys, desert, sea, cold and heat inevitably and in
delibly mould the life of men. The fundamental characteristic of the
Semitic race, to which the Hebrews belong, is its openness to the influ
ence of environment. The striking contrast between the small, wizened
Jew of Jerusalem, who has lived for centuries under an oriental des
potism, and the tall, stalwart Jew of Spain, where conditions have been
more favorable, is a familiar illustration of this susceptibility to external
influences. To understand early biblical history it is therefore neces
sary to know the birthplace and home of the Hebrews and the races
with which they came into closest contact.
II. The Scene of Earliest Human History. No portion of the
earth's surface has more marked and significant characteristics than that
limited territory in southwestern Asia which was the scene of the ear
liest human civilization and the background of Old Testament history.
Its general form is that of a triangle. It is bounded on the west by the
Mediterranean Sea, and on the east by the Zagros Mountains, which
rise on the eastern bank of the Tigris River. Its southern base runs from
the head of the Persian Gulf about twelve hundred miles across the
northern end of the Red Sea and the Nile to the Desert of Sahara. Its
centre is the great Arabian Desert, which occupies nearly half of this
Old Testament world and ever dominated it. Nearly three-fourths of
this entire area is either desert or dry, rocky, treeless pasture land. No
high mountain ranges cut across this vast level expanse, which is
hemmed in on its three sides by sea and mountains and burning sands.
III. The Lower Tigris=Euphrates Valley. In the eastern part of
this natural home of the nomad are the flat, alluvial plains of the lower
1

THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD
Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Here, natural conditions all favored the
development of an early and sturdy civilization. The Tigris, which
flows thirteen hundred, and the Euphrates nearly eighteen hundred miles
from their mountain sources before reaching the sea, brought down each
year rich deposits of earth, and floods of water to irrigate the fertile soil.
The clay of the river banks furnished the bricks from which were made
temples, palaces and fortresses. The channels of the rivers and the
intersecting canals were the highways of the merchant. The attractive
ness of the territory and its exposure to attack on every side forced its
inhabitants early to unite in common defence and to build up a strong
and aggressive civilization.
IV. Mesopotamia. To the north, the Tigris and Euphrates are
separated by the great level plain of limestone and selenite, commonly
known as Mesopotamia. The arid pasture lands gradually merge into
more fertile mountain regions in the north and west. Except, however,
at a few favored sites beside the rivers, this ancient land of Aram simply
supports a wandering, nomadic population. It is the connecting link
between the richly productive lands along the lower waters of the Tigris
and Euphrates, and the series of elevated plateaus and fertile valleys
and coast plains that skirt the Mediterranean Sea.
V. Syria and Palestine. The eastern Mediterranean coast-land,
known in later times as Syria and Palestine, was divided by natural
barriers of desert, river and low mountain range into seven or eight dis
tinct divisions. Each of these had its different products and interests.
No one great river provided the background for a strong, centralized,
conquering civilization. Instead, the Orontes, the longer of its two
chief rivers, after flowing to the north only about one hundred and fifty
miles, finds its way into the Mediterranean; while the Jordan, rising not
far from the Orontes, flows a little over a hundred miles in the opposite
direction to lose itself in the Dead Sea, far below the surface of the earth.
About four hundred miles long from north to south and from seventy-
five to one hundred wide, this little world, like ancient Greece, -was,
by virtue of its peculiar physical contour and character, destined to
support many petty, independent, warring peoples, engaged in a great
variety of occupations, and representing many different stages of civi
lization. VI. The Nile Valley. The third large fertile area in the ancient
Semitic world was the lower Nile valley. That remarkable river, fed
by the melting snows and great lakes in the heart of Africa, flows north
ward over three thousand miles into the Mediterranean! The last
2

THE NILE VALLEY
thousand miles it runs through a desert of rock and shifting sands; but
out of this desert the river, by its deposits of rich black earth, has created
an oasis which man's industry has transformed into a paradise. The
real Egypt of the past, as of to-day, was but a ribbon of fertile river land,
not more than eight thousand square miles in area. Shut in by desert
sands on the east and west, its closest and almost only point of contact
with the outside world was with Asia to the northeast. From northern
Egypt the great highways of commerce ran eastward along the Mediter
ranean, through Canaan and Syria, to the populous valley of the Tigris
and Euphrates.
VII. The First Chapter in Divine Revelation. Thus the encircling
barriers of sea and mountain and desert bound closely together the an
cient Semitic world and protected it from too early or too close contact
with its more barbarous neighbors. Natural conditions along the lower
waters of the Nile in the west, and the Tigris and Euphrates in the east,
fitted these river basins to become the two earliest centres of human
civilization. The favorable physical conditions also largely determined
the character of that civilization. Palestine and Syria, standing midway
between the Arabian desert, Babylonia and Egypt, were clearly destined
in time to receive and absorb the powerful pohtical, social and religious
influences emanating from each of these older centres. In the geograph
ical background of early Hebrew life, therefore, is written in clearest
characters the first and in many ways the most suggestive chapter in the
history of divine revelation.
VIII. The Original Home of the Semites. Northern Arabia ap
pears to have been the original home of the primitive Semites. There
they lived as nomads, roaming, as do their descendants, the modern
Arabs, from place to place in search of water and pasture for their flocks
and herds. Their wandering life made it easy for them, when the desert
steppes did not supply enough to support their increasing numbers, to
pass over and seek permanent homes in the more attractive river valleys
that encircled them. This process of transition began long before the
dawn of history and has gone on without interruption to the present day.
Usually the transition was gradual, but at times great hordes rushed
forth with tlie sword to conquer and rule their more civilized but less
virile agricultural neighbors.
IX. Semitic Races of Arabia and Africa. The fertile plains of
central and southern Arabia doubtless early attracted Semitic immi
grants. There they built up a rich and advanced civilization. It was,
however, so completely isolated that, except through the medium of
3

THE OLD TESTAMENT WORLD
trade, it made little impression on the rest of the ancient world. From
this land later came the Queen of Shefta with her costly gifts. To this
southern group of Semitic races belong the nomadic Arab tribes, the
highly civilized Sabeans, the Mineans and the later Nabatheans. From
southern Arabia colonists crossed the southern end of the Red Sea to
Africa, and founded the nation of the Cushites or Ethiopians, of whom
are descended the modern Abyssinians. Other Semites early found then-
way to the lower Nile valley and, mingling with the native races, are
known to history as the Egyptians.
X. Babylonians and Assyrians. Originally the lower Tigris-
Euphrates valley appears to have been occupied by a non-Semitic people,
called by modern scholars the Sumerians. The ruins of their ancient
cities testify to the greatness of their art and culture. Their oldest tab
lets contain references to the advance of Semitic peoples from the north
and west. The invaders, who settled in the south, assimilating the art
and culture of the conquered, were later known as the Babylonians.
Those who later went farther north and found a home on the upper
Tigris, ultimately figure in history as the Assyrians.
XI. Arameans. Other groups of Semitic nomads crossed the Eu
phrates into Mesopotamia and are later known as the Arameans. Most
of them retained their wandering habits; some of them in the northwest
built cities; others pressed on westward into Syria and Palestine. Largely
as the result of their intermediate position between Babylonia and As
syria on the one side, and Syria, Palestine and Egypt on the other, the
Arameans became the great overland traders of the ancient world.
XII. Amorites and Canaanites. Probably from northern Arabia,
the common home of the early Semites, came the ancestors of the Amo
rites and Canaanites. The earlier immigrants settled among the hills
of central Palestine. On the fertile plains, which run along the eastern
Mediterranean and intersect the hills and mountains that he between the
sea and desert, the later immigrants found their homes. Here they
developed an agricultural civilization, which was a reflection of that of
Babylonia. XIII. Ammonites, Moabites and Edomites. Centuries later there
came from northern Arabia and Mesopotamia another wave of nomadic
immigration, which brought to this western land the ancestors of the
Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites and Hebrews. The Ammonites
settled east of the Jordan in the border between tillable land and desert,
retaining their older nomadic institutions and acquiring also the arts of
agriculture. The Moabites found their permanent abode on the more
4

AMMONITES, MOABITES AND EDOMITES
fertile headlands east of the Dead Sea. In the narrow valleys and rocky
hills south of the Dead Sea the Edomites established themselves, de
pending for subsistence chiefly upon their flocks and the plunder which
they seized from passing caravans.
XIV. Hebrews. The ancestors of the Hebrews appear to have at
first crossed the Jordan into Canaan and to have found a temporary
abode in the unoccupied uplands. They retained, however, their no
madic habits, and gravitated in time into the country to the south of
Canaan. Thence a part of them at least pressed on to the borders of
Egypt. Their return and conquest of Canaan are recorded in their
earliest traditions. Of all the Semitic races they were the last to find a
permanent abode and to crystallize into a nation. About them and in
their midst were kindred peoples whose institutions had been develop
ing thousands of years. Compared with that of Babylonia and Egypt
and Phoenicia, their history is modern rather than ancient. By race, as
well as by virtue of conquest and geographical position, they were heirs
of that which had already been acquired through countless centuries of
human effort and experience. The second chapter, therefore, in the
record of divine revelation is the history of the great nations that pre
ceded and deeply influenced the Hebrews.

II
THE BABYLONIAN BACKGROUND OF EARLY HEBREW
HISTORY
I. The Dawn of History. The combined evidence of archaeology,
anthropology and geology indicate that man has existed on the earth at
least twenty-five thousand and possibly one hundred thousand years.
Back of the highly advanced civilization, disclosed by the excavations in
the oldest ruins, lie millenniums, marked by slow but progressive devel
opment. Human history began at about the same time in the two most
favored centres of the ancient Semitic world, the lower Tigris-Euphrates
and the Nile valleys. The oldest records found in Babylonia and Egypt
may be approximately dated between 5000 and 4000 B.C.
II. Early Babylonian Systems of Writing. Babylonia was the
first to evolve a civilization that burst its natural boundaries and became
a conquering force throughout the Semitic world. As the earliest in
scriptions and archaeological remains reveal the life of that far-away age
5

THE BABYLONIAN BACKGROUND
and people, the historian is impressed by the remarkable progress al
ready made in the art of writing. All important events were recorded
on stone or clay by means of picture-characters. Thus, for example, a
star represented the gods and heavens, a circle the sun, the crescent moon
growth, the arm strength, and the fore leg walking. By the combination
of these signs even most complex ideas were expressed. In time these
pictures were represented by conventional characters, consisting simply
of straight lines ending in a wedge (Latin, cuneus; hence called, cunei
form), made in the plastic clay by the sharp corner of a cube in the hand
of the scribe. Many of these signs were also used, not only to represent
ideas, but syllables, so that it was possible with these to spell out indi
vidual words and to make the record clear and exact.
III. Different Industries. By careful cultivation and irrigation
the lower Tigris-Euphrates basin was made to bear far more than the
needs of the people required. The surplus gave the Babylonians the
material with which to trade with surrounding nations. The ancient
arts and crafts were also highly developed. Sculptors, brickmakers,
smiths, including those who worked in gold and silver, jewellers, potters,
carpenters, masons, miners, weavers and leather-workers, are all men
tioned on the monuments. Most of these trades were also organized
at that early day into guilds or unions.
IV. Merchants and Commerce. The rich products of that ancient
world, and the great highways on land and water, which led southward
to Arabia and India and westward to Phoenicia and Egypt, made the
inhabitants of Babylonia a nation of traders. The merchants soon be
came a rich and powerful class in the community. Some also became
bankers, loaning money at a high rate of interest (25 per cent, per an
num and up), and transmitting their business to their children from
generation to generation.
V. Effect of Commerce on Institutions. The needs of commerce
gave a great impetus to the use of writing, for every important transac
tion was recorded. Thousands of such records remain to testify to the
great activity of the early scribes. In time, trade also made necessary
a fixed standard of value. The coinage of money came much later; but
in ancient Babylonia bars and rings of gold and silver of standard weight
were early used in trade. Half an ounce avoirdupois made a shekel,
sixty shekels a mina, and sixty minas a talent. The needs of trade like
wise led to the early development of law and judicial institutions in
Babylonia. If commerce is to prosper, it must be protected. As busi
ness relations became more complex, thousands of cases of dispute arose.
6

EFFECT OF COMMERCE ON INSTITUTIONS
The decisions constituted precedents which in time became the basis of
laws. These were regarded as possessing divine authority and were
rigorously enforced. The result was that in time individual rights were
as carefully guarded by law in ancient Babylonia as they are to-day in
America or Europe.
VI. Scientific Knowledge. In the field of the mechanical arts great
progress had been attained. The lever, the inclined plane and the arch
were in common use. The length of the solar year (365J days) was
known, and eclipses were often accurately predicted. In other respects
the scientific knowledge of the Babylonians was exceedingly crude.
They knew little about the human body and the treatment of diseases.
The earth was thought of as an inverted dish, resting in the great watery
deep, and the firmament above as a larger inverted bowl. Beneath the
firmament moved the sun and moon and stars. Above the firmament
were the great encircling waters; above these the bright abode of the
immortal gods; while in the dark, beneath the earth, dwelt the
dead. VII. Organization of Society. The unit of this ancient society
was the family. The father was the head of the household. The
mother of children enjoyed an honored place, and her rights as wife or
widow were carefully guarded by law. In later times, when conquering
kings returned with captives, the slave class increased very rapidly.
Whether the slaves belonged to a family or a temple, they appear to have
been well cared for, and could even hold property in their own name.
The king was the supreme head of the state, the commander-in-chief
of the army, the judge to whom disputed cases were ultimately referred,
the chief priest of the nation, and the protector of his subjects. The
nobles shared his authority. In return for their service and tribute, he
divided the land among them. Within their own domain they ruled as
petty kings, renting the land in turn to the common people who were
their tenants.
VIII. Period of Small City States (4500-3800 B.C.). The earliest
historical period in Babylonia may be dated between 4500 and 3800 B.C.,
and is known as the age of small city states. Six important cities were
found in the south, Eridu, Ur, Lagash (Shirpurla), Uruk (Erech),
Larsa, Isin or Nisin, and six in the north, Agade, Nippur, Sippar,
Kutha, Kish and later Babylon. Each was originally independent and
held sway over the adjacent territory. In this early day the non-Semitic
Sumerian civilization was dominant in the southern group of cities; in
the northern the Semitic type was beginning to gain the ascendency.
7

THE BABYLONIAN BACKGROUND
The earliest inscriptions tell of the bitter wars that were frequently
waged between these two rival races. The stronger city states also
began to extend their rule beyond their own natural limits. The most
significant ruler of this early period is Lugalzaggisi (about 3900 B.C.),
who conquered Ur and Larsa and called himself "King of Uruk, King
of the Totality." He also states in his inscription that his god gave him
tribute from the lower sea (the Persian Gulf) to the upper sea (the
Mediterranean), indicating that even at this early date the influence of
this eastern centre of civilization was beginning to be felt in distant
Syria. IX. Period of Unification and Expansion (3800-2100 B.C.). Separ
ated by no natural boundaries and united by common interests, insti
tutions and religion, it was inevitable that the different cities of the lower
Tigris-Euphrates valley would in time unite under the rule of the strong
est. If the chronology of the later Babylonian scribes can be accepted,
it was about 3800 B.C. that such a union was established by the great
Sargon I, king of Agade. Apparently rising from the ranks of the com
mon people, he built up a mighty empire. The inscriptions tell of his
conquest not only of Nippur, Shirpurla, Kish and Uruk, but also record
his campaigns in Arabia on the south, Elam on the east, Armenia on
the north, and the Mediterranean coast-lands on the west. This em
pire he handed down to his son Naram-Sin, one of whose inscriptions
has been found on the distant island of Cyprus. A few centuries later
the leadership passed to Shirpurla in the south; but for about five hun
dred years the ancient city of Ur, devoted to the worship of the moon
god Sin, held sway at times over all Babylonia. Its earliest kings were
famous for their building enterprises, as well as their conquests. At
Ur they reared a temple to the moon god; at Uruk to the goddess Ishtar;
at Larsa to Shamash, the sun god; and at Nippur they repaired the
ancient temple of Bel. The rulers of the second great dynasty of Ur
assumed the proud and suggestive title of "King of the Four Regions."
Contemporary tablets indicate that they carried their conquests into
Elam, Arabia and Aram. The city of Larsa then enjoyed a brief
period of supremacy. About 2000 B.C. it fell before the Elamite invad
ers from the east, who made it the centre from which they ruled over
the cities of southern Babylonia.
X. Supremacy of Babylon (about 2100-1700 B.C.). It was at this
time of humiliation at the hands of foreign invaders that the city which
gave its name to the lower valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, first came
to the front. About 2100 B.C. a strong dynasty arose at Babylon. The
8

SUPREMACY OF BABYLON
founders of this dynasty appear to have come from northern Arabia.
The new blood and energy, thus infused into the already old civilization
of Babylonia, found its noblest representative in the great Hammurabi,
whose reign of forty-three years must now, in the light of a recently
discovered royal chronicle, be dated not earlier than 2100 and prob
ably about 1900 B.C. His deliverance of the southern cities from the
Elamite yoke left him master of Babylonia. His two titles, " King of
Shumer and Akkad" (southern and northern Babylonia) and "King
of the Four Corners of the World," imply that his authority extended
beyond the Tigris-Euphrates valley. His chief glory, however, was as
a builder and organizer. He enlarged the temples at Babylon and its
western suburb Borsippa, and erected new ones at Larsa and Sippar.
He connected the Tigris and Euphrates by a canal. For the purposes
of irrigation he constructed the great Hammurabi canal along the
Euphrates. He introduced improved methods of agriculture. At
Babylon he built a vast granary.
XL Effects of Hammurabi's Policy. To ensure justice to all his
subjects, he caused to be compiled and set up in public the remarkable
civil code of two hundred and eighty laws recently discovered in the
ruins of Susa. This code anticipates, by nearly a thousand years, many
of the principles that underlie the Old Testament laws. It reveals not
only a just, but also a humane ruler, eager for the welfare of his people.
By his wise policy Hammurabi developed and bound together all parts
of his great empire. He was the real founder of Babylonia's political,
commercial and religious supremacy. He made Babylon itself, even
after it fell before foreign conquerors, the great centre of culture
throughout the ancient world. Under his descendants, the rulers of
the first Babylonian dynasty, the empire appears to have enjoyed, for
over a century, peace and prosperity, largely as the result of his epoch-
making work.
XII. Decline of Babylonia and Rise of Assyria (1700-1100 B.C.).
During the later years of the first dynasty of Babylon the Kassites
came down from the mountains to the northeast and conquered Baby
lonia. Their rule was maintained for several centuries. They adopted,
rather than destroyed, the Babylonian culture which they found, so that
its influence still went forth to all the world. Soon after the appearance
of the Kassites (about 1700 B.C.), the subject city of Asshur on the west"
bank of the upper Tigris threw off the foreign yoke and laid the founda
tion of the great kingdom known as Assyria. Centuries of bitter, de
structive conflict between the new power and the parent state followed,
9

THE EGYPTIAN BACKGROUND
in which Babylon gradually lost strength and prestige. About 1 100 B.C.
the great Tiglath-pileser I, king of Assyria, entered upon his victorious
campaigns in Babylonia, Elam and Mesopotamia. He also was the
first conqueror to lead an Assyrian army into Syria. During this long
period of Babylon's decline, its ancient rival Egypt had become a con
quering power and had succeeded to the political control of the rich
territory along the eastern Mediterranean.

Ill
THE EGYPTIAN BACKGROUND
I. The Beginnings of Egyptian History (3400-2900 B.C.). Egypt's
early history is closely parallel to that of Babylonia. It begins at about
the same time, with a long period during which rival city states, and
nomes or provinces, fought with each other, the stronger gaining a
temporary supremacy over their weaker neighbors. By 3400 B.C. at
least, the rule of Memphis was acknowledged throughout all Egypt
About this time may be dated the first of the thirty-three dynasties in
the classification of the Egyptian historian Manetho, whose tables have
been generally adopted as the basis of Egyptian chronology. At the
very beginnings of its recorded history, the art and civilization of Egypt
had also attained an exceedingly high stage of development.
II. The Fourth Dynasty (2900-2750 B.C.). The immunity from
foreign attack which Egypt enjoyed during its earlier history, left its
rulers free to carry out vast building enterprises. The greatest building
dynasty was the fourth (about 2700 B.C.). Its kings penetrated the
Sinaitic peninsula and opened the mines and quarries along the Red Sea.
They also, in part, reclaimed the lands of the Nile Delta and built defences
on the east to keep out Semitic invaders. Their crowning achievement
was the construction of the great pyramids at Gizeh as royal tombs. The
magnitude of their work and the remarkable organization of the empire,
which it reveals, can only be appreciated when it is remembered that the
Great Pyramid alone covers thirteen acres, is four hundred and eighty
feet high, and contains nearly seven million tons of stone, transported
from Syene, five hundred miles up the Nile.
III. Twelfth Dynasty (about 2000 to 1800 B.C.). The rulers of the
twelfth dynasty accomplished for Egypt what the great Hammurabi did
for Babylon. Seven powerful, long-lived kings succeeded one another.
10

THE TWELFTH DYNASTY
Nubia in the south, with its rich gold mines, was conquered. Peaceful
commercial relations were established with Syria and southern Arabia.
The marshy district west of the lower Nile, now called the Faiyum, was
drained, greatly increasing the productive area of Egypt. Many palaces
and temples were built. The industries and local interests of the differ
ent provinces were developed. Contemporary inscriptions bear testi
mony to the noble spirit of justice and consideration for their subjects
that actuated kings and princes. One ruler declares that he " marched
through the country to overthrow evil, fixed the frontier of each town
ship and placed the boundary stones as firm as the sky. He sought in
formation from the books as to the irrigation district belonging to each
town, and this was drawn up according to the ancient writings, because
he loved truth so much." A noble also boasts: "No daughter of a citi
zen have I injured, no widow have I molested, no laborer have I ar
rested, no shepherd have I banished, no superintendent of workmen
was there whose laborers I have taken away. In my time there were no
poor, and none were hungry in my day. When the years of famine
came, I ploughed all the fields of the province from the southern to the
northern boundary. I kept the inhabitants alive and gave them food,
so that none was hungry. I gave to the widow, even as to her who had
a husband; I never preferred the great to the small."
IV. Rule of the Hyksos (about 1650-1580 B.C.). After the peace
ful and prosperous days of the twelfth dynasty, civil war between the
kings and their powerful nobles weakened the kingdom and invited
foreign invasion. The invasion of Babylonia by the Kassites during the
latter part of the eighteenth century B.C. was but the beginning of a
general westward movement of the peoples of southwestern Asia. One
important result of this same movement was that certain tribes from
Syria, Palestine, and Northern Arabia were pushed on through the Isth
mus of Suez and seized northern Egypt. Establishing themselves in the
Delta, they soon brought southern Egypt also into subjection. For
fully a century these so-called Hyksos kings maintained their rule,
adopting many of the Egyptian institutions. In the end the native
princes of Thebes rallied the south-land, and, after a half century of
fierce fighting, succeeded in driving the invaders back into Asia.
V. The Victorious Eighteenth Dynasty (1580-1350 B.C.). The
long training in warfare, the possession of the horse and chariot which
the Hyksos first brought to the land of the Nile, the fear of subsequent
invasions, and the newborn desire for military glory, all united in trans
forming the peaceful Egyptians into a conquering nation. Under the
11

THE EGYPTIAN BACKGROUND
leadership of the able kings of the victorious eighteenth dynasty (about
1600 to 1350 B.C.), the kingdom of Egypt suddenly expanded into an
empire. The great conqueror Thutmose III, in a series of campaigns,
subjugated Palestine and Syria, and carried the borders of his empire
to the Euphrates. For fully a century Egypt ruled the eastern Mediter
ranean coast-land. By its prestige and alliances with Asiatic provinces
it extended its influence still further, so that, while Babylonia and Assyria
were engaged in mortal combat, Egypt was mistress of the western world.
From all the subject states she exacted heavy annual tribute. The in
come from this source and the services of the captives of war made
possible the huge building enterprises for which the eighteenth and
following dynasty were famous.
VI. The Nineteenth Dynasty (1350-1205 B.C.). During the rule
of the nineteenth dynasty, Egypt was confronted in northern Syria by
a formidable foe, the Hittites, who came down from the mountains of
eastern Asia Minor. After fighting with them for nearly twenty years,
Ramses II concluded a remarkable treaty which estabhshed the boun
dary line between the two peoples a little north of Mount Hermon. The
treaty left Ramses II free to develop the resources of his empire, and to
fill Egypt from one end to the other with the monuments of his zeal as a
builder. VII. The Transitional Twelfth Century B.C. The beginning of the
twelfth century B.C. is memorable as a great transitional epoch in ancient
history. It saw the decline of the first Babylonian empire. In the west
the second great world empire, Egypt, torn by civil wars within and
attacked from without by northern hordes, entered its long eclipse.
The same hordes broke the power of the Hittites in northern Syria, so
that they soon disappeared. At the same time in the east, Assyria began
to gather its forces for that series of conquests which ended in the mas
tery of the ancient Semitic world. From Mesopotamia the Arameans
moved westward and southward to take possession of northern Syria.
Along the shore from southern Asia Minor came the ancestors of the
Philistines to break the power of Egypt and to find a home on the rich,
rolling plains of southwestern Palestine. From Egypt certain Hebrew
tribes went forth as fugitives, and began that memorable movement which
led them at last to the land of Canaan and the possession of central Pales
tine. With the twelfth century the earliest chapter of human history
which represented over three millenniums of magnificent achievement
and splendor, closes, and a new era of political, intellectual, and religious
progress opens. 12

CONCERNING EARLY SYRIA AND PALESTINE
IV
THE EARLY PALESTINIAN BACKGROUND
I. Data Concerning Early Syria and Palestine. Until very re
cently the early history of the third great centre of Semitic culture
(Palestine and Syria) has been known simply from occasional references
in the monuments of Babylonia and Egypt. These still remain the chief
sources of information. This fact is in itself indicative of the dependent
position held by this intermediate land. Recent excavations in Palestine,
at ancient Lachish, Gezer, Taanach, Megiddo and Jericho, have yielded
only two or three inscriptions, but they and the archaeological remains
have confirmed and supplemented the testimony of the monuments, and
made it possible to trace, in outline, the early history of the land which
is the immediate background of the Bible.
II. Early' Babylonian Influence. Lugalzaggisi, one of the earliest
conquering kings of ancient Babylonia, states that about 3900 B.C. his
army reached the Mediterranean. It is probable that the point gained
was simply northern Syria, and that the expedition was little more than
a raid; but it means that even at this early date the leaven of Babylonian
culture had entered the west-land. About two centuries later Sargon I
followed with the conquest of the land of Martu, which is identified in
later tablets with the land of the Amorites. In the Assyrian inscriptions
Martu is the designation of Syria and Palestine. These early expedi
tions are significant, for their primary aim was apparently to open the
highways for commerce, which was a far more important agent for the
spreading of Babylonian civilization and ideas than the march of con
quering armies. It is probable that from the days of Sargon I these
influences were felt in the more favored centres on the western Mediter
ranean coast.
III. Pre=Semitic Inhabitants of Palestine. The excavations in
Palestine indicate that before the Semites entered it, the land was in
habited by a race of short stature, living in caves. The Bible also refers
to an ancient people, east of the Jordan, whose name, Horites, appar
ently means cave-dwellers. They may well be survivors of the earlier
prehistoric people, who were otherwise expelled or absorbed by the
larger and more energetic Semitic immigrants.
IV. The Amorite Migration. Doubtless, Palestine attracted tribes
from the Arabian desert at a very early date, but the first traces of an
13

THE EARLY PALESTINIAN BACKGROUND
extensive Semitic invasion came from about 2200 B.C. The Babylonian,
Egyptian, and Northern Israelite records agree in calling this people the
Amorites. The recurrence of the same proper names in contemporary
writings coming from Syria and Babylonia, together with other indica
tions, support, although they do not establish, the conclusion that the
wave of Semitic invasion which swept from Arabia westward into Pales
tine about 2200 B.C., also carried the ancestors of Hammurabi, the
founders of the first great dynasty of Babylon, eastward across the Eu
phrates. Certainly, from the days of Hammurabi, the frequent refer
ences in the Babylonian tablets to the Amorite country and the^Amo-
rites are indicative of the close relation which henceforth existed between
the two lands and peoples. This close and continued relation alone ex
plains the fact that a few centuries later the Babylonian language and
cuneiform characters were employed by the governors of Syria and Pales
tine in writing even to their Egyptian sovereign. It was during the
centuries following 2200 B.C. that Babylonian institutions, ideas, and
customs were indelibly stamped upon the Semitic peoples in Palestine.
V. Story of Sinuhit. From Egypt there comes a popular romance,
the Story of Sinuhit, which throws interesting hght upon conditions in
Palestine about 2000 B.C. The hero, a princely Egyptian refugee, fled
eastward past the "Wall of the Princes," which guarded the northeastern
frontier of Egypt. On the borders of the desert he was found by a
Bedouin herdsman who introduced him to the hospitality of his tribe.
These "sand wanderers," as they are called in the story, send him on
from tribe to tribe until he reaches the land of Kedem east of the Dead
Sea. Here he remains for a year and a half, until he is invited by the
king of Upper Tenu to share with the other Egyptian refugees already
there the hospitality of his court. The king of Upper Tenu appears to
have been one of the Amorite rulers of central Palestine. Although the
stoiy is a romance, it gives the earliest detailed picture of the ancient
Amorite civilization. Every possible honor was heaped upon the hero
by the king of the land:
"He placed me at the head of his children, and married me to his
eldest daughter. He let me choose from amongst his lands, from
amongst choicest possessions on the frontier of another country. This
was the beautiful land of 'Eva; figs and vines grew there, there were
many sorts of wine and it was rich in honey, its olive trees were plentiful
and all kinds of fruit grew on its trees. There was corn there and barley
and herds without, number. And there was yet more that happened to
me from love to me, for he made me prince of a tribe of his country.
14

STORY OF SINUHIT
Then I had as much bread as I wanted, and wine for every day, boiled
meat and roast goose, irrespective of the game of the country that I
caught and carried off as spoil, and irrespective of what my own hands
brought me. . . Thus I spent many years and my children became
heroes, each the protector of his adopted tribe. The messenger who
came from the court or went thither stayed with me; I gave hospitality
to every one, and I gave water to the thirsty. . . I subdued each
people against whom I marched, I drove them from their pastures and
from their wells; I captured their cattle and carried off their children."
VI. Origin of the Canaanites. Contemporary Egyptian inscrip
tions indicate that by the fourteenth century B.C. Semitic people called
the Kinahni, or Canaanites, were firmly established on the coast plains
of the eastern Mediterranean and in the valleys of central Palestine.
This fact accords with the statement of the Northern Israelite historian
in Numbers 1329 regarding conditions before the conquest, The Amorites
were dwelling in the hill-country and the Canaanites by the sea and along
beside the Jordan. Deuteronomy 39 also calls attention to a difference
between the dialects of these two races. Although closely related and
later blended, the two peoples appear to have been originally distinct.
The references in the inscriptions favor on the whole the conclusion that
the Canaanites represented a later wave of Semitic immigration similar
to the earlier Amorite invasion. It seems exceedingly probable that the
great western movement in the latter part of the eighteenth century B.C.,
which carried the Kassites into Babylonia and the Hyksos into Egypt,
bore the ancestors of the Canaanites to Palestine. Possibly they were
closely connected with the Hyksos conquerors who, when defeated, re
tired to southern Palestine.
VII. Egyptian Conquest of Palestine. The pursuit of the retreat
ing Hyksos led the kings of the powerful eighteenth Egyptian dynasty
to the conquest of Palestine. After a siege of five years they captured
Sharuhen, the Hyksos stronghold in southern Canaan. Thutmose I
carried the standards of Egypt to the Euphrates, laying tribute upon the
peoples of Palestine and Syria; but it was Thutmose III who made this
territory an integral part of the empire. In an inscription on the walls
of one of the temples at Thebes he has given a detailed account of his
campaigns, which furnishes a vivid picture of conditions in Palestine
at that time. The decisive battle with the Canaanites was fought about
1480 B.C. at Megiddo on the plain of Esdraelon. The Egyptian record
reveals the spirit of the conquerors and the cowardice of the natives:
"On the twenty-first day of the month, even the same as the royal
15

THE EARLY PALESTINIAN BACKGROUND
coronation, early in the morning command was given to the entire army
to advance. His Majesty went forth in his chariot of electrum, adorned
with his weapons of war. His Majesty was in the midst of them, the
god Amon being the protection to his body and strength to his limbs.
When his Majesty prevailed over them, they fled headlong to Megiddo,
as if terrified by spirits; they left their horses and chariots of silver and
gold and were drawn up by hauling them by their clothes into this city,
for the men shut the gates of this city upon them. The fear of his
Majesty entered their hearts, their arms failed, their mighty men lay like
fishes on the ground. The great army of his Majesty drew round to
count their spoil. The whole army rejoiced, giving praise to Amon for
the victory that he had given to his son, and they glorified his Majesty,
extolling his victories."
VIII. Egyptian Rule in Palestine. The city of Megiddo itself was
soon captured. In the same campaign the king of Egypt completed
the conquest of Palestine. The tribute brought to him by the conquered
peoples reveals their prosperity and culture. Flocks and herds, slaves,
horses, chariots, armor, weapons, gold and silver vessels, embroidered
garments, and inlaid furniture of wood and ivory are mentioned in the
lists. On the plain of Esdraelon alone the king reaped a harvest of one
hundred and fifty thousand bushels of grain. For the next three cen
turies, with only occasional lapses, the rule of Egypt was maintained in
Palestine. Armies were frequently sent to put down local rebellions and
little mercy was shown. Egyptian garrisons were stationed at strategic
points. These were supported by the local princes who continued in
most cases to rule over their petty states as vassals of Egypt. While they
remained loyal, supplied troops to aid in putting down rebellions, paid
the regular tribute, which was far from small, little else was required.
The rivalry between them was intense, and when Egypt showed any
signs of weakness, they were each ready to improve the first opportunity
to revolt. In the cities on the coast plains, which were most open to
Egyptian influence, the civilization of the Nile valley took root, but
throughout the rest of Palestine it made little impression. Instead,
Babylonian and local Semitic customs, laws, and ideas held undisputed
sway. IX. Testimony of the eI=Amarna Letters. During the reign of the
reformer king of Egypt, Amenhotep IV (1375-1358 B.C.), remarkably
clear light is shed upon conditions in Palestine by the famous el-Amarna
letters, sent to the king by his vassal princes and governors. Although
written in the Babylonian language and script, they abound in words and
16

TESTIMONY OF THE EL-AMARNA LETTERS
expressions familiar to the Bible student because they reflect the dialect
of Canaan which was later used by the Hebrews. Like the inscriptions
of Thutmose III, they show that many of the towns which figure in later
Hebrew history were already in existence. The Canaanite-Phcenician
cities of Gebal, Beruta (Beirut), Tyre, Sidon, Joppa, and the inland
towns of Hazor, Gezer, Ajalon, Jerusalem, Gath, and Lachish are among
the most important (c/. map., opp. p. 73). Altogether nearly one hun
dred and fifty towns are mentioned, of which two-thirds can be identified.
X. Letters from Jerusalem. The letters written by Abdi-heba, the
vassal king of Jerusalem, state that he had been raised to that position by
Amenhotep, and that his authority extended over the adjacent territory,
which was called the country of Jerusalem. Like many of the Pales
tinian governors of the period, he had been accused of treachery by his
colleagues ruling in other cities, and while he strongly protests his own
innocence he accuses them in turn. The chief burden of his letters is the
request that the king of Egypt send an army at once to deliver his people
and land from the insistent attacks of an invading people called the
Habiri. XL The Habiri. The letters of the other Palestinian governors
contain similar references to these invaders. Notwithstanding the sim
ilarity in name, they can hardly be identified directly with the Hebrews.
Rather they appear to be the vanguard of that new western migration
from northern Arabia and Mesopotamia which included the Aramean
or Arabian ancestors of the Hebrews, the Ammonites, the Moabites,
and the Edomites.
XII. Decline of Egyptian Power. After the death of Amenhotep IV,
Egypt lost control of Palestine and Syria for fully fifty years. The am
bitious kings of the nineteenth dynasty, however, recovered Palestine
in 1313 B.C. and held it for a century. An inscription of Mernephtah,
one of its last kings, contains the first contemporary reference to Israel.
From the context it is clear that Israel represents a people, apparently
without a definite country, but then living within or near the bounds of
Palestine. Mernephtah mentions them simply to record his victory
over them. Ramses III (1198-1167 B.C.), of the twentieth dynasty,
also re-established the rule of Egypt over Canaan and the coast-land;
but by the middle of the twelfth century B.C. all foreign barriers to the
advance of the Hebrews were removed. With this date Israel's history
as a nation begins.
XIII. Israel's Heritage. This brief outline suffices to suggest how
broad and significant is the historical background of early Hebrew
17

ISRAEL'S RELIGIOUS HERITAGE
history. Many great kingdoms and empires had flourished for centuries
and fallen into decay before the Israelites appeared in Canaan. Through
all the centuries each important nation and civilization had left its deep
imprint upon the land that was destined in divine Providence to be the
home of the people through whom a unique message was to come to
humanity. The roots of Israel's life run back to the beginnings of
human society and civilization. All ancient history is a unit, of which
the Bible records the later and, in many ways, the more important chap
ters.

ISRAEL'S RELIGIOUS HERITAGE
I. Prominence of Religion in Early Semitic Life. The preceding
studies have revealed the aggressive conquering, colonizing and com
mercial tendencies of the early Semitic peoples. Of these three tenden
cies the commercial was undoubtedly the strongest; but there was a still
more powerful force in that ancient life. That force was religion. The
earliest rulers were the priests of the tribe or nation, and the basis of
their authority was their claim that they were the representatives of the
gods. Kings fought and carried their victorious standards into unknown
lands, and colonists followed to complete the work of conquest, that the
glory and prestige of their god might be increased. The greater part of
the fruits of conquest and commerce went to glorify the temples and
service of the gods. The policy of the state and the activity of the people
were directed by their religious leaders. Priests also acted as scribes,
teachers, authors and judges. It is also deeply significant that the oldest
records found in Babylon and Egypt are almost without exception re
ligious in theme and spirit. The earliest mounds are filled with the ruins
of temples and the symbols of worship. Ancient art and science were
also both inspired by religion.
II. The Semitic Instinct for Religion. Among the primitive
Semitic peoples the fact that man is by nature a religious being, finds its
strongest illustration. The dearest possessions and even human life
were all sacrificed to the gods. Though the beliefs of these early peoples
were often absurd and their rites crude and repulsive, their fervent de
votion reveals the spirit of true worship; for the essence of worship is not
the intellectual belief, but the attitude of the worshipper. It was in
evitable that in such an intensely religious atmosphere the faith of hu-
18

THE SEMITIC INSTINCT FOR RELIGION
manity should attain its earliest and most advanced development, and
that out of it should ultimately spring the exalted religion of the Hebrew
prophets and Jesus. Divine revelation is necessarily gradual and pro
gressive, for each age and race can receive only the truth which it is ca
pable of apprehending. In the life and religions of the Semitic peoples,
whose traditions Israel inherited, it is now possible to study the earlier
stages in that continuous process of divine revelation which has given
us our faith of to-day.
III. Early Semitic Religions. The primitive Semites, and espe
cially the Sumerians who preceded the Babylonians, worshipped many
spirits of air, and earth, and water. It was a religion of dread, for the
deities were for the most part believed to be malign. Man's chief effort
was to avert their jealousy and anger; but as civilization and culture
advanced and man began to master natural forces, the gods were thought
of, more and more, as friends rather than foes.
IV. The Many Local Gods. When history dawned in ancient Baby-
Ionia and Egypt, each city state or tribe had its local deity, who, it was
believed, made its fields productive, prospered its industries, protected
the individual from sickness and misfortune and the city from calamity,
fought with his people against their foes, and appointed and directed its
judges and rulers. The interests of the god and his people were identical.
The chief aim of religion was to establish and maintain the right relation
between the divine king and his subjects. The entire city life centred"
about the temple. Thus, in ancient Babylonia, Sin, the moon god, who
guided the caravans by night across the sandy wastes, was worshipped
at Ur, and also at northern Haran, beside the desert; Ea, the god of the
great deep and of hidden knowledge, at Eridu, near the Persian Gulf;
Bel, the lord of earth, at the sacred city of Nippur; Shamash, the sun god,
at Larsa and Sippar; the goddess Ishtar at Uruk; Nabu, the god of learn
ing, at Borsippa, and Marduk at Babylon. At each of these different
shrines nearly the same forms of ritual and sacrifice obtained, and the
common Semitic myths and traditions were handed down; but in each
of the different versions the local god figured as the hero.
V. Development of the Pantheon. When some one of the cities
conquered the rest, and a united kingdom and in time an empire arose,
the god of the ruling city became the supreme deity of the realm. The
local gods, however, continued to be worshipped by their subjects, and
wise kings Hke Sargon I and Hammurabi won the favor and loyalty of
the conquered cities by building temples and paying homage to these
local deities. The natural result of the union of all the cities of Babylonia
19

ISRAEL'S RELIGIOUS HERITAGE
under one ruler was a pantheon. As has always been the case, theology
was strongly influenced by the existing pohtical and social organization.
When Hammurabi made Babylon the head of an empire, Marduk, the
god of Babylon, took his place at the head of the pantheon made up of the
gods and goddesses of the more important cities of the Tigris-Euphrates
valley. The theologians of that early day set to work to recast the old
myths so as to give the supremacy to Marduk, to define the functions of
the different deities, and to trace relationship between them. Each god
was also provided with a divine consort. Thus, for example, correspond
ing to Bel was the goddess Belit. The result was a divine household,
the prototype of the Greek Olympus.
Egyptian religions passed through the same stages, but more of the
primitive worship of spirits and animals survived. Its theology and
mythology were never so thoroughly systematized as the Babylonian,
and its interest centred in the future rather than in the present life.
VI. Transfer of the Religious Centre to Palestine. During the
imperial period the Babylonians and Egyptians developed an exceed
ingly elaborate ceremonial system. Religion was defined more and
more in the terms of ritual rather than of life and deeds. Priest-craft
and superstition gained the ascendency, with the sad result that these
great religions ceased to develop and so perished. In the freer, fresher
atmosphere of Palestine the vital elements in the old faiths were des
tined to come to full fruition. Conquest, commerce, and literature had
carried Babylonian customs, traditions, and religion to this western land.
The dominant Amorite-Canaanite civilization in Palestine, because of
its common Semitic origin, was also especially receptive of this powerful
influence which radiated for centuries from the Tigris-Euphrates valley.
VII. Religion of the Canaanites. Recent excavations, the Egyp>
tian inscriptions, the el-Amarna letters, and the biblical references to
gether give a definite picture of the Amorite-Canaanite religion which
the Hebrews found in Palestine. Each city or tribe had its local baal
or lord and a corresponding goddess. These were worshipped at the
open-air high places on some commanding height within or near each
town. About the shrine were the asherahs or poles and sacred stones
or pillars. A row of seven of these pillars has recently been found in
the ruins of the old Semitic sanctuary at Gezer. The altars on which
the sacrifices were offered were of earth or baked clay or stone. Here
the people assembled in springtime and autumn to celebrate the ancient
Semitic festivals and to present their offerings. Here also the inherited
religious traditions of the race were doubtless perpetuated. In the
20

RELIGION OF THE CANAANITES
absence of favorable natural conditions and a strong central power to
unite all these little city states into one kingdom or empire, the peoples
of Palestine never developed a local pantheon. While polytheism pre
vailed there, it was not of the complex type found in Babylonia or Egypt
under the empire. Also ritualism had not destroyed the possibility of
ethical and spiritual progress. On the other hand, the gross immorality
and degeneracy of the local cults made imperative the demand for a
purer and nobler religion.
VIII. Israel's Religious Heritage. Thus through their Arabian
and Aramean ancestors the Hebrews received the primitive religious
ideas and institutions of the early Semitic races. From the Amorites
and Canaanites, whom they in time conquered and absorbed, they in- .
herited their early sanctuaries, and with these the beliefs and rites and
traditions which had gradually been transferred to Palestine from Egypt
and especially from ancient Babylonia. In their conception of the Deity
and of men's duty toward him and their fellow-men, these pre-Hebrew
races had made vast progress, as is demonstrated, for example, by the
Code of Hammurabi or by many of the noble Babylonian hymns and
prayers. A prophet nation, however, was demanded to separate the
true gold from the dross of superstition, to conserve that which was vital
and eternal in the older Semitic religions and to become the agent of a
new and far higher revelation. Not by chance nor by arbitrary divine
choice, but as the result of a character and inheritance and training,
which can be studied in the full light of its unique history, Israel proved
to be that prophet nation. VI
THE OLDEST HISTORY OF ISRAEL
I. The Gradual Growth of the Early Historical Books. During
the past two or three centuries biblical scholars have been gradually
discovering the real character and origin of the earlier Old Testament
historical books. Like the later books of Samuel, Kings, and Chron
icles, they consist of quotations from earlier and shorter narratives.
These valuable quotations have been skilfully combined and supple
mented by successive editors or compilers. In this way all ancient
Semitic histories gradually grew. Many of the Old Testament books
have a literary history extending through hundreds of years. The fact
that they are compilations enhances their value manifold; for in citing
21

THE OLDEST HISTORY OF ISRAEL
passages word for word from the oldest histories known to them, the
compilers have preserved the earliest records instead of their own
impressions of the distant events of which they wrote. A careful study
of the evidence of composite authorship found in each book also makes
it possible to collect and combine these citations from the older histories
and thus largely to recover the priceless originals.
II. Evidences of their Composite Character. The internal ev
idence regarding the origin and literary history of the opening books of
the Old Testament consists in general: (1) of striking variations in the
vocabulary, idioms, and style of different sections in the same book.
A comparison, for example, of Genesis r-2" with 24bM at once reveals
marked contrasts in literary form. In the second passage different
words and idioms are used to express the same ideas. The literary style
of the first passage is precise, formal, generic, and repetitious; in the
second it is vivid, concise, picturesque, and flowing. (2) Very different
ideas of God and his relation to the universe and man are found in differ
ent parts of the same book. Again, the opening chapters of Genesis well
illustrate this point. In the first passage the Deity is presented as a God
of spirit, majestic, omnipotent, issuing his decrees from afar. In the
second and third chapters he is pictured as living and talking with the
first man and woman, and as walking in the cool of the day to avoid the
hot mid-day sun. The one passage, which always designates the Deity
as God, is based on the mature theology of later Judaism; the other,
which used the divine name Jehovah, or Yahweh, reflects the childlike
beliefs of the primitive ancestors of the Hebrews. (3) Parallel and yet
variant accounts of the same events abound. When these variant ver
sions are compared, many minor inconsistencies appear. Thus the two
accounts of creation in Genesis agree in emphasizing man's central posi
tion in God's universe, but in the one passage man is the last and in the
other the first living thing to be created. In the order and method of cre
ation the two versions also present the most striking variations (for the
explanation of these, c/. § I ""'*). (4) Very different aims and points of
view appear in succeeding narratives. Thus, for example, in Genesis
ji_2*a the primary aim is to establish the divine origin of the sabbath.
In 24b"26 it is to illustrate God's love and care for man. In the one
narrative the point of view is the legal and priestly, in the other it is that
of the prophet, interested only in ethical and spiritual truth (c/. for fur
ther illustration, § V).
III. Contents of the Oldest History. Fortunately, the oldest his
tory of Israel is the one quoted most fully by the authors of the Old Testa-
22

CONTENTS OF THE OLDEST HISTORY
ment historical books. It opens with the primitive story of creation
in Genesis 2, which leads up to the account of man's fall in chapter 3„
The origin of different institutions is then briefly given. The scattering
of the human race over the face of the earth, as told in the story of the
tower of Babel, is the introduction to the oldest Abraham narratives.
The early stories of the patriarchs in turn introduce the primitive ac
count of the experiences of the Hebrews in Egypt, in the wilderness dur
ing the settlement of Canaan, and as a united nation. When the ex
tracts from this ancient history are collected and put together, the
result is a brief, consistent, connected record of all the important events
in Israel's many-sided life, down to the accession of Solomon. The
unity of the whole indicates that in these quotations nearly all of the
original history has been preserved.
W. Its Literary Characteristics. Its literary style is that of the
ancient story-teller: simple, vivid, concise, picturesque and dramatic.
The vocabulary is large; each word is in itself a picture. The sound of
many of them in the Hebrew is suggestive of the idea or action which
they represent. Solemn plays upon words abound. The characters
and scenes are pictured simply but graphically. The heroes and heroines
are real men and women. Much of the story is told in the form of
dialogues. The action moves on rapidly to the climax. The inter
est in the two or three principal actors in the story never for a mo
ment flags. Oral transmission from story-teller to story-teller through
long ages has evidently worn away all that is not essential; only
that which is vital remains. The result is that these simple, early
stories in charm and fascination are unsurpassed in all the world's
literature. V. Its Religious and Ethical Ideas. God is always spoken of in
the language of primitive belief. Not only is he pictured as walking
in the garden of Eden in the cool of the day, but he comes down to see
with his own eyes the tower of Babel and to investigate the crimes of
the men of Sodom. To the patriarchs and Moses he speaks by word
of mouth. The terminology and mode of presenting the great truths
regar'ding God's dealing with men are those of a poet. Concretely and
directly in the language of life they convey their teachings. Back of the
popular language is a sublime conception of the majesty and dignity of
God. Over the great family of nations from the first he has exercised
his benign yet omnipotent sway. But he is more than a supreme ruler,
he is the personal Friend, Guide, Counsellor and Deliverer of his peo
ple, a God not only to be feared but loved. Loyalty and love to him
23

THE OLDEST HISTORY OF ISRAEL
are the beginning and the end of law and ethics. Religion is not
abstract and formal, but a personal, vital relation.
VI. Its Purpose and Value. The historical purpose is prominent
in this early history. It aims to trace briefly from their earliest begin
nings the unfolding of Israel's life as a race and nation. The great
crises and their significance are graphically portrayed. The interest
in the heroes of the nation and their valiant achievements is that of a
devoted patriot. The origin of Israel's social and religious institutions
also commands attention. But a still broader and deeper purpose is
everywhere evident, which reveals not only the patriotic historian, but
the prophet. Israel's history is recounted, not because it was glorious,
but because it effectively illustrates God's gracious attitude toward men,
and the inevitable consequences of right or wrong acts. The selection
of the narrative material is determined by this higher religious and
ethical purpose. Much that would have been reproduced by a mere
historian has evidently been ignored or else condensed into a sentence.
Other narratives, containing little historical data, have been given a
central place in the history, because they effectively illustrate and empha
size an important ethical or spiritual fact. Incidentally the author or
compilers of this marvellous history have given a remarkably true pic
ture of the life of early Israel; but the far greater value of their work
lies in the universal and eternal truths which they have thus concretely
and forcibly set forth.
VII. Its Sources. With this higher religious purpose in mind, it is
not surprising that the early prophetic historians drew their illustrations
from a great variety of sources. Sometimes they took from the lips of
the people an old Semitic tradition, like the stories of the creation and
the flood, handed down from their primitive ancestors through countless
ages. Sometimes they drew from the cycles of stories transmitted by
certain tribes from the nomadic period. Sometimes they utilized the
popular heroic stories, retold for generations by father to son, or by the
story-tellers at the great religious festivals. Often they found rich
material in the traditions treasured at the ancient sanctuaries of Canaan.
From the early collections of Israel's songs they frequently quoted long
passages. For the later and more historical periods they had access to
the popular traditions of their race. It is also evident that they freely
recast, combined, and adapted this varied material to their prophetic
purpose. VIII. The Place of Its Composition. In this earliest Hebrew his
tory the interest extends to the farthest bounds of Israel and even to the
24

THE PLACE OF ITS COMPOSITION
neighboring nations, but it is centred in Judah. In the patriarchal
stories, Judah instead of Reuben figures as the first-born and the leader
among the sons of Jacob. In the earliest version of the story of the spies,
Caleb, the traditional ancestor of one of the southern tribes, also takes
the place of Joshua the northern hero. These and other indications sup
port the generally accepted conclusion that this early history is based
on the traditions current in Judah, and that it was written by a prophet
or group of prophets who lived and wrote in that southern kingdom.
Hence it is called the early Judean prophetic history.
LX. Its Date. Statements like that in Genesis 3631, before any king
ruled over the Israelites, clearly indicate that the history was written at
least after Saul or David had ruled over Israel. The subjugation of the
Canaanites, which was not completed before the reign of Solomon, is im
plied in many passages. The reference in Genesis 2740 to Esau's shaking
off the yoke of Jacob points to the revolt of the Edomites in the ninth cen
tury B.C. The spirit and theology of the history as a whole is that of
the early monarchy. Doubtless a majority of the stories were current
long before the days of David; but the historical allusions in the narra
tives themselves and in the other Old Testament books suggest that
these stories were first committed to writing about 825 B.C. The im
mediate cause was probably the reformation, initiated by Elijah in
Northern Israel, which under the leadership of Jehoida the priest re
sulted, about 825 B.C., in the overthrow of Athaliah and the re-estab
lishment of the religion of Jehovah in Judah. This noble history was
supremely fitted to impress upon the mind of the nation the significance
and importance of the covenant then "made between Jehovah and the
king and the people that they should be Jehovah's people'1 II Kgs.
II17, §LXXI). It revealed the broad and deep historic foundations
upon which that covenant was based, and set forth, in the light
of Israel's remarkable national experiences, the eternal principles
that must be observed by men or nations who would do the will of
God. X. Later Additions. The canonization of the Scriptures was first
undertaken by Jews living long after the exile. The later Judean
prophets who preserved the early history not only felt free but under
obligation to supplement it by additional narratives and explanatory
or archajological notes that seemed to them worthy of a place in it.
Some of the most important stories in the Old Testament, as for example,
the story of Cain and Abel, and the account of the flood, are later addi
tions. They can usually be readily recognized by the slight variations in
25

THE LATER PARALLEL HISTORIES
a?
century.

vocabulary and point of view. They all bear the marks of the same
noble prophetic school, whose work extended through more than a

VII
THE LATER PARALLEL HISTORIES
I. The Northern Prophetic History. During the eighth century
B.C. the prophets of Northern Israel also began to collect the national
songs and traditions current in the north, and to weave them together
into a connected history, parallel to that of the early Judean prophets.
Many characteristic water-marks distinguish their work. Peculiar
words and expressions are constantly employed. The mountain of
revelation is called Horeb or simply the mountain instead of Sinai, as in
the early Judean history; the inhabitants of Palestine Amorites instead
of Canaanites, and the father of the twelve tribes Jacob, not Israel. God
('elohim),not Jehovah, is the early designation of the Deity. Ordinarily,
he is represented as communicating with his people through his Messen
ger, instead of by word of mouth as in the older Judean stories. These
northern or Ephraimite (using Hosea's designation of the northern king
dom) prophetic historians also recognize that the ancestors of the He
brews were idolaters (Josh. 242), and that divine revelation was gradual
and progressive. Living in an age when prophets, like Elijah and
Elisha, gave commands to king and people, they naturally assign the
commanding position throughout all their history of Israel to the
prophets. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Joshua, Deborah,
and Samuel are their chief heroes, and these all figure in the prophetic
role, overshadowing the priests and secular rulers.
II. Its Purpose. In the thought of the Northern Israelite prophetic
historians Israel was from the first a theocracy. Its victories and achieve
ments were attained not so much by human effort and natural means
(as in the Judean history), but by divine interposition. Its disasters
they trace directly to acts of apostasy. Their purpose is clearly instruc
tive and religious rather than historical. They aim to show, by familiar
illustrations drawn from Israel's experience, that disaster is the sure
result of rebellion, and that peace and prosperity and the assurance of
divine favor are the certain rewards of obedience to God's commands
and the counsels of his theocratic representatives, the prophets.
26

ITS CONTENTS
III. Its Contents. Since its interest centres in the Hebrew theocracy,
this northern prophetic history begins with Abraham. It records all the
important events in Israel's life down to the establishment of the united
monarchy under Saul. This independent version is in general closely
parallel to and yet differs in many details from the Judean account.
Each of these parallel prophetic histories has also preserved narratives
peculiar to itself. Thus, for example, the account of the sacrifice of
Isaac (Gen. 22), the making of the golden calf (Ex. 32), and the appoint
ment of the seventy elders (Nu. II16- "• 25-30) are found only in the north
ern history, and the later additions made to it. Doubtless it was also
originally far more complete than the present extracts from it in the Old
Testament would suggest.
IV. Blending of the Two Prophetic Histories. When Northern
Israel fell in 722 B.C., its literature became the possession of the southern
prophets. The religious and didactic value of the northern history was
recognized by some prophet or group of Judean prophets who lived in
the dark days preceding the great reformation of Josiah in 621 B.C.
The variant accounts of the same events were, however, distracting and
not adapted to practical use. Accordingly, the two histories were com
bined. Naturally, the early Judean was made the basis, and this was
supplemented by extracts from the northern history. If the two versions
of the same narrative were closely parallel, they were joined together, so
that, as for example, in the account of Jacob's deception to secure his
father's blessing (§ XII), succeeding verses or sections were taken from
the two different histories. If they could not be thus fused, the two
versions were sometimes introduced independently, as are the two ac
counts of Isaac's deception regarding Rebekah in Genesis 12 and 26.
If the variations in the two versions were too great, simply the one was
quoted, and that was ordinarily the southern, for it was the form of the
tradition most familiar to the Judean compiler. When there was but
one version of a story, it was usually reproduced, whether found orig
inally in the northern or in the southern history. The task of com
bining the two sources was carried through with great care, and the re
sult was a composite narrative, abounding in minor inconsistencies and
abrupt transitions in literary style and point of view, but representing
that which was most valuable in the two histories.
V. Point of View of Later Judaism. The Babylonian exile funda
mentally transformed the thought and point of view of the Israelite
race. The law and ritual took the place of the earlier popular religion
and the priest succeeded the prophet. The prevailing conceptions re-
27

THE LATER PARALLEL HISTORIES
garding the earlier history of the nation also changed. The seat of au
thority was found in the past, rather than in the divine revelations through
the present experiences of the nation and the heart of the living prophet
The historical spirit was largely lost, and, instead, a tendency prevailed.
to idealize the early days of Israel's life, and to trace back to them the
ideas and institutions so dear to later Judaism.
VI. The Late Priestly History. Under the influence of this new
point of view and tendency, certain priests, probably originally exiles
in Babylonia, wrote a brief history of their race. This history begins
with the story of creation in Genesis 1, and traces the important incidents
in Israel's experience to the conquest of Canaan. The literary style is
that of a legal writer and stands in striking contrast to that of the earlier
prophets. Chronological data and genealogies are common. The inter
est is directed not to the history of the nation, but to the origin of legal
and ceremonial institutions. This is in accord with its general aim,
which is to provide a fitting introduction to the laws. God is conceived
of as the absolute, omnipotent, transcendent ruler of the universe, who
realized his will in the life of his people, not so much by natural laws
and the acts of men, as by a miraculous use of his divine power. Israel's
earlier history has been so far idealized that no mention is made of the
sins of Jacob, Moses, and the Hebrews. For the study of the theology
and thought of later Judaism these narratives are of value; but the more
reliable historical data and the vital messages adapted to universal
human needs are found in the older prophetic narratives.
VII. The Final Blending of the Prophetic and Priestly Histories.
The fusion of the late priestly with the earlier composite prophetic histor
ies has given us six of the opening books of the Old Testament. Since the
final compiler was a late priest, he has assigned the first place to the
priestly narrative that comes from his own age. Its account of creation,
because of its majestic character, furnishes a fitting introduction to the
Old Testament. Its order of events largely determines that of the re
sulting composite history. The stories of Genesis and Exodus lead up
to the laws which later Jewish tradition associated as a whole with
Moses and Sinai. Numbers and Joshua trace the history of Israel to
the conquest of Canaan, the land where subsequently the temple was
reared. VIII. The Heart of the Old Testament. The greatest service per
formed by the final compiler was, however, the preservation of the
earlier prophetic history. Embedded in the midst of later traditions,
laws, and editorial additions, this older record has in divine Providence
28

THE HEART OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
survived almost intact the successive revisions to which it has been sub
jected. Now, in the light of modern biblical research, it stands forth
as the earliest witness, to make known the essential facts of Hebrew
history and, above all, to illustrate the great spiritual and ethical truths
revealed to the Hebrew prophets. This earliest history of Israel and
the later prophetic books, and those inspired by them, constitute the real
heart of the Old Testament and the true introduction to the New. The
primary object in the opening volumes of the Historical Bible is to re
cover and reprint this early prophetic history of Israel (with its important
later supplements) that it may again be available for popular study and
teaching. It is not a new, but the original Old Testament, which is
thus restored and freed from the distracting parallels and scribal addi
tions that through the ages have gathered about it.

29

THE BEGINNINGS OF HUMAN HISTORY
§ I. THE STORY OF MAN'S CREATION
In the day that Jehovah made earth and heaven, no ^9°a-
plant of the field was yet on the earth, and no herb of the before
field had yet sprung up, for Jehovah had not caused it to ^£_B
rain upon the earth, and there was no man to till the ground ; tion
but a mist used to rise from the earth and water the whole
face of the ground.
Then Jehovah formed man of the dust of the ground and 2. Crea-
breathed into his nostrils the breath of life. Thus man man0
became a hving being.
And Jehovah planted a garden in Eden far in the East, 3.,Pro-
and placed there the man whom he had formed. And out for'iSf
of the ground Jehovah made to grow every tree that is ^yeI"
pleasant to the sight and good for food, the tree of life also ment
in the midst of the garden, and the tree of the knowledge
of good and evil. Aiid Jehovah commanded the man, say
ing, Of every tree of the garden thou mayest eat freely,
except of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; from
it thou shalt not eat, for in the day that thou eatest of it
thou shalt surely die.
Then said Jehovah, It is not good for the man to be 4^Hjs
alone; I will make a helper suited to him. Therefore out needs
of the ground Jehovah formed all the beasts of the field
and all the birds of the heavens, and brought them to the
man to see what he would call them; and whatever the
man called each living creature that was its name. Thus
the man gave names to all cattle and all the beasts of the
field; but for the man himself there was found no helper
suited to him.
Then Jehovah caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, b. Crea-
so that he slept; and he took one of his ribs, and closed SZm
31

THE STORY OF MAN'S CREATION
up its place with flesh. But the rib, which he had taken
from the man, Jehovah fashioned into a woman and brought
her to the man. Then said the man,
This, now, is bone of my bone
And flesh of my flesh.
This one shall be called woman,
For from man was she taken.
Therefore a man leaves father and mother and cleaves to
his wife, so that they two become one flesh.
I. Literary Form and Character of the Story. This narrative
gives the primitive answer to the question which every child of the human
race has earnestly and often asked. How were we made? How were
all living things made ? Man is pictured as the first being to be given
life. Trees, beasts, and birds (of lesser importance than man) are made
later. Last of all, woman is created that man may have a suitable com
panion. Jehovah is thought of as a God who himself moulds the human
form from the dust, breathing into the clay his own life-giving breath.
This same God is represented as experimenting to find what companions
are best suited to man. Thus this ancient story reflects those ideas
about the universe and the origin of things which men held in the
childhood of the human race. There is little trace of that later belief
in an orderly gradual process of creation, in which God is thought of as
a sovereign spirit issuing his commands from afar (Gen. l'-24*, cj.
Appendix I).
The literary style of the narrative, that of the earliest prophetic his
torian (c/. Introd. VI), is concise, picturesque, graphic and concrete.
Five short paragraphs tell vividly the story of creation and of Jehovah's
provisions for man. With a few strong strokes each scene and character
is clearly portrayed.
II. The Original Introduction to the Biblical Story. This earliest
Hebrew story of creation was placed after the later narrative of Genesis
l»-24* that it might precede the account of man's sin in chapter 3 (§11)
which it introduces. From references to the early tradition made in
the poetic and prophetic sources one may infer that it originally told
how at first there was no earth or heaven but only chaos; how Jehovah
set fast the foundations of the earth and reared up its pillars in the waters,
and then spread out the canopy of the heavens, establishing the courses
32

ORIGINAL INTRODUCTION TO BIBLICAL STORY
of sun, moon and stars. All of these opening sentences have apparently
been condensed by the compiler of the two accounts of creation into the
statement, In the day that Jehovah made earth and heaven. At this point
the story begins. No vegetation or life was on the earth, but a mist
constantly rose from the earth to water the surface of the ground and
thus make plant and animal life possible.
III. Man's Creation. Jehovah's presence and personal activity in
the work of creation are strongly emphasized. By him the body of man
was shaped out of the dust of the ground. What were the exact methods
and the time required — whether a gradual process of evolution, extend
ing through countless ages, or by the hand of God in a moment of time —
is not stated. Doubtless the primitive story-teller, with his limited
scientific knowledge, had in mind the simpler explanation. Then
Jehovah breathed into the nostrils of the human form the vital force
that made the moulded dust a living being. Thus the primitive belief
in man's relationship to the Deity was reasserted in nobler form. That
which gave mankind life was the breath of God within him. Hence,
when that was withdrawn, his body returned to its native dust (§ IP).
IV. Traditional Site of the Garden of Eden. To meet man's
physical and spiritual needs, Jehovah then planted a beautiful garden
far in the distant East. A later compiler, perhaps familiar with Baby
lonian tradition, added a note to the effect that this garden was beside
a river. This stream was probably the Persian Gulf, which was called
by the Babylonians "the bitter river." As one ascended it, this river
divided into four branches. Two of these were the Tigris and the
Euphrates. The other two may have been (1) the modern Wady-er-
Ruma, which extends far into Arabia, where the Assyrians placed the
land of Havilah, and (2) the Kerkha, east of the Tigris. Or, in view of
the incredibly vague geographical ideas held by the ancients, the Pishon
may be identified with the Indus or Ganges, and Gihon with the Nile.
The original prophetic historian had, however, no interest in mere
geography. It was the significance of the garden itself that commanded
his attention. The garden provided for man a home, the fruit of the
trees food, and the life-giving tree in its midst the possibility of enjoying
unending life, while he dwelt beside it and could eat of its fruit.
V. The Provisions for Man's Higher Needs. The divine care did
not cease, however, with provision for man's physical life. Beside the
tree of life grew another tree, the fruit of which, as its name implied,
gave to him who ate of it the knowledge of good and evil. This know
ledge was to come, as the sequel shows, through experience. This tree
33

THE STORY OF MAN'S CREATION
of knowledge was hedged about by the divine command not to eat of
its fruit under penalty of death.
Without wholesome and helpful companionship man's happiness and
development would be incomplete. Among the Semitic peoples the
name was supposed to represent the character of a person or thing. As
the primitive man gave names to the beasts and birds, he established
his dominion over them and voiced the impression which each made
upon him. But none of these creatures satisfied his need of a com
panion and helper. Therefore, from man's own body a portion of bone
and flesh was taken, and from this Jehovah fashioned woman. When
she was brought to the man, he recognized her kinship with him. The
name which she bore in the Hebrew, ishsha, woman, was, in sound at
least, suggestive of innate relationship with ishah, her husband. This
close kinship and the inborn needs of man and woman constitute the
eternal basis of that marriage bond which leads a man to leave parents
and to enter into the most intimate relation with his wife, so that they,
indeed, become one flesh.
VI. Aim and Teachings of the Story. The primary aim of the
narrative is to introduce the facts and characters which figure in the
subsequent story of man's sin. It is the prologue to the great tragedy
of human history. Briefly, but with inspired skill and authority, it sets
forth the basal facts of history and religion. (1) Back of all the universe
and the world, with its teeming life, is a personal Creator and Ruler.
(2) Man is the highest product of God's creation, and the object of his
tenderest care and solicitude. (3) Man's Creator is a God of infinite
love, providing for his human child all that is best for his happiness and
true development. (4) It was God's aim from the first to deliver man
from everything that seems evil, such as pain, wearisome labor, and death,
(5) The beauties of the natural world and the inhabitants of air and
earth were all created for the sake of man. (6) Man and woman were
made akin and yet different, that together they may fully meet each
other's deepest needs. (7) The obligations of the marriage bond are
absolute and sacred, because they are based upon the innate character of
man and woman. (8) Temptation is not an accident in God's creation,
or in itself an evil, but rather is absolutely necessary for man's moral
development. VII. The Oldest Babylonian Account of Creation. The different
elements that enter into this story of creation are found in ancient
oriental literature which existed centuries before the Hebrews became
a nation. An old Sumero-Babylonian tablet tells of the time when all
34

OLDEST BABYLONIAN ACCOUNT OF CREATION
lands were sea and nothing had yet been made. Then Marduk built the
city of Babylon (where he was especially revered), and made the gods,
the spirits of earth. The poem adds:
Marduk laid a reed on the face of the waters,
He formed dust and poured it out beside the reed;
That he might cause the gods to dwell in the dwelling of their
hearts' desire,
He formed mankind;
With him the goddess Aruru created the seed of mankind.
The beasts of the field and living things in the field he formed;
The Tigris and Euphrates he created and established in their
place;
Their names he proclaimed in a goodly manner.
The grass, the rush of the marsh, the reed and the forest he
created,
The lands, the marshes and the swamps;
The wild cow and her young, the wild calf,
The ewe and her young and the lamb of the fold.
As in the oldest Hebrew version of the story, man is created before the
other living things.
VIII. The Later Babylonian Version. From the library of Asshur-
banipal, who reigned over Assyria during the middle of the seventh
century B.C., comes a later and more highly developed version. First,
the firmament is created, then the heaven above and the great deep be
low. Then in the sky are placed the stars, moving in their fixed orbits,
to determine the year and months.
The moon god he caused to shine forth, and to him he entrusted
the night;
He appointed him as the luminary of the night to determine the
days.
A recently discovered fragment of the sixth tablet of this epic tells of
Marduk's purpose in creating man:
My blood will I take and bone will I form,
I will make man that man may .
35

THE STORY OF MAN'S CREATION
I will create men who shall inherit the earth,
That the service of the gods may be established and their shrines
built.
IX. The Later Biblical Account of the Creation. (Of. for the
text Appendix I.) The priestly author of Genesis P-24a has accepted
the order and picture of creation which are given in this later Babylonian
version, but he rejects the polytheistic and unworthy elements. He has
arranged the story in six great acts, which lead up to the divine origin of
the sabbath. Being a priest, he was supremely interested in this in
stitution. God is represented as an omnipotent spiritual Ruler who
reveals his benign purpose at each stage of creation. Man, as in the
older Hebrew version, is the central figure; but he is created last rather
than first, thus completing the evolutionary process. He is made in the
image of God in that he is gifted, like his Creator, with intelligence and
will, and is given authority to rule as God's viceroy on earth.
X. Other Creation Stories. The literature of the Phoenicians,
and Egyptians indicate that they also were acquainted with the common
Semitic tradition. Most primitive peoples have their myths which ex
plain the origin of the natural world, and in many of these myths there
are striking parallels to the Semitic version. Of them all, the Persian
tradition presents the closest analogies to the early Hebrew narrative.
It tells of a region of bliss where dwelt two beings, subsisting only on
fruit, until they were tempted by a demon to disobey God's commands.
XL The Tree of Life. Among the Babylonians it was a common
belief that certain heroes, as for example, the Babylonian Noah, were
granted immortality, and were allowed to dwell forever "in the distance
at the confluence of the streams," in a blessed abode guarded by scorpion
men. Many analogies to the tree of life, the fruit of which was believed to
give immortality to the eater, can be traced. The hero of a very ancient
Babylonian story, after long searching and countless trials, finds the
plant called "the restoration of old age to youth," but fails to attain
immortal life, for the precious plant is snatched away by a serpent
A legend has also been found on a Palestinian tablet of the fifteenth
century B.C. which tells of a fisherman Adapa who was admitted to the
dwelling place of the gods, and, having learned their secrets, was offered
"the food of life," which conferred immortality.
XII. The Tree of Knowledge. Trees also figure in the thought of
the ancients as a medium of revelation. To Moses the call to service
36

THE TREE OF KNOWLEDGE
came in connection with the burning bush (§ XXI1). A famous divin
ers' tree was found in the days of the Judges near Shechem (§ XXXVII).
The movement in the balsam trees was the divine signal to David to go
forth to battle (§XLIX4). The oaks of Dodona and the laurels of
Delos and Delphi were consulted even by kings and philosophers
in ancient Greece. The Arabs believe to-day that the box-thorn some
times utters prophetic words. Hence a tree, the fruit of which gave the
eater knowledge of good and evil, was perfectly consistent with the belief
of the East.
XIII. The Story of Eabani. An old Babylonian poem also tells of a
primitive hero, Eabani, who was created by a goddess from a bit of clay.
Clad only in the long locks of hair which covered his body, he ate and
sported with the wild animals in a state of savagery. To lure him from
his strange companions a beautiful woman was sent to him, and by her
charms she wooed him from his barbarous life. The resemblance of
this early Babylonian hero to the man of the Hebrew story is strikingly
close. These various analogies in the thought and traditions of the
East at least suggest that there lies back of the marvellous biblical story
of the garden in Eden an elder Semitic original which has been adapted
by the Hebrew prophet to illustrate his noble spiritual messages.
§ n. MAN'S SIN AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
Now the man and his wife were both naked, yet felt no 1. Man's
shame. And the serpent was more subtle than all the SSS"11
beasts of the field which Jehovah had made. cence
And the serpent said to the woman, Hath God really said, 2. The
« Ye shall not eat from any tree of the garden ? ' The L°mp-°f
woman replied to the serpent, From the fruit of all the tation
trees of the garden we may eat; only of the fruit of the
tree which is in the midst of the garden, God hath said,
'Ye -shall not eat from it, neither shall ye touch it, lest
ye die.' Then the serpent said to the woman, You shall
not surely die; for God knoweth that in the day you eat
of it your eyes shall be opened, and you shall be like gods,
knowing good and evil.
Now when the woman saw that the tree was good for 3. The
food, and attractive to the sight, and desirable to make one
wise, she took of its fruit and ate, and gave also to her
husband with her and he ate. 37

act of
sin

excuses

MAN'S SIN AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
4. Ef- Then the eyes of both of them were opened, so that they
B?ntof knew that they were naked; therefore they sewed fig-
leaves together and made themselves girdles. But when
they heard the sound of the footsteps of Jehovah, as he was
walking in the garden in the cool of the day, the man and
his wife hid themselves from the presence of Jehovah
among the trees of the garden.
5. Fatal And Jehovah called to the man and said to him, Where
art thou ? And he said, I heard the sound of thy footsteps
in the garden and I was afraid, because I was naked ; so I
hid myself. Then he said, Who told thee that thou wast
naked ? Hast thou eaten of the tree from which I com
manded thee not to eat ? And the man said, The woman
whom thou didst place beside me, she gave me from the
tree and I ate. When Jehovah said to the woman, What
is this thou hast done ? The woman rephed, The serpent
beguiled me and I ate.
6. Ex- Then Jehovah said to the serpent, Because thou hast
plana- j j.t_ •
tion of done tnis,
ser-
Eents' abits More accursed shalt thou be than all animals,
And more than all the beasts of the field.
On thy belly shalt thou go,
And dust shalt thou eat,
All the days of thy life.
Enmity will I set between thee and the woman,
And between thy offspring and her offspring.
He shall bruise thee on the head,
And thou shalt wound him on the heel.
7. con- To the woman he said,
cSTo? " I will make thy pain great in thy pregnancy,
*em With pain shalt thou bring forth children.
an's Yet toward thy husband shall be thy desire,
Bin And he shall rule over thee.

8. Of
man's

But to the man he said, Because thou hast hearkened to
ti£n a the voice of thy wife and hast eaten of the tree concerning
which I commanded thee, saying, 'Thou shalt not eat
from it ' : 38

LITERARY FORM AND ORIGIN OF THE STORY
Cursed shall be the ground because of thee,
By painful toil shalt thou eat from it all the days of thy life.
Thorns and thistles shall it bring forth for thee,
And thou shalt eat the herb of the field.
By the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread,
Until thou return to the ground,
Because from it thou wast taken ;
For dust thou art,
And to dust shalt thou return.
Therefore Jehovah sent him forth from the garden of 9. God's
Eden to till the ground whence he was taken. But Jehovah oareign
made for the man and his wife tunics of skin, and clothed
them. I. Literary Form and Origin of the Story. This narrative is the
immediate sequel to the preceding story of the creation. In two
marvellous scenes it presents the great tragedy of tragedies in human
history — the loss of man's happy, natural relation with God through de
liberate disobedience to the divine command. Like the great Teacher
of Nazareth, the prophetic author of this marvellous story was dealing
with the deepest experiences of human life. His problem was to make
clear and plain even to children the nature of that inner struggle which
we call temptation. He accomplishes his end by the use of the simple
story and dialogue. Attention and interest are fixed from the first on
the experiences of a certain man and woman. The story has all the
personal charm of those fascinating popular tales which come from the
ancient East. Its prologue, the primitive story of creation (§1), was
old centuries before the days of Moses. In the first scene the actors
are the serpent, the woman, and the man. In the dialogue between the
serpent and the woman is brought out vividly the struggle that raged
in her own mind between her natural inclinations and her sense of duty.
In the second scene Jehovah appears. The acts and motives of the man
and woman, and the terrible consequences of sin are portrayed so con
cretely and dramatically that even the youngest and simplest reader can
fully appreciate them. The thoughtful reader, however, soon discovers
that the marvellous biblical narrative is far more than a mere record of
the experiences of a primitive man and woman. Like the inimitable
parables of Jesus, it is a chapter from the book of life. It is in every
respect historical because it is absolutely true to human experience.
39

MAN'S SIN AND ITS CONSEQUENCES
The closest parallel to this account of man's fall is the late Persian
story of the man and woman who were influenced by the evil spirit,
Ahriman, to disobey and deny God, to cut down trees, to kill animals,
and thus to lose their original innocence.
II. The Character of the Serpent. The serpent is clearly not, as
Milton has taught us, the Satan of later Jewish theology. It is rather
the animal, which, because of its silent, secretive, venomous habits was
generally regarded as the wisest and at the same time the most treach
erous foe of man. It was, therefore, most natural that of all the creatures
in the garden the serpent should be the one chosen to voice the tempta
tion in the heart of the woman. This choice may also be due to the in-'
fluence of an older Babylonian tradition.
III. The Real Nature of Temptation and Sin. The dialogue be
tween the serpent and the woman brings out clearly the various forms
which temptation assumes. The serpent's first question implies a
doubt concerning Jehovah's goodness and wisdom. The woman's
answer shows that she fully understands the meaning of the divine com
mand. Then follows the questioning of Jehovah's warning and a strong
appeal to the woman's curiosity. It is clearly an oriental woman, with
her characteristic mental and moral limitations, that the ancient story
teller has in mind. The appeal to her curiosity, therefore, is well-nigh
irresistible. There is also an implied dare in the serpent's words.
The issue is clear. On the one side was the definite divine command
not to eat. Her noblest impulses of love and gratitude prompted the
woman to obey that divine command. On the other side were the nat
ural cravings of appetite, the promptings of the sesthetic sense (for the
fruit was attractive), of curiosity, and the desire for knowledge and
power. All of these motives were in themselves worthy. Under other
conditions they would have inspired noble and right actions, and yet
to the woman of the story they were temptations, because they impelled
her to turn her back upon the nobler and diviner impulses of gratitude,
love and duty which she owed to Jehovah. The story well illustrates
the significance of the Hebrew word for sin, which means missing the
mark. In missing the mark of implicit obedience set clearly before her
the woman sinned.
The man's temptation assumed a very different form, but one which
appealed as strongly to him. He himself would doubtless have waved
aside the whisperings of the serpent; but when the wife, whom Jehovah
had given him as his companion and helper, had eaten the forbidden
fruit, he felt that he had a sufficient excuse for disobeying the divine
40

REAL NATURE OF TEMPTATION AND SIN
command. Thus with him the choice was between the nobler dictates
of duty and the promptings of appetite, the desire for knowledge and a
false chivalry. In following his baser impulses the man also missed the
mark set before him and thus sinned.
IV. The Effects of Sin. The inevitable consequences of sin are
truly and graphically set forth in the story. Sin brought knowledge to
man and woman, but a knowledge which destroyed their former inno
cence. Cowardice and a desire to avoid the presence of Jehovah took
the place of their previous glad confidence. While their sin blinded
their vision and reared a high barrier between them and Jehovah, resi
dence in the garden was intolerable.
And yet, as Jehovah sought the guilty pair, his words were not those
of condemnation. Rather his questions invited that frank confession
which would have at once dispelled the barrier which sin had raised.
But they made a fatal mistake and sinned doubly in excusing their sin
and in trying to shift the responsibility. The man said, "The woman
gave me from the tree"; the woman said, "The serpent beguiled me."
Thus, their lack of repentance made it impossible for even the infinite
God to forgive them.
The ancients regarded all misfortune as the result of the divine dis
pleasure. The snake, wriggling through the dust with no legs on which
to walk, the deadly enemy of mankind, beaten to death by its foe, or in
turn striking its fatal fangs into the heel of its assailant, seemed to prim
itive peoples to be especially afflicted by God, and, therefore, to rest under
the shadow of some great crime. Hence the early story-teller naturally
connected the unfortunate peculiarities of serpent kind with the act of
the serpent in tempting Eve to disobey Jehovah.
The grievous pains of childbirth and the subjection of the oriental
woman to her husband are likewise traced to sin. Man's painful
struggle to wrest food and a livelihood from the rocky earth, and death,
the sad but certain end of that struggle, are likewise attributed to re
bellion against the divine command. The fate of man and woman is
not so much a penalty, as the inevitable effect of their sins unconfessed;
for, according to the representation of the story, banishment from the
garden was necessary, because they had forfeited their title to it. Even
they themselves were eager to escape from the presence of Jehovah.
Banishment meant a struggle for food, suffering, and ultimate death, for
they could no longer eat of the life-giving tree in the midst of the garden.
V. The Element of Hope. The gloom of this tragedy of human
tragedies is relieved by one bright ray of hope. As the man and his wife
41

THE STORY OF CAIN AND ABEL
go forth to learn in the school of pain and hardship the lessons of life,
the divine care still attends them, providing the garments needful in their
new and harsh environment— an earnest that they are not beyond the
pale of God's love and forgiveness.
VI. Aim and Teachings of the Story. The prophet's first aim was
clearly to teach the origin, nature, and terrible consequences of sin.
Incidentally he retained the popular explanations of certain striking facts
in the natural world, as for example, the habits of serpents, the pains of
pregnancy, and the necessity of laborious toil. He was, however, pre
eminently a religious teacher. Even the pseudo-scientific explanations
are only concrete illustrations of his central teaching that all pain and
affliction are ultimately but the effect of sin. Among the many religious
teachings with which this marvellous story abounds may be noted:
(1) Innocence does not become virtue until it is tested and proved by
temptation. (2) If the testing is to be effective, the temptation must be
of a character to appeal to the individual tested. (3) Sin is not God's
but man's creation. (4) To sin is to act in accord with the baser and
more selfish rather than the nobler and diviner motives. (5) An act
of sin destroys a man's peace of mind and purity of thought. (6) Sin
unconfessed is a sin constantly committed, and it absolutely prevents
even God himself from forgiving the unrepentant sinner. (7) In keep
ing with the law of cause and effect, sin brings its own inevitable punish
ment. (8) The worst effect of sin is the severing of the normal, har
monious relations between God and the individual. (9) Most of the
pains and ills of life are the result of some one's sin. (10) Man must
learn in the school of pain and toil the lesson of obedience. (11) Even
though guilty and unrepentant, man is still the object of God's unceasing
love and care.

§ III. THE STORY OF CAIN AND ABEL
l. oo- Now the man called his wife's name Eve, because she was
tions'of the mother of all hving beings. And the man knew Eve
cam his wife, and she conceived and bore Cain. And she also
Abel bore his brother Abel. Abel was a keeper of sheep, but
Cain was a tiller of the ground.
2. Their Now in course of time it came to pass, that Cain brought
h£T some of the fruit of the ground as an offering to Jehovah.
And Abel also brought some of the firstlings of his flock and
42

THE STORY OF CAIN AND ABEL
of their fat. And Jehovah looked favorably upon Abel and
his offering ; but for Cain and his offering he had no regard.
Therefore Cain was very angry and his countenance fell.
And Jehovah said to Cain,
Why art thou angry ?
And why is thy countenance fallen ?
If thou doest well, is there not acceptance ?
But if thou doest not well,
Does not sin crouch at the door ?
And to thee shall be its desire,
But thou shouldst rule over it.
Then Cain said to Abel his brother, Let us go into the 4. The
field. And while they were in the field, Cain rose up against ^Tliei
Abel his brother and slew him.
And when Jehovah said to Cain, Where is Abel, thy s.con-
brother ? he said, I know not; am I my brother's keeper ? ™d'°n
Then he said, What hast thou done ? the voice of thy J°^na.
brother's blood crieth to me from the ground. Now, there- tion of
fore, cursed art thou; away from the ground, which hath Cam
opened its mouth to receive thy brother's blood from thy
hand. Whenever thou tillest the ground, it shall no longer
yield to thee its strength; a fugitive and wanderer shalt
thou be on the earth.
Then Cain said to Jehovah, My punishment is greater 6. His
than I can bear. Behold, thou hast driven me out this day p^t
from the face of the ground, and from thy face shall I be
hid; and I shall become a fugitive and a wanderer on the
earth ; and it will come to pass, that whoever finds me will
slay me.
But Jehovah said to him, 7. Di

vine decree
Not so ! if any one kill Cain, jjg£ for
Vengeance shall be taken on him sevenfold. his pro
tection
So Jehovah granted Cain a tribal mark, that any one finding
him should not kill him. Thus Cain went out from the
presence of Jehovah and dwelt in the land of Nod [Wan
dering]. 43

THE STORY OF CAIN AND ABEL
I. The Background of the Story. The story of Cain has all the lit
erary charm and picturesqueness peculiar to the Judean prophetic
writers; but it is complete in itself and has no vital connection with the
stories that immediately precede and follow. Its background is the
settled land of Palestine, where herdsmen and tillers of the soil live side by
side. The worship of Jehovah and the institution of sacrifice have already
been established. The land is peopled by tribes whose vengeance Cain
the murderer fears. The significance of the tribal mark is also fully
recognized. The Cain of this story is evidently not the Cain of the ancient
genealogy (§ IV). The identity of the name doubtless explains why
the two independent traditions have been joined together in Genesis 4.
II. Origin of the Story. No Babylonian or Egyptian parallel to
this story has yet been discovered. The closest analogy is found in the
Roman tale of Romulus and Remus; but even here the resemblance is
only in general theme. The present story probably originated in or
near Palestine. In its oldest form, Cain and Abel apparently repre
sented tribes or nations. This conclusion alone explains Cain's fear
of blood revenge, for only the tribe of the murdered man would seek to
slay the murderer.
Possibly the story is based on some otherwise forgotten chapter in
Israel's early history. Certain scholars have sought to identify Cain
with the Kenites, the nomadic tribe, which in Israel's early history
shared the worship of the same tribal god. The story states, however,
that Cain was not a nomad but a tiller of the soil. Cain is perhaps to
be identified with the agricultural Canaanites. During the early days,
after the Hebrew shepherds emerged from the wilderness, they lived side
by side in Palestine with the older inhabitants of the land. The He
brews, however, increased rapidly in numbers and possessions. Pros
perity was ever regarded by the ancients as clear evidence that the Deity
looked with favor upon the offerings of his people. Finally, in the days
of Deborah (§ XXXVI) the Canaanites were defeated and dispos
sessed. Some of the survivors were absorbed by the Israelites and others
became wandering traders.
Whatever be the origin of the story, the prophet who has preserved
it recognized its value as an illustration of certain vital reUgious truths,
and adapted it to his noble purpose. By treating Cain and Abel as
individuals, he has given to the story that personal quality which greatly
enhances its interest and value.
III. The Reason why Cain's Offering was Rejected. Both Cain
and Abel brought regularly, as gifts to Jehovah, the respective products
44

WHY CAIN'S OFFERING WAS REJECTED
of their labor. The growing prosperity of Abel and the waning for
tunes of Cain soon showed that the younger of the two brothers enjoyed
Jehovah's favor. This favor was not due to the nature of his offerings,
but rather, as the sequel indicates, to his nobler spirit and character.
The jealousy and anger of Cain were soon revealed in his sullen,
lowering countenance. Then there came to him the divine counsel,
Hast thou any cause for anger ? If thou doest what is right, thou wilt
surely enjoy Jehovah's favor. But if not, then temptation, which thou
shouldst conquer, and the consequences of sin shall ever dominate thee.
The Greek and Hebrew versions of the Old Testament differ in their
rendering of the closing words of Jehovah, and the original meaning is
not clear. The translation given above appears to be the meaning of
the Hebrew and Latin texts. This interpretation is also true to human
experience, as well as to the implications of the context.
IV. Cain's Crime and its Punishment. But Cain was already
mastered by his passions, and was therefore irresponsive to the divine
voice. Luring his brother out into the open field, he treacherously
murdered him.
Even to the bloody murderer Jehovah came, as to the man and
woman in the garden, with a question that invited frank confession;
but Cain's reply was one of denial and defiance. It also disclosed his
inner motives. True to the criminal type, he repudiated all responsi
bility to society. Having by his deliberate act severed his connection
with his fellow-men, he had made himself an outlaw. The ancient law
of blood-revenge demanded the shedding of his blood. The very ground
was a witness of his crime. No longer should it yield to him its richest
products. Rather as a fugitive, he must wander up and down the face
of the earth, ever haunted by the dread that the avenger of blood would
suddenly overtake and slay him.
V. Meaning of the Mark of Cain. Not in contrition, but appalled
by the severity of the judgment that had fallen on his guilty head, Cain
asks that he may not be sent forth to a foreign land, where, according to
the thought of his day, he would be beyond the pale of his God's pro
tection. The guardian of each man in the ancient East was his tribe
or clan. The knowledge that each and all the members of a tribe were
pledged to avenge any wrong done to one of its number stayed many a
murderous hand in the past, as it still does to-day in the life of the desert.
To be deprived of the tribal protection meant that any man might with
impunity slay the accursed outcast. It is this fate that Cain bewails.
Again God's mercy far surpasses that of men. Upon the cringing
45

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF SEMITIC INSTITUTIONS
but unrepentant criminal, he places the tribal mark that proclaimed,
as does the tattooing or method of cutting the hair among the Arabs
to-day, that he was still a member and under the protection of a power
ful tribe. Cain bears the mark of Jehovah's own people, who are thus
under obligation, not only to spare but also to avenge in full measure any
wrong done to him. The land of wandering (Nod), may be an allusion
to the nomadic life of the desert or to that of the itinerant traders, who
were called by the Hebrews, Canaanites.
VI. Aim and Teachings. As in the preceding story the prophet's
main aim is to present the origin, nature,, and consequences of sin. At
many points it supplements the story of man's fall. Chief among the
vital prophetic truths illustrated by the sad story are: (1) Mere formal
worship is not necessarily acceptable to God. (2) It is the spirit and
character of the offerer, not the offering, that the Lord regards.
(3) Temptation comes in connection with the acts of worship, as well
as in the other relations of life. (4) God patiently endeavors to point
out to the offender the right way and to influence him to follow it.
(5) Great crimes are committed only by men whose characters have
been gradually debased by lesser sins. (6) Man is a free agent: God
surrounds him with good influences, but does not remove from him the
possibility of committing the most heinous crimes. (7) The man who
repudiates his responsibility as his brother's keeper allies himself with
Cain. (8) Guilt unconfessed cuts a man off from his fellows and makes
him an outcast from society. (9) God's mercy to the guilty is infinitely
greater than that of man.

§ IV. THE TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF EARLY SEMITIC
INSTITUTIONS
1.. Ori- Adam knew his wife and she conceived and bore a son
fie ° and called his name Seth, for she said, God hath given me
family offspring.
w'orsti To Seth also was born a son, and he named him Enosh.
wors ip jje wag ^ grgt tQ cajj oq ^ Qame Q£ jenovan# And me
man [Enosh?] knew his wife and she conceived and bore Cain,
and said, I have got a male child with the help of Jehovah.
s. ex Now Cain dwelt east of Eden. And Cain knew his wife,
iif0y and she conceived and bore Enoch. Cain also built a city
and called the city Enoch after his son's name.
46

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF SEMITIC INSTITUTIONS
And to Enoch was born Irad, and Irad begat Mehujael, 4. of
and Mehujael begat Methushael, and Methushael begat £myg"
Lamech. And Lantech took to himself two wives: the
name of the one was Adah [Light], and the name of the
other was Zillah [Shadow].
And Adah bore Jabal [Shepherd]; he was the father of e. of
those who dwell in tents and with cattle. mads
And his brother's name was Jubal [Ram's Horn] ; he was 6. of
the father of those who handle the harp and pipe. sVclans
And Zillah also bore Tubal-cain [Smith]; he was the J^of
father of all those who forge copper and iron. And the work-
sister of Tubal-cain was Naamah [Grace]. era
And Lamech said to his wives: s. of
blood- re
venge
Adah and Zillah, hearken to my voice,
Wives of Lamech give ear to my saying.
A man I slay for wounding me,
Yea, a youth for bruising me.
If Cain be avenged sevenfold,
Lamech shall be seventy and seven.
And Lamech begat a son ; and he called his name Noah 9. of
[Comfort], saying, This one will comfort us in our work ^Jteure
and in the toil of our hands, because Jehovah hath cursed
the ground. And Noah was the first tiller of the soil to
plant a vineyard.
And when he drank of the wine, he became drunken, and 10. of
lay uncovered within his tent. ermei"
Then Canaan saw the nakedness of his father and told n Gf
it outside to his two brothers. But Shem and Japheth took p""*"*
a garment and laid it upon both their shoulders and went deW
backward to cover the nakedness of their father, their faces eracy
being turned away so that they did not see their father's
nakedness. When Noah awoke from his wine and learned what his 12. of
youngest son had done to him, he said, nlanite
slavery
Cursed be Canaan;
May he be a servant of servants to his brothers.
47

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF SEMITIC INSTITUTIONS
13. of Also he said :
the su
periority of Blessed of Jehovah be Shem ;
Sem- Let Canaan also be a servant to him.
ites God enlarge Japheth
And let him dwell in the tents of Shem.
Let Canaan also be a servant to him.
I. Literary Form and Character. Most primitive peoples con
nected the more important events in their early history with the names
of certain traditional heroes. In the thought of later generations the
names of these heroes represent the periods during which each lived.
The tendency to join them together in genealogical tables was also com
mon. Since they bridged the centuries and connected the past with
later events, these genealogical lists were often preserved long after the
stories regarding the different heroes had been forgotten. In the pres
ent narrative several traditions have been retained. Usually only the
names remain. The crude form and naive point of view of the narratives
prove that they are extremely old. The song in 8 is a superb example
of popular poetry. Two balanced lines of four beats each are followed
by four lines, each with three measured beats or accents.
II. Origin of the Genealogical List. Certain names in the open
ing genealogical list have been identified with Babylonian originals.
The Babylonian records also contain a list of ten antediluvian kings
or dynasties representing a total period of four hundred and thirty-two
thousand years. In the later priestly list of Genesis a definite number
of years is assigned to each of the ten antediluvians. This was probably
due to the influence of the older Babylonian tradition. While Genesis 4
also contains the names of ten heroes, their order is different. This
disarrangement apparently resulted from the addition of the later story
of Cain and Abel, which made Cain a son of the man and woman of
chapter 3. It would seem that in the present case the late priestly tra
dition, in making Seth the first and only son of Adam, and Enosh his
grandson, had preserved the original tradition (c/. St. O.T., I, §111)
This order is confirmed by the parallel Babylonian list, in which Amelon,
the Babylonian equivalent of Enosh is third and Ammenon, the equiv
alent of Cain is fourth.
III. Babylonian and Phoenician Traditions Regarding the
Origin of the Arts. The origin of the early arts and institutions
greatly interested the ancients. The Babylonian inscriptions state that
48

BABYLONIAN AND PHOENICIAN TRADITIONS
the great gods, Ea, the lord of wisdom, and Marduk, the creator, brought
culture to mankind. The Greeks attributed the discovery of fire to
Prometheus. The fragmentary Phoenician traditions contain the clos
est parallels to the Hebrew. These trace the origin of the different arts
and inventions to individual heroes.
One Phoenician story states that a son of the first man and woman
built Tyre, and made huts out of the reeds, rushes and papyrus. An
other son (Ousoos) was the first to make garments from the skins of
animals, and boats from the trunks of trees. Among the descendants
of the first son were also six pairs of brothers, who like the sons of La
mech, were the inventors and patrons of different arts and occupations.
Their names are also significant of their professions. Thus Hunter
and Fisherman developed hunting and fishing. The second pair (of
whom one apparently bore the name; Smith) discovered the arts of
working iron and of making fishing tackle,, as well as of navigation,
magic and divination. The third pair* (of whom one was named,
Artificer), discovered how to make bricks and roofs. From the fourth
pair were descended those who make courts and enclosures to houses,
and who till the soil. The fifth pair were the traditional fathers of vil
lage and pastoral life. The sixth pair discovered the use of salt. Ap
parently these closely parallel Phoenician and Hebrew stories come
from earlier Canaanite or possibly Babylonian originals.
PV. Interpretation of the Genealogical List. The Northern
Israelite prophetic, as well as the late priestly group of narratives, trace
the revelation of the sacred name, Yahweh (or as it is commonly written
Jehovah) to the days of Moses (c/. Ex. 6; § XXI3). The present early
Judean prophetic narrative, however, assigns the beginning of that
formal worship to the days of Enosh, the traditional grandson of the
first man. While the later narrators may be more exact in their technical
historical statement, the early prophets declare, with true insight, that
man has worshipped God from the first, even though the theological be
liefs of the primitive worshipper were crude and defective.
Cain, the artificer, was naturally regarded as the first to build a city.
In the priestly list of Genesis 5, Enoch, Cain's son, and the correspond
ing Edoranchos in the Babylonian list, stand in the seventh place, still
further confirming the conclusion that the name of Cain, which repre
sents an advanced civilization, was originally found nearer that of
Lamech than of Adam.
V. Origin of the Enoch Tradition. In the prophetic narrative
nothing but the names of Enoch and of the three heroes that follow
49

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF SEMITIC INSTITUTIONS
have been preserved. The priestly parallel of Genesis 524 adds that,
Enoch walked with God and was not, for God took him. Like the Baby
lonian hero of the flood, he was believed to have been borne beyond the
waters of death, there to enjoy immortality. Enoch is the Hebrew
equivalent of Edoranchos, who is probably to be identified with Enmedu-
ranki, a pre-historic king of Sippar, a city devoted to the worship of
the sun god Shamash. A recently discovered tablet states that the,
sun god called Enmeduranki to intercourse with himself, gave him the
tablet of the gods, initiated him into the secrets of heaven and earth,
and taught him the art of divination (cf. Zimmern, The Bab. and Hebrew
Genesis, pp. 43 ff.). This knowledge he transmitted to his descendants,
and thus became the traditional father of an hereditary guild of
Babylonian diviners.
Later Jewish thought made Enoch the one through whom the secrets
of heaven and the future were revealed, as is well illustrated by the
composite Book of Enoch. The earlier priestly writers purified and
spiritualized the ancient story; but, apparently under the influence of
the older tradition, they assigned to this Babylonian worshipper of the
sun god three hundred and sixty-five years, corresponding to the number
of days in the solar year.
VI. The Lamech Stories. To Lamech and his sons the Hebrew
traditions attribute the origin of polygamy and of the three different
occupations of primitive fife. As with the Greeks, shepherds and
musicians are closely associated. They are descended from a common
mother whose name, meaning Light or Dawn, is especially appropri
ate; while the son of Zillah {Shade) is the traditional ancestor of the
grimy smiths, whose services were most highly esteemed in these early
days. Unfortunately, the prophet has given us none of the popular stories
regarding Naamah the gracious. Instead he has reproduced from the
lips of the people the ancient song of blood-revenge, sung boastfully to
his wives by the victorious warrior, probably as he returned from some
victorious foray against a hostile tribe, possibly, also, as he brandished a
sword forged by Tubal-cain. Its thought is, Each and every injury
to myself or clan will be requited in fullest measure. "An eye for an
eye and a tooth for a tooth," is at the foundation of many of the ancient
laws found in the Code of Hammurabi and the Old Testament. "Do
to others as they do to you" is still the law of the desert. In striking
contrast to these barbarous standards are the teachings of the Hebrew
prophets and Jesus. 50

EARLIEST TRADITION REGARDING NOAH
VII. Meaning of the Earliest Tradition Regarding Noah. The
story of Noah, the tiller of the soil, was originally independent of the pre
ceding, as well as of the more familiar story of the flood. In the priestly
genealogy of Genesis 5, Noah is the oldest son of Lamech, and nothing
is said of his other illustrious brothers. The popular etymology of the
name Noah, which really comes from a root meaning to rest, is character
istic of the early prophetic writers. Noah they regarded as the inaugura-
tor of a new epoch in which the curse upon man was to be mitigated.
The original object of the story was to explain the fate of the Canaanites;
but the prophet who reproduced it was seeking to bring out the evils of
intemperance and moral depravity. The illustration is striking and
effective. Under the influence of wine the aged father is a pitiable ob
ject of warning.
A later editor, familiar with the genealogical table of Genesis 10, has
here introduced into the Hebrew text the name of Ham, although the
following sentences show that the original contained only that of Canaan.
He is the traditional ancestor of the highly civilized Canaanites, whom
the Hebrews found in possession of central Palestine. His fundamental
lack of moral sense, as revealed in his attitude toward his father, is typ
ical of that gross immorality which weakened the physical and national
character of the Canaanites and ultimately proved their ruin.
Shem is the personification of the dominant Semitic peoples, and es
pecially of the Hebrews. Japheth, as its meaning, far extended or
distant, suggests, represents the trading peoples of the eastern Medi
terranean, and especially the Phoenicians, with whom the early Hebrews
made commercial alliances. The act of Shem and Japheth reveals a
far higher moral sense, and also that filial piety which is strongly
emphasized by all oriental peoples.
The curse and blessings which follow are based upon the established
facts of history. Although in the form of predictions, they represent
the deeper prophetic interpretation of these facts. The enslavement of
the Canaanites is the inevitable result of their innate moral depravity.
The Hebrews and their allies are supreme because of their superior moral
ideals and character.
VIII. Aim and Teachings. As has already been noted, to explain
the origin of the various arts and institutions is the common aim of all
these stories. They record in the language of tradition the beginnings
and development of human civilization. They are forerunners of the
modern sciences of history, religion, anthropology and sociology. They
emphasize that unity of the human race, the basis of which is one com-
51

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD
mon Creator and Father. The concluding story also illustrates certain
profoundly vital religious truths: (1) Excessive indulgence debases and
disgraces even the strongest and noblest characters. (2) Innate char
acter and thoughts will surely be revealed by acts. (3) He who is im
moral and depraved, even though he may have outward culture, will
surely in the end become the slave of others. (4) He whose instincts
and ideals are noble and pure will become a ruler of men. (5) Blessed
are the pure in heart, for they shall enjoy God's favor.
§ V. THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD
i.union Now it came to pass when men had begun to be many
tween on the face of the ground, and daughters had been born to
jj™ne them, that the sons of God saw that the daughters of men
human were fair, and they took to themselves as wives whomso-
being3 ever they chose.
2. je- Then said Jehovah, My spirit shall not abide in man for-
d£apk5 ever, inasmuch as he is only flesh; therefore his days shall
provai be one hundred and twenty years.
3. On- The Nephilim [giants] were on the earth in those days,
giants for when the sons of God came in to the daughters of men,
they bore children to them. These were the heroes who
were famous in olden time.
i. Pen- When Jehovah saw that the wickedness of man was
rnin4or great in the earth, and that every purpose in the thoughts
s1"1* of his heart was only evil continually, it was a source of
regret that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved
him to his heart. Therefore Jehovah said, I will destroy
from the face of the ground man whom I have created, for
I regret that I have made mankind.
5. Di- But Noah found favor in the eyes of Jehovah. There-
rections jore he gajd tQ No^ Make thyself an ark of cypress wood;
Seark rooms shalt tnou make in the ark, and thou shalt smear it
within and without with pitch. And this is the plan accord
ing to which thou shalt make it : the length of the ark shall
be three hundred cubits, its breadth fifty cubits, and its height
thirty cubits. A window shalt thou make for the ark, and
a cubit in height shalt thou make it; and the door of the
ark shalt thou set in its side. With lower, second, and third
stories shalt thou make it. 52

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD

Later Judean Prophetic
Then Jehovah said to
Noah, Enter thou and all thy
house into the ark ; for thee
have I found righteous be
fore me in this generation.
Of all clean beasts thou shalt
take to thee by sevens, male
and his mate, but of the
beasts that are not clean by
twos, a male and his mate;
and of the clean birds of the
heavens, seven by seven; to
keep offspring alive upon the
face of the earth. For after
seven days I will cause it to
rain upon the earth forty-
days and forty nights; and
every hving thing that I have
made will I destroy from off
the face of the ground.
And Noah did according to
all that Jehovah commanded
him.

And it came to
pass after the seven
days that the
waters of the flood
came upon the
earth. Then Noah,
together with his
sons and his wife,
and his sons' wives,
entered into the
ark, because of the
waters of the flood.
Of clean beasts,
and of beasts that

Late Priestly Version
And God said to Noah, I e. com-
will establish my covenant tomter
with thee; and thou shalt the ark
enter the ark, thou, and thy
sons, and thy wife, and thy
sons' wives, with thee. Also
of every hving thing of all
flesh, two of every kind shalt
thou bring into the ark to
keep them alive with thee ; a
male and a female shall they
be. Of the birds after their
kind, and of the cattle after
their kind, of every creeping
thing of the ground after its
kind, two of each shall come
to thee, that they may live.
Take also of all food that is
eaten, and gather it to thee,
that it may be for food for
thee and for them.
Thus did Noah ; according 7. its
to all that God commanded g^™"
him, so did he.

ginning
of the
flood
and the
entranceintothe ark

And Noah was six hundred years old 8. Be-
when the flood of waters was upon the
earth. In the six hundredth year of
Noah's life, in the second month, on
the seventeenth day of the month, on
the same day,
All the fountains of the great deep were
broken up
And the windows of heaven were
opened.
On that very day Noah, and Shem and
Ham and Japheth, the sons of Noah,
53

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD

9. Ex
tent and ef
fects of
theflood

10. Ces
sationof the
flood

are not clean, and
of birds, and of
every thing that
creeps upon the
ground, there went
in two by two to
Noah into the ark,
a mate and his mate,
as Jehovah com
manded Noah. And
Jehovah shut him
in. ,

and Noah's wife, and the three wives
of his sons with them, entered into the
ark, together with every beast after its
kind, and all the cattle after their
kind, and every creeping thing that
creeps on the earth after its kind, all
birds of every species. And they went
in to Noah into the ark, two by two of
all flesh in which is the breath of life.
And those that entered, went in male
and female of all flesh, as God com
manded.

And the rain was upon the
earth forty days and forty
nights, and the waters in
creased and bore up the ark,
and it was lifted high above
the earth. All in whose nos
trils was the breath of life, of
all that was on the land,
died. Thus Jehovah de
stroyed every thing that
existed upon the face of the
ground, both man and ani
mals, and creeping things,
and birds of the heavens, so
that they were destroyed
from the earth; and Noah
only was left and they that
were with him in the ark.

Then the waters rose high,
and increased greatly upon
the earth; and the ark
moved on the face of the
waters. And the waters rose
higher and higher over the
earth, until all the high
mountains that were under
the whole heaven were cov
ered. Fifteen cubits above
their tops rose the waters, so
that the mountains were
completely covered. Then all
flesh died that moved upon
the earth, including birds,
and animals, and every creep
ing thing that creeps upon
the earth, and all mankind.

But it
came to pass
at the end of
forty days
that the rain
from heaven
ceased, and
the waters

Thus the waters rose high above the
earth for a hundred and fifty days. Then
God remembered Noah, and all the beasts,
and all the animals that were with him in
the ark; and God caused a wind to pass
over the earth, so that the waters began to
subside ; the fountains also of the deep and
the windows of heaven were closed ; and at
54

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD

retired con
tinually from
off the land.

the end of the hundred and fifty days the
waters decreased. And the ark rested on
the seventeenth day of the seventh month
upon the mountains of Ararat. And the
waters decreased continually until the tenth
month ; on the first day of the tenth month
were the tops of the mountains seen.

Then Noah opened the win
dow of the ark which he had
made; and he sent forth a
raven, and it kept going to and
fro, until the waters were dried
up from off the earth. And he
sent forth from him a dove to
see if the waters had subsided
from off the face of the ground ;
but the dove found no rest for
the sole of its foot, and it re
turned to him to the ark —
for the waters were on the
face of the whole earth — and
he stretched forth his hand
and took her and brought her
to him into the ark. Then
he waited seven days more and
again sent forth the dove from
the ark. And the dove came
in to him at eventide; and,
lo, there was in her mouth a
freshly plucked olive leaf. So
Noah knew that the waters
had subsided from off the earth.
And he waited seven days
more and sent forth the dove;
hut it did not return to him
again. Then Noah removed
the covering of the ark and
looked, and behold, the face
of the ground was dry. 55

And it came to pass in 11. Dis-
the six hundred and first Srarf"
year, on the first day of ^d
the first month, the
waters were dried up
from off the earth. And
on the twenty-seventh
day of the second month
the earth was dry. Then
God spoke to Noah, say
ing, Go forth from the
ark, together with thy
wife, and thy sons, and
thy sons' wives with thee.
Bring forth with thee
every living thing that is
with thee of all flesh, even
birds and cattle, and
every creeping thing that
creeps on the earth ; that
they may swarm over
the earth, and be fruitful
and become numerous
upon the earth. So Noah
went forth and his sons,
and his wife, and his
sons' wives with him.
Every beast, every creep
ing thing, and every bird,
whatever moves on the
earth, after their families,
went forth from the ark.

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD

12. The
divine
prom ise

And Noah built an altar to Je
hovah, and took of every clean
beast, and of every clean bird,
and offered burnt-offerings on
the altar. And when Jehovah
smelled the pleasant odor, Je
hovah said in his heart, I will
never again curse the ground be
cause of man, for the purpose of
man's heart is evil from his
youth; nor will I again smite
every thing that fives, as I have
done. While the earth remains,
Seedtime and harvest,
Cold and heat,
Summer and winter,
Day and night
Shall not cease.

And God spoke to
Noah and to his sons
with him, saying, Be
hold, now I establish my
covenant with you, and
with your descendants
after you, and with every
living creature that is
with you, the birds, the
animals, and every beast
of the earth with you of
all that have gone out of
the ark, even every beast
of the earth. And I es
tablish my covenant with
you that all flesh shall
never again be cut off
by the waters of the
flood, and that never
again shall there be a
flood to destroy the earth.

I. Literary Form of the Flood Story. The oldest Hebrew account
of the flood is not altogether complete, because the final compiler of
Genesis has closely blended it with the late priestly version, which he
made the basis of the composite narrative. The dimensions of the ark
were probably the same in both versions. To illustrate how two orig
inally complete and variant accounts of the same event have frequently
been combined in the Old Testament, and how the two independent
stories can be recovered, they have been printed here in parallel columns.
The composite narrative of the flood is prefaced by what was originally
an independent tradition regarding the origin of the race of the Nephilim
or giants. According to Numbers 1333 they still survived in the days of
the settlement of Canaan, indicating that this earlier tradition knew
nothing of the flood. In its present form the story is incomplete. It
has been joined to the story of the flood because it suggested one of the
reasons for Jehovah's disfavor and the signal judgment which followed.
II. Origin of the Story Regarding the Sons of God and the Daugh
ters of Men. This tale has been called an example of " unassimilated
mythology." The Hebrew prophet has simply reduced to its briefest
56

SONS OF GOD AND DAUGHTERS OF MEN
possible form the popular tradition regarding the origin of the giants,
who were believed to have lived in Palestine in ancient times. As the
result of a natural psychological tendency, most early peoples believed
that the older races conquered by their ancestors were of gigantic stature.
Herodotus states that the Egyptians were the only race that did not hold
this belief. Recent excavations in Palestine have shown, however, that
the early cave-dwellers, who preceded the Semitic immigrants, actually
averaged only a little over five feet in height.
III. Ancient Parallels. The closest parallels to the story of the
unions between divine and human beings come from the Persian and
Greek mythology. Persian tradition states that Ahriman and his fallen
angels entered into similar relations with the daughters of men. In
Greek mythology the Titans are the result of such unions. In his fa
miliar dialogues Plato says: "Do you not know that the heroes are demi
gods? All of them spring either from the love of a god for a mortal
woman or of a mortal man for a goddess." On the basis of the ancient
Hebrew narrative, later Christian thought developed the elaborate
doctrine of the fall of the Satan, which Milton has idealized in his im
mortal cantos.
TV. The Oldest Babylonian Story of the Flood (c/. St. O. T. I.
pp. 373-8). The biblical versions imply that the scene of the story of
the flood was in the East. The method of constructing the ark was
also characteristically Babylonian. The Assyrian inscriptions prove
convincingly that the common Semitic tradition of the flood is of Baby
lonian origin. The oldest and best preserved version is found in the
eleventh tablet of the great epic which begins with the account of cre
ation. Recently discovered fragments of an older version prove that
the story was current in Babylonia at least as early as 2000 B.C. A few
extracts will suffice to illustrate the close parallels to the biblical version.
The Babylonian Noah first narrates how the great gods determined to
destroy by a flood the ancient city of Shurippak, beside the Euphrates.
But, Ea, the lord of wisdom, to save his faithful worshipper, warned him:
Man of Shurippak, son of Ubara-tutu,
Construct a house, build a ship;
Leave goods, look after [thy] life,
Forsake possessions, and save [thy] life!
Cause all kinds of living things to go up into the ship.
The ship which thou shalt build, —
Let its form be long;
57

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD
And its breadth shall equal its length.
On the great deep launch it.
I understood and said to Ea my lord:
" Behold, my lord, what thou hast commanded
I have reverently received and will carry out."
Then follows Ea's directions in response to the question, What answer
shall I give to the city, the people, and the elders ?
The next day Parnapishtim, the Babylonian Noah, began his work.
On the fifth day I laid the frame of the ship.
According to the plan, its sides were one hundred and twenty
cubits high.
The border of its roof was likewise one hundred and twenty
cubits in breadth;
I traced out its form, I marked it off,
I built six decks on it,
Thus I divided it into seven stories,
Its interior I divided into nine compartments.
Plugs [to keep out] the water I drove in from within.
I provided a rudder-pole and supplied what was necessary;
Six sars of pitch I poured over the outside,
Three sars of bitumen I poured over the inside.
He then goes on to recount in detail the supply of provisions — oil, wine,
oxen, and lambs — which he took on board, and to tell of the great feast
with which he celebrated the completion of his work.
After taking on all his possessions of gold and silver and hving creat
ures, he adds: I brought on board my family and household,
Cattle of the field, beasts of the field, the craftsmen,
All of them I brought on board.
Shamash had appointed a time [saying],
"When the lord of darkness at evening shall send down a de
structive rain,
Then enter into the ship and close the door."
When the appointed time came, he entered the ship and closed the door
58

OLDEST BABYLONIAN STORY OF THE FLOOD
and entrusted the ship to his captain. The description of the tempest
that follows is especially striking:
When the first light of dawn shone forth,
There rose from the horizon a dark cloud, within which Adad
thundered,
Nabu and Marduk marched at the front,
The heralds passed over mountains and land;
Nergal tore out the ship's mast,
Ninib advanced, following up the attack,
The spirits of earth, raised torches,
With their sheen they lighted up the world.
Adad's tempest reached to heaven,
And all light was changed to darkness.
Even the gods are terrified and "cowered like dogs at the edge of the
heavens," The gods, bowed down, sat there weeping
Close pressed together were their lips.
For six days and nights
Wind, flood and storm overwhelmed the land.
But when the seventh day arrived there was an abatement of
the storm, the flood and the tempest,
Which (like a host) had contended;
The sea became calm, the tempestuous wind was still, the flood
ceased.
Then I looked for the race of mortals, but every voice was
hushed,
And all mankind had been turned to clay.
As soon as the light of day appeared, I prayed
I opened a hole so as to let the light fall upon my cheeks;
I bowed down and sat there weeping,
Tears flowed down my cheeks.
I looked in all directions, toward the border of the sea;
After twenty-four hours an island rose up,
The ship approached the mountain Nisir,
The mountain Nisir caught the ship and held it fast.
So also during the five succeeding days, it held fast the ship.
59

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD
When the seventh day arrived,
I sent forth a dove and let it loose,
The dove went forth, but came back;
Because it found no resting-place, it returned:
Then I sent forth a swallow, but it came back;
Because it found no resting-place, it returned.
Then I sent forth a raven and let it loose.
The raven went forth and saw that the waters had decreased;
It fed, it waded, it croaked, but did not return.
Then I sent forth everything in all directions, and offered a
sacrifice,
I made an offering of incense on the highest peak of the
mountain.
Seven and seven bowls I placed there,
And over them, I poured out calamus, cedar wood and
fragrant herbs.
The gods inhaled the odor,
The gods inhaled the sweet odor,
The gods gathered hke flies above the sacrifice.
The god Bel, who had been especially active in causing the flood, was
enraged to find that any man had escaped destruction. Ea, however,
placated him by urging that it was wrong to destroy all mankind, right
eous and evil alike.
Then Bel took his counsel,
And went on board the ship,
Seized my hand and led me up,
Led up my wife also and had her kneel beside me,
Touched our shoulders, stepped between us and blessed us:
"Formerly Parnapishtim was human;
But now Parnapishtim and his wife shall be gods like us,
And Parnapishtim shall dwell in the distance, at the confluence
of the streams."
Then they took me and made me dwell in the distance, at the
confluences of the streams.
V. Similarity Between the Oldest Babylonian and the Oldest
Hebrew Accounts. The parallels between this version of the Baby-
60

OLDEST BABYLONIAN AND HEBREW ACCOUNTS
Ionian story recorded in the tablets from the great Assyrian library,
founded in the middle of the eighth century B.C., and the later Judean
prophetic account, current in Judea during the same century, are ex
ceedingly close. In each a special revelation is given to the hero of the
story. Animals, as well as people, are taken into the ark; the flood is
caused by an extraordinary downpour of rain; seven is the favorite num
ber; all living things on the earth are destroyed; birds are sent out three
times before it is found that the waters have subsided. After disem
barking, the hero of the flood offers a sacrifice, the sweet savor of which
wins divine favor and the assurance that mankind will never again be
destroyed by a great flood. These analogies are too many, and too
striking, to be explained as mere coincidences.
VI. The Later Babylonian Version. The Chaldean priest Beros-
sus, quoted by Eusebius, has preserved a later version of the same
Babylonian story. Xisuthros, the hero,, was the last of the ten ancient
Babylonian kings. To him Kronos appeared in a dream and informed
him that at a certain date men would be destroyed by a flood. He com
manded him to bring all the sacred writings and bury them at the city
of Sippar, and then to build a ship and go aboard it with all his posses
sions and nearest friends. He was also to provide food and drink, and
take with him all kinds of quadrupeds and birds. If he was asked
where he was going, he was to say, To petition the gods to bless mankind.
Accordingly he obeyed, and built a ship fifteen stadia long and two
in width, brought all aboard as commanded, including his wife, children,
nearest friends, and the pilot. When the flood began to recede, he sent
out a bird, but this found no place to rest, and so returned to the ship.
After some days he sent forth another bird. This returned, but with
mud on its feet. When he sent forth the third it returned not. Then he
knew that land had emerged, and, taking off the cover of the ship, he
found that it had stranded on a mountain of Armenia.
After he had disembarked with his wife, daughter, and pilot, he kissed
the earth, built an altar, made an offering to the gods, and then disap
peared. When he did not return, the others set out to find him, calling
his name. They never saw him again, but a voice from heaven com
manded them to fear the gods, since it was because of his reverence for
the gods that Xisuthros had been taken to dwell with them. The same
honor was also granted to his wife, daughter and the pilot.
VII. Similarity and Contrast Between the Later Babylonian
and Hebrew Versions. This later version illustrates the variations
that the tradition had undergone as the result of transmission during
61

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD
three or four centuries among a literary people like the Babylonians. It
is also noteworthy that the later biblical version is most closely parallel
to this later Babylonian story. In both the hero was the tenth in his
line and was famous for his piety; the destruction was universal; and the
ark was stranded on a mountain in Armenia, which is identified in the
later biblical version with Mount Ararat. These striking analogies
suggest, as do the stories of the creation, that the Jewish priests in Baby
lonia were influenced by the version of the tradition which they then
found current in the land of the exile.
The variations between the Babylonian and biblical versions of the
story are equally instructive, for they definitely illustrate the influence of
transmission among the Hebrews and the nature of the work of Israel's
inspired prophets and priests. Instead of many rival deities, one God
rules supreme over mankind and the universe. No traces remain of
the grotesque heathen elements in the Babylonian versions, such as the
deception of mankind, the conflicts between the gods, and their fright
at the extent of the flood. The only possible exception is the statement
that Jehovah smelled the sweet savor of the sacrifice. Even here the
biblical version is far removed from the gross picture of the gods gathered
like flies above the sacrifice. The biblical versions alone give a just
cause for the great judgment, and reveal a benign rather than a capri
cious purpose behind even the seeming calamities of human history.
In the hands of Israel's teachers the ancient story has received a universal
and ethical interpretation.
VIII. History of the Common Semitic Flood Story. In the fight
of these different versions the history of the tradition may be tentatively
traced. It may have originally been suggested simply by the annual
floods and fogs which inundate the Tigris-Euphrates valley. More
probably, as the earliest Babylonian story indicates, it was based on the
memory of a great local inundation, caused perhaps by a hurricane
sweeping up from the Persian Gulf at the time of the spring floods, in
undating not only the city of Surippak, but the entire Euphrates valley.
Possibly it may have been due to a sinking of the land. Apparently, the
only survivors were a few who escaped in a ship which was driven by
the winds until it grounded on the low hills north of Babylonia. The
mythological elements would naturally be added later, and in time the
tradition would grow until it became, as in the later biblical versions, a
universal destruction. In this connection it is suggestive that the latest
biblical version, the priestly, represents the flood as lasting a full year
instead of sixty-eight days (as in the earlier), and as covering the tops
62

THE COMMON SEMITIC FLOOD STORY
of the highest mountains, that is rising to a depth of fully five miles above
the ordinary level of the sea.
IX. Transmission of the Babylonian Story to the Hebrews.
The channels through which the Babylonian tradition could find its
way to Palestine were many. Possibly it was brought from Mesopo
tamia by the Aramean ancestors of the Hebrews. It may have been
received through the Canaanites, who were in possession of many Baby
lonian traditions when the Hebrews entered the land. The close anal
ogies between the Judean prophetic version and the one current at the
same time in Assyria suggest that the conquering armies of the great
empire brought it, together with the many other religious ideas and insti
tutions, which gained acceptance in Judah during the reign of Ahaz and
especially that of Manasseh. If so, this would explain why the flood
story was not found in the early, but only in the later, Judean prophetic
narratives. X. Flood Stories Among Other Peoples. Flood stories in variant
forms are found among most primitive peoples (c/. Hastings' D. B.,
article, Flood). The only races who do not have them are those living
in Africa and central and eastern Asia. The resemblances between
these different stories seem to be due to similar local causes and psy
chological tendencies, rather than to descent from a common tradition.
Often the original basis of the story was a great inundation or the sub
sidence of large areas of land. Sometimes it was suggested by the re
curring floods of springtime. Among island and coastland peoples,
the tradition was based on the fact that their ancestors came on boats
over the great sea. The discovery of geological evidence that the sea
had once covered elevated areas also fostered the growth of the tradition.
XL Meaning of the Story Concerning the Sons of Ood. In the
fight of its many parallels the meaning of the biblical narrative is clear.
The opening story takes us back to the misty past to which was traced
all that was extraordinary. It reflects the primitive belief that the gods
had bodily forms and passions, and that the demi-gods, descended from
them, entered into marital relations with humankind. In the popular
thought of the prophet's day, the giants, who figured in their ancient
traditions, were believed to be the offspring of such unions. The effect
of myths like these was not wholesome. In Greek mythology the example
of the gods was often far from moral. The text is obscure, but it was
apparently to correct this immoral implication that the prophet intro
duced the ancient story. Since man has shown his frailty by thus
going astray, God's life-giving spirit will not always remain in him to
63

THE STORY OF THE GREAT FLOOD
keep him alive. Rather the length of his life shall be limited to one
hundred and twenty years.
XII. Interpretation of the Oldest Biblical Story. When Jehovah
found that the ideals and aims of mankind were base, he realized with
sorrow that his hopes and benign provisions for the development and
happiness of humanity were being ruined by human sin. Hence,
nothing remained but to destroy the evil, and begin again with the noblest
type of man. Noah, who by his character and acts had won Jehovah's
favor, was selected for the new beginning.
Accordingly he was instructed to make a box-like boat, about four
hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five feet broad, and forty-five feet high.
Like the Babylonian houses and barges, it was to be made water-tight
by means of bitumen. It was apparently to be lighted by an aperture
about eighteen inches in height, running along under the projecting roof.
Being smaller than the Babylonian ship, it had only three instead of
seven stories.
When the ark was completed, Noah was instructed to enter it with
his household, and a pair of each of the species of animals and birds
regarded by the later Hebrew law as unclean. Of the clean animals and
birds seven were to be taken, that ample provision might thus be made
for the needs of sacrifice. In the parallel priestly version two of each
species suffice, for the later priests taught that sacrifice began with Moses.
After Noah had complied with the divine command, the rain poured
down for forty days until all living things on the land were destroyed.
Noah, and those with him, alone survived to perpetuate the original
work of creation. When, at the end of the forty (in the late priestly
version, one hundred and fifty) days the rain ceased and the waters
began to subside, Noah sent forth a raven, which because of its predatory
habits, did not return. The statement that he waited seven days before
sending out the dove a second time implies that the compiler, in com
bining the two versions, has left out the fact that Noah also waited seven
days before he first sent out the dove. The Babylonian order — a dove,
a swallow) and then a raven — is the more natural, as well as the older;
but nothing could surpass the picturesqueness of the Hebrew prophetic
narrative, especially the picture of the dove returning to the anxious
waiters at eventide with the freshly plucked olive leaf in her bill.
The selection of Noah to inaugurate a new era did not prove a mistake.
His first act, on emerging from the ark, was to express his thanksgiving
and adoration by sacrifice. A huge holocaust, consisting of victims of
every species of clean beast and bird, was offered. As the placating
64

AIM OF THE OLDEST BIBLICAL STORY
savor of this offering, that symbolized gratitude and devotion, rose to
heaven, Jehovah's promise was given that he would never again be led
by man's evil propensities to visit universal judgment upon the earth.
XIII. Aim and Teachings. The late priestly story of the flood cul
minates in the new covenant, sealed by the rainbow, in accordance with
which God promised never again to destroy mankind by a flood. He
also renewed man's commission to rule over all hving things, and per
mitted him to eat animal as well as vegetable food, provided only he
abstained from eating the blood. The prophetic version likewise closes
with a promise of Jehovah's mercy and care, but its primary aim is
spiritual and ethical, not legal. It emphasizes, as do the preceding
stories, the terrible and inevitable consequences of human sin and the
greatness of God's goodness.
Among the more important truths illustrated by the ancient story in
its prophetic form are: (1) Man's freedom and responsibility. Even
though it was his supreme desire, Jehovah could not make men virtuous.
(2) The ultimate aim of creation is the moral and spiritual evolution of
man. (3) Evil men and evil acts thwart the divine purpose. (4) In
the divine economy of the universe, men or nations, or generations, that
thus thwart God's purpose, have no permanent title to life. (5) Right
eousness delivereth a man or a nation. (6) The worship and devotion
of mankind are pleasing to God. (7) God is eager to surround men
with all that is conducive to their highest development and happiness.
§ VI. THE TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS
Now the whole earth was of one language and of one i. oh-
speech. And it came to pass as they journeyed from the unity
east that they found a plain in the land of Shinar [Baby- j* *e
Ionia], and dwelt there. Then said they one to another,
Come, let us make bricks and burn them thoroughly. And
they had brick for stone and bitumen for mortar.
They also said, Come, let us build us a city and a tower, 2.Buiid-
with its top in the sky; thus let us make ourselves a name, c°fya
so that we may not be scattered abroad upon the face of the £°^er
whole earth. But Jehovah came down to see the city and
the tower, which the children of men had built.
Then Jehovah said, Behold they are one people and they ^Jeho-
all have one language; and this is the beginning of their disap-
achievement, but henceforth nothing, which they purpose to Proval
65

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS
do, will be too difficult for them. Come, let us go down and
there confound their language, that they may not under
stand one another's speech.
4. on- So Jehovah scattered them abroad from thence upon the
Sle0/- face of all the earth; and they ceased building the city.
ent Therefore they called its name Babel [Confusion], because
there Jehovah confounded the language of the whole earth,
and there Jehovah scattered them over the face of the whole
earth.
5. sons And the sons of Noah, who went forth from the ark, were
of Noah gjjem) Ham, and Japheth. These three were the sons of
Noah, and to them were sons born after the flood, and of
these was the whole earth overspread. And Ham was the
father of Cush, Mizraim [Egypt], and Canaan. -
e.East- And Cush begat Nimrod; he began to be a mighty one
peoples in the earth. He was a mighty hunter before Jehovah;
therefore it is said, Like Nimrod, a mighty hunter before
Jehovah. And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel,
Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of
that land he went forth into Assyria and built Nineveh,
Rehoboth-Ir, Calah, Resen, between Nineveh and Calah (that
is the great city).
7. And Mizraim begat Ludim, Anamim, Lehabim, Naphtuhim,
South- pathrasim, Casluhim, and Caphtorim (whence went forth
peoples the Philistines).
8. Pai- And Canaan begat Sidon, his first-born, and Heth. And
peopils1 afterward the families of the Canaanite were spread abroad,
so that the boundary of the Canaanites was from Sidon, as
far as Gerar (to Gaza), and as far as Sodom and Gomorrah
and Admah and Zeboim, to Lasha.
9. Ara- And children were also born to Shem, the father of all the
anera- children of Eber, the elder brother of Japheth. And Ar-
tora pachshad begat Shelah, and Shelah begat Eber. And to
kins- Eber were born two sons: the name of the one was Peleg
men of [Division]j for m njs days was the earth divided; and his
ffrews brother's name was Joktan. And Joktan begat Almodad,
Sheleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah, Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah,
Obal, Abimael, Sheba, Ophir, Havilah, and Jobab ; all these
were the sons of Joktan. And their dwelling place was
from Mesha, as far as Sephar, the mountain of the East.
66

ORIGIN OF LANGUAGES AND RACES
And Peleg begat Reu, and Reu begat Serug, and Serug 10.
begat Nahor, and Nahor begat Terah. And Terah begat ffi
Abraham, Nahor, and Haran ; and Haran begat Lot. diate

Their imme-

I. The Two Explanations of the Origin of Languages and Races.
These narratives contain two distinct explanations of the origin of the
different languages and races. The older is a simple story in the style
of the early Judean historians. The other is what purports to be a gene
alogical list, but is in reality a table of the nations known to the Hebrews
in the period just before the Babylonian exile. It is the immediate
sequel of the later Judean prophetic account of the flood and clearly
comes from the same source.
The genealogical table in its final form in Genesis is supplemented
by names from a later priestly table. The sons of Japheth, the distant
northwestern and western peoples living in Asia Minor and Greece, the
Phoenician colonies skirting the Mediterranean, and the Elamites and
the Arameans, are thus added. These are the nations with whom the
Israelites became acquainted during and after the period of the exile.
The principle of arrangement is nominally ethnological, but in reality
it is also geographical, and from the point of view of Israel. The nations
not closely related to the Israelites are given first, then their nearer rel
atives, the Canaanites, and last of all their Aramean ancestors and
Arabian kinsmen.
II. Origin of the Story of the Tower of Babel. The background
of the story of the Tower of Babel is Babylonia, and the tradition was
doubtless inherited by the Hebrews from their Semitic ancestors. It
is probable that it originated outside Babylonia, for a Babylonian writer
would not have stopped to explain that the building material was brick
and that bitumen was used for mortar. He would have known that
the lofty mound, about which the tradition centred, was not reared
in rebellion, but as a temple site in devotion to the service of the gods.
He would also have known that the true derivation of the word Baby
lon is Bab-il, Gate of God. The popular derivation given in the story
is probably from the Aramaic word babil, confusion. All these indica
tions suggest that the tradition was handed down to the Hebrews
from their Aramean forefathers, who lived near and yet outside
Babylonia. The Tower of Babel, which aroused the wonderment of the desert
passers-by, and probably gave rise to the tradition, may have been the
zikkurat, or pyramid-like mound of earth, on the west of the Euphrates,
67

ancestors

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS
now known as Birs Nimroud. It is the foundation of the great temple
of Ezida in Borsippa, the western suburb of Babylon. Nebuchadrezzar
states in one of his inscriptions that it had been partially built by an
earlier king, but its top had not been set up, and it had fallen into
disrepair. Nebuchadrezzar himself restored it.
The other possible site is the mound of Babil, on the east of the
Euphrates in the ruins of Babylon itself. It probably represents the
remains of the great temple of Marduk, with its huge pyramid-like
foundation. Either of these imposing ruins would have profoundly
impressed all passers-by. The fact that the mound of Birs Nimroud
early gave the impression of incompleteness favors on the whole its
identification as the original Tower of Babel. Also at the basis of the
tradition is the popular memory of the greatness of the early Baby
lonian empire, with its capital at Babylon. It was natural that the same
centre should be regarded, as the point from which the human race dis
persed over the earth. The popular explanation of the motive for
building the tower recalls the Greek tradition of the attempt of the
Titans to mount up into heaven.
In the prophetic table of the nations, Noah, with his three sons, Shem,
Ham and Japheth, corresponds to Hellen of early Greek tradition, whose
three sons, ^Eolus, Dorus, and Ion, were the ancestors of the three great
branches of the Hellenic race.
III. Meaning of the Story of the Tower of Babel. Like the nar
rative of the sons of God and the daughters of men (§ V) the story of the
Tower of Babel is placed in the dim, misty age of tradition. The land
of Shinar is the early Hebrew name for Babylonia (c/. 10'° 141, 9 Is. llu
Zech. 511 Dan. I2). It may be a variation of the old Babylonian name
Shumer. On the level plain of Babylonia any elevation seemed lofty
by contrast. The great mounds, which the Babylonians reared with
infinite toil to be the foundations of their temples, still stand as monu
ments of human achievement. In the extent of its ruins Babylon,
even after thousands of years, is impressive. The chief impression,
however, that the ruins of the ancient mounds made on the mind of
the Semites who viewed them from afar, was that the spirit and pur
pose which prompted their builders were sinful. They were symbols
of the pride and self-sufficiency of early man and of God's destructive
judgment. The different languages, which constituted a troublesome
barrier between races and nations, were also regarded as a punishment
for some sin of their primitive ancestors. The very name of Babylon
was associated in the mind of ancient Arameans and Hebrews with the
68

STORY OF THE TOWER OF BABEL
similar word meaning confusion. All these varied elements have evi
dently entered into this story.
The point of view and conception of God are those of primitive men.
"Let us go down" may be a remnant of the old polytheistic form of the
tradition. Possibly the expression is used, as in Genesis 322, because the
Deity is thought of as standing at the head of the divine hierarchy, even
as he is pictured in the prologue to the book of Job. The popular ex
planations of the ruined tower, of the derivation of the word Babylon,
and of the origin of languages are supported by neither history nor phi
lology. It is rather the deeper religious principles that underlie the story
in its Hebrew form that have an abiding value. The unity of the entire
human race and the universal fatherhood of God were vital facts which
other nations were very slow to perceive.
IV. The Hamitic Races. In the later Judean prophetic table, which
explains the origin of the various nations by descent from the different
sons of Noah, Ham stands as the ancestor of the three peoples who de
veloped the earliest civilizations: the Babylonians, the Egyptians and
the Canaanites. The derivation of the word Ham is not certain. It
may be from the Semitic root meaning hot or burned, or from the native
designation for Egypt which comes from kam, meaning black. In
Psalms 7851 10523' » and 10622 it refers simply 'to the Egyptians.
In the parallel priestly list, and usually in the Old Testament, Cush
refers to the Ethiopians; but here Cush apparently stands for the Kas
sites (Babylonian, Kasshu), who from their home east of the Tigris came
down and conquered and ruled over the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley
for many centuries (c/. Introd., II12). They were of non-Semitic origin,
but the memory of their political supremacy evidently led the Hebrews
to regard them as the people from whom were descended the founders
of the ancient Babylonian and Assyrian cities and empires.
V. Nimrod the Mighty Hunter. The identification of Nimrod is
still uncertain. The statement that he was a son of Cush favors the
conclusion held by some, that he is Nazimurudash, one of the later
Kassite kings, whose achievements may have given him this prominent
place in Hebrew tradition. The reference to Nimrod's reputation as
a mighty hunter has suggested that he is to be identified with Gilgamesh,
the mythological hero of the great Babylonian epic, in which are found
the stories of creation and deluge. In this epic he is depicted as a famous
hunter, and many of his feats in slaying dangerous wild beasts are re
counted. Tradition also states that he delivered Babylonia from the
rule of the Elamites. Erech, mentioned as one of the four Babylonian
69

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS
cities over which Nimrod first held sway, was, according to the Baby-
Ionian epic, the city of Gilgamesh. The name of Nimrudu has not yet
been found on the monuments of Babylonia and Assyria, so that this
identification still remains only an exceedingly plausible conjecture.
Evidently the Hebrew traditions regarding Nimrod were much more
detailed than the extract given by the biblical narrator. His object was
simply to explain the origin and meaning of the popular proverb, Like
Nimrod, a mighty hunter before Jehovah.
VI. The Old Babylonian and Assyrian Empires. The testimony
of the monuments regarding the history of the great empires of Baby
lonia and Assyria has already been given in the Introduction (chap. II).
Erech is the Babylonian Uruk on the southern bank of the lower Eu
phrates. Accad (Babylonian, Akkad) is mentioned in an inscription
of the twelfth century B.C. as a city, as well as the name of the district
which figured in the old Babylonian title, King of Shumer and Akkad.
It was somewhere in northern Babylonia. Calneh has not yet been
identified. Although Assyria developed much later than Babylonia (Introd.
II12), in the biblical tradition their growth is represented as almost
contemporary. The statement is true, however, that Assyria was an
offspring of the older Semitic state. The old Assyrian capital Asshur
(the present Kal'at Sherghat, sixty miles south of Nineveh) is not men
tioned. The later capitals, Calah, situated at the point where the upper
Zab flows into the Tigris, and Nineveh, eighteen miles further up the
Tigris, were the cities best known to the Hebrews in the age when the
present table took form. Sennacherib, in the latter part of the eighth
century B.C. first made Nineveh the permanent capital of the empire.
Rehoboth-Ir means broad places of a city, and is apparently the Hebrew
equivalent of the Assyrian rebit Nina, the designation of the northern
suburbs of Nineveh. Resen has not yet been identified, but from the
description it would seem to have been a southern suburb of Nineveh,
connecting the two capitals, so that in the mind of the biblical writer,
they, with their outlying towns, are regarded as a single great city.
VII. The Egyptians. Mizraim (literally, the two Egypts, probably
including upper and lower Egypt) is the usual Hebrew designation of
the land of the Nile. The "sons" of Egypt are the southern peoples
known to the Hebrews through war and commerce. The Ludim ap
pear in the days of Jeremiah and Ezekiel as archers in the Egyptian
army (c/. Jer. 16"> Ezek. 2710 30s). Their home was probably on the
border of Egypt. The Anamim, Naphtuhim, and Casluhim have not
70

THE EGYPTIANS
been identified. The Lehabim are probably the Libyans who lived to
the east of Egypt. The Pathrusim are the inhabitants of Pathros, the
southland of upper Egypt. The Caphtorim are the people of Caphtor,
regarded by the Hebrews as the homeland of the Philistines (c/. Am. 97
Dt. 223 Jer. 474). Caphtor is probably to be identified with the Egyptian
Kefto, the name of a people living originally in Cilicia and Cyprus.
VIII. The Canaanite Races. The " sons " of Canaan are the peoples
whom the Hebrews found in possession of Palestine. That the present
list is an ethnological rather than a genealogical table is illustrated by
the fact that the city of Sidon is called the first-born of Canaan. Sidon,
being the oldest important Phoenician city, here represents the Phoe
nician branch of the Canaanite race. Heth is the biblical name of the
great Hittite nation that held northern Syria in the centuries preceding
the advent of the Hebrews. Although their racial origin is still in doubt,
it is clear that there was in reality no close relationship between them and
the Canaanites. The author probably had in mind the few survivors
of the earlier race. These had been so thoroughly assimilated by the
Canaanite races of Palestine that a later scribe has at this point added
in the Hebrew a fist of the local tribes inhabiting Palestine. The
original table, however, simply defined the territory occupied by the
Canaanites living outside Phoenicia. It extended southward from Sidon
along the shore to Gerar, southeast of Gaza. Its eastern boundary
was the line extending from Sodom and the neighboring cities, prob
ably at the south of the Dead Sea, to Lasha, which may be but a scri
bal error for Laish or Dan ( § XXXIV), at the northern end of the
Jordan valley.
IX. The Hebrews and their Arabian Kinsmen. Shem means name
and his "sons" are the ancestors and tribes closely related to the people
of name or renown, the Hebrews. Eber is here not only the eponymous
ancestor of the Hebrews but also of certain other Arabian tribes. The
genealogy of his eldest son Peleg is reserved to the last, for it introduces
the immediate forefathers of the Hebrews. The author apparently
finds in the name Peleg, which means division, an allusion to the division
of the human race into different races, as recorded in the story of the
Tower of Babel. From the other brother, Joktan, are descended thir
teen tribes living in southern Arabia. Some of them can be identified.
Sheleph is a place in the province of Yeman, still bearing the correspond
ing Arab name. Hazarmaveth is the modern district of Hadramaut,
east of Aden and bordering on the Indian Ocean. According to the
Arabs, Uzal is the ancient name of the present capital of Yeman. Sheba
71

TRADITIONAL ORIGIN OF THE NATIONS
is the designation of a rich commercial people living in southwestern
Arabia. Their inscriptions and the ruins of their temples and cities
testify to their advanced civilization. Through the medium of trade it
frequently touched that of the Hebrews. Ophir was perhaps a seaport
on the east coast of Arabia through which the products of India reached
the Semitic world, or else it is to be identified with Abhira at the mouth
of the Indus (cf. § LVIII). Havilah was somewhere in central or north
eastern Arabia. The territory of these different peoples appears to
have extended from the bounds of the central Arabian tribe of Massa
to the south coast of Arabia. The mountain of the east is probably
the great frankincense mountains which extend east from the modern
Daphar. Only the late priestly version preserves the list of the immediate an
cestors of the Hebrews, but it completes the genealogical connection
between the list of Israel's neighbors and the forefathers of the chosen
race. Some of the names in the list may be identified as tribal or place
names. Serug is a city and district about thirty-eight miles west of
Haran, mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions and by the Arabic writers
of the Middle Ages. TU-Nahiri, a place near Sarugi, may represent a
survival of the name Nahor. These identifications confirm the testi
mony of the biblical narratives that the Aramean ancestors of the He
brews came from the region in western Mesopotamia, lying to the east
of the upper Euphrates.
X. Aim and Teachings. The chief aim is to trace the origin of
the different races and to indicate Israel's place in the great family of
the nations. The broader Semitic background of Hebrew histoiy,
and the vital connection between Israel's life and the powerful civiliza
tions that preceded and influenced it are also suggested. In its origin
Israel was not apart from, but rather a part of, the ancient Semitic
world, and only in its true setting can its unique history be understood.
While their ethnological knowledge was necessarily limited, the early
Hebrews were deeply interested in their neighbors. This interest stands
in striking contrast to the narrow attitude of most ancient peoples, who
classified all outside their race as barbarians. The fundamental unity
of all peoples and races is here assumed and concretely set forth. The
basis of this unity is the common rule and fatherhood of one God. All
the different nations are but different branches of the same great family.
All men are, therefore, brothers. While nothing is here said of Israel's
divine mission to the world, the essential foundations are thus laid for
that great prophetic doctrine which gradually dawned upon the race.
72

THE TRADITIONAL ANCESTORS OF THE HEBREWS
§ VII. ABRAHAM'S CALL AND SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN
Now Haran died before his father Terah in the land of 1. His-
his nativity. And Abraham and Nahor took for them- Jneyof
selves wives. The name of Abraham's wife was Sarah, and Jjouse
the name of Nahor's wife, Milcah, the daughter of Haran, Terah
the father of Milcah and Jiscah.
And Jehovah said to Abraham, Go forth from thy country, 2.Abra-
and from thy kindred, and from thy father's house, to the cX3
land that I will show thee, that I may make of thee a great ^^
nation; and I will surely bless thee, and make thy name FoT u
great, so that thou shalt be a blessing. I will also bless them Canaan
that bless thee, and him that curseth thee will I curse, so
that all the families of the earth shall ask for themselves a
blessing like thine own. So Abraham went forth, as Je
hovah had commanded him, and Lot went with him.
Then Abraham passed through the land to the district of 3. Ex-
Shechem, to the oak of Moreh [oracular oak or terebinth], l^
And the Canaanites were then in the land. And Jehovah jj^-
revealed himself to Abraham, saying, To thy descendants
will I give this land; and there he built an altar to Jehovah,
who had revealed himself to him. And he removed thence
to the mountain on the east of Bethel, and pitched his tent,
having Bethel on the west, and Ai on the east. And there he
built an altar to Jehovah and called upon the name of Jehovah.
Now Abraham was very rich in cattle, in silver, and in 4.Rea-
gold. And Lot also, who went with Abraham, had flocks ?ne
and herds and tents, so that they could not dwell together, **£«-
And when there was a strife between the herdsmen of from
Abraham's cattle and the herdsmen of Lot's cattle, Abraham
said to Lot, Let there be no strife, I pray you, between me
and you, and between my herdsmen and your herdsmen;
for we are kinsmen. Is not the whole land before you ?
separate yourself, I pray you, from me. If you go to the
73

choice

ABRAHAM'S CALL AND SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN
left, then I will go to the right; or if you go to the right,
then I will go to the left.
5. Lot's Then Lot lifted up his eyes, and beheld all the Plain of
the Jordan that it was well watered everywhere (before
Jehovah destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah), like the garden
of Jehovah, as far as Zoar. So Lot chose for himself all
the Plain of the Jordan; and Lot journeyed east; and
dwelt in the cities of the Plain, and moved his tent as far
as Sodom. And the men of Sodom were exceedingly wicked
and sinners against Jehovah.
e.Abra- But Abraham moved his tent and came and dwelt in the
Mamfe plain of Mamre, which is in Hebron.
I. Literary Form of the Abraham Stories. The eleventh chapter
of Genesis marks the transition from the common Semitic traditions to
the stories regarding the traditional forefathers of the Hebrews. Through
out the rest of Genesis the narratives are chiefly personal and biograph
ical. Many extracts are introduced from the late priestly history. In
chapter 14 is found what appears to be a late Jewish tale, based on the
memory of an invasion of the eastern kings far back in the days of
Hammurabi (cf. Introd., II10, u) ; but most of the Abraham stories are
taken from the early prophetic narratives. Each of these stories is, as
a rule, a complete literary unit, bringing out like a flash-light picture
some trait or incident in the life of the patriarch. Together they give
an exceedingly life-like and majestic portrait of the character who stands
at the beginning of Hebrew history.
II. Origin of the Stories. Except in the later Jewish story of Gene
sis 14, the setting and atmosphere of the Abraham stories are those of
the wilderness, and of that peculiar type of nomadic life which may be
studied to-day among the Bedouin tribes that wander up and down in
the Arabian desert. The point of view and interest are also those of
the nomad. It is probable that these stories were originally retold from
generation to generation among the early Hebrews. At the same time
it is evident that, like those of Babylonian or Aramean or Canaanite
origin in §§ I- VI, they have been transformed and idealized. The ideal
ization of Abraham's character was almost inevitable, since he was the
revered forefather of the Hebrew race. Analogies might be cited from
almost every chapter of human history; Sargon, Menes, Romulus and
King Arthur are only a few of many classic examples.
In these marvellous stories associated with Abraham are voiofld the
74

ORIGIN OF THE STORIES
later hopes and ideals of the Hebrew race. Those aspirations for widely
extended territory, teeming population, and great prosperity, which were
realized in full measure in the days of David and Solomon, are here em
bodied in divine promises to Israel's traditional forefather. It was thus
that the prophetic historians effectively taught the great truth that Is
rael's later glories were but the realization of God's gracious and eternal
purpose. III. Abraham in Later Jewish Traditions. The Abraham of
later Jewish traditions is represented, sometimes as having been borne
to heaven on a fiery chariot, there to receive to his bosom the faithful
of his race, sometimes as the ardent foe of idolatry, and sometimes as the
valiant warrior before whose sword even the great city of Damascus fell.
In Genesis 14 he is a chivalrous warrior, as generous as he is brave and
energetic, who, with his few followers, defeats the armies of Babylonia
and Elam. The Abraham of the priestly historians is a faithful observer
of the law through whom the covenant with his race, sealed by the rite of
circumcision, is established; but the Abraham of the early prophets is
the embodiment of their noblest ideals of faith and character.
IV. The Prophetic Element. It can never be absolutely decided,
and fortunately it makes little difference how far these Old Testament
stories are exact records of the experiences of a certain early nomadic
chieftain. The real father of the faithful, the Abraham whose deeds
and character and faith are perennial sources of inspiration to-day, as
in the past, lived in the glowing hearts of Israel's early prophets. It is
not strange that they have embodied in his biography many later
beliefs and experiences of their race. Local traditions also traced
to him the origin of several sacred places. Institutions which went
back beyond the days of Moses were naturally associated with him
or else with Isaac or Jacob. Thus the original kernel of tradition,
under the varied national, institutional, and prophetic influences, gradu
ally assumed its present form. Hence, these narratives are more than
mere history: they are prophetic homilies, whose theme and illustra
tions are found in the past rather than the present or the future.
V. The Two Names. The final compiler of Genesis, in accord with
the late priestly tradition of the covenant recorded in the seventeenth
chapter, has designated the patriarch as Abram up to this point, and
Abraham in the succeeding passages. In view of these late, arbitrary
changes, it is impossible to determine which of the two forms of the name
was used originally in the prophetic narratives. The same baffling
difficulty also makes it impossible to prove or disprove the alluring
75

ABRAHAM'S CALL AND SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN
hypothesis that certain of the traditions related originally to an Aramean
ancestor of the Hebrews, who bore the name Abraham, and others to a
Canaanite hero, Abram. The derivation of Abraham (the father of a
multitude), offered by the late priestly writer in Genesis 17s, is based
simply on a similarity in sound to the Hebrew word (hamori) meaning
multitude. It seems probable that the two forms are but dialectic vari
ations of the familiar Hebrew name, Abiram, meaning, the father is
exalted or the lofty one is father. The name has been found on a Baby
lonian tablet, coming from the reign of Hammurabi's grandfather.
It was therefore used as an individual name at least as early as 2000 B.C.
Since the form Abraham is always used elsewhere in the Old Testa
ment (except in two late priestly quotations in Genesis), it has been re
stored in the text.
VI. The Home of Abraham. The oldest Hebrew records agree in
the fact that Haran of Aram-Naharaim, in eastern Mesopotamia, was
the original home of Abraham and, therefore, of the earliest ancestors
of the Hebrews. In § XI2 Abraham speaks of Aram as the land of his
nativity (cf. also Gen. 2220 27« 2810 295 Dt. 27 Josh. 242' 3). This over
whelming weight of testimony is in accord with the facts of contemporary
history (Introd., TV™). Only in the late priestly traditions and in what
are apparently two editorial additions to the prophetic narratives
(Gen. II28 and 157) is the origin of the Hebrews traced back to Ur of
the Chaldees. Evidently the ancient Babylonian Ur, over five hundred
miles southeast of Haran, is the city in the mind of the later scribes; but
even the place names in the late priestly list of Abraham's ancestors point
to Aram rather than Babylonia (§VI, IX). Perhaps the fact that
both Ur and Haran were devoted to the worship of the moon god Sin,
and possibly the belief that Haran was founded by colonists from the
older Babylonian city, are the basis of this very late Jewish tradition.
Haran, about sixty miles north of the Euphrates on one of its con
fluents, the modern Belikh, was an important city in antiquity, and is
frequently mentioned on the Assyrian inscriptions. It was one of the
stopping points on the great caravan route that ran from Babylonia to
the eastern Mediterranean and was the trading centre for the surround
ing nomadic and semi-agricultural population. It was natural that the
moon, whose clear, cold light guarded the caravans across the desert and
the nomads in their midnight marches, should here be worshipped. So
famous was this ancient sanctuary that the moon god was known through
out northern Syria as the Baal or Lord of Haran. It is also significant
that Sarah corresponds to the Babylonian Sharritu, the name of the
76

THE HOME OF ABRAHAM
goddess of Haran, the wife of the moon god worshipped at that place.
Milcah, the name of Nahor's wife, also corresponds to the Babylonian
Milkatu, who, in the mythology of Haran, was the daughter of the
moon god.
VII. The Divine Promise. To interpret and appreciate the early
biblical stories, it is important to adopt the point of view of the prophetic
narrators. All details — the method of revelation, the size of Abraham's
family, the nature of his journey, and the age in which he lived — are
omitted, and attention is fixed only on the essential facts. To the patri
arch came the divine call to break those bonds of land and kindred which
are especially strong in the East, and to seek a new home and destiny
in the great western world. With the call went the promise that he
should become the father of a great nation and that the divine blessing
would ever attend him, so that he and his descendants would enjoy re
nown and the most signal evidences of Jehovah's favor. He should be
so highly blessed that his friends would share the same divine favor,
while his foes would be the objects of Jehovah's wrath. Furthermore,
all nations would see his God-given prosperity and crave like blessings
for themselves.
VHI. The Sanctuaries Associated with Abraham. Like Noah in
the earlier story, Abraham at once responded to the divine command.
As he passed through the land of Canaan and came to the oak or tere
binth near Shechem, he received another revelation, and the promise
that his descendants would in time possess this land as their own. The
sacred oak is again mentioned in Judges J)37, where it is called the Diviners'
Oak. As has been already noted (II"1), the early Semites believed
that the deity spoke through certain trees. In Palestine to-day there
are still many trees which the natives regard as sacred. Among the
Canaanites this particular tree had apparently long been regarded as
oracular. References in their traditions also indicate that the early
Hebrews shared this ancient belief.
At the scene of the revelation Abraham reared an altar, which tradi
tion probably identified as the site of the sanctuary at Shechem (c/.
Josh. 2426). Also east of Bethel he built another altar, as a symbol of
his devotion to Jehovah, and this was probably in the same way con
nected with the famous sanctuary at that place.
IX. Lot's Choice. Even as the first part of this brief story illustrates
the fact that Abraham's eyes were fixed only on Jehovah and the future
of his race, so the latter part emphasizes his fine disregard for things ma
terial. The strife between the herdsmen of Abraham and Lot is true
77

ABRAHAM'S CALL AND SETTLEMENT IN CANAAN
to the nomadic life of the East. The heights east of Bethel command
a superb view southward over the gray limestone hills of Judah on the
right and the verdant valley of the Jordan on the left. It seems probable
that the early narrator believed that this fertile plain, which he likens to
the garden of Eden, extended southward, including the territory later
occupied by the Dead Sea. Its southernmost limit is the town of Zoar,
the Zoor or Zoora of Josephus, at the southern end of the Dead Sea.
In these early traditions, therefore, the cities of the Plain are probably
to be thought of as lying in the centre or southern end of the deep basin
which now holds the bitter, barren waters of the Dead Sea (c/. further
§ IX ui) . Thither the choice of Lot, the traditional ancestor of the Moa
bites and Ammonites, carried him; while among the barren hills about
Hebron the devoted servant of Jehovah dreamed of the realization of the
divine promises and longed for new revelations.
X. Historical Significance of the Stories. The table of the nations
(§ VI) has illustrated the tendency among the early Hebrews to record
tribal or national history in the form of personal biography. The same
method still prevails among the Arabian tribes to-day. Thus inter
preted, these opening Abraham stories represent the earliest chapter in
Israel's history. They state that the immediate ancestors of the Hebrews
were nomads living in western Mesopotamia in the neighborhood of the
ancient city of Haran. Thence the first group of immigrants moved
westward, probably about 1500 or 1400 B.C., to find homes in the coast-
lands of the eastern Mediterranean. Some, like the Ammonites and
Moabites, in time settled along the eastern side of the Jordan and Dead
Sea basin. Those from whom the Hebrews were descended, however,
crossed over into Canaan. Among the rocky uplands they were allowed
for a time to pitch their tents and pasture their flocks, even as do the
Arabs in certain parts of Palestine to-day; but they sought in vain for a
permanent place of abode in the already thickly populated territoiy west
of the Jordan.
XL Aim and Teachings. The three distinct and yet related aims
of the early prophetic historians are well illustrated in these opening
stories. The first was to trace the outlines of Israel's history and to
interpret in the light of that record the divine purpose which was being
realized in it. To their inspired eyes the later victories and prosperity
of their race were but the fulfilment of Jehovah's early promises. The
second aim was to set before later generations in the person of their
earliest ancestor a character that would inspire in his descendants the
noblest ideals and aspirations. With the spirit of the true prophet,
78

AIM AND TEACHINGS
Abraham leaves behind all that men usually cherish most and sets out
on his long journey. In Canaan also he disregards his personal interests
and is intent only upon knowing and doing the will of God. Self-sac
rificing, courageous, obedient to the voice of God— he is supremely
worthy to be the father of a prophetic nation. Blessed was the race that
had such a character held up thus prominently before it!
The third aim was to illustrate concretely, and therefore the more
effectively, certain universal truths which had been revealed through
the experiences of the Hebrew race. Clearly they stand forth from the
simple narrative: (1) God guides those who will be guided. (2) For
those who will be led by him, God has in store a noble destiny. (3) God
can reveal himself to those alone who seek a revelation. (4) God's reve
lations come along the path of duty and are confined to no place or land.
(5) He that loseth his life shall find it. (6) Blessed are the peace
makers, for they shall be called the children of God. (7) Blessed are
the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.

§ VIII. THE PROMISE OF A SON TO SARAH
Now Sarah was barren ; she had no children ; but she l. sa-
had an Egyptian maid-servant whose name was Hagar. p^-3
And Sarah said to Abraham, Behold now, Jehovah hath |?^f
denied me children ; go in, I pray you, to my maid-servant ; Hagar
it may be that I shall obtain children by her.
Then Abraham heeded the voice of Sarah and went in 2. Her
to Hagar, and she conceived. But when she saw that jJJSjy
she had conceived, her mistress was despised in her eyes. g>ad_
Therefore Sarah said to Abraham, May the wrong I suffer gar's
be upon you. I myself gave my maid-servant into your ffiB *
bosom ; and now that she sees that she has conceived, I am
despised in her eyes; Jehovah judge between me and
you. But Abraham said to Sarah, Behold, your maid
servant is in your power, do to her whatever seems I right
to you. Then Sarah ill-treated her, so that she fled from
her presence.
And the Messenger of Jehovah found her by a spring of 3.Di-
water in the wilderness, by the spring on the way to Shur. ^em.
And he said, Hagar, Sarah's maid-servant, Whence earnest j|eag£r
thou ? and whither art thou going ? And she said, I am
79

THE PROMISE OF A SON TO SARAH
fleeing from the presence of my mistress Sarah. Then the
Messenger of Jehovah said to her, Return to thy mistress
and submit thyself to her authority. Moreover the Mes
senger of Jehovah said to her, I will make thy descendants
so many that they cannot be numbered. The Messenger of
Jehovah also said to her, Behold, thou art with child, and
shalt bear a son ; and thou shalt call his name Ishmael [God
hears], because Jehovah hath heard of thy ill-treatment.
He shall be like a wild-ass,
His hand against every man,
And every man's hand against him ;
And he shall dwell over against all his kinsmen.
Then she called the name of Jehovah, who had spoken to
her, El-roi [Thou art a God that seeth me]; for she said,
Have I seen God and am I still alive, after I have looked
upon him ? Therefore the well is called Beer-lahai-roi
[Well of the hving One who seeth me], (behold, it is between
Kadesh and Bered).
4-Abra- Jehovah also appeared to Abraham by the oaks of Mamre,
hos^i3- as he was sitting at the entrance of the tent in the heat of
mty the day; and, as he lifted up his eyes and looked, there stood
three men before him. And as soon as he saw them, he
ran from the entrance of the tent to meet them and bowed
himself to the ground, and said, My lords, if now I have
found favor in your sight, do not, I pray you, pass by your
servant. Let now a little water be brought, I pray you,
that you may wash your feet, and rest yourselves under the
tree; and let me bring a morsel of bread, that you may
refresh yourselves; afterward you may pass on, since for
this reason you are passing by your servant. And they
rephed, Do even as you have said. So Abraham hastened
into the tent to Sarah, and said, Make ready quickly three
measures of fine meal, knead it, and bake cakes. Abraham
also ran to the herd, and took a calf, tender and good, and
gave it to the servant, that he might prepare it quickly.
And he took curds and milk, with the calf which he had
dressed, and set before them, and he was waiting on them
under the tree, while they ate. 80

LITERARY FORM AND ORIGIN
Then they said to him, Where is thy wife? And he said, s.Prom-
There within the tent. And he said, I will certainly return aso°nto
to thee about a year from now, and then Sarah thy wife ^ "
shall have a son. But Sarah was Ustening at the entrance and1
of the tent, which was behind him. Now Sarah and Abraham Sarah
were old, well advanced in years (it had ceased to be with
Sarah after the manner of women). Therefore Sarah
laughed to herself, saying, After I am old and worn out
shall I have pleasure, my lord being old also ? And Jehovah
said to Abraham, Why did Sarah laugh, saying, "Shall I,
even when I am old, indeed bear a child?" Is anything too
wonderful for Jehovah ? At the appointed time about a
year hence, I will return to thee and Sarah shall have a son.
Then Sarah denied, saying, I did not laugh; for she was
afraid. And he said, Nay, but thou didst laugh.
I. Literary Form and Origin. Simply, graphically, and with rare
fidelity to human feeling and the peculiar life of the ancient nomad, two
important and closely related incidents in Abraham's domestic history
are here recorded. They both deal with a theme of perennial interest
— the mystery of birth and parenthood. No subject was of more vital
import to every Semitic family than the birth of the son who should
perpetuate its name and traditions. The story of Ishmael answered
from the Hebrew point of view the question: "What was the origin of
the Ishmaelites and what relation were they to the Israelites?" To
their Hebrew readers the second story had a double fascination because
Isaac was the bond that bound them to their ancestor Abraham. It was
natural that they should think of his birth as being divinely heralded.
The sudden introduction of Jehovah in connection with the promise,
instead of the angelic beings, suggests perhaps that in the earlier part of
the narrative the prophetic, historian did not wish to represent the Deity
as partaking of food.
Ovid has preserved the closest parallel (Fast. 5495 "'). This Greek tra
dition states that the three gods, Zeus, Poseidon, and Hermes, were once
received as guests by an old man of Tanagra, Hyrieus by name. After
eating the meal which he provided for them, they desired him to ask
something for himself. Since he was childless, he expressed a wish for
a son. The son, whom they gave him by a miracle, was Orion.
II. Meaning of the Story of Hagar and Ishmael. The marriage
customs of the East are here assumed. Even in the later Hebrew laws,
81

THE PROMISE OF A SON TO SARAH
barrenness was regarded as a possible basis of divorce (St. O. T., IV,
Appendix 1). The husband in any case was free to take another wife.
The Code of Hammurabi in one of its laws formulates the primitive
usage when a wife could not bear children to her husband:
If a man has married a votary (i.e., a woman consecrated to a god),
and she has given a maid to her husband, who has borne children, and
afterward that maid has placed herself on an equality with her mis
tress because she has borne children, her mistress shall not sell her.
She shall place a slave-mark upon her and reckon her with the slave
girls. If she has not borne children, her mistress may sell her.
This ancient law contemplates the same domestic infelicity, as arose
in the household of Abraham. The patriarch's attitude in the matter
is also explained and justified in the light of early Semitic custom. In
the eyes of the law the slave wife was still the property of Sarah.
In fleeing from her mistress, Hagar naturally goes toward her native
home. Shur is that part of the wilderness which borders on Egypt to
the west (cf. Gen. 201 2518 Ex. 1522). Among the early Semites springs
were regarded as dwelling places of the deity. The waters gushing
forth from the dry, rocky earth were a never ceasing miracle. It would
appear that the present tradition originally centred about the famous
desert well of Beer-lahai-roi, whose name meant well of the living one
who seeth me. The story of the revelation and promise to the traditional
ancestress of the Ishmaelites made it a spot sacred even to the Hebrew
inhabitants of Canaan. The place is probably to be identified with Ain
Muweileh, a caravan station with seven wells, on the main route from
Palestine to Egypt. It is about fifty miles southwest of Beersheba and
twelve miles west of Ain Kadish.
The popular tradition also evidently aimed to explain the name
Ishmael, God hears. The vivid, poetic description of the Ishmaelites,
as represented by their tribal ancestor, is true to the character and life
of the wandering Arab. They were like the wild ass, free, untamed,
ever roaming from place to place. Subsisting largely by robbery, they
were at enmity with all their neighbors. Out in the wilderness but on
the borders of Canaan they lived, kinsmen yet foes of the Hebrews.
III. Abraham's Divine Guests. The account of Abraham's hos
pitality is one of the truest and most graphic pictures in oriental litera
ture. The hot stillness and solitude of an eastern noonday, the patri
arch seated beside his tent door, his sudden glimpse of three strangers
approaching along the way, his eager and courteous reception, which
makes their acceptance of his hospitality seem a favor to him rather than
82

ABRAHAM'S DIVINE GUESTS
to them, and the haste to provide for their needs — each of these scenes
stands out in clear relief. The food set before the guests is that of the
nomad: thin rolls of bread, baked on the hot stones, curdled milk, the
famous leben of the modern Arab and, as a special delicacy, a calf tender
and good. To see that every want of his guests is at once supplied,
Abraham himself stands by and serves them, as they sit beneath one of
the wide-spreading oaks or terebinths of Mamre.
As the guests depart, the promise is given to the aged patriarch and
his wife that within a year they should have an heir. In this oldest tra
dition the name which he bore (Isaac), is connected with the Hebrew
verb sahak, to laugh, and is explained by his mother's skeptical laugh
ter when a son is promised to her in her old age. In the parallel priestly
narrative of Genesis 17" it is Abraham who laughs. It was thus that
the popular interest in etymology and the belief in the significance of
the name shaped in part these early traditions of the race.
IV. Historical Significance of the Stories. The story of Hagar
is a chapter from early Semitic tribal history. Hagar, like Ishmael,
apparently represents a nomadic people. In the inscriptions of the
Assyrian king, Sennacherib, Hagaranu is the name of an Aramean tribe,
hving not far from Babylonia. A tribe bearing a similar name is
mentioned in the south Arabian inscriptions (cf. also I Chr. 510" 19 ll39
2731). If it could be proved that a land and people of Mucri were to be
found in ancient times southwest of Canaan, it would furnish a satis
factory explanation of Hagar's origin, for Muqri contains the same letters
as the Hebrew word for Egypt. If not, Hagar is called an Egyptian,
because the Arab tribe which she represents, had been partially Egyp-
tianized through living close to the land of the Nile. At least, in the
narrative, Hagar figures as a typical daughter of the desert. Possibly,
in the present narrative, Ishmael is intended to represent, as in later peri
ods, all of Israel's nomadic neighbors to the south. It seems more
probable, however, that the reference is to a definite tribe, living in early
times in the wilderness south or southwest of Canaan.
Interpreted in the language of history, this tradition then would mean
that the nomadic ancestors of the Hebrews early made alliances and inter
married with certain Arab tribes in the wilderness that lies between
southern Palestine and Egypt. At least both recognized the same
bonds of kinship and religion. This early tradition of a common origin
and faith is especially significant, for in the days of Moses the Israelites
received from contact with certain of these tribes that great impetus to
83

THE DESTRUCTION OF SODOM
the worship of Jehovah which is recorded in the narratives associated
with Sinai (cf. §XXI).
The story of the promise of the birth of Isaac is rich in its illustrations
of the social life and customs of the early Semitic ancestors of the He
brews. The story, as a whole, emphasizes again concretely the supreme
fact that the same divine Providence, that so signally delivered the He
brews in many later crises was, from the earliest days, guiding the destiny
of his people.
V. Aim and Teachings. Interest in the meaning of certain prom
inent names, in the origin of sacred places, of the Ishmaelites, and of their
relationship to the Hebrews, and in the reason why the Hebrews were
heirs to a nobler destiny undoubtedly influenced the early prophetic
historians to preserve these traditions. They also add certain important
touches to the growing prophetic portrait of Abraham. In a tiying
domestic crisis he realizes the Semitic ideal of justice and devotion to
his wife. As host, in his delicate consideration for the needs and wishes
of his guests, he attains to the highest standards of hospitality, whether
oriental or occidental.
Each narrative also suggests its own prophetic teaching: (1) To the
outcast and needy the divine voice ever comes with its message of counsel
and promise. (2) The sphere of God's care and blessing was by no
means limited to Israel. (3) He who generously receives strangers
often entertains the messengers of the Lord. (4) Unselfish service for
others always brings its sure and rich reward.
§ IX. THE DESTRUCTION OF SODOM
i. De- Then the men rose up from there and looked off in the
ofathere direction of Sodom; and Abraham went along with them
men to speed them on their way.
2.jeho- And Jehovah said, Because the complaint concerning
revefa- Sodom and Gomorrah is great, and because their sin is very
tion to heinous, I will go down and see whether they have done
ham" exactly according to the complaint which comes to me;
and if not, I will know. So the men turned from there and
went toward Sodom, but Abraham remained standing be
fore Jehovah.
hawf" Then Aoranam drew near and said, Wilt thou consume
inter- the righteous with the wicked? Perhaps there are fifty
cession righteous within the city, Wilt thou consume and not spare
84

THE DESTRUCTION OF SODOM
the place for the fifty righteous that are in it? Be it far
from thee to do after this manner, to slay the righteous with
the wicked ! and that the righteous should be as the wicked,
far be it from thee ! Shall the Judge of all the earth not do
justice? And Jehovah said, If I find in Sodom fifty right
eous within the city, then I will spare all the place for then-
sake. And Abraham answered and said, Behold now, I
have presumed to speak to the Lord, even though I am but
dust and ashes; perhaps there will be lacking five of the
fifty righteous. Wilt thou destroy all the city for lack of
five? And he said, I will not destroy it, if I find there
forty-five. And he spoke to him yet again, and said, Per
haps forty will be found there. And he said, For the sake
of forty I will not do it. And he said, Oh, let not my Lord be
angry, but let me speak : perhaps thirty will be found there.
And he said, I will not do it, if I find thirty there. And he
said, Behold now, I have presumed to speak to the Lord:
perhaps twenty will be found there. And he said, For
the sake of twenty I will not destroy it. And he said,
Oh let not the Lord be angry, but let me speak yet this once :
perhaps ten will be~ found there. And he said I will not
destroy it for the ten's sake. Then Jehovah went his way
as soon as he had ceased talking with Abraham.
Then Abraham returned to his place, and the two Mes- 4. Lot's
sengers came to Sodom in the evening as Lot was sitting in tfo°nPo"f
the gate of Sodom. When Lot saw them he rose up to meet ^
them, and bowed himself with his face to the earth, and
said, Now, my lords, turn aside, I pray you, into your ser
vant's house and abide all night, and wash your feet; then
you shall rise up early, and go on your way. And they
said, Nay, but we will abide in the street all night. But he
urged them so strongly that they turned aside to him, and
entered into his house ; and he made them a feast, and baked
unleavened bread, and they ate.
But before they had lain down, the men of the city, both s^
young and old, all the people from every quarter surrounded lessn^s"
the house ; and they called to Lot saying to him, Where are |f0^,
the men who came in to you to-night? Bring them out to ites
us that we may know them. Then Lot went out to them at
the door-way, but he shut the door after him. And he said,
85

THE DESTRUCTION OF SODOM
I pray you, my friends, do not thus wickedly. Behold now,
I have two virgin daughters; let me, I pray you, bring them
out to you, and do to them as you desire, only do nothing
to these men, inasmuch as they have come under the shadow
of my roof. But they rephed, Stand back. And they said,
This one came in to sojourn, and he would set himself up
as a judge ; now we will treat you worse than them. And
they pressed hard against Lot and drew near to break the
door. But the men reached out and drew Lot to them into
the house, and shut the door, and smote the men who were
at the door of the house with blindness, both small and great,
so that they became weary in searching for the door.
6. De- Then the men said to Lot, Hast thou here any besides?
anceof Son-in-law, and thy sons, and thy daughters, and whoever
Lot thou hast in the city, bring them out of this place ; for we
are about to destroy this place; because great complaint
concerning them hath come to Jehovah, and Jehovah hath
sent us to destroy it. So Lot went out and spoke to his
sons-in-law, who were to marry his daughters, and said,
Up, get you out of this place ; for Jehovah will destroy the
city. But he seemed to his sons-in-law as one who was
jesting. And when the rosy glow of morning appeared, the
Messengers urged Lot, saying, Arise, take thy wife, and thy
two daughters who are here, lest thou be consumed in the
punishment of the city. But as he lingered, the men took
hold of his hand and the hands of his wife and of his two
daughters (since Jehovah was merciful to him), and brought
him forth and set him outside the city. And it came to pass,
when they had brought them outside, that they said, Escape
for thy life ; look not behind thee, neither stay thou in all the
Plain ; escape to the mountain lest thou be consumed. But
Lot said to them, Oh, not so, my lords! Behold now, thy
servant hath found favor in thy sight, and thou hast shown
great mercy to me in saving my life — and I cannot escape
to the mountain, lest evil overtake me, and I die — see now,
this city is near to which to flee, and it is a little one. Oh,
let me escape thither (is it not a little one?), and my life
shall be preserved. And Jehovah said to him, I have also
accepted thee concerning this thing, in that I will not over
throw the city of which thou hast spoken. Hasten, escape
86

ORIGIN OF THE TRADITION
thither; for I cannot do anything until thou enter there.
Therefore the name of the city was called Zoar [Little]. And
the sun had risen upon the earth when Lot came to Zoar.
Then Jehovah rained upon Sodom and Gomorrah brim- 7. De-
stone and fire from Jehovah out of heaven, and he overthrew #™of
those cities, and all the Plain, with all the inhabitants of the *?
cities, and that which grew upon the ground. But Lot's S the
wife looked back from behind him and she became a pillar Sd°
of salt. And Abraham rose up early in the morning, and £**?, of
looked toward Sodom and Gomorrah, toward all the region wife3
of the Plain, and beheld: and there the smoke of the land
had begun to ascend as the smoke of a smelting-furnace.
Then Lot went up from Zoar and dwelt in the mountain, 8. Lot's
and his two daughters with him — for he was afraid to dwell ^1 in
in Zoar — and lived in the cave together with his two daugh- <»ve
ters. And the elder bore a son, and called his name Moab. He 9. Ori-
is the father of the present Moabites. The younger also fie Mo-
bore a son and called his name Ben-ammi. That one is |^'dte3
the father of the present Ammonites. Am-

I. Origin of the Tradition. The scene of the story is that most
striking of natural phenomena, the Dead Sea. The geological data
indicate that the Jordan valley was probably once an estuary of the Red
Sea, and that its salt waters in early periods washed the southern spurs
of Mount Hermon. The land in the south later rose, cutting off all
connection with the ocean, thus making an inland lake of which the
Dead Sea alone remains. In the south, at En-gedi on the west, and in
the lower Jordan valley on the north, fringes of rich tropical vegetation
suggested to the ancients that the great basin between Judah and Moab
was once well watered everywhere (before Jehovah destroyed Sodom and
Gomorrah), like the garden of Jehovah, as far as Zoar (§ VIP). The bit
ter, heavy waters and the barren shores seemed to them to be convincing
proof that some great destruction had overtaken the once fertile plain.
The pools of petroleum, the sulphur springs and deposits at many points
about the lake, and the evidence of volcanic action, probably all com
bined to perpetuate the present story.
In the minds of the early Hebrews and their interpreters, the prophets,
the dire displeasure of Jehovah alone sufficed to explain such an over
whelming destruction. With what seemed to them convincing logic,
87

mon-ites

THE DESTRUCTION OF SODOM
they argued that the crimes of a people thus punished must have been
unspeakably heinous. In the shameful practices of the earlier Canaan
ites, they found the sufficient cause.
Similar stories of the destruction of other cities by fire or water, be
cause of inhospitality or the guilt of their inhabitants, are still current
in Arabia and in many other parts of the world. The Greek story of
Philemon and Baucis is the one most familiar to western students (Ovid,
Met. VIII, 616 ff.).
The fate of Lot's wife was probably suggested by the peculiar geo
logical formations still found to the southwest of the Dead Sea. From
the remarkable cliffs of crystallized rock-salt, that rise to the height of
six hundred feet, fragments are often detached. These pillar-like shafts
frequently assume forms which suggest the outlines of the human figure.
Josephus and other late Jewish writers believed that they were still able
to identify the pillar of salt referred to in the story (Jos. Ant. II, 11').
Doubtless a pillar of this character, famous in ancient times, but long
since wasted away by the action of the elements, was the physical basis
of the strange episode. The Greek myth regarding Niobe, who was
changed to stone, is probably also of similar origin.
II. Interpretation of the Story. As in the story of the tower of
Babel, Jehovah is represented as coming down to investigate the guilt
of the cities of the Plain. In the present form of the narrative, however,
only two of the angelic beings proceed toward Sodom, while Jehovah
remains behind. Abraham uses this opportunity to intercede for his
kinsman, Lot. Among the early Semites the communal instinct was
so strong that the suffering of the innocent with the guilty tribe or city
did not seem to them unjust. Abraham, however, voicing the deeper
insight of the later prophets, who have added this familiar section, pleads
for the righteous few (cf. Ezek. 18). The appeal is not in vain. To
each increasing demand upon Jehovah's justice and mercy comes the
quick response. At last, however, the overwhelming consciousness of
the guilt of the many silenced the patriarch's petition; but in the sequel
the righteous few are nevertheless delivered. Abraham's intercessions
also bring out in clear relief the heinous guilt of the wicked Sodomites.
Their character is clearly illustrated by the account of their reception
of the divine guests. Lot proves true to his nomadic training and
traditions. Even as Abraham had received the strangers under the
tree before his tent, so his nephew entertained the two guests royally
in his city home. The inhabitants of Sodom, however, one and all,
prove insensible to the laws of hospitality and decency. The gross

INTERPRETATION OF THE STORY
degeneracy of these representative Canaanites is thus portrayed in
strongest colors.
Lot places the nomadic law of hospitality even above that of parental
responsibility; but the judgment falls upon the guilty before his family
suffers from his mistaken sense of honor. Divine justice is vindicated
and Lot's virtue is rewarded by the opportunity to escape, which is not
only offered, but pressed upon him and his family by the divine mes
sengers. He, with his wife and two daughters, flees alone and terror-
stricken in the lurid light of the burning cities. The divine command
is laid upon them not to look back; but again, as in the garden of Eden,
a wife's curiosity proves too strong. Lot and his daughters flee on alone,
leaving behind a lifeless pillar of salt.
III. Sites of the Cities of the Plain. The implications of the story
and the identification of the pillar of salt point to the southern end of the
Jordan basin, as the traditional site of the cities of the Plain. This
generally accepted conclusion is still further supported by the probable
site of the Moabite town of Zoar in or near the little oasis of Ghor es-
Safujeh, at the southeastern end of the Dead Sea. This bit of green
stands out in striking contrast to the general barrenness of the region, and
suggests that its preservation was a special act of Providence. The
meaning of its Hebrew name, Little, is explained by the ancient story.
The same Hebrew narrative also taught that in the neighboring moun
tains of Moab were born to the daughters of Lot, Moab and Ammon,
the traditional ancestors of the peoples living to the east of the ancient
Plain of the Jordan.
TV. Historical Significance of the Story. The Jordan valley is
still the scene of frequent earthquakes. The memory of some great
upheaval, caused by a subterranean explosion of petroleum and the
accompanying gases, may be the basis of this early tradition. The up
heaval may have destroyed certain Canaanite cities on the southern
shores of the Dead Sea. The fact that the names of the cities are re
membered lends support to this conclusion. The later prophetic liter
ature also contains many allusions to the destruction of Sodom and the
neighboring cities of Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim (e.g., Am. 4U
Is. I10 39 1319 Jer. 2314 4918 Zeph. 29 Dt. 29s3). Sodom is the classic
Hebrew symbol of superlative shamelessness and ignominy. The tra
dition vividly reflects the gross moral degeneracy of the earlier Canaan
ites and the impression which their customs made upon the Israelites
(cf. also §IV10).
In a form characteristic of early nomadic tradition, but far from
89

BIRTH AND SACRIFICE OF ISAAC
flattering to the national vanity of their neighbors across the Jordan,
the story also states the historical fact that the Moabites and Ammonites
were related to the Hebrews by virtue of common origin, traditions, and
customs. Contemporary records, archseology, and the later biblical
references unite in confirming this fact.
V. Aim and Teachings. The early prophets, in common with their
race and age, undoubtedly regarded the tradition as historical and re
tained it primarily for this reason. Like the later Judean story of the
flood, to which it is in many ways closely parallel, it is one of the most
dramatic illustrations of the overwhelming judgment that must inevitably
overtake those who are deliberately and defiantly wicked. In the econ
omy of the universe God himself is compelled to destroy them like worth
less refuse. And yet the God who destroys is a God of infinite mercy,
eager to stay the destruction, if only a leaven of good can be found. He
is also just, not only to cities and nations, but to each individual. All
in whom there is a gleam of promise are saved, as were Lot and his
family, and given every opportunity to perform their work in the world.
The one God whom the Hebrews worshipped, guided the early destinies
of their polytheistic neighbors, even as he did those of his chosen people.
The narrative and the stories which precede and follow also illustrate
the supreme truth that the basis of the divine choice of the Hebrew race
was primarily its character and aspirations, as exemplified by the lives
and deeds of its traditional ancestors. A man who could plead, as did
Abraham, for the life of his selfish, luxury-loving kinsman, and the
shamelessly corrupt Canaanites, was the natural progenitor of a race of
prophets. To those also who keep his commands the Lord ever reveals
his character and purposes.
§;X. BIRTH AND SACRIFICE OF ISAAC.
of isaao Now Jehovah visited Sarah as he had said. And Sarah con
ceived and bore Abraham a son in his old age, and said, Who
would have told Abraham that Sarah should give children
suck? for I have borne him a son in his old age!
2^God's And it came to pass after these things, that God tested
Abra- Abraham, saying to him, Abraham ; and he said, Here am I.
{££,'! And he said, Take now thy son, thine only son, Isaac, whom
«on thou lovest, and go to the land of Moriah [Revelation of Je
hovah], and offer him there as a burnt-offering on one of the
mountains of which I shall tell thee.
90

BIRTH AND SACRIFICE OF ISAAC
Then Abraham rose early in the morning, and saddled 3.Abra-
his ass, and took two of his servants with him, and Isaac obed'f-
his son. And when he had split the wood for the burnt- ence
offering, he arose and went to the place of which God had
told him. On the third day Abraham lifted up his eyes and
saw the place afar off. And Abraham said to his servants,
Stay here with the ass, while I and the lad go yonder. And
when we have worshipped, we will come back to you. Then
Abraham took the wood of the burnt-offering, and laid it
on Isaac his son; and he took in his hand the fire and the
knife, and they both went on together. And Isaac spoke
to Abraham his father, and said, My father! and he said,
Yes, my son. And he said, Here is the fire and the wood,
but where is the lamb for a burnt-offering? And Abraham
said, My son, God will himself provide the lamb for a burnt-
offering. So they two went on together. When they came
to the place of which God had told him, Abraham built the
altar there, and laid the wood in order, and bound Isaac his
son, and laid him on the altar upon the wood. Then Abra
ham stretched forth his hand, and took the knife to slay his
son. But the Messenger of Jehovah called to him from heaven, 4. The
saying, Abraham, Abraham! and he said, Here am I. And j^ine
he said, Lay not thy hand upon the lad, neither do any- provai
thing to him, for now I know that thou art one who feareth
God, since thou hast not withheld thy son, thine only son,
from me. Then Abraham lifted up his eyes, and looked, and
behold, there was a ram caught in the thicket by his horns.
So Abraham went and took the ram, and offered him up as
a burnt-offering instead of his son. Abraham therefore
called the name of that place Jehovah-jireh [Jehovah pro
vides], so that it is said to-day, In the mountain of Jehovah
provision will be made.
And the Messenger of Jehovah called to Abraham a 5. Re-
second time from heaven, and said, By myself have I sworn °fwhe
saith Jehovah, because thou hast done this thing, and hast pyom-
not withheld thy son, thine only son, that I will surely bless Abra?
thee, and I will make thine offspring as numerous as the ham
stars of the heavens and as the sand which is on the sea
shore, so that thy descendants shall possess the gates of
91

BIRTH AND SACRIFICE OF ISAAC
their enemies, and all the nations of the earth shall ask for
themselves a blessing like that of thy descendants, because
thou hast obeyed my voice.
6. Re- So Abraham returned to his servants, and they arose and
b^™*0 went together to Beersheba. And Abraham dwelt in Beer-
sheba sheba. I. The Institution of Human Sacrifice. This ancient story reflects
the fact that the early Hebrews, like their Semitic kinsmen and neigh
bors, believed that the gift of their dearest possessions, and even the
sacrifice of their children or relatives, were supremely acceptable to
the Deity. Jephthah's vow (§ XXXVIII), and Saul's rash covenant
(§ XLII5), which almost cost the life of his son Jonathan, are the most
familiar historical illustrations of this false popular belief. The hideous
institution of human sacrifice was clearly inherited by the Hebrews
from their early Semitic ancestors. The earthen jars containing the
bones of infants, which have been found in such large quantities in the
foundations of the recently excavated Canaanite temples at Gezer and
Taanach, are grim reminders of the horrible rites which the Israelites
learned from the Palestinian peoples whom they conquered. Refer
ences in the Old Testament indicate that child sacrifice was common
among the Arameans (II Kgs. 1731), the Moabites (II Kgs. W), and
the Ammonites (Lev. 1821 202). Later Greek writers state that the
Carthaginians, to avert a great national calamity, sacrificed hundreds
of the children of their noblest families. The Hebrew records also
show that this horrible rite was at times practised in Judah even down
to the days immediately preceding the exile, and especially during the
reactionary reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh (II Kgs. 163 21s 2310 Jer.
731195). II. Parallels to the Story. Philo has preserved a Phoenician
. tradition to the effect that an el or god to avert a great plague offered
his first-born son as a burnt-offering to his father Uranus. The closest
parallel to the biblical narrative is the familiar Greek story of Agamem
non's offering of Iphigenia. In the Greek story a doe was substituted
by Artemis for the human victim. In both the Hebrew and Greek
stories the primary aim was evidently to teach that animal sacrifices
were acceptable to the Deity instead of the human offerings presented
by the more primitive and less enlightened nations.
III. Meaning of the Biblical Story. The account of Abraham's
sacrifice of his son is found only in the Northern Israelite prophetic
92

MEANING OF THE BIBLICAL STORY
narrative. It is, however, one of the most thrilling stories found in the
Old Testament. To fully appreciate Abraham's devotion to Jehovah
it must be remembered that the patriarch's strongest hopes and am
bitions could be realized only through his son Isaac. To Abraham in his
old age, after the child had grown to be a stalwart lad, the conviction
came that to show his devotion he must sacrifice to Jehovah his only son.
The scene of the sacrifice was to be the land of Moriah, which the
later Jews identified with Jerusalem (II Chr. 31). The aged patriarch
met unflinchingly this supreme test of his faith and obedience, for God's
favor meant more to him than his dearest possession and even the reali
zation of the divine promises through his descendants. Simply and dra
matically and with a pathos too deep for expression, the different acts
in the great tragedy of Abraham's life are described. His fatherly pity
deterred him from making known to his son the true object of their
mission. The lad's innocent questions only added to the patriarch's
agony; but his faith in God never failed him. With calm assurance he
performed each painful detail. The knife with which to slay his only
son was in his uplifted hand, when there came to him a realization of
the more acceptable way in which to express his devotion to his God.
It was not the life of human beings that Israel's God demanded but that
spirit of personal sacrifice and obedience which the patriarch supremely
exemplified. Rams and sheep and oxen sufficed, as symbols of loyalty
and devotion to the Deity. The old law, "Every first-born is mine,"
remained among Israel's statutes; but the Hebrews in time realized that
this command did not require the shedding of innocent human blood.
The present story clearly represents one of the earliest protests of
the enlightened prophets and lawgivers against the horrible rite of
human sacrifice. The common people still believed that they could
"offer the fruit of their body for the sin of their soul" (Micah 67); but
in this early story, as in the later prophetic teaching, the higher conscience
of the nation replied:
He hath showed thee, O man, what is good;
And what doth Jehovah require of thee,
But to do justly,
And to love mercy,
And to walk humbly with thy God?
IV. Aim and Teachings. This story completes the early prophetic
portrait of Abraham. His faith in God knows no limitation. Like
93

SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC
the martyrs of later ages, he is ready, if it is the divine will, calmly and
unflinchingly to march to the stake. His victories are victories over
self, and his conquests are conquests of divine favor. By absolute
obedience and trust he wins back, even in the midst of crowded, warring
Canaan, that intimate relation with God and that divine favor which the
first man and woman lost by their selfish, deliberate disobedience. With
his eyes fixed solely on God and intent only in the future of the race, he
is the first great, prophet-guide to lead men back to the true garden of
Eden. Later traditions introduce less ideal elements, but in the stories
of Abraham, preserved by the early prophets, we have a consistent portrait
of a man after God's own heart. It is a character, however, perfected
through testing and struggle. The perfection is of a simple, human
type, that not only inspires but also encourages others to strive for its
realization. A noble ambition, courage, unselfishness, faith and ab
solute obedience to the divine will are its chief elements. These are
also the qualities which make true servants of God in every age and
land. §XI. SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC
l.Abra- Now it came to pass after these things, that it was told
tf™la Abraham saying, Behold, Milcah has also borne children
men in to your brother Nahor, Uz his first-born, Buz his brother,
am Kemuel the father of Aram, Chesed, Hazo and Pildash,
Jidlaph and Bethuel. (And Bethuel begat Rebekah.)
These eight Milcah bore to Nahor, Abraham's brother.
And his concubine, whose name was Reumah, also bore
Tebah, Gaham, Tahash, and Maacah.
2. in- When Abraham was old and far advanced in years and
tJSnTto Jehovah had blessed him in all things, Abraham said to the
his ser- eldest of his house servants, who had charge of all his af-
fairs, Put, I pray you, your hand under my thigh, while I
make you swear by Jehovah, the God of heaven and the
God of earth, that you will not take a wife for my son from
the daughters of the Canaanites, among whom I dwell, but
that you will go to my country and to my kindred and take
there a wife for my son Isaac. And the servant said to him,
Perhaps the woman will not be willing to follow me to this
land. Must I then bring your son back to the land from
which you came? And Abraham said to him, See to it that
94

Aram

SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC
you do not bring my son there again. Jehovah, the God of
heaven, who took me from my father's house and from the
land of my nativity and who talked with me and who swore
to me saying, ' To thy descendants will I give this land,'
may he send his Messenger before you and may you secure
there a wife for my son. But if the woman is not willing
to follow you, then you will be free from this oath to me;
only never again bring my son back there. So the servant
put his hand under his master's thigh and swore to him con
cerning this matter.
Then the servant took ten of his master's camels and set 3. The
out, having all kinds of his master's precious things. Thus ^t-B
he arose and went to Aram Naharaim to the city of Nahor. Journey
And he made the camels kneel down outside the city by the rfvaftn
well of water at eventide, the time when women go out to
draw water. Then he said, 0 Jehovah, the God of my
master Abraham, give me, I pray thee, good success to-day,
and show kindness to my master Abraham. Behold I am
standing by the spring of water and the daughters of men
of the city are coming out to draw water. May it be that
the maiden to whom I shall say, * Pray let down your water
jar that I may drink ' ; and she shall answer, ' Drink, and
I will also water your camels,' let her be the one thou hast
destined for thy servant Isaac ; and by this shall I know that
thou hast showed kindness to my master.
Then even before he had finished speaking, behold there 4. His
came out Rebekah, who was born to Bethuel the son of Sge£nd
Milcah, the wife of Nahor, Abraham's brother, with her conver-
water jar upon her shoulder. And the maiden was very with"
fair to look upon, a virgin whom no man had known. And J*^
she went down to the spring and filled her jar, and came
up. Then the servant ran to meet her, saying, Pray let
me drink a little water from your jar. And she said, Drink
my lord, and hastened to let down her water jar upon her
hand and let him drink. When she had finished giving
him drink she said, I will draw for your camels also, until
they have finished drinking. And she made haste to empty
her jar into the trough and ran again to the well to draw,
and drew for all his camels. Meanwhile the man was gaz
ing at her intently, keeping silent in order to determine
95

her
house

SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC
whether Jehovah had made his journey successful or not.
Then, as soon as the' camels had finished drinking, the man
took a gold ring of a half shekel weight, and two bracelets
of ten shekels weight of gold for her arms, and said, Whose
daughter are you? tell me, I pray you. Is there room in
your father's house for us to lodge in? And she said to
him, I am the daughter of Bethuel, the son of Milcah, whom
she bore to Nahor. She also said to him, Both straw and
provender are plentiful with us and there is room to lodge
in. Then the man bowed his head and worshipped Je
hovah, saying, Blessed be Jehovah, the God of my master
Abraham who hath not withdrawn his mercy and his faith
fulness from my master. As for me, Jehovah hath led me
on the journey to the house of my master's kinsmen.
5. His Then the maiden ran and told these things to her mother's
tfonP"at bouse. Now Rebekah had a brother whose name was
Laban. And Laban ran out to the man at the spring.
And it came to pass when he saw the ring, and the bracelets
on his sister's arms, and when he heard the words of Re
bekah saying, Thus the man spoke to me ; that he came to
the man, who was still standing by the camels at the foun
tain. And he said, Come in, you who are blessed of Je
hovah! Why do you stand outside when I have the house
and room for the camels all ready? So he brought the
man into the house, and ungirded the camels; and gave
straw and provender for the camels, and water to wash his
feet and the feet of the men who were with him.
e. Deo- But when food was set before him to eat, he said, I will
tton of not eat until I nave made known my errand. And Laban
hi? . said, Speak on. And he said, I am Abraham's servant.
And Jehovah hath blessed my master greatly, so that he has
become very rich. He hath given him flocks and herds,
and silver and gold, and men-servants and maid-servants,
and camels and asses. Now Sarah my master's wife bore
a son to my master when she was old, and to him he has
given all that he has. And my master made me swear
saying, ' Do not take a wife for my son from the daughters
of the Canaanites, in whose land I dwell, but you shall go
to my father's house and to my kindred and take a wife
for my son.' Then I said to my master, « What if the
96

mission

SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC
woman will not follow me.' But he said to me, ' May
Jehovah, before whom I walk, send his Messenger with
you and prosper your mission, and may you take for my
son a wife of my kindred and of my father's house. Then
you will be free from your oath to me ; however, when you
come to my kindred, if they do not give her to you, you shall
also be free from your oath to me.' So I came to-day to
the spring and said, ' 0 Jehovah, the God of my master
Abraham, if now thou wilt prosper my mission on which I
am going, behold, I am standing by the spring of water, may
it be that if I shall say to the maiden who comes forth to
draw, "Give me, I pray you, a little water from your jar to
drink," and she shall say to me, "Drink, and I will also draw
for your camels," let that one be the woman whom Jehovah
hath destined for my master's son.' Even before I was
through speaking to myself, behold, Rebekah came forth
with her water jar on her shoulder, and went down to the
spring and drew. And when I said to her, 'Pray let me
drink,' she made haste, and let down her water jar from
her shoulder and said, 'Drink, and I will also water your
camels.' So I drank and she also watered the camels.
Then I asked her, saying, 'Whose daughter are you?'
And she said, 'The daughter of Bethuel, Nahor's son, whom
Milcah bore to him.' Then I put the ring in her nose,
and the bracelets on her arms. And I bowed my head
and worshipped Jehovah, and blessed Jehovah the God
of my master Abraham, who had led me in the right way
to take the daughter of my master's brother for his son.
Now if you are ready to deal kindly and truly with my
master, tell me, and if not, tell me, that I may act ac
cordingly. Then Laban and Bethuel answered and said, The matter 7.Con-
is in the hands of Jehovah. We cannot give you either an Rebel-
adverse or a favorable answer. Behold, Rebekah is before *§*_
you; take her and go and let her be the wife of your master's tives
son, as Jehovah hath spoken. And it came to pass that
when Abraham's servant heard their words, he bowed him
self to the earth before Jehovah. Then the servant brought
forth jewels of silver and jewels of gold and clothing
and gave them to Rebekah. He also gave to her brother
97

SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC
and to her mother precious things. And he and the men
who were with him ate and drank, and remained all
night.
8. His When they rose up in the morning, he said, Send me away
depart- to mv master; but her brother and her mother answered,
and re- Let the maiden remain with us a few days, at least ten; after
with that she may go. But he said to them, Hinder me not, since
betah Jehovah hath prospered my mission. Send me away that
I may go to my master. Then they said, We will call the
maiden and consult her. And when they called Rebekah
and said to her, Will you go with this man? she said, I will
go. So they sent away Rebekah their sister, and her
nurse with Abraham's servant, and his men. And they
blessed Rebekah, saying to her,
Our sister! may you become thousands and thousands!
And may your descendants possess the gates of their
enemies.
Then Rebekah arose with her maids and, riding upon the
camels, followed the man. Thus the servant took Rebekah
and went away.
Q.Abra- Now Abraham had given all that he had to Isaac. And
dtath Abraham had breathed his last, dying in a good old age, old
and satisfied with living, and had been gathered to his
father's kin. And Isaac dwelt by Beer-lahai-roi.
10. And Isaac had come from the direction of Beer-lahai-roi,
Meeting for ke dweit m the South Country. And as Isaac was going
Isaac out to meditate in the field at eventide, he lifted up his eyes
and saw that there were camels coming. Rebekah too
lifted up her eyes, and when she saw Isaac, she alighted
from the camel. And she said to the servant, Who is this
man walking in the field to meet us? And when the
servant said, It is my master, she took her veil and covered
herself. Then the servant told Isaac all the things that he
had done. And Isaac brought her to the tent of Sarah his
mother, and took Rebekah, and she became his wife; and
he loved her. Thus was Isaac comforted concerning his
mother, who had died at Kirjaith-arba (that is Hebron) in
the land of Canaan. 98

LITERARY FORM OF THE STORY
I. Literary Form of the Story. This story is told with greater
detail than any other in the book of Genesis. The stream of the nar
rative does not flow on rapidly as in the preceding stories, but slowly,
even turning back upon itself, with one or two long repetitions. The
story is an idyll in seven scenes, each portraying with rare grace and
vividness the successive stages in the unfolding of the plot. Each indi
vidual acts his part nobly, and the narrative runs on to a happy conclu
sion without a discordant note. It was a story doubtless retold many
times beside the camp fires, and especially at the marriage feasts in
ancient Israel.
II. Abraham's Faithful Servant. The opening paragraph intro
duces the dramatis persona. The twelve sons of Nahor represent
twelve Aramean tribes hving to the east and northeast of Palestine.
The most attractive character in the story is Abraham's trusty slave.
The English term, household servant, here reproduces most nearly the
meaning of the Hebrew term for slave, for the interests of the master
and servant are identical, and the sacred trust that the dying Abraham
leaves to his aged liegeman is not betrayed.
The means by which a wife is secured for Isaac are those of the East,
where the father, not the son, arranges all the marriage preliminaries.
The event was of supreme importance, for the fulfilment of Jehovah's
promises to the race depended upon it. The oath taken with the hand
under the thigh was of the most solemn and binding nature. It was
again used by Jacob when he imposed a solemn promise upon his son
Joseph (§ XVIII), and it probably signified that the oath was also bind
ing upon the descendants of the one thus swearing. It was often em
ployed by primitive peoples, and is still in use among certain Australian
tribes. The oath of Abraham's servant also reflects the pride which
the Hebrews always felt in their Aramean ancestry, and their growing
abhorrence, in later days, for the corrupt Canaanite civilization.
III. His Successful Mission. Laden with rich treasures to be
used as the bridal dowry, the servant journeys toward western Mesopo
tamia, to the land lying on either side of the central Euphrates valley.
As he waits at eventide outside Haran, he prays fervently that the God
of his master will prosper him in the difficult mission which he has
undertaken. Soon a beautiful maiden appears with a water jar upon
her shoulder. At his request she gives him water to drink; then, ex
ceeding even the oriental laws of hospitality, but in accord with the
chosen sign, she waters his camels also.
Gladdened by the discovery that the beautiful maiden is the grand-
99

SECURING A WIFE FOR ISAAC
daughter of his master's brother, and by the unmistakable signs of
divine guidance, Abraham's servant accepts the generous oriental
hospitality which is offered him in response to Rebekah's report. When
he and his servants and camels are all under the hospitable roof, and
before he will partake of the offered food, he tells his tale and presents
his suit. He also reenforces it after the oriental fashion by lavish
gifts. These are given not only to the desired bride, but also to her
mother and brother, who, since the father is evidently dead, stand at
the head of the household. The final decision is left to Rebekah her
self. She responds in a spirit worthy of the ancestress of a race des
tined to go forth and possess many an unknown land.
The parting blessing of her kinsmen voices the familiar hope that her
descendants may be countless and triumph over their many foes.
IV. The Return. The form of Abraham's command to his servant
suggests that the aged patriarch was on the point of death. The final
scene in the story implies that Abraham had died before the servant's
return, but in Genesis his death is recorded in a subsequent passage
which was taken from the late priestly narrative (chap. 25). In the
present text this brief, stately, expressive account of Abraham's decease
has been restored to what appears to have been its original place in
the prophetic history.
The vivid story reaches its climax in the picturesque meeting of Isaac
and Rebekah in the wilderness at eventide. Oriental custom left no
place for the expression of individual sentiment until the bride had been
conducted to the tent of her future husband. By this act the eastern
marriage ceremony was completed. The narrative, however, states
that Isaac loved Rebekah and that she filled in the heart of the only son
the place left vacant by the death of his mother.
V. Historical Significance of the Story. Few stories have been
preserved regarding Isaac. An early prophetic narrative tells of his
experiences at the court of the king of Gerar. Fearing lest the natives
will kill him in order to seize his beautiful wife, he declares that Rebekah
is his sister. His deception, however, is soon discovered, and he is
sharply rebuked by the king of Gerar. Nevertheless, as the heir of
the divine promises, prosperity still attends him. At Beersheba he
makes a covenant of peace with the king of Gerar and seals it by a
solemn oath. Hence to Isaac the oldest stories attribute the origin
of the name Beersheba (Well of the Oath).
Isaac is the hero of the South Country, just as Abraham is of Hebron,
and Jacob of Bethel and the sanctuaries east of the Jordan. Beer-
100

HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STORY
lahai-roi, Gerar and Beersheba, to the south of Canaan, are the sites
about which the Isaac stories gather, and at these sacred places they were
probably first treasured. Thus tradition fixes his abode in the half
nomadic, half agricultural land that lies midway between the territory
of the Hebrews and of the Edomites, who regarded him as their com
mon ancestor. From this same wilderness region came many of the
tribes which later united to form the Hebrew nation.
The account of Rebekah's journey westward with her attendant
servants may also be the form in which early tradition recorded the fact
that later bands of Aramean immigrants followed and reenforced the
first great migration represented by Abraham. The fact that her
kinsmen are Aramean tribes and her descendants are two great nations,
at least suggests that, although there may be an ultimate basis of indi
vidual history, the stories reflect the early movements of tribes and
races. VI. Aim and Teachings. The primary aim of this story was evi
dently to interest and entertain the audiences that gathered about the
ancient story-teller. The narrative also illustrates the divine guidance
of the destinies of the race. The character of Isaac is not so fully por
trayed, nor is it as significant as that of either Abraham or Jacob. Isaac
has his father's mildness and love of peace without the same command
ing faith. He is conventionally pious, and goes out to meditate at
eventide; but is stirred by no exalted ambition. To him the divine
promise is renewed, yet it is not for his own sake but for that of Abra
ham. Isaac is a loving husband, but he is inclined to follow the line of
least resistance, even though his wife is endangered by his cowardly de
ception. He is a true type of the average man of any age or race.
Rebekah in the story realized the oriental ideal of a wise, brave
woman and wife. The portrait of the servant is of perennial value.
His complete f orgetf ulness of self, his fidelity, his zeal and tact in carry
ing out the commands of his master, even though he be but a slave,
and his child-like faith in God's leadership, are qualities which make
men valuable members of society in every age.
§ XII. JACOB AND HIS BROTHER ESAU.
Now Isaac prayed to Jehovah in behalf of his wife, be- oracle
cause she was barren; and Jehovah heard his prayer, so oeming
that Rebekah his wife conceived. And the children strug- t^-
gled together within her ; and she said, If it be so, why has twins
101

JACOB AND HIS BROTHER ESAU
this befallen me ? Therefore she went to inquire of Je
hovah. And Jehovah said to her,
Two nations are in thy womb,
And the two races, which spring from thee, shall sepa
rate from each other,
And one people shall be stronger than the other,
And the elder shall serve the younger.
2. o> When her days to be delivered were fulfilled, there were
ipnof indeed twins in her womb. And the first came forth red
names all over, like a hairy garment ; so they called his name
and1 Esau [Hairy]. And afterwards his brother came forth
Jacob holding fast Esau's heel with his hand; so his name was
called Jacob [Heel-holder].
3. char- Now as the boys grew Esau became a skillful hunter, but
isticT Jacob was a quiet man, a dweller in tents. And Isaac
of the loved Esau— for he had a taste for game — and Rebekah
broth- , » -r t_
ers loved Jacob.
4. sale Once when Jacob was preparing a stew, Esau came in
birth- from the field, and he was faint; therefore Esau said to
rfght Jacob, Let me eat quickly, I pray, some of that red food,
for I am faint. (Therefore his name was called Edom
[Red]). But Jacob said, Sell me first of all your birthright.
And Esau replied, Alas! I am nearly dead, therefore of
what use is this birthright to me? And Jacob said, Swear
to me first; so he swore to him, and sold his birthright to
Jacob. Then Jacob gave Esau bread and stewed lentils,
and when he had eaten and drank, he rose up and went his
way. Thus Esau despised his birthright.
5. t Now it came to pass, when Isaac was so old that he could
re^St not see> tnat ae called Esau his eldest son, and said, Behold
I am old and know not the day of my death. Now there
fore take, I pray you, your weapons, your quiver and your
bow, and go out to the field, and hunt game for me, that I
myself may bless you before I die. So Esau went to the
field to hunt game in order to bring it to him.
6. Re- Then Rebekah spoke to Jacob her son and said, I just
betoh-s now neard your father say to your brother Esau, "Bring
me game that I may eat and bless you in the name of Je-
102

JACOB AND HIS BROTHER ESAU
hovah." And Rebekah took the fine garments of Esau, her
elder son, which she had with her in the house, and put them
upon Jacob, her younger son, and he went to his father.
And Isaac said, Who are you, my son? And Jacob said 7. ja-
to his father, I am Esau your first-born. I have done ac- decep

tion

upon
Jacob

cording as you commanded me. Arise, I pray you, and sit
and eat of my game, that you yourself may bless me. And
Isaac said to his son, How is it that you have found it so
quickly, my son? And he said, Because Jehovah your God
gave me success. And he said, Are you really my son
Esau? And he said, I am. Then he said, Bring it to me,
that I may eat of my son's game, in order that I myself may
bless you. So he brought it to him, and he ate. He also
brought him wine and he drank.
And his father Isaac said to him, Come near now and kiss
me, my son. And as he came near and kissed him, he
smelled the smell of his garment, and blessed him and said,
See, the smell of my son
Is as the smell of a field which Jehovah hath blessed.
Let peoples serve thee,
And races bow down to thee.
Cursed be every one that curseth thee,
And blessed be every one that blesseth thee.
And it came to pass, as soon as Isaac had made an end 9
of blessing Jacob, that Esau his brother came in from Ins
hunting, and said to his father, Let my father arise, and eat
of his son's game, that you yourself may bless me. And
Isaac his father said to him, Who are you? And he said,
I am your son, your first-born, Esau. And Isaac trembled
violently, and said, Who then is he that hunted game and
brought it to me, so that I ate plentifully before you came?
Verily, I have blessed him, and he shall remain blessed.
When Esau heard the words of his father, he cried with a
very loud and bitter cry, and said to his father, Bless me,
even me also, 0 my father.
And Esau said to himself, The days of mourning for my 10 Ja-
father are near, then will I slay my brother Jacob. But flight
when the words of Esau her elder son were told to Rebekah,
103

Esau'a
sorrow

JACOB AND HIS BROTHER ESAU
she sent and called Jacob her younger son, and said to him,
Behold your brother Esau will avenge himself upon you by
killing you. Flee to Laban my brother at Haran, until
your brother's anger turn away from you.
I. Jacob's Efforts to Supplant Esau. The great prophetic teach
ing that Jehovah personally directed Israel's history from the first is
again emphasized by the story of the birth of Jacob and Esau. Re
bekah, like Sarah, was barren until Jehovah heard Isaac's prayer for
offspring. The later history of the two nations, represented by Esau
and Jacob, is reflected in the divine message to Rebekah. Even though
the Edomites grew to be a nation and found a permanent home to the
south of the Dead Sea long before the Israelites, they later became
subject to their younger kinsmen.
The popular interpretation of the meaning of the two names is
woven into the tradition of the birth of the two brothers. With a grim
humor, peculiar to these early narratives, the long, bitter struggle be
tween the two nations is represented as beginning at the birth of their
traditional ancestors. Jacob's chief characteristic, the desire to get
ahead of his rival, is revealed, even before he sees the light. Depart
ing from their usual custom, the prophetic historians give a brief char
acter sketch of the two brothers. Esau has the characteristics of his
father; Jacob those of his mother.
According to Hebrew custom a double portion went to the first
born (cf. Dt. 2116"17)- For food to satisfy his immediate hunger the
careless Esau was ready to sell his special rights as the eldest son and
that rich heritage of promise which he should have passed on to his de
scendants. Jacob, the ambitious schemer, did not hesitate to take ad
vantage of his brother's weakness. Neither of the brothers figures in a
noble role.
II. Jacob's Base Deception. Jacob's character is further revealed
by the means which he employs to establish his title to the birthright.
In this incident he shows himself not only the favorite, but the true son
of his ambitious and unscrupulous mother. Taking advantage of the
infirmities of his aged father and the absence of his brother on a mission
prompted by filial duty, he secures by deception the coveted paternal
blessing. The blessing of a dying father was believed by the ancients
to exert an important influence in the life of his descendants. The
early Judean prophetic historians (whose narrative has been followed),
make no effort to excuse Jacob's deliberate falsehoods. They simply
104

JACOB'S BASE DECEPTION
record the effect of the act upon his character and later history. The
sympathy of the early historians, as well as of the reader, goes out to
Esau, whose sorrow, on discovering the wrong of which he is the vic
tim, is vividly and touchingly portrayed. Jacob flees, impelled like
Cain, by the fear that vengeance will fall upon his guilty head.
III. The Underlying Tribal History. The vividness and consis
tency of the early prophetic portraits of Esau and Jacob favor a per
sonal interpretation, but there is much evidence to show that they rep
resent more than mere individuals. The name Jacob has been found
on the Babylonian tablets coming from the age of Hammurabi. It
appears also in slightly different form, on contract tablets discovered
in Cappodocia. It is likewise the name of one of the Asiatic Hyksos
kings who ruled over Egypt. Thutmose III, the great conqueror of
the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, mentions a certain Jacob-el among
the Palestinian cities captured by him. From these references it is
clear that the name was borne by individuals; but in Palestine it was
the designation of a city or tribe.
As has been already noted in the early prophetic stories, both Jacob
and Esau are clearly types of the two nations which were regarded as
their immediate descendants. Esau is in many ways an attractive,
picturesque character. His home is out in the open air and his occu
pation is hunting. He is ingenuous and impulsive, but ruled by his
inclinations, a child of the present, with no lofty ideal or genuine re
Ugious zeal. He is a type of the modern gypsy or tramp. The por
trait is true to the character of the Edomites. Living on the borders of
Canaan, they largely retained their early nomadic, roving habits, de
pending for existence upon the scanty products of the wilderness and
the plunder which they extorted or stole from passing caravans.
The Esau stories assume the historic fact that the Edomites were
established as a nation long before the Israelites. In the inscriptions
telling of conquests by kings of the eighth Egyptian dynasty, Edom is
the name of one of the captured cities. In the el-Amarna tablets
Udumu or Edom figures as a city hostile to the Egyptians. In the later
Assyrian inscriptions, Udumu is the name of both a city and a land.
The biblical narratives also proclaim that close relationship between
the Edomites and Israelites, which is confirmed by similarity in lan
guage and institutions. These stories likewise reflect the close geo
graphical and political relations, which ever linked these two peoples
together, and which ultimately resulted in the conquest of the older
race by the younger. These traditions evidently are intended to answer
105

JACOB AND HIS BROTHER ESAU
the question, Why this reversal of their earlier fortunes came about.
The answer is found, as in the Noah oracle (§ IV), in the characteristics
of the two races.
IV. Significance of the Portrait of Jacob. The deeper historical
and ethical value of the Jacob stories is found in the marvellous portrait
and analysis of the character and experiences of the Israelites which
these narratives present. They are almost without analogy in human
literature. Only the Hebrew prophets, who studied existing conditions
and forces with eyes opened by the divine touch and with a thorough
ness that rivals the work of the modern scientist and historian, could
thus portray, so simply and yet with absolute fidelity, the strength and
weaknesses of their race. For hunting and the frivolities of life Jacob
has no time or inclination. In him the noble aspirations of Abraham
for the future of his descendants have become a selfish passion. He
ever remains beside the tents, plotting how he may win from his brother
the coveted rights of the first-born. No opportunity to gain the desired
prize escapes him. His fatal fault is that he is ready to employ any
means to attain his ends; he even resorts to misrepresentation and
actual falsehood. Cowardice, begotten by his own wrong-doing, adds
to the blackness of the portrait.
Yet in contrast to Esau,' who is but a drifter on the stream of life,
Jacob is the more promising character. Notwithstanding his glaring
faults, he has energy and ambition. His ambition is selfish and material,
and yet it extends beyond himself to the prosperity and victories of his
descendants. V. Aim and Teachings. Of the many aims that are revealed in
these stories, perhaps the chief with the prophets was to hold up before
their countrymen such a clear portrait of their national character that
all would see and correct their hereditary faults. As inspired interpre
ters of history, the prophets were also setting forth the fundamental
reasons why Israel, even through failure and discipline, became at last
the conquering race, with the full consciousness of a glorious destiny.
The immediate teachings of the stories are obvious: (1) A man or a
nation, however gifted and personally attractive, if intent only on im
mediate and physical enjoyment and without a spiritual ideal or am
bition, is, like Esau, destined to degenerate and prove a failure. (2) Sel
fishness and trickery bring only injustice to others and cowardice and
suffering to the wrong-doer. He who soweth the wind shall reap the
whirlwind. (3) God himself cannot make a man out of an idle drifter;
but he who has ambition and persistence is never impossible.
106

JACOB'S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITD7E

§ XIII. JACOB'S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITIVE
Now when Jacob set out from Beersheba, he went toward 1. Je-
Haran. And when Jacob arrived at a certain place, he p°o^'a
passed the night there, because the sun had set. And he y° j*»
took one of the stones which were there, and put it under andhis
his head, and lay down in that place to sleep. Then he &£&'
dreamed and saw a ladder set up on the earth with its top
reaching to heaven ; and, behold, the Messengers of God were
ascending and descending on it. And, behold, Jehovah
stood beside him and said, I am Jehovah, the God of Abra
ham thy father and the God of Isaac. The land upon which
thou art lying — to thee will I give it and to thy descendants.
And thine offspring shall be as the dust of the earth, and
thou shalt spread abroad to the west, and to the east, and
to the north, and to the south, and a blessing like thine and
that of thy descendants shall all the families of the earth
ask for themselves. And, behold, I am with thee, and will
keep thee wherever thou goest, and will bring thee again
to this habitable land ; for I will not leave thee until I have
done that which I have promised thee.
And when Jacob awoke from his sleep, he said, Surely 2. Or-
Jehovah is in this place, and I knew it not. And he was il'e of
filled with awe and said, How awful is this place; this is |^g^,
none other than the house of God [Beth-el] and this is the
gate of heaven.
So Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the stone 3. Or-
that he had put under his head, and set it up for a pillar, slnctu-
and poured oil upon the top of it. Therefore he called the gyg*
name of that place Bethel [House of God], although the
earlier name of the city was Luz. And Jacob made a vow
saying, H God will be with me and keep me in this journey
which I am making, and give me bread to eat and clothing
to put on, and I come again safe and sound to my father's
house, then shall Jehovah be my God and this stone which
I have set up for a pillar, shall be a house of God.
Then Jacob went on his journey, and came to the land of 4. Scene
the children of the East. And he looked, and saw a well in well in
the field, and there were three flocks of sheep lying down Haran
107

JACOB'S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITIVE
by it; for out of that well they watered the flocks; but the
stone upon the mouth of the well was large. And when all
the flocks were gathered here, they used to roll the stone
from the mouth of the well and water the sheep, and then
put the stone again in its place upon the mouth of the
well.
5. Ja- And Jacob said to them, My friends, whence are you?
conver- And they said, We are from Haran. Then he said to them,
sation j)0 y0u know Laban the son of Nahor? And they said,
the We know him. And he said to them, Is it well with him?
he^ And they said, It is well; indeed, see Rachel his daughter
coming there with the sheep. And he said, Behold, the
sun is still high ! it is not time for the cattle to be gathered
together. Water the sheep and let them go to feed. But
they said, We cannot until the flocks are gathered together
and they roll the stone from the well's mouth, then we water
the sheep.
6. Meet- While he was yet speaking with them, Rachel came with
Jacob her father's sheep ; for she was a shepherdess. Now when
Rachel Jacob saw Rachel the daughter of Laban, his mother's
brother, and Laban's sheep, he went near and rolled the
stone from the mouth of the well, and watered the flock
of Laban, his mother's brother. Then Jacob kissed Rachel
and wept loudly. And when Jacob told Rachel that he was
a kinsman of her father, and that he was Rebekah's son,
she ran and told her father.
7.Ja- But as soon as Laban heard the tidings regarding Jacob,
recep- his sister's son, he ran to meet him, and embraced and
«cmat tissed him, and brought him to his house. Then Jacob
house recounted to Laban all these things. And Laban said to
him, Surely you are of my bone and of my flesh. So he
remained with him about a month.
8. Then Laban said to Jacob, Because you are my kinsman
menTto should you therefore serve me for nothing? Tell me what
Laban sha11 be vour wages? Now Laban had two daughters:
Rachel ^e name °f *ne elder was- Leah, and the name of the younger
was Rachel. And Leah had weak eyes, but Rachel was
beautiful in form and feature. Therefore Jacob loved
Rachel and he said, I will serve you seven years for Rachel
your younger daughter. And Laban said, It is better for
108

JACOB'S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITIVE
me to give her to you than that I should give her to another
man. Stay with me. So Jacob served seven years for
Rachel, and they seemed to him but a few days, because he
loved her.
Then Jacob said to Laban, Give me my wife, for my days 9- La-
are fulfilled and let me go in unto her. Accordingly Laban deci-
gathered together all the men of the place and made a feast. tion
And it came to pass in the evening that he took Leah his
daughter and brought her to him, and Jacob went in unto
her. And Laban gave Zilpah his maid-servant to his
daughter Leah for a maid. When in the morning he found
it was Leah, he said to Laban, What is this you have done
to me? Did I not serve you for Rachel? Why then have
you deceived me? And Laban said, It is not customary
among us to give the younger in marriage before the elder.
Remain with this one during the marriage week, then we
will give to you the other also for the service which you
shall render me for seven more years. Therefore Jacob
did so: he remained with Leah during the marriage week.
Then Laban gave him Rachel his daughter as wife. Laban
also gave to Rachel his daughter Bilhah his maid-servant
to be her maid. Then he went in to Rachel, but he loved
Rachel more than Leah. Thus he had to serve him seven
years more.
When Jehovah saw that Leah was hated, he opened her io.
womb; Rachel, however, was barren. Accordingly Leah of
conceived and bore a son whom she named Reuben [Behold jEjgf'8
a son] ; for she said, Jehovah hath beheld my affliction ; now Rren;
my husband will love me. And she conceived again and been,
bore a son; and said, Because Jehovah hath heard that I f^f™*
am hated, he hath therefore given me this one also ; hence Judah
she called his name Simeon [Hearing]. And she conceived
again and bore a son, and said, Now this time will my hus
band become attached to me, because I have borne him
three sons: therefore his name was called Levi [Attached].
And she conceived again, and bore a son, and said, This time
will I praise Jehovah : therefore she called his name Judah n
[Praise]; then she ceased to bear children. zapat:
When Leah saw that she had ceased to bear children, she £j£
took Zilpah her maid-servant and gave her to Jacob as a Asher
109

JACOB'S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITIVE
wife. And Zilpah Leah's maid-servant bore Jacob a son.
And Leah said, Fortunate am I! therefore she called his
name Gad [Fortune]. And Zilpah Leah's maid-servant
bore Jacob a second son. And Leah said, Happy am I!
for women are sure to call me happy; therefore she called
his name Asher [Happy].
12. Ra- And when Rachel saw that she bore Jacob no children,
chu-8 Rachel was jealous of her sister, and said to Jacob, Give
dren by me children or else I die. But Jacob's anger was aroused
Dana ' against Rachel, and he said, Am I in God's stead? Who
Naph. hath withheld offspring from thee? And she said, Here
tah is my maid Bilhah, go in unto her, that she may bear upon
my knees and I also may obtain children by her. And so
she gave him Bilhah her maid for a wife, and Jacob went
in unto her. And when Bilhah conceived and bore Jacob
a son, Rachel said, God hath judged me and hath also heard
my voice and hath given me a son. Therefore she called
his name Dan [He judged]. And Bilhah Rachel's maid
conceived again, and bore Jacob a second son. And Rachel
said, With superhuman wrestlings have I wrestled with my
sister, and have prevailed; therefore she called his name
Naphtali [Obtained by wrestling].
13. And God heard Leah, and she conceived and bore Jacob
^|J?'S a fifth son. Then Leah said, God hath given me my hire,
cha- because I gave my maid to my husband ; therefore she called
issaV his name Issachar [There is a hire]. And Leah conceived
anlr again» a11"! o°re a sixth son to Jacob. And Leah said, God
zebu- hath endowed me with a good dowry ; now will my husband
dwell with me, because I have borne him six sons: and she
called his name Zebulun [Dwelling]. And afterwards she
bore a daughter and called her name Dinah.
14. And God remembered Rachel, and God hearkened to her,
rfRa- an<* opened her womb. So she conceived and bore a son
chei's and said, God hath taken away my reproach. And she
Joseph called his name Joseph [He will add], saying, Jehovah will
is. The add to me another son.
tract Now when Rachel had borne Joseph, Jacob said to Laban,
be- Send me away, that I may go to my own place, and to my
jlcob country. But Laban said to him, If now I have found favor
Laban m vour eyes_ * nave divined that Jehovah hath blessed me
110

THE DIVINE PROMISE
for your sake. And Jacob answered him, You know how
I have served you, and what your cattle have become under
my charge, for it was little which you had before I came,
but now it has greatly increased, since Jehovah hath blessed
you wherever I went. But now, when am I to provide for
my own house as well? Then he said, What shall I give
you? And Jacob said, You shall not give me anything.
If you will do this thing for me, I will again feed your flock :
remove from it every speckled and spotted one ; then what
ever is born to the flock henceforth speckled or spotted shall
be mine. And Laban said, Good, let it be as you say. So
he removed that day the he-goats that were striped and
spotted, and all the she-goats that were striped and spotted,
every one that had white on it, and gave them into the
hands of his sons. Then he put the distance of a three
days' journey between himself and Jacob; and Jacob fed
the rest of Laban's flocks.
Now Jacob took fresh rods of white poplar, and of the le.Ja
almond and of the plane tree, and peeled white streaks in orSty
them, exposing the white which was in the rods. And he triok
set the rods which he had peeled before the flocks in the
watering-troughs, where the flocks came to drink (and they
conceived when they came to drink), so that the flocks con
ceived before the rods. Therefore the flocks brought forth
striped, speckled and spotted offspring. And whenever the
stronger animals of the flock conceived, Jacob laid the rods
in the troughs before the eyes of the flock, that they might
conceive among the rods. But when the animals were
weak, he put them not in; so that the weaker ones were
Laban's, and the stronger Jacob's. Thus the man increased
in wealth exceedingly, and had large flocks, and maid
servants and men-servants, and camels and asses.
I. The Divine Promise. The late priestly narrative (Gen. 356a- 9"15)
and Hosea (124) place the divine revelation and promises to Jacob
after his return from Aram. This may have been its original position,
for the promises come more naturally after he has learned in the hard
school of experience the lessons which were necessary for his develop
ment. On the other hand, the representation that God appeared to
him at the time of his greatest spiritual need also rings true to the teach-
111

JACOB'S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITIVE
ings of the prophets. Both the Judean and Northern Israelite narra
tives (which have been closely blended) agree in placing the vision on
Jacob's journey to Haran.
II. The Vision at Bethel. About ten miles north of Jerusalem, a
little to the right of the great highway that leads from Hebron and Jeru
salem northward to Shechem and on to Damascus, are found the ruins
of the ancient sanctuary of Bethel. It is on a slight limestone eleva
tion, strewn with rocks. Here the Hebrews revered the sacred rock on
which, according to their traditions, Jacob pillowed his head, as he
dreamed of the ladder leading up to the abode of God and of the divine
messengers passing back and forth from earth to heaven. There the
fugitive, paying the bitter penalty for his meanness and treacheiy, yet
craving a revelation from heaven, was given anew the promise already
proclaimed to Abraham (§ VII). To this was added the assurance of
God's personal care and protection.
According to Hebrew tradition, it was because God (El) revealed him
self here to Jacob that Bethel received its name and became a famous
sanctuary. The belief that the spirit of the Deity resided in certain
sacred stones was widely current among early peoples. Many stone
circles or gilgals and pillars at temple sites, as, for example, those re
cently discovered in the ruins of Gezer, testify that the ancient inhabi
tants of Palestine shared the same belief. The Old Testament also
refers frequently to these sacred stones or pillars that stood beside every
ancient altar. At first only rude bowlders, they were in time carved into
artistic pillars (cf. Hos. 10'). The present story gives the accepted ex
planation of the sanctity of the pillar that stood beside the altar of Bethel.
The reformation of Josiah in 621 B.C. made all of these high-places, with
their heathen symbols and associations, illegal, but the present story
evidently comes from the early period, when sacred pillars were still re
garded as perfectly legitimate.
III. The Wooing and Winning of Rachel. The scene at the well
near Haran is repeated many times in Arabia to-day, except that few
sons of the desert manifest the same chivalrous zeal in serving the mod
ern Rachels. Jacob's kisses and tears are characteristic of the emo
tional Oriental. Even the crafty Laban embraced and kissed the
stranger; but in the heart of Jacob was stirring a love which mastered
even the selfish schemer.
By his services for seven years, practically as a slave, Jacob paid the
bride-price which every oriental father demands. The custom still
survives in Syria. The length of the service or the amount of the bride-
112

THE WOOING AND WINNING OF RACHEL
price is proportionate to the wealth and position of the parents. The
cruel deception, of which Jacob was the victim, was a further retribu
tion for the atrocious deceit which he had practised upon his father and
brother. Laban's excuse, however, did not palliate his act Like most
of the dealings between him and Jacob, it was justified by custom but
not by moral law.
TV. Jacob's Family. In connection with the account of the birth
of Jacob's eleven sons the popular derivation of their names is given.
Apparently the stories grew out of the meaning suggested by each name.
In nearly every case the etymology is based simply on assonance and not
on the real derivation. The picture which these early prophetic stories
give of Jacob's home life is far from attractive. The polygamy that was
forced upon him and the resulting favoritism and jealousy are but the
after fruits of his own deceit and treachery. The early prophets make
no attempt to conceal the hideousness of it all, for therein was taught
most forcibly its obvious moral lessons.
V. His Dealings with Laban. The original story-tellers doubtless
took a certain delight in the account of the shrewd dealings between
Jacob and Laban. They reflect the low ethics of the desert where
"a lie is the salt of a man," and successful knavery is secretly more ad
mired than plain honesty. It is a case of Shylock versus Shylock, of
steel cutting steel: Laban is sharp and unprincipled, but Jacob is able
to surpass him in the game of wits. Laban readily agrees that Jacob's
pay shall consist simply of the young sheep and goats abnormally
marked. By the use of a device well known to cattle-breeders in an
tiquity (cf. Oppian, Kynegetica, I. 327-366), Jacob so contrives that
all the strong offspring of the flock become his by legal although not by
moral right. His entire life at Haran is a strange mixture of faith and
selfishness, of chivalry and meanness, of true affection and jealousy,
of faithful service and trickery.
VI. Historical Significance of the Stories. The marvellous sim
plicity of these stories deepens the impression that the hero was an indi
vidual rather than the representative of a race. A careful analysis,
however, reveals much that is typical of the character and experiences
of early Israel. The twelve sons of Jacob are in reality the twelve tribes
which were first brought together and united under a common head in the
days of Saul and David. To them Jacob was their common traditional
ancestor. These stories were therefore important forces in Israel's na
tional lif e, for they gave all members of the various composite tribes, that
finally coalesced, the sense of blood-kinship as well as of political unity.
113

JACOB'S EXPERIENCES AS A FUGITIVE
The tribes whose ancestry is traced to Jacob are divided into three
classes, according to the relative dates when they settled in Palestine,
their importance and the purity of their descent. These classes in
clude: (1) the descendants of the favorite wife, Rachel. These were
Joseph and the youngest son, Benjamin. The two traditional sons of
Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh, were the powerful tribes of central
Canaan which play the leading role in early Hebrew history. (2) The
sons of the hated wife Leah — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar
and Zebulun — tribes that stand next in importance, in purity of blood
and in final geographical position to the Rachel tribes. Of these Leah
tribes the first four, which found homes in the south, constitute the
earlier group. (3) The four sons of the slave wives, Dan, Naphtali,
Gad and Asher, the outlying tribes which contained the largest native
Canaanite element, and were never very strong or closely assimilated
with the other Hebrew tribes.
Thus tradition has woven into these stories the facts of later history
which it also seeks to explain. The account of the shrewd dealings
between Laban and Jacob doubtless reflect the bitter conflict waged for
over two centuries after the days of David, in the public markets and on
the battle-field, between the Arameans and the Israelites.
VII. Aim and Teachings. The aims of the original narratives were
evidently, (1) to trace the origin of the name and sanctuary of Bethel,
(2) to reassert Israel's divine destiny, (3) to emphasize the purity of
its Aramean origin, and (4) to establish the popular behef that all the
Hebrew tribes were of one blood. These stories were also of interest
to the prophets because they illustrated certain universal and distinctly
religious truths. The experiences of Jacob emphasize the supreme
fact that: (1) The divine love and pity follow even the fugitive who flees,
pursued by his own crimes. (2) In the most discouraging environment
and in the saddest moments of life come the most glorious revelations.
(3) Heaven and God himself are very near the earth, and the way of
communication is close and direct. (4) Strong, pure love can evoke
devoted service even from a mean man. (5) The consequences of a
man's base acts pursue him wherever he may go, affecting his own
fortunes and the happiness of all connected with him.

114

JACOB'S RETURN TO CANAAN

jXIV. JACOB'S RETURN TO CANAAN

Now Jacob heard Laban's sons say, Jacob has taken all l.Rea-
that was our father's, and from that which was our father's the de°-r
he has acquired all these riches. And Jehovah said to parture
Jacob, Return to the land of thy fathers, and to thy kindred, l°Sa
and I will be with thee.
Then Jacob arose and set his sons and his wives upon the 2. The
camels, and drove away all his cattle. And while Laban esoape
was gone to shear his sheep, Rachel stole the household
gods that were her father's. So he fled with all that he had,
and set out on his way toward Mount Gilead.
Then Laban took his tribesmen with him, and pursued 3. La-
after Jacob seven days' journey, and overtook him in Mount charge
Gilead. Now Jacob had pitched his tent in the mountain;
and Laban with his tribesmen encamped in Mount Gilead.
And Laban said to Jacob, Why did you flee secretly, stealing
away from me without telling me, else I might have sent
you away with mirth and with songs, with tambourine and
with harp. But now since you are surely going, because
you long so earnestly for your father's house, why have
you stolen my gods? And Jacob said to him, The one with
whom you find your gods shall not live; in the presence of
our kinsmen investigate for yourself what is with me and
take it. Jacob, however, did not know that Rachel had
stolen them. So Laban went into Jacob's tent and into
Leah's, and into the tent of the two maid-servants, but he
did not find them. Then he went out of Leah's tent, and
entered Rachel's. Now Rachel had taken the household
gods and put them in the camel's saddle and was sitting
upon them, so that when Laban had searched all about the
tent, he did not find them. And she said to her father, Let
not my lord be angry that I cannot rise before you, for the
manner of women is upon me. And he searched thoroughly,
but did not find the household gods.
Then Jacob was angry and brought a charge against 4.ja-
Laban; and Jacob answered and said to Laban, What is my ™J£ter
trespass? what is my sin, that you have pursued hotly after protest
me? Although you have searched all my goods, what
115

JACOB'S RETURN TO CANAAN
have you found of all your household possessions? De
clare it here before my kinsmen and yours, that they may
decide which of us two is in the right. These twenty years
have I been with you; your ewes and she-goats have not
cast their young, neither did I eat the rams of your flocks.
That which was torn of beasts I did not bring to you ; I bore
the loss of it myself ; from my hand you required it, whether
stolen by day or stolen by night. Thus I was: in the day
the drought consumed me, and by night the frost, and my
sleep fled from my eyes.
5. The Then Laban answered, Come, let us make a covenant,
enlnt 1 an<* You» aQd let there be a witness between me and you.
be- Therefore Jacob said to the members of his family, Gather
Laban stones. And when they had taken stones and made a heap,
Jacob they ate there by the heap. And Laban called it Jegar-saha-
dutha [Heap of witness]; but Jacob called it Galeed [Heap
of witness]. And Laban said, This heap is a witness be
tween me and you to-day. Therefore he called it Galeed.
Moreover Laban said to Jacob, Behold, this heap, which I
have set between me and you, is a witness that I will not
pass over this heap to you, and that you shall not pass over
this heap to me, for harm. The God of Abraham and the
God of Nahor (the God of their ancestors) judge between us.
6. Ja- And Jacob sent messengers before him to Esau his brother
mes- to the land of Seir, the territory of Edom. And he com-
is!uto man<ied them saying, Speak thus to my lord Esau: 'Your
servant Jacob says, " I have prolonged my sojourn with Laban
until now, and I have oxen and asses, flocks and men-ser
vants, and maid-servants, and I have sent to tell my lord,
that I may find favor in your sight." ' And the messengers
returned to Jacob saying, We came to your brother Esau,
even as he was coming to meet you with four hundred men.
7. His ( Then Jacob was greatly afraid and distressed. And he
took from that which he had with him a present for Esau
his brother: two hundred she-goats and twenty he-goats,
two hundred ewes and twenty rams, thirty milch camels
and their colts, forty cows and ten bulls, twenty she-
asses and ten foals. And he delivered them into the
hands of his servants, each drove by itself, and said to his
servants, Pass over before me, and leave a space between the
116

present
toEsau

JACOB'S RETURN TO CANAAN
droves. And he commanded the foremost, saying, When
Esau my brother meets you and asks you saying, 'To whom
do you belong? and where are you going? and whose are
these before you?' then you shall say, 'Your servant
Jacob's; it is a present sent to my lord Esau; and he himself
is just behind us.' Thus he commanded also the second,
and the third, and all that followed the droves, saying, In this
manner shall you speak to Esau, when you find him, and you
shall say, 'Moreover thy servant Jacob is just behind us.'
(For he said to himself, 'I will appease him with the present
that goes before me, and not until then will I see his face ;
perhaps he will receive me.) So the present passed over
before him, but he himself lodged that night in the camp.
Then he rose up that night, and took his two wives, and 8.
his two maid-servants, and his eleven children, and sent in™ the
them over the ford of the Jabbok. Jabbok
Jacob was left alone, and one wrestled with him until 9. The
break of day. And when he saw that he did not prevail ^mggie
against Jacob, he smote the hollow of his thigh and the |?4nee
hollow of Jacob's thigh was strained, as he wrestled with blessing
him. Then he said, Let me go, for the day is breaking.
But Jacob replied, I will not let thee go except thou bless
me. And he said to him, What is thy name? And he
rephed, Jacob. Then he said, Thy name shall be called
no more Jacob, but Israel [God's straggler] ; for thou hast
struggled with God and with men, and hast prevailed. And
Jacob asked him, saying, Tell me, I pray thee, thy name.
And he said, Why is it that thou dost ask my name? So
he blessed him there.
But the sun rose as soon as he had passed beyond Penuel, 10^
and he limped upon his thigh. This is why to this day the tityof
Israelites do not eat the hip muscle, which is at the hollow JJ^g
of the thigh, for he touched the hollow of Jacob's thigh on
the hip muscle.
And when Jacob lifted up his eyes he saw Esau coming 11.
with four hundred men. Then he apportioned the children £|e£
to Leah and to Rachel, and to the two maid-servants. And th^two
he put the maid-servants and their children in front, and era
Leah and her children next, and Rachel and Joseph in the
rear. Then he himself passed over before them, and bowed
117

JACOB'S RETURN TO CANAAN
himself to the ground seven times, until he came near to
his brother. And Esau ran to meet him, and embraced
him, and fell on his neck, and kissed him, and they wept.
When he lifted up his eyes, and saw the women and the chil
dren, he s^d, Who are these with you? And he answered,
The children whom God hath graciously given your ser
vant. Then the maid-servants together with their children
approached, and bowed themselves. Leah also and her
children approached, and bowed themselves, and afterwards
Joseph and Rachel approached, and bowed themselves.
12. ja- And Esau said, What do you mean by all this company
present which I met? And Jacob rephed, To find favor in the sight
to Esau of my lord. And Esau said, I have plenty, my brother; keep
what you have. But Jacob rephed, Nay, I pray you, if
now I have found favor in your sight, receive my offering
from my hand; for I have looked upon your face as one
looks upon the face of God, and you have regarded me favor
ably. Take, I pray you, my gift that is brought to you, be
cause God hath dealt graciously with me, and because I have
enough. Thus he urged him importunately until he took it.
13. The Then Esau said, Let us set out and go on our way, and
jpeace- jef. me g0 Def ore y0U# But he replied to him, My lord knows
parting that the children are tender, and that I have flocks and
herds with their young ; and if they overdrive them one day
all the flocks will die. Let my lord, I pray you, pass over
before his servant, and I will proceed leisurely according
as the cattle which I am driving, and the children are able
to endure, until I come to my lord at Seir. Then Esau
said, Let me at least leave with you some of the people who
are with me. But Jacob replied, What need is there? let
me only find favor in the sight of my lord. So Esau returned
that day on his way to Seir.
14. Ja- But Jacob journeyed to Succoth, and built there a house
luccoth for himself, and made huts for his cattle; therefore the name
ihech- ?f the Place is called Succoth [Huts]. Then Jacob came
em in peace to the city of Shechem in the land of Canaan, and
encamped before the city. And he bought the piece of
ground where he pitched his tent, from the sons of Hamor,
the father of Shechem, for four hundred shekels; and he
erected there an altar and called it El, God of Israel.
118

JACOB'S FLIGHT FROM LABAN
I. Jacob's Flight from Laban. At last Jacob found his position
in Haran intolerable. His overshrewd dealings gave him no courage
to face the suspicions of Laban's sons. Hence he improved the first
favorable opportunity to collect his many possessions and to flee
from Laban back toward Canaan. Rachel, brought up in the school of
deceit, did not hesitate to steal her father's household gods, that their pro
tection might go with the fugitives. Thus Jacob fled ignominiously
from the consequences of his immediate acts to face those of his youth.
Laban quickly pursued and overtook the fugitives. Consistently
with his shrewd, hard character, he suggested ironically that if they had
but expressed the wish to go, he would have speeded their departure with
mirth and songsl. He also inquired why they had stolen his family gods.
Jacob, who was ignorant of the theft, gave him full permission to
search for them; but Rachel so cleverly concealed the stolen images,
that Laban was unable to prove his charge.
Jacob improved this opportunity to recount his services to Laban and
the hardships which he had endured. He omitted, however, all mention
of his own doubtful dealings. The conclusion of their half hostile
meeting was a covenant, according to which each agreed not to pass be
yond a certain boundary set up between them in the territory of Gilead.
n. The Supreme Crisis of Jacob's Life. Leaving behind the fear
of his father-in-law, Jacob faced the brother whom he had wronged.
With his usual diplomacy, he first dispatched messengers to Esau with
conciliatory greetings. Still trusting to the potency of the material
possessions for which he had striven so hard, he next sent ahead a princely
gift for his brother. Then stealthily by night he sent on his wives and
children, while he himself remained alone in the darkness by the noisy
east-Jordan stream whose name (Jabbok) meant Struggler. It was the
supreme crisis in his life. He had struggled for flocks and herds and
material honors, and in each contest had succeeded; but with the success
had come haunting fear, and an inevitable sense of failure. Hitherto
he had conquered men by sheer energy, persistency and superior wit;
but now he struggled alone all the night through with a more than hu
man antagonist. He came forth from the fateful struggle with bodily
strength forever impaired. Yet from this contest, by virtue of his in
domitable persistency, he again emerged a victor. Henceforth he was
to be called not Jacob, the Supplanter, but Israel, the one who had
struggled and prevailed with God. It would seem that in this strange
ancient tale the early prophet aimed to portray the victory of the nobler
and more spiritual impulses in Israel's complex character over the more
119

JACOB'S RETURN TO CANAAN
sordid, selfish tendencies. The prophetic interpretation of Hosea (128> ')
is suggestive in this connection:
In the womb Jacob supplanted his brother,
In a man's strength he contended with God,
He contended with the angel and prevailed,
He wept and besought mercy of him.
At Bethel Jehovah found him,
And there he spoke with him.
III. The Meeting with Esau. Jacob's fears of his brother proved
groundless. The meeting with Esau was in marked contrast to the
bickering attendant upon his final interview with Laban. Esau mani
fested a generous brotherly spirit. Jacob, however, was still suspicious
of the brother whom he had wronged, and so preferred to go on his way
alone. At Shechem he found for a time a peaceful home, until the crimes
of his sons Levi and Simeon compelled him to flee to southern Canaan.
At this point the interest of the narrative in Genesis suddenly passes
from Jacob to Joseph.
IV. The Historical Facts Back of the Stories. Back of the Laban
stories is the memory of the later struggles between the Israelites and
the Arameans. Gilead, the place of the covenant between Jacob and
Laban, was the debatable territory and the scene of many batdes.
Doubtless tradition pointed to a certain heap of stones or sacred cairn
as the scene of the treaty between the ancestors of these two related but
hostile peoples.
The story of Jacob's return at the head of a large tribe probably re
cords a third Aramean migration, reenforcing the two represented by
the coming of Abraham and Rebekah. These Jacob stories also give
the popular explanation of the origin of the names Penuel (Face of God)
and of Succoth, and of the sanctuary at Shechem.
V. Aim and Teachings. In the portrayal of the character of Jacob,
the prophets who combined these early stories clearly realized their
primary aim. Though exceedingly complex, that character is remark
ably consistent. Jacob's faults are those which Orientals most easily
condone. Our modern western world, on the contrary, will forgive
almost anything more readily than the lack of truth and honesty.
Jacob's religious professions also seem but hypocrisy. Hypocrisy,
however, involves a degree of spiritual enlightenment which he did not
possess. Although his religion was of the bargaining type, it was
120

AIM AND TEACHINGS
genuine and the most powerful force in his life. Energy, persistency
and ambition were the other qualities which enabled him at last to
triumph over his glaring faults of meanness, deceit and selfishness.
His life, as portrayed, vividly illustrates the constant conflict going
on in every man between his baser passions and his nobler ideals.
Jacob is the classic prototype of Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll
and Mr. Hyde. His experiences show clearly how, in divine Providence,
the varied fortunes, and especially the misfortunes of life, may develop
the nobler impulses in the human heart, and how the meanest and most
unpromising men are never beyond the pale of the divine care. It is
only the base and false in man that destroy his happiness and prevent
him from gaining clear visions of God's gracious purpose.

§ XV. JOSEPH SOLD BY HIS BROTHERS INTO EGYPT
Joseph at the age of seventeen was a shepherd with his 1. Jo-
brothers, and he was a lad with the sons of Bilhah, and with ml at
the sons of Zilpah, his father's wives. And Joseph brought home
an evil report of them to their father. Now Israel loved
Joseph more than all his other children, because he was
the son of his old age; and he had made him a long tunic
with sleeves. And when his brothers saw that their father
loved him more than all his other sons, they hated him, and
could not speak peacefully to him.
And Joseph had a dream, and told it to his brothers, and 2. His
they hated him still more. And he said to them, Hear, dream»
I pray you, this dream which I have had ; for it seemed to
me that we were binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my
sheaf arose and remained standing, while your sheaves sur
rounded and made obeisance to my sheaf. And his brothers
said to him, Will you assuredly be king over us? or will you
indeed rule over us? So they hated him still more because
of his dreams and his words. Then he had yet another
dream, and told it to his brothers, saying, Behold, I have
had another dream, and it seemed to me that the sun and
the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. And when
he told it to his father and his brothers, his father rebuked
him, and said to him, What is this dream that you have had?
Shall I and your mother and your brothers indeed come to
121

ers

JOSEPH SOLD BY HIS BROTHERS
bow ourselves to the earth before you? And his brothers
envied him; but his father kept the thing in mind.
s.Hjs And his brothers went to pasture his father's flocks in
tohk n Shechem. Then Israel said to Joseph, Are not your broth-
broth- ers pasturing the flocks in Shechem? Come now I will
send you to them, and he rephed, Here am I. And his
father said to him, Go now, see whether it is well with your
brothers, and well with the flock, and bring me word again.
So he sent him out from the valley of Hebron, and he came
to Shechem. And a certain man found him, as he was
wandering in the field, and the man asked him saying,
What are you seeking? And he said, I am seeking my
brothers ; tell me, I pray you, where they are pasturing the
flock. And the man said, They have gone from this place,
for I heard them say, ' Let us go to Dothan.' So Joseph
went after his brothers and found them in Dothan.
4. And when they saw him in the distance, but before he
bfhfe came near to them, they conspired against him to slay
broth- him. And they said one to another, See, here comes that
master-dreamer. Now come, let us slay him, and throw
him into one of the cisterns, and then we will say, A fierce
beast has devoured him, and we shall see what will become
of his dreams. Judah, however, when he heard it, deliv
ered him from their hands, and said, Let us not take his
life. Do not shed blood; throw him into this cistern, that
is in the wilderness; but do not lay hands upon him. He
said this that he might deliver him from their hands to
restore him to his father. Nevertheless, when Joseph came
to his brothers, they stripped him of his long tunic, the tunic
with sleeves that was on him. Then they took him and
threw him into the cistern. And the cistern was empty,
there being no water in it.
b. Car- Then they sat down to eat bread, and as they lifted up
Egypt their eyes and looked, behold, a caravan of Ishmaelites was
coming from Gilead, and their camels were loaded with
spices and balsam and ladanum, on their way to carry it
down to Egypt. Thereupon Judah said to his brothers,
What do we gain if we kill our brother and conceal his
blood? Come, let us sell him to the IshmaeUtes, and let
not our hand be upon him, for he is our brother, our flesh,
122

JOSEPH SOLD BY HIS BROTHERS
And his brothers listened to him. And drawing up Joseph
they sold him to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver.
And they brought Joseph to Egypt.
Thereupon they took Joseph's coat, and killed a he-goat, 6. Re-
and, dipping the coat in the blood, they sent the tunic ^orteeadd
with sleeves and brought it to their father, saying, We found
this ; see whether it is your son's coat or not. And he recog
nized it and said, It is my son's coat ! a fierce beast has de
voured him! Joseph is without doubt torn in pieces.
Then Jacob rent his garments, and put sackcloth on his
loins; and he mourned for his son many days. And all his
sons and all his daughters rose up to comfort him, but he
refused to be comforted, saying, I shall go down to Sheol
to my son, mourning. Thus his father wept for him.
Joseph, however, was brought down to Egypt, and Poti- 7.Soid
phar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the chief executioner, an ^eto
Egyptian, bought him from the Ishmaelites, who had brought an
him there. tiln^"
Now Jehovah was with Joseph so that he became a pros- 8. in-
perous man, and was in the house of his master the Egyp- £ithted
tian. When his master saw that Jehovah was with him, *hen?are
and that Jehovah always caused everything that he did to mas^
prosper in his hands, Joseph found favor in his eyes as he horuse-
ministered to him, so that he made him overseer of his hold
house, and all that he had he put into his charge. Then it
came to pass from the time that he made him overseer in
his house, and over all that he had, that Jehovah blessed
the Egyptian's house for Joseph's sake, and the blessing of
Jehovah was upon all that he had in the house and in the
field. So he left all that he had to Joseph's charge, and had
no knowledge of anything that he had except the bread
which he ate.
Now Joseph was handsome in form and appearance. 9.
And it came to pass after these things, that his master's J|™yt-
wife cast her eyes upon Joseph; and she said, Lie with me. j^Q_
'But he refused, saying to his master's wife, Behold my ter-s
master has no knowledge of what is with me in the house, wife
and he has put all that he has into my charge; he is not
greater in this house than I ; neither has he kept back any
thing from me but you, because you are his wife ; how then
123

JOSEPH IN EGYPT
can I do this great wickedness and sin against God? And
although she talked thus to Joseph day after day, he did not
hsten to her, to he with her or to be with her. But once
about this time when he went into the house to do his
work, when none of the men of the household were at
home, she caught hold of his garment, saying, Lie with
me ; but he left his garment in her hand and fled out of the
house.
10. And it came to pass when she saw that he had left his
charged garment in her hand and had fled away, she called to the
6deiitn~ men °* ker household, and said to them, See, he has brought
a Hebrew in to us to insult us. He came to me to he with
me, and I cried with a loud voice, and it came to pass, when
he heard me crying out loudly, he left his garment with me
and fled out of the house. And she kept his garment by
her until his master came home ; then she told him the same
story, saying, The Hebrew servant whom you have brought
to us, came to me to insult me ; but it came to pass that when
I lifted up my voice and cried, he left his garment with me
and fled away.
11. im- Then it came to pass when his master heard the state-
miedby ments of his wife which she made to him, saying, After this
^gter manner your servant did to me, that he was very angry,
and Joseph's master took him and put him into the prison,—
the place where the king's prisoners were bound. Thus
he was there in prison.
12. But Jehovah was with Joseph and showed kindness to
b£hL him, and gave him favor in the sight of the keeper of the
jailer prison, so that the keeper of the prison committed to Joseph's
charge all the prisoners who were in the prison, and for
whatever they did there he was responsible. The keeper
of the prison did not attend to anything that was in his
charge, because Jehovah was with Joseph, and whatever he
did, Jehovah always caused it to prosper.
I. General Characteristics of the Joseph Stories. No stories are
more vividly told or more closely knit together than those which gather
about the name of Joseph. The dramatic interest rises and falls as
the narrative runs on, but it never ceases to hold the reader's attention.
The charm of the stories is found in their simple, picturesque style, in
124

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JOSEPH STORIES
their dramatic contrasts, and in the powerful appeal which they make
to universal human interests.
The reiterated promises to the race and the supernatural elements,
so prominent in preceding stories, suddenly disappear. The nomad
tents are also soon left behind; the background of the narrative is the
highly developed civilization of Egypt. In these stories the interest is
still centred in one main character, but attention is gradually turned
from the traditional nomadic ancestors of the Hebrews to the opening
events of their national history.
Traces are found of two slightly variant versions of these •stories, the
one current in the north and the other in the south. Thus, for example,
in the Judean version Judah is the first-born, who seeks to save Joseph's
life, and the Ishmaelites are the merchantmen who bear away the young
Hebrew to Egypt. In the northern group of narratives Reuben and
the Midianites take the place of Judah and the Ishmaelites. The
variations are so slight, however, that they can ordinarily be disregarded
and the blended prophetic narrative may be followed without con
fusion. II. Joseph, the Spoiled Child. The Joseph stories are so clearly
and simply told that they need little interpretation. They open with
the picture of Joseph's home at Hebron. Rachel had died as Jacob
journeyed southward from Shechem and Bethel. Joseph, the eldest
son of the patriarch's beloved wife, was the favorite of his old age.
Jacob, like many a fond and foolish father, made the fatal mistake of
showing partiality within his own household. Joseph he clad in one
of the long-sleeved tunics which were worn by nobles and were better
adapted to a life of luxury than of hard, manual labor.
Joseph added to the jealous hatred of his brothers by reporting their
misdemeanors to his father, and by telling to them those boyish dreams,
which revealed his own lofty ambitions and implied that he was destined
some time to rule over them.
Not suspecting the attitude of his sons, Jacob sent Joseph on a long
journey northward to his brothers. He found them at Dothan, south
of the plain of Esdraelon, and doubtless near the spring beside which
the flocks still find excellent pasturage. Joseph's presence, however,
only aroused the murderous hate of his brothers. Judah, feeling the
responsibility of an eldest son, alone counselled moderation. Ac
cordingly Joseph was seized, stripped of his tunic and cast into one of the
many bottle-shaped cisterns that are still found about Dothan. Thence
he was drawn out and sold as a slave for a paltry sum (about twelve
125

JOSEPH IN EGYPT
dollars), to a passing caravan of Arab traders, who carried him to Egypt.
There he was resold (according to the Northern Israelite version) to
a certain Potiphar, whose name means in Egyptian, He whom Ra (the
sun god) gave.
III. Joseph's Temptation. In the household of his new master
Joseph's real character and ability were soon revealed. So faithfully
did he perform his every task that he soon succeeded in winning the
complete confidence of the Egyptian. In time, everything in the house
hold was entrusted to his care. This responsibility soon brought an
almost overwhelming temptation. The standards of morality are low
in the East, and especially in households where there are slaves. The
crime which his master's wife urged him to commit was easily overlooked
by the ancient Orient. The appeal to Joseph's pride and passion was
exceedingly strong. To refuse an unprincipled and determined woman
meant sure disgrace and imprisonment, if not death. It was a supreme
crisis in Joseph's fife. His noble refusal, because he would not betray
the trust imposed on him or sin against God, is one of the most sig
nificant incidents recorded in the Old Testament.
IV. The Character of Joseph and Its Significance. The prophetic
historians have here presented to their readers a character very differ
ent from those of Abraham and Jacob, and yet none the less important.
Abraham is the calm, far-seeing, faithful servant of God; Jacob, the
clever, crafty, persistent struggler, who sees visions and ultimately wins
the divine blessing, is the type of the Israelite race; Joseph represents
the faithful and successful man of affairs.
Each step in the development of his character is distinctly traced.
In his boyhood home Joseph was fettered by that paternal favoritism
which is fittingly represented by the long-sleeved tunic. He grew up
a spoiled, egotistical boy, with false ideas of life. His faults, however,
were those of inexperience. If he had remained at home he would never
have realized the possibilities suggested by his crude boyish dreams.
The awakening at the hands of his vindictive brothers was painful but
necessary. Their cruel act brought him into contact with real life and
the greater world of opportunity. Amidst the new and trying circum
stances he revealed the qualities that win true success in the struggle of
life. Not a word of complaint escaped his lips. A faith expressed in
action, not in words, upheld him. Even though it promised no personal
reward, he was absolutely faithful to every trust. Armed with his
strong fidelity and faith, he emerged unscathed from the most insidious
temptation that could assail a youth. Unjust adversity could not crush
126

THE CHARACTER OF JOSEPH
or daunt him, for his integrity of character, his perennial cheerfulness
and his spirit of helpfulness were invincible. The practical truths il
lustrated by Joseph's character and experience are too obvious to need
formulation. For every one in the stream of life they are a constant
guide and inspiration, for they show clearly how, in the face of injustice
and temptation, a man may "find his life by losing it."
§XVI. JOSEPH MADE GOVERNOR OF EGYPT
Now it came to pass after these things that the cupbearer i- a«-
of the king of Egypt and his baker offended their lord the t!ftwo
king of Egypt, so that Pharaoh was angry with his two offi- °®c^.
cers, the chief of the cupbearers and the chief of the bakers, era
and imprisoned them in the house of the chief executioner,
in the same prison where Joseph was confined. And the
captain of the guard assigned Joseph to wait on them; and
they remained in confinement for some time.
Meanwhile the king of Egypt's cupbearer and baker, who 2. His
were confined in prison, both in the same night had a dream, g£^°
each of different interpretation. Therefore when Joseph f^r
came in to them in the morning, he saw plainly that they dreams
were sad. So he asked Pharaoh's officers who were im
prisoned with him in his master's house, saying, Why do
you look so sad to-day? And they said to him, We have
had a dream, and there is no one who can interpret it.
Then Joseph said to them, Does not the interpretation of
dreams belong to God? tell them to me, I pray you.
Then the chief cupbearer told his dream to Joseph, and 3. The
said to him, In my dream I seemed to see a vine before me, bearer's
and on the vine three branches, and it was as though it dream
budded, it put out blossoms and its clusters brought forth
ripe grapes. And Pharaoh's cup was in my hand, and I
took the grapes and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup, and
gave the cup into Pharaoh's hand. Then Joseph said to
him, This is the interpretation of it : the three branches are
three days; within three days shall Pharaoh lift up your head
and restore you to your place, and you shall give Pharaoh's
cup into his hand as you used to do when you were his cup
bearer. But may you keep me in remembrance when it is
well with you, and may you show kindness to me and make
127

JOSEPH MADE GOVERNOR OF EGYPT
mention of me to Pharaoh, and bring me out of this house;
for I was unjustly stolen from the land of the Hebrews, and
here also I have done nothing that they should put me into
the dungeon.
4. The When the chief baker saw that the interpretation was
dream8 favorable, he said to Joseph, I also saw in my dream, and,
behold, three baskets of white bread were on my head, and
in the uppermost basket there were all kinds of baked food
for Pharaoh; and the birds were eating them out of the
basket upon my head. And Joseph answered and said,
This is its interpretation: the three baskets are three days;
within three days Pharaoh will take off your head, and hang
you on a tree, and the birds shall eat your flesh from off
you.
s. Their And it came to pass the third day, which was Pharaoh's
JjJ^ birthday, that he made a feast for all his servants. Then he
lifted up the head of the chief cupbearer and the head of the
chief baker among his servants. And he restored the chief
cupbearer to his office so that he again gave the cup into
Pharaoh's hand. The chief baker, however, he hanged, as
Joseph had interpreted to them. Yet the chief cupbearer
did not remember Joseph, but forgot him.
6. Pha- Now it came to pass after two full years, that Pharaoh
Seams had. a dream in which he seemed to be standing by the Nile
and to see coming up from the Nile seven cows, sleek and
fat, which had been feeding in the reed grass. Then he
seemed to see seven other cows coming up after them out of
the Nile, bad-looking and lean, and standing by the other
cows on the bank of the Nile. And the bad-looking cows
ate the seven sleek, fat cows. Then Pharaoh awoke.
Afterward he slept and had a second dream, and he seemed
to see seven good ears of grain growing on one stalk. Also
he seemed to see seven ears, thin and blasted by the east
wind, springing up after them. And the thin ears swal
lowed up the seven plump, full ears. Then Pharaoh awoke,
Fail and, behold, it was a dream.
ureof And it came to pass in the morning that his spirit was
mlrTto6 troubled, and he sent and called all the sacred scribes and
inter- wise men of Egypt; and Pharaoh told them his dreams,
them but there was no one who could interpret them to Pharaoh.
128

JOSEPH MADE GOVERNOR OF EGYPT
Then the chief cupbearer spoke to Pharaoh saying, My 8. The
sins I now recall : Pharaoh was very angry with his servants, bearer's
and imprisoned me and the chief baker in the house of the te8ti-
chief executioner ; and we both had a dream the same night, mony
each having a dream of different interpretation. And there
with us was a Hebrew youth, a servant of the chief exe
cutioner; and we told him and he interpreted to us our
dreams, to each man differently according to his dream.
And exactly as he interpreted our dreams to us so they
came to pass : me they restored to my office, and him they
hanged. Then Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought 9.J0-
him hastily out of the dungeon ; and he shaved himself and bSore
changed his clothes and came to Pharaoh. And Pharaoh ££a-
said to Joseph I have had a dream, and there is no one who
can interpret it. Now I have heard it said of you that when
you hear a dream, you can interpret it. And Joseph an
swered Pharaoh, saying, Not I ; God alone will give Pharaoh
a favorable answer.
Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, In my dream as I was stand- 10.
ing on the bank of the Nile, I saw seven cows, fat and sleek etftum
which had been feeding in the reed grass. Then I seemed °*0^a"
to see coming up after them seven more cows, thin, bad- dreams
looking and lean, worse than I ever saw in all the land of
Egypt ; and the lean and bad-looking cows ate the first seven
fat cows ; and when they had eaten them up, one could not
tell that they had eaten them, for they were still as bad-
looking as at the beginning. Then I awoke. Again I
dreamed and seemed to see coming up on one stalk seven
ears, full and good; and then seven ears, withered, thin,
blasted with the east wind, sprang up after them; and the
thin ears swallowed up the seven good ears. And I have
told it to the magicians, but there is no one who can inform
me regarding it.
Then Joseph said to Pharaoh, What Pharaoh has dreamed 11. Jp-
signifies the same thing; what God is about to do he hath inter-8 '
declared to Pharaoh. The seven good cows are seven years, gj^
and the seven good ears are seven years. It is one and the them
same dream. And the seven lean and ugly cows that came
up after them are seven years, and also the seven empty ears
129

JOSEPH MADE GOVERNOR OF EGYPT
blasted with the east wind shall be seven years of famine.
That is why I said to Pharaoh, What God is about to do he
hath showed to Pharaoh. Behold, there are coming seven
years of great plenty throughout the land of Egypt, and
there shall be after them seven years of famine, so that all
the plenty shall be forgotten in the land of Egypt; and the
famine shall consume the land ; and the plenty shall not be
known in the land by reason of that famine which follows;
for it shall be very severe. As for the fact that the dream
came twice to Pharaoh, it is because the thing is estabhshed
by God, and God will shortly bring it to pass. Now there
fore let Pharaoh choose a man discreet and wise, and set
him over the land of Egypt. Let Pharaoh take action and
appoint overseers over the land and take up the fifth part
of the produce of Egypt in the seven plenteous years. And
let them gather all the food of these good years that come,
and lay up grain under the authority of Pharaoh for food
in the cities, and let them keep it. And the food shall be
a provision for the land against the seven years of famine
which shall be in the land of Egypt, that the land may not
perish because of the famine.
i2.Pha- And the plan pleased Pharaoh and all his servants. And
reward Pharaoh said to his servants, Can we find one like this, a
man in whom is the spirit of God? And Pharaoh said to
Joseph, See, I have appointed you over all the land of Egypt.
And Pharaoh took off his signet ring from his finger and put
it upon Joseph's finger, and clothed him in garments of fine
linen, and put a gold chain about his neck, and made him
ride in the second chariot which he had. Then they cried
before him, Bow the knee ! Thus he set him over all the
land of Egypt. Pharaoh also said to Joseph, I am Pha
raoh, but without your consent shall no man lift up his
hand or his foot in all the land of Egypt. Pharaoh
also called Joseph's name Zaphenath-paneah, and gave
him as a wife Asenath, the daughter of Potiphera, priest
of On.
13. His And Joseph went out over all the land of Egypt, and gath-
?Sons ered up all the food of the seven full years, which were in
famine1 the land of Egypt, and stored the food in the cities, putting
in each city the products of the fields about it.
130

JOSEPH MADE GOVERNOR OF EGYPT
And the seven years of famine began to come, just as w.The
Joseph had said. And when all the land of Egypt was By7a£
famished, the people cried to Pharaoh for bread, and Pharaoh j£min
said to all the Egyptians, Go to Joseph; and what he tells amme
you do. And when the famine was upon all the earth,
Joseph opened all the storehouses and sold to the Egyptians.
But the famine was severe in the land of Egypt.
And there was no bread in all the land, since the famine is.Pha-
was very severe, so that the land of Egypt languished because tribute:
of the famine. And Joseph gathered in all the money that a11 the
was found in the land of Egypt, for the grain which they rf0ney
bought; and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh's Egypt
house. And when the money was all spent in the land of Egypt, 16. ah
all the Egyptians came to Joseph, and said, Give us bread ; herds
for why should we die before your eyes, because our money
fails? Then Joseph said, Give your cattle, and I will give
you grain for your cattle, if money has failed. So they
brought their cattle to Joseph, and Joseph gave them bread
in exchange for the horses, the flocks of sheep, and herds
of cattle and the asses. Thus for that year he sustained
them with bread in exchange for all their cattle.
And when that year was ended, they came to him the 17. au
second year, and said to him, We do not hide it from my fand
lord, now that our money is all spent; and even the herds ^^
of cattle are my lord's; there is nothing left to give to my the
lord but our bodies and our lands. Why should we perish pnesta
before your eyes, both we and our land? take possession
of us and our land in return for bread, and we and our land
will become possessions of Pharaoh ; and give us seed, that
we may five, and not die, so that the land may not become
desolate. So Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pha
raoh; for the Egyptians sold every man his field, because
the famine was severe upon them. Thus the land became
Pharaoh's. And as for the people, he reduced them to
servitude from one end of Egypt even to the other. Only
the land of the priests he did not buy, because the priests
had a definite allowance from Pharaoh, and ate their por
tion which Pharaoh gave them; hence they did not sell
their land. 131

JOSEPH MADE GOVERNOR OF EGYPT
is. Es- Then Joseph said to the people, Behold, I have bought
mentof you and your land to-day for Pharaoh. Here is seed for
manent vou» aa^ vou s^Si^ sow lan<l. And at the ingatherings
taxnen you shall give a fifth to Pharaoh, and four parts shall be
your own, for seed for the field, and for your food, and for
those of your households, and for food for your little ones.
And they said, You have saved our Uves; let us find favor
in the sight of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's servants.
Thus Joseph made it a statute concerning the land of Egypt
to this day, that Pharaoh should have the fifth ; only the land
of the priests did not come into the possession of Pharaoh.
I. Dramatic Contrasts in the Story of Joseph. Nothing more
dramatic can be imagined than the sudden and striking contrasts in
Joseph's experiences. The pampered favorite of his father suddenly
finds himself a slave in Egypt. The trusted head of his master's house
hold is in a moment cast into a dungeon with little hope of release.
From this same dungeon he is now raised to a position of highest honor
and responsibility in the most powerful and brilliant empire of the age.
This marvellous transformation takes place not through a miracle, but
because the great need found the man, and the man had been fitted by
his varied experiences to meet the need. Joseph's destiny turned upon
his attitude toward his fellow-prisoners and the opportunities for help
fulness which they offered. Apparently like himself the royal cupbearer
and baker were victims of oriental injustice.
The ancients believed universally that the gods spoke to them through
dreams. According to the Egyptian inscriptions the kings were often
guided in determining their policy by intimations conveyed to them in
dreams. Among Orientals the. intuitions are highly developed, and it
is not impossible that in some cases their intuitions were reflected in
their dreams. The dreams of Joseph's fellow-prisoners were each sug
gestive. It required, however, a keen-sighted, courageous man like
Joseph to discern and declare their meaning.
II. The Prisoner Raised to High Authority. The good deed done
and the interpretation fulfilled, two years more of discouraging, yet pa
tient waiting passed before the dungeon door opened. In the light of
Egyptian religious belief, Pharaoh's dream was especially significant
Cows were sacred to the cow-headed goddess Hathor, and to Isis who
seems to have sometimes symbolized the land fertilized by the Nile. Fat,
sleek cows, as well as full ears of grain, also suggested plenty. Joseph,
132

THE PRISONER RAISED TO HIGH AUTHORITY
however, is the only one in all the land who could clearly and convinc
ingly interpret the meaning of Pharaoh's strange dreams. More im
portant still, he was able to outline a wise and definite policy to be pur
sued. None of the varied and painful experiences that had come to the
young Hebrew, who in his youth had also dreamed dreams, were in vain.
Pharaoh and his counsellors recognized the man of the hour and were
not slow to act. All the honors that an oriental despot could confer
were at once heaped upon Joseph. The Egyptian name given to him
appears to mean Nourisher of the land, Giver of Life or God spake and
he came into life. Asenath, the name of his wife, means, Belonging to
the goddess Neith.
With these honors came responsibility. Joseph first wisely provided
for the needs of the people. At the same time he showed his loyalty to
his master by adding greatly to Pharaoh's wealth and authority. To
day we would condemn Joseph's policy as unjust and tyrannical.
The ancient East, however, thought little of the rights of the masses.
The early Hebrew story-tellers record the incident simply as further
proof of Joseph's fidelity.
Under the first twelve Egyptian dynasties the land was almost en
tirely owned by the nobles. The change in land tenure here ascribed
to Joseph appears to have been brought about by Aahmose I, the
founder of the eighteenth dynasty, who freed Egypt from the rule of the
invading Hyksos. The priests in the earlier period were supported by
the offerings and revenues which came from the temple lands. In later
times, at least, the kings made liberal gifts and concessions to different
temples, with the result that the priests held a large part of the total
wealth of Egypt.
III. Aim and Teachings. Again the primary aim of these stories
is realized in the vivid portrayal of the experiences and character of
Joseph. His patience and cheerfulness in the most unfair and adverse
circumstances, his eagerness to seize every opportunity for service, his
unique organizing and executive ability, and his fidelity to his masters
are vividly illustrated. Chief among the many teachings of these stories
are: (1) The trials which come to each individual are essential for the
development of his character and ability. (2) Therefore, "Those
whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth." (3) "All thmgs work together
for good to those who love God." (4) The only successful way to
forget one's own burdens is to help bear another's. (5) Men for
get, but God never forgets his faithful servants. (6) He alone who
improves the small opportunities will not miss the great chance of life.
133

JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS
(7) "Whosoever would become great among you shall be your minister,
and whosoever would be first among you shall be your servant."
(8) Trained ability is essential to success and the highest honor.

§ XVII. JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS
l.jour- Now when Jacob saw that there was grain for sale in
Jo? of Egypt, Jacob said to his sons, Why do you stand looking at
seph^s each other? And he said, Behold, I have heard that there
erato is grain for sale in Egypt; go down there and buy for us
Egypt from thence, that we may five and not die. So Joseph's
ten brothers went down to buy grain from Egypt. But
Benjamin, Joseph's own brother, Jacob did not send with his
brothers ; for he said, Lest harm befall him. Thus the sons
of Israel came among others to buy grain; for the famine
was in the land of Canaan.
2. His Now Joseph was the governor over the land; he it was
S^er- who sold to all the people of the land. Therefore Joseph's
™£ brothers came and bowed themselves before him with their
them faces to the earth. And when Joseph saw his brothers
he knew them, but he acted as a stranger towards them and
talked harshly to them, and said, Whence do you come?
And they said, From the land of Canaan to buy food. Thus
Joseph knew his brothers, but they did not know him.
Then Joseph remembered the dreams which he had had
about them and said to them, You are spies come to see the
defenselessness of the land. And they said to him, Nay,
my lord, but your servants have come to buy food. We are
all one man's sons; we are honest men; your servants are
not spies. But he said to them, Nay, to see the defenseless
ness of the land you have come. They rephed, We your
servants are twelve brothers, the sons of one man in the
land of Canaan ; and, behold, the youngest is to-day with our
father, and one is no more. And Joseph said to them, It
is just as I said to you, 'You are spies.' By this you shall
be proved : as sure as Pharaoh Uves you shaU not go from
here unless your youngest brother comes hither. Send one
of you, and let him bring your brother, while you remain
in confinement, that your words may be proved, whether
134

JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS
or not there be truth in you. Or else, as sure as Pharaoh
fives, you are indeed spies. And he put them all together
into prison for three days.
Then Joseph said to them the third day, This do, and live ; 3. The
for I likewise fear God. If you are true men, let one of your K?d
brothers remain bound in your prison-house; but you go, 'view
carry grain for the needs of your households, and bring your
youngest brother to me. So shall your words be verified,
and you shall not die. And they did so. And they said to
each other, Truly we are guUty in regard to our brother, in
that when we saw the distress of his soul, while he was
beseeching us for pity, we would not hear; therefore this
distress has come upon us. But Reuben also answered
them, saying, Did I not say to you, 'Do not sin against the
boy,' but you would not Usten? therefore now also his blood
is required. And they did not know that Joseph under
stood them, for he had spoken to them through an inter
preter. He, however, turned himself about from them and
wept ; then he returned to them, and spoke to them and took
Simeon from among them, and bound him before their
eyes. Then Joseph commanded to fill their vessels with
grain, and to restore every man's money into his sack, and
to give them provision for the way. And thus it was done
to them.
So they loaded their asses with their grain, and departed. 4. Re-
And when they came to Jacob their father in the land of l^ot
Canaan, they told him all that had befallen them, saying, kroth-
The man who is lord in that land spoke harshly to us, and their"
put us in prison as though we were spying out the country. Hp0It
And we said to him, We are honest men ; we are not spies ; Jacob
we are twelve brothers, sons of our father; one is no more
and the youngest is to-day with our father in the land of
Canaan. And the man who is lord in that land said to us,
By this shaU I know that you are honest men : leave one of
your brothers with me, and take the grain for the needs
of your households, and go your way; bring your young
est brother to me, then shall I know that you are not
spies,, but that you are honest men; so will I give up 'your
brother to you and you shall be free to go about in the
land. 135

JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS
6.Dis- But as they were emptying their sacks, they found that
o? thY every man's purse of money was in his sack ; and when they
money an& their father saw their purses of money, they were afraid.
sacks61' And their hearts failed them and they turned trembling to
one another, saying, What is this that God hath done to us?
And Jacob their father said to them, You bereave me of
my children: Joseph is no more and Simeon is no more,
and you would take Benjamin also; aU these things have
befallen me. But Reuben said to his father, You may put
my two sons to death, if I do not bring him to you. Put him
in my charge and I will bring him back to you. Then
Jacob said, God Almighty give you mercy before the man,
that he may release to you your other brother and Benjamin.
But I — if I be bereaved of my children, I am bereaved.
e. The And the famine was severe in the land. And when they
gram°f had eaten up the grain which they had brought from Egypt,
their father said to them, Go again, buy us a Uttle food.
And Judah said to him, The man protested strongly to us
saying, 'You shall not see my face unless your brother is
with you.' If you will send our brother with us, we will go
down and buy you food, but if you wUl not send him, we
will not go down ; for the man said to us, ' You shall not see
my face unless your brother is with you.' And Israel said,
Why did you bring evil upon me by telling the man you had
another brother? And they said, The man asked particu
larly about us and our kindred, saying, ' Is your father yet
aUve? have you another brother?' So we informed him
according to the tenor of these questions. How were we to
know that he would say, 'Bring your brother down?'
But he said, My son shall not go down with you; for his
brother is dead and he only is left. If harm befall him on
the way by which you go, then you will bring down my gray
hairs with sorrow to Sheol.
7. Ju- Judah, however, said to Israel his father, Send the lad
p^8 with me, and we will arise and go that we may Uve, and not
posai die, both we and you and also our Uttle ones. I will be
surety for him ; from my hand you may require him ; if I
do not bring him to you and set him before you, then let
me bear the blame forever; for if we had not lingered, surely
we would now have returned the second time. Therefore
136

JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS
their father said to them, If it must be so, then do this : take
some of the products of the land in your vessels, and carry
down a present to the man : a Uttle balsam and a little grape
syrup and ladanum, pistacia nuts, and almonds. Take
also twice as much money in your hands, and the money,
that was returned in the mouth of your sacks, carry back
with you ; perhaps it was a mistake. Take also your brother,
and arise, go again to the man. So the men took this pres
ent with twice as much money in their hands, and Benjamin,
and rose up, and went down to Egypt, and stood before Joseph.
Now when Joseph saw Benjamin with them, he said to 8. Their
the steward of his house, Bring the men into the house, and tfon'at
slay, and make ready, for these men will dine with me at J°ph,s
noon. And the man did as Joseph said, and brought the house
men to Joseph's house. The men, however, were afraid,
because they were brought to Joseph's house, and they said,
Because of the money that was returned in our grain-sacks
at the first are we brought in, that he may seek occasion
against us, and faU upon us, and take us for bondmen,
together with our asses. And when they came near to the
steward of Joseph's house, they spoke to him at the door
of the house, and said, Oh, my lord, we simply came down
the first time to buy food; and it came to pass, when we
reached the place, where we were to pass the night, that we
opened our sacks, and, behold, every man's money was in
the mouth of his sack, our money in full weight; and we
have brought it back with us. And we have brought down
other money in our hands to buy food ; we do not know who
put our money into our sacks. And he said, Peace be to
you, fear not; your God and the God of your father hath
given you treasure in your sacks ; I had your money. Then
he brought Simeon out to them. And the man brought the
men into Joseph's house, and gave them water that they
might wash their feet, and he gave their asses fodder.
Then they made ready the present in anticipation of Joseph's
coming at noon, for they had heard that they were to eat there. 9 Jo_
Now when Joseph came to the house, they brought in to sephjs
him the present which was in their hands, and bowed down hospi-
before him to the earth. And he asked them regarding J^,
their welfare and said, Is your father well, the old man of them
137

JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS
whom you spoke? Is he yet aUve? And they said, Your
servant, our father, is well, he is yet aUve. And they bowed
their heads, and made obeisance. And Joseph lifted up
his eyes and saw Benjamin his brother, his mother's son,
and said, Is this your youngest brother, of whom you spoke
to me? And he said, God be gracious to you, my son.
And he made haste ; for his heart yearned toward his brother;
and he sought a place to weep ; and he went into his room
and wept there. Then he bathed his face and came out and
controlled himself, and said, Bring on food. And they
brought on food for him by himself, and for them by them
selves, and for the Egyptians who ate with him, by them
selves, because the Egyptians might not eat with the He
brews; for that is an abomination to the Egyptians. And
they sat before him, the first-born according to his birth
right, and the youngest according to his youth; and the
men looked at each other in astonishment. And he took
portions from before him for them; But Benjamin's por
tions were five times as much as any of theirs. And they
drank and were merry with him.
10. Then he commanded the steward of his house, saying,
ce™I Fill the men's grain-sacks with food as much as they can
hiccup canT» an<i, put my cup, the sUver cup, in the mouth of
in Ben- the sack of the youngest. And he did according to the
S11 s word that Joseph had spoken.
11. When the morning dawned, the men were sent away,
mamd together with their asses. They had gone out of the city,
suTand ^ut were still not far away, when Joseph ordered his steward,
recover Rise, pursue the men; and when you overtake them, say
the cup to them, ' Why have you repaid evU for good? Why have
you stolen my silver cup? Is not this that in which my
lord is accustomed to drink, and by which he divines? you
have done wrong in so doing.'
12. its So he overtook them and said these words to them. And
^a7cm7" they said to him, Why does my lord speak such words as
Benja- these? Far be it from your servants that they should do
sack such a thing! Behold, the money which we found in our
sacks' mouths, we brought back to you from the land of
Canaan ; how then should we steal from your lord's house
sUver or gold? That one of your servants with whom it
138

JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS
is found shall die, and we will also be my lord's bondmen.
And he said, Now then let it be according to your words;
he with whom it is found shall be my bondman; but you
shall be blameless. Then they hastily took down every
man his sack to the ground, and every man opened his
grain-sack. And he searched, beginning with the old
est, and finishing with the youngest; and the cup was
found in Benjamin's grain-sack. Then they rent then-
clothes and every man loaded his ass and returned to the
city. So Judah and his brothers came back to Joseph's house ; 13. The
and he was yet there ; and they f eU before him on the ground. eraW-
And Joseph said to them, What deed is this that you have j^,h
done? did you not know that a man Uke me could divine
with certainty? And Judah said, What shall we say to
my lord ? what shall we speak ? or how shall we clear our
selves? God hath found out the iniquity of your servants;
behold, we are my lord's bondmen, both we and he also in
whose hand the cup is found. But he said, Far be it from
me that I should do so ! the man in whose hand the cup is
found shall be my bondman ; but you yourselves go up in
peace to your father.
Then Judah came close to him, and said, Oh, my lord, 14- Ju-
let your servant, I pray you, speak a word in my lord's ears, app4i
and do not let your anger be kindled against your servant; joseph
for you are as Pharaoh. My lord asked his servants say
ing, 'Have you a father, or a brother?' And we said to
my lord, 'We have a father, an old man, and a child of his
old age, a Uttle one ; and as his brother is dead, he alone is
left of his mother ; and his father loves him.' And you said
to your servants, ' Bring him down to me, that I may set
my eyes upon him.' But we said to my lord, ' The lad
cannot leave his father; for if he should leave his father,
his father would die.' Then you said to your servants,
' Unless your youngest brother comes down with you, you
shah not see my face again.' And when we went up to
your servant, my father, we told him the words of my lord.
And our father said, 'Go again, buy us a Uttle food.' But
we said, ' We cannot go down. If our youngest brother
is with us, then we wiU go down ; for we may not see the
139

JOSEPH AND HIS BROTHERS
man's face unless our youngest brother is with us.' And
your servant, my father, said to us, 'You know that my wife
bore me two sons; and one went from me, and I said,
" Surely he is torn in pieces " ; and I have not seen him
since ; now if you take this one also from me, and harm befall
him, you wiU bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to
Sheol.' And now if I come to your servant, my father,
without having with us the lad in whose lif e his life is bound
up, then when he sees that there is no lad, he will die ; and
your servants will bring down the gray hairs of your servant,
our father, with sorrow to the grave. For your servant
became surety for the lad to my father, when I said, 'If
I do not bring him to you, then I shall bear the blame
before my father forever.' Now therefore let your ser
vant, I pray you, remain instead of the lad as a bondman
to my lord, but let the lad go up with his brothers. For
how shall I go up to my father, if the lad is not With
me? — lest I should see the sorrow that would come upon
my father.
is. Jo- Now Joseph could not control himself before aU those
deciar- who were standing by him and he cried out, Cause every
ationof man to go out from me. Now there stood no man with
IdL- him while Joseph made himself known to his brothers.
But he wept so loudly that the Egyptians heard and Pha
raoh's household heard. Then Joseph said to his broth
ers, I am Joseph. Is my father yet alive ? And his broth
ers could not answer him, so dismayed were they to see
him. Then Joseph said to his brothers, Come near to me,
I pray you. And they came near. And he said, I am
Joseph your brother, whom you sold into Egypt. But now
be not troubled, nor angry with yourselves that you sold
me hither, for God sent me before you to preserve life.
For now the famine has already been two years in the
land. And there are yet five years in which there shall
be neither plowing nor harvest. And God sent me before
you to give you a remnant on the earth, to effect for you
a great deUverance. So now it is not you that sent me
here but God. And he hath made me a father to Pharaoh
and lord of aU his house and ruler over all the land of
Egypt. 140

tity

LITERARY BEAUTY OF THE STORY
Hasten and go up to my father and say to him, Thus 16.
saith your son Joseph, God has made me lord of all Egypt, J^j
come down without delay. You shall dwell in the land of *°.
Goshen, and you shall be near me, and your flocks and hS°g
your herds and all that you have, and there will I provide *£$"
for you, for there are yet five years of famine, lest you be Mns-
brought to poverty, together with your household and all Sen
that you have. And behold, your eyes see, and the eyes Egypt
of my brother Benjamin, that it is my mouth that is speak
ing to you. And you shall tell my father of all my glory
in Egypt and of all that you have seen, and you must quickly
bring my father down hither. And he fell upon his brother
Benjamin's neck and wept, and Benjamin wept upon his
neck. And he kissed all his brothers, and wept upon them ;
and afterwards his brothers talked with him.
And the report was heard in Pharaoh's house, that Jo- i7.Pha-
seph's brothers were come; and it pleased Pharaoh and l^ia
his servants ; therefore Pharaoh said to Joseph, Say to your mand
brothers, ' This do, load your beasts and go and enter the
land of Canaan, and take your father and your households,
and come to me, and I will give you the best of the land of
Egypt, that you may eat the fat of the land.' And he com
manded them, This do, take wagons out of the land of Egypt
for your Uttle ones and for your wives, and bring your
father and come. Also do not pay any attention to your
household goods, for the best of all the land of Egypt is
yours. And the sons of Israel did so.
I. Literary Beauty of the Story. In the account of Joseph's meet
ing with his brothers these stories reach their climax. In literary charm
and depth of feeling they are unsurpassed. They also reveal the noblest
qualities in Joseph's character. A pathos runs through them all which
tugs strongly at the heart-strings. Every scene is suffused with pent-up
emotion. The anxiety of the brothers, the pathetic fears of the fond,
aged father, the elder brother's noble sense of responsibility, and the
burning affection of Joseph react and blend in a marvellous series of
pictures. The impassioned address of Judah (14) is also one of the
strongest appeals in all literature. The story is a closely knit lit
erary unit; to be fully appreciated it must be read and studied as a
whole. 141

JOSEPH'S TEST OF HIS BROTHERS
II. Joseph's Test of his Brothers. The story is so simply and fully
told that it almost interprets itself. The background is the ancient
oriental world in which the law of revenge was still the dominant prin
ciple in public codes and private ethics. The brother, who had been
shamefully treated and pitilessly sold as a slave, now had his opportunity
to avenge his wrongs. Joseph's outward acts in the earlier part of the
narrative suggest that this was his purpose; but the sequel reveals his
real aim and the true greatness of his character.
Experience had made Joseph a keen student of human nature. His
knowledge of his brothers was limited to his boyhood experience. If
their characters had not changed, to show them the many favors which
it was in his power to bestow, would be but to cast pearls before swine.
For their own sake it was necessary, that they should know his power
and recognize his authority. The different tests to which he subjected
them have these definite aims in view. Early in the story the narrator
reveals to the reader the affectionate heart concealed behind the rude
exterior. Joseph, however, held his own natural feelings in check until
he could be sure of his brothers' contrition, and until he knew that the
opportune moment had arrived.]
III. The Crucial Test of Joseph's Character. When he was as
sured that he could trust them, Joseph's love for his father and for his
brothers, who had so flagrantly wronged him, swept away all barriers.
The scene which followed is one of the most dramatic in the Old Testa
ment. All personal resentment was forgotten by Joseph in his zeal
to help his kinsmen, and the divine quality of forgiveness found expres
sion in the noblest words and deeds. For the honored and successful
governor of Egypt to acknowledge as his own brothers the rude Canaanite
nomads, who had given him every reason for repudiating them, called
for the highest loyalty and devotion. Many men resist the tempta
tions of youth, and attain positions of eminence, and then fail to pay
the debt which they owe to their humble kinsmen ,who have helped
them to success. With Joseph the debt, if any, was small. There
was also no absolute necessity of revealing his identity, much less of
inviting his uncouth kinsmen to the land of Egypt. His action, there
fore, reveals a simple nobility of character rarely equalled in the past 01
present. IV. Teachings of the Story. Many vital truths are illustrated by
this marvellous story. The chief perhaps are: (1) Every man who
does wrong is confronted by the consequence of his act at the most un
expected and painful crises of his life. (2) Forgiveness and love are
142

men

TEACHINGS OF THE STORY
invincible. (3) God is ever overruling evil for good. (4) The severest
tests of character come at the most unexpected moments and in the most
unexpected forms. (5) A man's loyalty to his humble kinsmen in the
hour of his own success is the surest evidence of his nobility.

§XVin. JOSEPH'S LOYALTY TO HIS KINSMEN
Now when the sons of Israel told him all the words which i. is-
Joseph had said to them, Israel said, It is enough: Joseph JuSa-
my son is yet aUve. I wiU go and see him before I die. ion
Then Israel set out on his journey with all that he had. 2.J0-
And he sent Judah before him to Joseph, that he might re^p-
show him the way to Goshen. Now when they came into ^°-ot
the province of Goshen, Joseph made ready his chariot, tins
and went up to Goshen to meet Israel his father. And as he """"
presented himself to him, he feU on his neck, and wept on
his neck a long time. Then Israel said to Joseph, Now let
me die, since I have seen your face, that you are yet alive.
And Joseph said to his brothers, and to his father's house,
I wUl go up and teU Pharaoh and say to him, My brothers
and my father's house, who were in the land of Canaan,
have come to me. Now the men are shepherds, for they
have been keepers of cattle; and they have brought their
flocks and cattle and all that they have. And when Pharaoh
shall caU you, and shall say, ' What is your occupation?'
then say, ' Your servants have been keepers of cattle from
our youth even until now, both we and our fathers,' that
you may dweU in the province of Goshen; for every shep
herd is an abomination to the Egyptians.
Then Joseph went in and told Pharaoh, and said, My 3. Pha-
father and my brothers with their sheep and cattle and all pro- 3
that they possess have come from the land of Canaan; ^ion
and, behold, they are in the province of Goshen. And their
from among his brothers he took five men, and presented nee
them to Pharaoh. And Pharaoh said to his brothers,
What is your occupation? And they said to Pharaoh,
Your servants are shepherds, both we and our fathers.
They also said to Pharaoh, We have come to sojourn in
the land, because there is no pasture for your servants'
143

JOSEPH'S LOYALTY TO HIS KINSMEN
flocks, since the famine is severe in the land of Canaan.
Now therefore we pray, let your servants dwell in the province
of Goshen. And Pharaoh spoke to Joseph, saying, In the
province of Goshen let them dwell; and if you know any
capable men among them, you may put them in charge
of my cattle. So Joseph provided food for his father and
his brothers and all his father's household according to
the number of the little children. And Israel dwelt in the
land of Egypt and in the province of Goshen.
4. is- Now when the time drew near that Israel must die, he
£-ls called his son Joseph and said to him, If now I have found
tions" iavor m y°ur sight, put, I pray you, your hand under my
regard- thigh, and show kindness and faithfulness to me; do not
burial bury me, I pray you, in Egypt ; but when I Ue down to sleep
with my fathers, you shaU carry me out of Egypt, and bury
me in their burying-place. And Joseph rephed, I will
surely do as you have said. Then he said, Give me your
oath : so Joseph gave him his oath. And Israel bowed him
self toward the head of the bed.
5. His Then Israel strengthened himself and sat up on the
injf3" bed, and said, Bring, I pray you, your two sons to me, and
upon J wjji hless them. Now the eyes of Israel were dim with
seph's age, so that he could not see. And Joseph took them both,—
Ephraim in his right hand toward Israel's left hand, and
Manasseh in his left hand toward Israel's right hand, and
brought them near to him. Then Israel stretched out his
right hand and laid it upon the head of Ephraim, who was
the younger, and his left hand upon the head of Manasseh,
crossing his hands intentionally; for Manasseh was the
first-born. And he blessed them, saying, The God before
whom my fathers Abraham and Isaac walked, the God who
hath been my shepherd all my life long unto this day, the
Messenger, who hath redeemed me from all evU, bless the
lads ; and let my name be perpetuated by them, and the name
of my fathers Abraham and Isaac ; and let them grow into a
multitude in the midst of the earth. But when Joseph saw
that his father laid his right hand upon the head of Ephraim,
it displeased him, and he seized his father's hand to remove
it from Ephraim's head to Manasseh's head. And Joseph
said to his father; Not so, my father; this one is the first-
144

sons

JOSEPH'S LOYALTY TO HIS KINSMEN
born; put your right hand upon his head. But his father
refused and said, I know, my son, I know, he also shall be
come a people, and he also shall be great; nevertheless his
younger brother shall be greater than he, and his descend
ants shall become a multitude of nations.
Then Israel drew his feet up into the bed, and was gathered 6. His
unto his people. And Joseph fell upon his father's face and death
wept upon him and kissed him.
Then Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to 7. The
embalm his father. So the physicians embalmed Israel, ISm.
and they devoted forty days to it ; for thus long the days of gstf
embalming last; and the Egyptians wept for him seventy
days. And when the days of weeping for him were past, Joseph 8. Pha-
spoke to the house of Pharaoh, saying, If now I have found PemL-
favor in your sight, speak, I pray you, in the ears of Pharaoh, b'°°yto
saying, ' My father made me take oath, saying, " Lo, I him in
am dying; in my grave which I have digged for myself anaan
in the land of Canaan, there you shaU bury me." ' Now
therefore let me go up, I pray you, and bury my father;
after that I wiU return. And Pharaoh said, Go up and bury
your father, as he made you take oath.
So Joseph went up to bury his father ; and with him went 9. The
up all the servants of Pharaoh, the elders of his house, and Euriai
all the elders of the land of Egypt, and all the house of £^m.
Joseph, and his brothers, and his father's house. Only ing
their Uttle ones and their sheep and cattle they left in the
province of Goshen. And there went up with him both
chariots and horsemen, so that it was a very great company.
And when they came to Goren-ha-Atad [Threshing-floor
of the thorn bush] which is beyond Jordan, there they held
a very great and solemn lamentation; and Joseph made a
mourning for his father seven days. And when the inhab
itants of the land, the Canaanites, saw the mourning in
Goren-ha-Atad, they said, This is a solemn mourning which
the Egyptians are holding. Therefore its name was caUed
Abel-Mizraim [Mourning of the Egyptians] ; it is beyond the
Jordan. Then Joseph returned to Egypt after he had buried
his father, together with his brothers and aU who went up
with him to bury his father. 145

broth-
era

JOSEPH'S LOYALTY TO HIS KINSMEN
10. jo- Now when Joseph's brothers saw that their father was
S£! dead, they said, What if Joseph should hate us, and should
ances requite us all the evil which we did to him! So they sent
'" a message to Joseph, saying, Your father commanded be
fore he died saying, ' Thus shall you say to Joseph, "0
forgive, now, the wickedness and sin of your brothers, in
that they have treated you basely." ' So now, we pray,
forgive the wickedness of the servants of your father's
God. And Joseph began to weep, as they were speaking
to him. And his brothers also went and feU down before
him and said, Here, take us as your slaves. But Joseph
said to them, Do not be afraid ; for am I in the place of God?
You meant evil against me, but God meant it for good, in
order to accomplish that which is being done this day,—
the saving of the Uves of many people. Now therefore do
not be afraid; I wiU provide food for you and your little
ones. Thus he comforted them and spoke reassuringly to
them.
11. His So Joseph dwelt in Egypt together with his father's house.
^Jf And Joseph Uved a hundred and ten years. And Joseph
pros- Saw Ephraim's great-grandchildren; the children also of
Sfe0Uf Machir, the son of Manasseh, were borne upon Joseph's
knees.
12. in- Then Joseph said to his brothers, I am about to die;
tiras but God will surely visit you and bring you up from this land
ml'hb" to the land which he confirmed by an oath to Abraham,
burial Isaac and Jacob. Joseph then took an oath of the children
of Israel, saying, When God visits you, as he surely will,
then you shall carry up my bones from here. So Joseph
died being a hundred and ten years old ; and they embalmed
him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.
I. Joseph's Provision for His Kinsmen. The opening paragraphs
of this section record one of the noblest scenes in the Joseph stories.
In the eyes of the Egyptians shepherds were regarded with scorn and
hatred. Although, doubtless, well aware of this strong antipathy,
Joseph was not content until he had introduced his aged father and
shepherd brothers to Pharaoh and his court.
According to the earliest narrative, his kinsmen were assigned to the
territory of Goshen. This evidently included the fertile, low-lying lands
146

JOSEPH'S PROVISION FOR HIS KINSMEN
extending eastward from the Delta of the Nile to the Isthmus of Suez
and the desert. The agricultural resources of this region were not de
veloped until the reign of Ramses II. In the days of Joseph these level
plains were evidently still given up to flocks and herds. The land of
Goshen, therefore, furnished an ideal home for these men from the
wilderness. There they could still retain their tribal organization,
their nomadic habits and, to a great extent, their independence. Through
this territory ran the great caravan route from Egypt, back through the
wilderness to Palestine, so that the Hebrews were able to keep in close
touch with their kinsmen in Canaan and the South Country.
An interesting parallel to the biblical story is found in an inscription
of Merneptah, which comes from the latter part of the thirteenth century
B.C. It tells of certain Shasu or Bedouin tribes coming from Aduma
or Edom, which were allowed to pass "the fortress of king Merneptah
in Thuku (Succoth) to the pools of King Merneptah, which are in
Thuku, that they might obtain food for themselves and for their
cattle in the field of the Pharaoh, who is the gracious sun in every
land." II. Israel's Dying Blessing. The intense interest which the
Hebrews always felt in a father's dying blessing again finds expression
in the patriarchal stories. A later editor has introduced in connection
with the story of the death of Israel, a group of tribal songs cast in the
form of oracles. As will be seen later (§ XXXV), in their final form
they probably come from the days of the united kingdom under David.
In the original Judean narrative, Israel's blessing is bestowed primarily
upon the two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh. These repre
sent the two great tribes of central Israel. Of these two, Ephraim was
the more important, although the tribe of Manasseh was apparently
the first to secure a permanent home (east of the Jordan), and was,
therefore, regarded as the older. The later superiority of the tribe of
Ephraim is recognized in the account of the patriarch's blessing. Not
upon the head of the older, Manasseh, but upon the head of Ephraim
the younger, rested the right hand of Israel. In the writings of the north
ern prophet Hosea, Ephraim also represents Northern Israel as a whole,
even as Judah stands for Southern Israel. The blessing itself is similar
to that found on the lips of the earlier patriarchs: it promises political
power and great increase in numbers.
Thus, in a ripe old age, refined and softened by the struggles of his
earlier years, the aged patriarch died surrounded by his sorrowing sons.
Tradition adds that, followed by his children and the mourning Egyp-
147

JOSEPH'S LOYALTY TO HIS KINSMEN
tians, his body was borne back in solemn procession and buried in the
land of Canaan.
Joseph continued, after the death of his father, to treat his conscience-
stricken brothers with the same noble generosity, assuring them by word
and deed of his complete forgiveness. To Joseph were granted the three
superlative beatitudes: honor and respect, long life and loyal offspring.
After his death, his body was embalmed and, according to the Northern
Israelite narrative and in keeping with the solemn oath of his brothers,
was later borne back by the returning Israelites, when they left Egypt
and set their faces toward Canaan.
III. The Various Elements in the Joseph Stories. No careful
reader can fail to recognize the presence of a large ideal element in the
Joseph stories. The aim of the prophetic story-tellers was evidently
to portray a perfect type of the successful man of affairs. No history
or literature contains a more vivid illustration of the qualities essential
to success. Honesty, perseverance, cheerfulness in adversity, fidelity
and eagerness to improve every opportunity are invincible in any age.
According to the standards of Joseph's day, these qualities were crowned
by the highest conceivable rewards. Nothing that oriental imagination
could suggest was wanting to fill the cup of Joseph to overflowing.
Yet throughout, the portrait is true to life and especially to the life of the
ancient East.
As has already been indicated, the origin of certain Egyptian institu
tions, as for example, the agrarian laws, are also attributed to Joseph.
The story of his temptation is strikingly similar to the Egyptian "Tale
of the Two Brothers," current probably long before the days of Joseph.
The tendency to combine traditions, originally distinct, was perhaps at
work here as elsewhere in the patriarchal stories; but back of the narra
tives as a whole, there is clearly a substantial basis of historic fact.
TV. Archaeological Exactness of the Joseph Stories. The his
torical character of the Joseph stories- is strongly attested by their re
markable archaeological exactness. Where there was every opportunity
for error, they are almost without exception faithful to their peculiar
setting. No ancient civilization was more distinct and unique than
that of Egypt. Highly developed, self-satisfied, and shut in by natural
barriers, Egypt lived apart almost as a hermit nation. Her customs,
her language and her system of writing were shared by no other peoples
of antiquity, and yet at every point the narrator reveals a thorough
familiarity with Egyptian life. Not only was he acquainted with Egypt's
peculiar system of taxation and with its current literature, but he also
148

EXACTNESS OF THE JOSEPH STORIES
introduces several Egyptian names and words. Peculiar Egyptian
customs are also reflected in the stories, as for example, the giving of
the much-prized golden collar, which was bestowed upon a public ser
vant for distinguished achievement. Thus, according to a well-known
inscription, Aahmes, a famous admiral, received it for his prowess and
courage in an important battle. Even the references to the famine
may be paralleled by passages from contemporary Egyptian inscrip
tions. The number of years which Joseph lived — one hundred and ten
— was in itself a realization of a characteristic Egyptian ideal. In
this way, for example, the virtue of the ancient Egyptian sage, Ptah-
hotep, was rewarded.
V. The Josephs of Egyptian History. The court of Egypt, es
pecially under the rulers of the eighteenth dynasty, offered, even to
those of humble origin, rare opportunities of attaining prominence and
authority. Relations with Asia were very close, and the later rulers of
this dynasty not only made treaties with Asiatic kings but also entered
into marriage with their daughters. A large number of Semitic words,
as well as ideas and customs, gained admission at this time into the land
of the Nile. During the reign of Amenhotep III, and especially that of
his son, the great reforming king, Amenhotep IV, several Semites,
whose names are recorded, rose to positions of great authority. Thus,
for example, according to the contemporary el-Amarna tablets, a cer
tain Dudu was one of the trusted officials of Amenhotep TV. He is
addressed by one of the governors of Epypt as, "my lord, my father."
Even more interesting and significant are the references to another
Semite, Yanhamu, who had control of the magazines of corn in the land
of Jarmutu, which probably included the east Delta. He also directed
the Egyptian rule in Palestine. The Egyptian governors of Palestine
frequently refer to him in terms which suggest that his authority was
second only to that of the Pharaoh himself. Rib-addi of Gebal, to se
cure a favorable settlement of certain of his grievances, asks the king of
Egypt to say to Yanhamu, "Behold, Rib-addi is in thy power and any
thing which happens to him touches thee." In another letter he asks
the king to command Yanhamu to take the field at once with troops.
The governor of Gaza and Joppa also speaks of having been brought,
while still young, to the Egyptian court by the same Yanhamu.
While Yanhamu may not be identical with the original Joseph of
the Hebrew tradition, the analogy is exceedingly suggestive. In the
light of all these facts the most satisfactory explanation of the Joseph
stories is that they record, doubtless in a somewhat idealized form, the
149

JOSEPH'S LOYALTY TO HIS KINSMEN
experiences of a young Semite, who by his personal ability attained to a
position of great authority and honor in the land of Egypt.
VI. The Age at Which Joseph Lived. The older Egyptologists
were inclined to find the background of the Joseph story in the days of
the Hyksos conquest. Then Semitic rulers controlled the land of the
Nile. To maintain their precarious position in the presence of a large
and hostile population they would naturally encourage Asiatic immigra
tion, and would show especial favors to men of Semitic origin. The
Joseph stories, however, imply that not a foreign, but a native Egyptian
king then ruled on the throne. The favors which came to Joseph were
also won not by the sword, but by the ability and services of the hero.
Furthermore, the evidence of the ancient inscriptions suggests that the
ancestors of the Hebrews were not found in the land of Palestine in the
days of the Hyksos conquest, but that they first began to appear as no
madic' immigrants in the later days of the eighteenth dynasty, and at a
date not earlier than 1500 B.C. In view of these facts and of the policy
and characteristics of the later kings of the eighteenth dynasty it seems
far more probable that Amenhotep III or IV was the Pharaoh at whose
court the young Hebrew won signal distinction. The same period
furnishes a most satisfactory background for the migration of certain
Hebrew tribes toward eastern Egypt. This conclusion is also sub
stantiated by the chronology of the oldest Hebrew narratives, which
assign only about one hundred and fifty years to the sojourn of the He
brews in Egypt (cf. § XIX™). Thus, if the exodus be dated about 1200,
Joseph's date would be near the middle of the fourteenth century B.C.,
when the rule of the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty was drawing to a close.
VII. The Primary Value of the Patriarchal Stories. The lit
erary, historical and archaeological value of the Joseph stories, and of
the patriarchal narratives which precede, is obvious; but that which
gives these ancient tribal stories their abiding interest and authority is
the work of the later prophetic historians. These interpreters of the
divine presence in human life emphasize in this concrete way the great
truth that, before the dawn of Hebrew history, Jehovah was guiding
the destinies of his chosen people. The individual men and races are
but the actors in the great drama which illustrates the eternal laws of
life and reveals God's active participation in the affairs of men. If it
should be proved that the patriarchs were but the creations of the
prophetic story-teller's art, Abraham, Jacob and Joseph would still live
to inspire and guide men in resisting that which is evil and in choosing
that which is good. 150

THE BONDAGE AND DELIVERANCE FROM EGYPT
§ XIX. THE OPPRESSION OF THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT
Now Joseph died and all his brothers and all that gener- l.Rap-
ation. And the IsraeUtes became numerous and powerful. 1.1?°"
Then there arose a new kmg over Egypt, who knew not °^h«
Joseph. And he said to his people, See, the Israelite itesaeI~
people are becoming more numerous and powerful than
we ; come, let us deal subtly with them, lest they become so
numerous that, if a war arise, they will join our enemies,
and fight against us, and go out of the land.
Therefore the Egyptians set over them taskmasters to im- 2Meas-
pose tasks upon them. And they built for Pharaoh store- p^ent
cities, Pithom and Ramses. But the more the Egyptians J^f"1
afflicted them, the more numerous they became and the crease
more they spread abroad so that the Egyptians became ap
prehensive of the IsraeUtes. Therefore they made their
Uves bitter with hard service in mortar and in brick, but
the people became very numerous and powerful.
And the king of Egypt spoke to the Hebrew midwives, 3.
of whom the name of one was Shiphrah, and the name of ti? of11"
the other Puah; and he said, When you perform the office J^
of midwife for the Hebrew women, and see them upon the cMi-
birth-stool; if it be a son, then you shall kill him; but if it
be a daughter, she shall Uve. But the midwives feared
God, and did not do as the king of Egypt commanded them,
but saved the male-children aUve. Therefore the king of
Egypt called for the midwives, and said to them, Why have
you done thus and saved the male-children alive? The
midwives answered Pharaoh, Because the Hebrew women
are not as the Egyptian women; for they are vigorous;
before the midwife comes to them, they are already delivered.
151

dren

THE OPPRESSION OF THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT
Therefore God dealt weU with the midwives. And it came
to pass, because the midwives feared God, that he built up
their famiUes. Then Pharaoh commanded all his people
saying, Every son that is born to the Hebrews you shall
cast into the river, but every daughter you shaU save alive.
I. The Stories Regarding the Bondage and Exodus. The book
of Exodus marks the transition from early tribal stories to the real his
tory of the Hebrews. The book itself is divided at the second verse
of the nineteenth chapter into two distinct parts. The latter part con
sists of laws and detailed directions regarding the building of the taber
nacle, but the first half continues the history of Genesis. The same three
great strands of narrative run through these first eighteen chapters, and,
as in Genesis, they are so closely combined that they make one consecu
tive history. The late priestly material is comparatively unimportant.
The main narrative is the early Judean, supplemented by extracts from
the Northern Israelite prophetic stories. Each of these prophetic
histories has its marked peculiarities. Thus, for example, in the Judean
the Hebrews are settled in Goshen, an Egyptian province east of the
Delta and bordering on Arabia. There they retain their flocks and
tribal organization and soon become very numerous. The northern
history, on the contrary, represents them as living among the Egyptians,
and so few that two midwives suffice for the needs of the Hebrew mothers.
In general, however, the two prophetic narratives closely agree. Both
pass over the oppression very briefly and focus attention on Moses, the
great prophetic character of the period. No definite dates are given in
these early histories. Not even the names of the Pharaohs of the op
pression and of the exodus are remembered. As in Genesis, the per
sonality of the great leaders, the significance of Israel's varied experi
ences, and the religious import of the different stories chiefly concern
the prophetic writers. While the narrative contains much valuable
historical data, it is more than a mere record, it is a reUgious philosophy
of history.
In the text adopted (in § XIX) the two prophetic versions of the op
pression have been combined. The northern account has been placed
at the end, since it contains the natural introduction to the birth of
Moses. II. The Serf Class in Egypt. Changes in dynasties, with corre
sponding changes in policy, were frequent in Egypt. The victorious
foreign campaigns conducted by the kings of the eighteenth dynasty
152

THE SERF CLASS IN EGYPT
(Introd. IIIV) brought back many captives to swell the large serf class
in Egypt. The policy of the later kings also called for vast levies of
forced labor. The result was that the serfs so far outnumbered the free
Egyptians that there was abundant ground for the fears suggested in
the biblical narrative. Doubtless the painful memories of the Hyksos
invaders also led the Egyptians to look with hatred and fear upon the
Asiatic shepherds, settled on their eastern borders. Throughout most of
its history, Egypt's conquerors came from the east. In case of war these
foreign Semitic settlers would naturally join with the foe.
III. The Discovery of Pithom. As a result of the excavations of
the Egypt Exploration Fund in 1883, Pithom has been identified with
certain ruins in the Wady Tumilat, not far from the eastern terminus
of the modern railway which runs from Cairo to the Suez Canal. It layj
therefore, within the biblical land of Goshen. Naville, who exca
vated at this point, found several inscriptions apparently bearing the
Egyptian name of the city, P-atum, House of the god Atum. In later
Egyptian geographical Hsts P-atum appears as the name of a local
province. The excavations disclosed a great square brick wall with the ruins
of a temple and store-chambers inside. These large store-houses or
granaries were peculiar to these ruins. They were large structures con
taining many rectangular chambers of various sizes, surrounded by
walls, two or three yards in thickness, made of crude bricks. The
chambers were not connected. From contemporary inscriptions it
appears that they were filled with grain from the top and were emptied
in the same way, or through a door at the side.
The excavations have also shown that the city was founded by the
great builder, Ramses II. During the first twenty years of his reign,
he developed and colonized for the first time the territory lying east of
the Delta. This was the region known to the biblical writers as the
land of Goshen or Rameses. An Egyptian papyrus also states that one
of the chief cities founded by him in this territory and evidently not far
from Pithom was "the house of Ramses," with a royal residence and
temples. A later poet speaks of it as being situated between Egypt and
Syria. From this it may be inferred that it was one of the fortified cities
that guarded the Asiatic frontier.
IV. The Pharaoh of the Oppression. In the light of these facts
there is little doubt that Ramses II, who reigned from about 1292 to 1225
B.C., was the Pharaoh of the oppression. All that is stated in the bib
lical narratives is in perfect harmony with the character and policy of
153

THE OPPRESSION OF THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT
that energetic, splendor-loving, tyrannical king, who filled all Egypt
with huge statues of himself and memorials of his vast building en
terprises. V. The Absence of References to the Hebrews in Egypt. The
fact that the Egyptian inscriptions contain no reference to the Hebrews
in Egypt has led certain scholars to question whether or not the Israelites
were ever in the land of the Nile. The one contemporary allusion to
Israelites is found in the recently discovered triumphal stele of Mernep
tah, son of the great Ramses II (cf. ""). The Israelites there referred to
are clearly living in the land of Palestine. In the face of this definite
contemporary testimony, it is necessary to weigh carefully the compara
tive evidence. That certain Israelite tribes were for a time found in the
land of Egypt is attested by the following considerations: (1) Nearly all
the earliest Old Testament writers allude to it as a well-established inci
dent in their national history. Their unanimous and independent
testimony is best explained by a common basis of historical fact. (2) It
is improbable and practically inconceivable that a story, so humiliating
to the pride of the Hebrews, would have been invented in a later period
when Egypt was their ally, as in the days of Solomon, or when it was
but a weak and waning power. (3) There is fundamental agreement
between the earliest biblical narratives and the contemporary inscriptions
regarding the attitude of the Egyptians toward the foreigners in their
midst. (4) In the light of Egyptian usage it is not strange that there
is no reference to the Israelite serfs in the land of Egypt. Under the
nineteenth dynasty, as a result of the many successful campaigns and
the building policy of the reigning Pharaohs, an exceedingly large serf
class was found in the land of the Nile. These aliens are designated,
not according to their racial origin, but as a distinct class. Therefore,
if any reference was made to the Israelites, it would have been by this
general designation.
VI. Duration of the Sojourn. While there is little doubt that there
were Hebrews in the land of Egypt, it is evident that the biblical narra
tives must be interpreted in the light of contemporary records and con
ditions. The different sources are not in agreement regarding many
details. The early Judean narrative is silent regarding the duration
of the sojourn. In Genesis 1516, which belongs to the Northern Israelite
history, it is stated that the Hebrews were to return to Palestine in the
fourth generation. This implies a period of between one hundred and
one hundred and fifty years. The same duration is suggested by the
priestly writer in Numbers 2667"69. The late priestly writer of Exodus
154

DURATION OF THE SOJOURN]
61W0 states that Moses was of the fourth generation from Levi, which
would give the same relative period of one hundred and fifty years.
On the other hand, a late editor, in Genesis 1513, predicts that the period
of foreign sojourn was to last exactly four hundred years. Another
compiler, in Exodus 1240, affirms that the time the Israelites dwelt in
Egypt was four hundred and thirty years. With this passage definitely
in mind, the author of Galatians 317 assigns four hundred and thirty
years to the period from Abraham to Sinai. Josephus and the trans
lators of the Samaritan and Greek versions, give the duration of the
sojourn as two hundred and fifteen years, which is evidently a compro
mise between the shorter and the longer periods suggested by the earUer
writers. With these conflicting biblical data the final decision must turn upon
the testimony of the contemporary Egyptian records. If Amenhotep IV
was, as seems very probable, the Pharaoh who raised the young Syrian,
known to the Hebrews by the name of Joseph, to a position of com
manding authority, the beginning of the Hebrew sojourn in Egypt would
fall under the rule of that king (who reigned from 1375 to 1358 B.C.).
Accepting Ramses II (who reigned from 1292 to 1225 B.C.) as the Pha
raoh of the oppression, and dating the exodus about 1200 (cf. § XXIIV),
the duration of the sojourn would be about one hundred and fifty years.
It is significant that this conclusion is in substantial agreement with the
earhest Hebrew records. On the other hand, if Joseph's Pharaoh be
identified with one of the Hyksos, who were expelled about 1580 B.C.,
the total period of the sojourn would be about four hundred or four
hundred and thirty years. Josephus even went so far as to identify the
Hebrews with the Hyksos. The longer period assigned by the latest
biblical writers is probably the result of a similar identification. Either
of these periods would give a sufficient time for the increase in the
numbers of the IsraeUtes suggested by the earlier traditions; but the
shorter period on the whole accords best with the facts of Egyptian and
Hebrew history.
VII. The Hebrew Tribes in Egypt. Although inferred in the Joseph
stories, it is by no means certain that all the Hebrew tribes went down
to Egypt. References in the record of the campaigns of Seti I and
Ramses II to a state called Asaru or Aseru, situated in western Galilee,
would seem to indicate that the Northern Israelite tribe, which bore
the corresponding name Asher, was already settled in Palestine. The
reference in the account which his son Merneptah gives of the victori
ous campaign in Palestine, leaves no doubt that at that time a consider-
155

THE OPPRESSION OF THE HEBREWS IN EGYPT
able portion of the people, which later crystallized into the Hebrew
nation, was to be found in Canaan. The reference is as follows:
Plundered is Canaan with every evh;
Askalon is carried into captivity;
Gezer is taken;
Yenoam is annihilated,
Israel is desolated, her seed is not,
Palestine has become a widow for Egypt.
All lands are united, they are pacified.
Every one who is turbulent has been bound by King Merneptah.
The earliest Hebrew records also indicate that several of the Arab
tribes, which later coalesced into the tribe of Judah, had at an early
time secured a foothold in southern Palestine.
In the light of these facts it seems probable that only a part of the
twelve Hebrew tribes went to Egypt. The prophetic narratives them
selves suggest that these were the Joseph tribes of Ephraim and Ma
nasseh, and possibly the ancestors of certain other clans that ultimately
found their home in central and southern Canaan.
The earlier narratives do not agree regarding the number of Hebrews
found in the land of Egypt. The fact that, according to the Northern
Israelite version, two midwives sufficed to meet the needs of the mothers
in Israel implies that the Israelites at that time were to be numbered
by hundreds rather than by thousands (cf. § XXIII").
VIII. The Effects of the Egyptian Sojourn. In addition to their
rapid and important increase in numbers, the Hebrews clearly profited
in many ways by their sojourn in Egypt. Although they appear to
have largely retained their nomadic habits and traditions, and to have
maintained their connection with the neighboring tribes of Palestine
and the desert, they must have been influenced by the civilization of
Egypt. That influence appears to have been material rather than re
ligious. Living near the eastern frontier, they had ample opportunity
to study the Egyptian methods of warfare and miUtary equipment. To
a certain degree they would also acquire a knowledge of the Egyptian
arts of agriculture. Under the rule of the great Ramses II they were
strongly affected, even though against their wills, by the highly organized
social and political system which then bound together all the peoples
in the land of the Nile.
The influence, which appears to have left the deepest and lasting
156

ment

THE EFFECTS OF THE EGYPTIAN SOJOURN
impression upon them, was, however, their reaction against the customs
and religious ideas of their hated oppressors. The oppression itself also
tended to bind together by the common bond of suffering the various
clans who later, under the leadership of Moses, sought freedom and
deUverance in the wilderness. Their suffering and need thus prepared
the way for the work of Moses and the birth of the Hebrew nation.
§XX. MOSES'S CHILDHOOD AND TRAINING
Now a man of the house of Levi had married a daughter 1.
of Levi. And the woman conceived, and bore a son; and birth5"
when she saw that he was a beautiful child, she hid him ^
for three months. But when she could no longer hide him, «»i-
she took for him an ark of papyrus reeds, and daubed it with
bitumen and pitch, and after she had put the child in it,
she placed it in the reeds by the bank of the NUe. And his
sister stood at a distance to learn what would be done to
him. Now the daughter of Pharaoh came down to bathe in 2.
the NUe, and whUe her maids were walkmg along beside ^n^y
the Nile, she saw the ark among the reeds, and sent her ^,a
waiting-maid to bring it. And when she opened it and saw daugh-
the chUd, behold, the baby-boy was crying. And she had ter
pity on him and said, This is one of the Hebrews' children.
Then his sister said to Pharaoh's daughter, Shall I go and
caU a nurse of the Hebrew women, that she may nurse the
child for you? And Pharaoh's daughter said to her, Go.
So the maiden went and called the child's mother. And
Pharaoh's daughter said to her, Take this child away and
nurse it for me, and I wiU give you wages. Then the woman
took the chUd and nursed it. But when the child had grown
up, she brought him to Pharaoh's daughter, and he became
her son. And she caUed his name Moses, for she said, I
drew him out of the water.
Now it came to pass in those days, when Moses had grown 3.^^
up, that he went out to his kinsmen and saw then: tasks; murder
and he beheld an Egyptian smiting a Hebrew, one of his *£.
kinsmen. And he looked this way and that, and when he tian
saw that there was no one in sight, he smote the Egyptian,
and hid him in the sand. 157

MOSES'S CHILDHOOD AND TRAINING
4-. And he went out on the following day and saw two men
from of the Hebrews striving together; and he said to the one
rahoh's who was doing the wrong, Why do you smite your fellow-
court workman? But he replied, Who made you a prince and
a judge over us? do you intend to kill me as you killed the
Egyptian? Then Moses was afraid and said, Surely the
thing is known. When, therefore, Pharaoh heard this
thing, he sought to kill Moses. But Moses fled from the
presence of Pharaoh and took up his abode in the land of
Midian.
5. His Now he was sitting down by a weU. And the priest of
Mfdlan Midian had seven daughters ; and they came and drew water,
and filled the troughs to water their father's flock. But
the shepherds came and drove them away ; then Moses stood
up and helped them and watered their flock. And when
they came to Reuel their father, he said, How is it that you
have come so early to-day? And they said, An Egyptian
deUvered us from the shepherds, and besides, he drew water
for us, and watered the flock. Then he said to his daughters,
And where is he? why have you left the man? CaU him
that he may eat bread with us. And Moses was content
to dwell with the man; and he gave Moses Zipporah his
daughter. And she bore a son, and she called his name
Gershom [An alien resident there] ; for he said, I have been
an alien resident in a foreign land.
I. The Moses Stories. With the second chapter of Exodus the nar
rative ceases to be a record of national experiences and again becomes
a personal biography. Moses, however, stands as the representative
of his age. Simply and with superlative dramatic power the narrative
records the different stages in the training of the prophet. Poetic and
prophetic imagination may have supplied the details in these wonderful
stories; but the narratives themselves are in perfect harmony with con
ditions of the age. Stories regarding the birth of a great hero usually
spring last into existence. The exquisite story of the birth of Moses was
apparently not known to the earliest historians, for it is found only in the
Northern Israelite group of narratives; but it is in harmony with the
other facts in Moses's life.
II. Moses's Birth and Early Training. The prophetic tradition
associates Moses with the tribe of Levi, which figures in later history as
158

MOSES'S BIRTH AND EARLY TRAINING
the tribe especially devoted to the care of the sanctuaries and of Jehovah's
oracles. A very late priestly tradition also adds that Moses was the
fourth in the line from Levi, the son of a certain Amram and Jochebed.
The modern reader shares the fear of the mother, the keen interest
of the watching sister, and the sense of relief and joy when the Hebrew
baby is received into the palace of the Pharaohs and entrusted to the
tender care of his own mother. Although the Old Testament histories
do not record the fact, the statement in Acts I22 that Moses was instructed
in all the wisdom of the Egyptians is in perfect accord with the implica
tions of the story. Opportunity was thus given for the future prophet
to become intimately acquainted with the policy and character of the
reigning house of Egypt and to note the oppression of his people and to
estimate inteUigently the possibilities of their deliverance. Moses's life
in the Egyptian court also gave him that training and knowledge which
were essential to his work as the leader of an infant nation.
III. The Great Crisis in Moses's Life. The great crisis in Moses's
life came to him unexpectedly. The event proved, however, that he
,was not unprepared to meet it. The temptation to luxury and to a false
view of life, which were strong in the court of the Egyptians, had not
dulled his sense of justice and loyalty to his race or his power to act.
Judged by the laws of Egypt, his slaying of the Egyptian taskmaster
was a crime. Measured by the universal laws which must govern men
or nations at great critical moments in their history, when the issue is
clear between intrenched injustice and the rights of classes or of the in
dividual, Moses's act was akin to that of the great patriots of the past
and the present who have taken the sword to deliver their people from
the hands of tyrants. His act may be condemned as hasty. In its
immediate results it was as fruitless, as is every hasty and intemperate
attempt to right a wrong by violence. It was significant, however,
because it allied Moses definitely with his kinsmen. It also marked an
important step in the making of the prophet. The great need, which is
the first essential in the call of a prophet, had been clearly revealed to
him, and he had responded to the call. Henceforth he was committed
to the greater task of freeing his kinsmen from that oppression which
had aroused his youthful wrath. With him it was a question of further
training in knowledge and method. These came in the new field of
experience which opened to him as he fled a fugitive out into the wilder
ness. IV. The Origin of the Jehovah Religion. Although it is not
definitely stated, it is probable that he followed the great highway which
159

MOSES'S CHILDHOOD AND TRAINING
runs from the Isthmus of Suez to the eastern arm of the Red Sea. He
fled back to those nomad tribes on the border of Edom, which appear
to have shared with his ancestors the worship of the same God. This
conclusion is confirmed by the readiness with which he was received,
even as Jacob of the patriarchal stories, by the Midianite chieftain, who
soon adopted him as a member of his own family. In the early Judean
narrative, this father-in-law of Moses bears the name of Hobab or Reuel,
but in Northern Israelite stories he is known by the more familiar name
of Jethro. The Midianites were a nomadic people who appeared some
times to the southeast and sometimes to the east of Palestine. In gen
eral, however, they ranged up and down east of Edom and the eastern
arm of the Red Sea. In the subsequent narratives Jethro is still further
identified as a Kenite. In the earliest Hebrew traditions the Kenites
figure as worshippers of Jehovah, the God of the Hebrews. The clear
implication of these early narratives is that Moses worshipped the God
of these local Midianite tribes, and from that God received the message
which made him the prophetic leader of his people.
From these facts the conclusion has been drawn by recent writers that
Moses for the first time there learned of the new God, whom he wor
shipped and later proclaimed as the true God and deliverer of his kins
men in Egypt. It has been urged that the religion of the Hebrews was
unique, primarily because at the exodus they were delivered by this newly
revealed God, and then that the debt of gratitude which they therefore
felt was the basis of their national faith. While this inference is not
impossible, it is only a conjecture, and not altogether satisfactory. At
this early period the different tribes in southwestern Arabia, and especi
ally to the south of Canaan, appear to have been closely bound together
by tradition, custom and religious belief. This fact is definitely and re
peatedly stated in the patriarchal stories. It is also difficult to con
ceive of a group of clans, like the Hebrews in Egypt, suddenly adopting
the worship of a hitherto unknown god. It seems more probable,
therefore, that Moses only appealed to the faith of his clansmen, which
had perhaps been dimmed by the long and painful contact with the
dominating civilization of Egypt. If this is true, Moses's experiences
in Midian, as the subsequent stories imply, meant simply that revival
of his own faith in the God of his race, which was essential to his great
prophetic work.
V. Influence of the Wilderness Life upon Moses. The wilder
ness, with its barren wastes, its solitude, its rocky heights, its sense of
dependence, ever intensified by the paucity of food and water, was well
160

INFLUENCE OF WILDERNESS LIFE UPON MOSES
fitted to develop the religious instincts of the youthful fugitive. The
close communication between Midian and the land of Egypt also en
abled him to keep in constant touch with the needs of his kinsmen. In
the quiet of the wilderness the great need, the divine message and the
man to dehver it came together, and thus a prophet was born.
VI. Aim and Teachings of the Stories. The primary aim of these
stories is historical and biographical; but the truths which they illustrate
find their basis in universal human experience. Even if tradition has
contributed certain details to these fascinating narratives, they remain
absolutely true to life. They reveal the working of the divine Providence
which overrules for good the most cruel and despotic plans of men.
(1) The seemingly trivial accidents of life are important factors in the
realizing of God's purpose in the Uves of men and nations. (2) The
blow struck hastily and in anger, even in behalf of a righteous cause, is
usually futile. (3) The recognition of a crying public need is the
first element in a prophet's call. (4) Long and special training is re
quired for every great service. (5) Opportunities for training come to
each man whose spirit is right. (6) These opportunities lie along the
ordinary paths of life.

XXI. MOSES'S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS

Early Judean Prophetic Northern Israelite Late Priestly History

Now it came to
pass in the course of
those many days
that the king of
Egypt died. Then
the Messenger of Je
hovah appeared to
[Moses] in a flame of
fire out of the midst
of a thorn bush ; and
he looked and be
hold the thorn bush
burned with fire
without being con
sumed. Then Moses
said, I will turn aside

Now Moses
was keeping
the flock of
Jethro, his
father-in-law, the priest of
Midian. And
he led the flock
to the back of
the wilderness,
and came to
the mountain
of God, to
Horeb. Then
God called to
him, saying, 161

Now the IsraeUtes l.The
sighed by reason of fZ'il
the forced labor, and *j°n
they cried, and their Moses
cry came up to God
because of the forced
labor. And God
heard their groan
ing, and God re
membered his cov
enant with Abra
ham, with Isaac and
with Jacob . And God
looked upon the Is
raelites, and God
knew. Therefore God

MOSES'S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS

now, and see this
great sight, why the
thorn bush is not
burned. And when
Jehovah saw that
he turned aside to
see, he said from
the midst of the
thorn bush, Draw
not nigh hither;
put off thy sandals
from off thy feet,
for the place
whereon thou
standest is holy
ground.

Moses, Moses.
And he said,
Here am I.
And he said, I
am the God of
thy father, the
God of Abra
ham, the God
of Isaac, and
the God of
Jacob. And
Moses hid his
face; for he
was afraid to
look upon
God.

spoke to Moses and
said to him, I am
Jehovah; and I ap
peared to Abraham,
to Isaac and to Jacob,
as El-Shaddai [God
Almighty] ; but by my
name Jehovah I did
not reveal myself to
them. And I have
also estabhshed my
covenant with them,
to give them the land
of Canaan, the land
in which they so
journed.

2. And Jehovah said, I
Jom** 3 have surely seen the af-
mission fiction of my people
that are in Egypt, and
have heard their cry of
anguish, because of
their taskmasters, for
I know their sorrows;
and I am come down
to deliver them out of
the power of the Egyp
tians, and to bring them
up out of that land
to a land, beautiful
and broad, to a land
flowing with milk and
honey; Go and gather
the elders of Israel to
gether and say to them,
Jehovah, the God of
your fathers, the God of
Abraham, Isaac and
Jacob, hath appeared to

Then God
said, Now, be
hold, the cry
of anguish of
the IsraeUtes
has come to
me ; more
over I have
seen how
sorely the
Egyptians op-
press them.
Come now,
therefore, and
I will send
thee to Pha
raoh, that
thou mayest
bring forth
my people the
IsraeUtes out
of Egypt. But
Moses said to
162

And more
over I have
heard the groan
ing of the Israe
Utes, whom the
Egyptians keep
in bondage ; and
I have remem
bered my cove
nant. Therefore
say to the Israel
ites, 'I am Jeho
vah, and I will
bring you out
from under the
burdens of the
Egyptians, and I
will deUver you
from theirforced
labor, and I will
redeem you with
an outstretched
arm. and with

MOSES'S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS

me, saying, I have surely
visited you, and seen
that which is done to you
in Egypt ; and I have said
I wiU bring you up out
of the affliction of Egypt
to a land flowing with
milk and honey. And
they shall hearken to thy
voice; and thou shalt
come, together with the
elders of Israel, to the
king of Egypt, and ye
shall say to him, ' Je
hovah, the God of the
Hebrews hath appeared
to us; and now let us
go, we pray thee, three
days' journey into the
wilderness, that we may
sacrifice to Jehovah our
God.'

God, Who am
I, that I
should go to
Pharaoh, and
should bring
the Israelites
out of Egypt?
And he said, I
will surely be
with thee; and
this shall be
the sign to
thee, that I
have sent thee:
when thou
shalt have
brought forth
the people out
of Egypt, ye
shall worship
God upon this
mountain.

Then Moses answered
and said, But, behold, they
will not beUeve me, nor
hearken to my voice; for
they will say, ' Jehovah
hath not appeared to you.'
And Jehovah said to him,
What is that in thy hand?
And he said, A staff. And
he said, Cast it on the
ground. And he cast it on
the ground and it became
a serpent; and Moses fled
from before it. Then Je
hovah said to Moses, Put
forth thy hand and take it
by the tail (and he put

Then Moses
said to God,
Behold, if I go
to the Israel
ites and say
to them, 'The
God of your
fathers hath
sent me to

you,

and

they ask me,
'What is his
name?' what
shall I an
swer them?
Then God said
to Moses, I
163

mighty judg
ments, and I will
take you for my
people, and I will
be to you a God ;
and ye shall
know that I am
Jehovah your
God, who bring-
eth you out from
under the bur
dens of the Egyp
tians. And I will
bring you to the
land which I
sware to give to
Abraham, to
Isaac and to
Jacob ; and I will
give it to you as
a heritage, I am
Jehovah.' Then Moses g^Hta
spoke thus to the tion a
Israelites; but |?4nths
they hearkened assur-
not to Moses for
lack of courage,
and because of
the hard forced
labor. Therefore
Jehovah com
manded Moses,
saying, Go in,
speak to Pharaoh
king of Egypt,
that he let the
IsraeUtes go out
of his land. But

MOSES'S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS

forth his hand and laid
hold of it, and it became a
staff in his hand), that they
may beUeve that Jehovah,
the God of their fathers,
the God of Abraham, the
God of Isaac, and the God
of Jacob, hath appeared to
thee. And Jehovah said
furthermore to him, Put
now thy hand into thy
bosom. And he put his
hand into his bosom; and
when he took it out, be
hold, his hand was leprous,
as white as snow. And he
said, Put thy hand into thy
bosom again. (And he put
his hand into his bosom
again; and when he took
it out of his bosom, behold,
it had become again as his
other flesh). And then, if
they will not beUeve thee,
nor hearken to the testi
mony of the first sign, they
will beUeve the testimony
of the other. But if they
will not beUeve even these
two signs, nor hearken to
thy testimony, thou shalt
take of the water of the
Nile, and pour it upon the
dry land; and the water
which thou takest out of
the Nile shall become blood
upon the dry land. But
Moses said to Jehovah, Oh,
Lord, I am not eloquent,
neither before nor since

AM THAT
I AM; and
he said, Thus
shalt thou
say to the
IsraeUtes, ' I
AM hath sent
me to you.'
And God also
said to Moses,
Thus shalt
thou say to
the Israel
ites, 'Jeho
vah, the God
of your fa
thers, the
God of Abra-
ham, the
God of Isaac,
and the God
of Jacob,
hath sent me
to you'; this
is my name
forever, and
by this shall
I be remem
bered from
generationto genera
tion. But I
know that
the king of
Egypt will
not give you
leave to go,
unless com
pelled by a
mighty pow-
164

Moses spoke be-
fore Jehovah,
saying, Behold,
the Israelites
have not heark
ened to me ; how
then shaU Pha-
raoh hear me,
who am not
skilled in speak
ing? Then Je
hovah said to
Moses, See, I
have made thee
as a god to Pha
raoh ; and Aaron
thy brother shall
be thy prophet.
Thou shalt speak
all that I com
mand thee; and
Aaron thy broth
er shall speak to
Pharaoh, that he
let the IsraeUtes
go out of his land.
But I will harden
Pharaoh's heart,
and make my
signs and my
wonders many
in the land of
Egypt. Never
theless Pharaoh
will not hearken
to you. Then I
will lay my hand
upon Egypt and
bring forth my
hosts, my people

MOSES'S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS

thou hast spoken to thy
servant; for I am slow of
speech, and slow of utter
ance. Then Jehovah said
to him, Who hath given
a man a mouth? or who
maketh one dumb, or deaf,
or seeing, or blind? is it
not I, Jehovah? Now
therefore go, and I will
be with thy mouth, and
teach thee what thou shalt
speak.

er. There
fore I will
put forth my
hand and
smite Egypt
with all my
wonderswhich I will
do in its
midst; and
after that he
will let you
go.

the Israelites,
out of the land of
Egypt by great
judgments. And
the Egyptians
shall know that I
am Jehovah,
when I stretch
forth my hand
upon Egypt, and
bring out the
Israelites from
among them.

So Moses went and gathered together all the elders of
the IsraeUtes, and spoke all the words which Jehovah had
spoken to him, and did the signs in the sight of the people.
And the people beUeved ; and when they heard that Jehovah
had visited the IsraeUtes, and that he had seen their afflic
tion, they bowed low their heads in worship.
Then Moses came to Pharaoh and said, The God of the
Hebrews hath met with me ; let us go, we pray, three days'
journey into the wUderness that we may sacrifice to Jehovah
our God; lest he fall upon us with pestilence or with the
sword. But Pharaoh said, Behold, the people of the land
are now many, and would you make them rest from their
tasks? And the same day Pharaoh commanded the task
masters who were over the people, saying, You shall no
longer give the people straw to make brick, as heretofore;
let them go and gather straw for themselves. But the fixed
number of bricks which they have been making heretofore,
you shall lay upon them; you shall not diminish it at aU, for
they are idle; that is why they cry aloud, saying, 'Let us
go and sacrifice to our God.' Let heavier work be laid
upon the men, that they may labor therein and that they
may not regard lying words.
Therefore the taskmasters of the people went out, and
spoke to the people, saying, Thus saith Pharaoh, I will no
longer give you straw. Go yourselves, get straw wherever
you can find it; but none of your work shall be diminished.
165

4. De
liveryof Je
hovah'smes
sage to the
people

5. Pha
raoh's
defiantrefusal
to let
the He
brewsdepart

6. The
addedoppression

MOSES'S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS
So the people were scattered abroad throughout all the land
of Egypt to gather stubble for straw. And the taskmasters
were urgent, saying, You must complete your daily work,
just as when there was straw. And the overseers of the
IsraeUtes, whom Pharaoh's taskmasters had set over them,
were beaten, and asked, Why have you not completed to
day, as yesterday, your prescribed task in making brick?
7. Com- Then the overseers of the Israelites came and complained
ofathe* to Pharaoh, saying, Why do you deal thus with your ser-
over- vants? There is no straw given to your servants, and yet
they are saying to us, ' Make bricks,' and now your servants
are being beaten ; and you wrong your people. But he said,
You are lazy, you are lazy; therefore you say, ' Let us go
and sacrifice to Jehovah.' Go at once to work, for no straw
shall be given to you, yet you must deliver the required
number of bricks. And the overseers of the Israelites saw
that they were in an evil plight, when it was said, You shall
not diminish anything from your daily total of bricks.
And they met Moses and Aaron, who had stationed them
selves there to meet them as they came forth from Pha
raoh, and they said to them, Let Jehovah regard and pro
nounce judgment; because you have made us odious in the
eyes of Pharaoh and in the eyes of his courtiers, in that you
have put a sword in their hand to slay us.
8. Then Moses turned again to Jehovah, and said, Lord,
protest Why hast thou brought calamity upon this people? why is
it that thou hast sent me ? For since I came to Pharaoh
to speak in thy name, he has dealt ill with this people ; and
thou hast not delivered thy people at all.
9. Je- f And Jehovah answered Moses, Now thou shalt see what
rS^ s I will do to Pharaoh ; for, compelled by a mighty power, he
surance shall assuredly let them go, yea, compelled by a mighty
power, he shall drive them out of his land.
I. The Three Different Accounts of Moses's Call and Commission.
In the Old Testament, as in the Gospel narratives, the more important
events are recorded in three and sometimes four different versions.
Regarding Moses's call there are three distinct accounts and each is
important. Back of them all lies a deep spiritual experience, which de
termined not only the course of Moses's life but that of Hebrew history.
166

DIFFERENT ACCOUNTS OF MOSES'S CALL
In conveying to their readers a definite impression of the nature of that
inner experience, it was inevitable that each group of narrators should
employ different literary figures. The task was comparable to that of
the early Judean prophet, who in the third chapter of Genesis has pic
tured the struggle in the mind of the woman between appetite, aesthetic
sense, curiosity and the love of knowledge on the one hand, and love and
gratitude and obedience on the other. Each group of narrators, with
marvellous skill, has succeeded in bringing out, in form intelligible to
their readers, the essential facts. Regarding these facts they are also
in fundamental agreement.
II. The Earliest Version. The divine call, according to the early
Judean narrative, came to Moses from a flaming thorn bush. The
story reflects the primitive belief that the Deity sometimes spoke through
trees (cf. § I*")- The essential fact, which the ancient Hebrew story
clearly sets forth, is that out of the midst of the wild life of the wilderness
there came to the mind of Moses a vivid conception of Jehovah's tran
scendent holiness and majesty, of the needs of the oppressed Hebrews, of
the possibility of their deliverance, and of his own obligation to return
and lead them forth.
This version of the call of Moses is in many ways strikingly similar
to that of the youthful Isaiah, recorded in the sixth chapter of his
prophecy. Both felt the crying needs of their race, and the necessity
that some one arise and proclaim the divine truth that alone promised
deliverance. Both were also profoundly impressed by the majesty of
the Almighty who thus spoke to them. Their call represented that
unique moment in their experience, when the voices of duty calling to
them from every side became the mighty challenge from God himself,
to which they responded, "Here, Lord, send me."
III. The Later Prophetic and Priestly Versions. The early
Northern Israelite narrators state that Moses led the flock of Jethro,
his father-in-law, which he was guarding, to the back of the wilderness
and came to the mountain of God. On that sacred mount, which prob
ably stood out in striking contrast to the rolling, rocky wilderness, God
spoke directly to the heart of the future prophet and received the desired
response. The memories of the way in which that God had revealed
himself in the life and experience of his ancestors rose clearly before the
mind of Moses. Awe overwhelmed him in the presence of the Almighty,
but above all there came to him the anguished cry of his countrymen,
sorely oppressed by the Egyptians, and the personal call to deliver them
from the hand of Pharaoh. With this call there came the divine assur-
167

MOSES'S CALL TO DELIVER THE HEBREWS
ance that in the strength of the God of the sacred mountain they should
be led forth to worship him at that holy spot.
The late priestly narrators give the needs of the oppressed Hebrews
the same central place in the call of their prophetic deUverer. They
likewise emphasize God's revelation of himself in the past history of the
race, and formulate in their characteristic legal language the assur
ance that by the divine hand the Hebrews shall be delivered from their
cruel oppression, and that Moses is called to be the agent of that de
liverance. IV. The Divine Assurance. Moses's hesitation in accepting the
divine call is also brought out in each of the three versions. In the
early Judean, his faith is strengthened by two miraculous signs which, in
turn, are to be used as credentials, as he presents himself before the elders
of his race. The chief reason for his hesitation is that he is not gifted
in the art of public address. This excuse is answered by the divine
assurance that Jehovah himself, who created the Ufe of man, will be with
his mouth and teach him what he shall speak.
In the Northern Israelite version the revelation of the sacred name,
Jehovah or Yahweh, is recorded for the first time. The popular mean
ing "I am that I am," interpreted in the light of Jehovah's work as
creator and leader of his people, is made the earnest of the promised
deliverance. Thus Moses's fear that his mission will be fruitless is dis
pelled by the divine assurance, based on the character of God, ais already
revealed in the life of man.
The late priestly narrators, interested in the history of their traditional
father Aaron, meet Moses's objection that he is not a gifted speaker by
providing that Aaron shall be bis spokesman. In the classic passage,
which illustrates the Hebrew conception of the true character of the
prophet, Aaron is appointed as Moses's prophet, that is, one who, like
the prophets of Jehovah, shall first learn the wiU and message of the
one he represents, and then, in form adapted to the intelligence of the
people, proclaim it to them clearly and authoritatively.
V. The Underlying Facts. The later events of Hebrew history
point definitely to a personality and work like that of Moses. His
work is, in turn, explained only by some deep spiritual experience which
turned his activity into the channels of national leadership. Early
Hebrew history, therefore, as a whole, confirms the testimony of these
variant traditions that in some mysterious way the divine call came to
Moses and that in response to it he became a prophet. These variant
narratives also suggest the different factors that entered into that call:
168

THE UNDERLYING FACTS
the pitiable oppression of his kinsmen and the need of an enlightened
leader, who would bind them together and champion their cause, even
in the presence of the tyrannical Pharaoh. The background — the
wilderness with its solitude, with its Ufe emphasizing the constant need
of divine care and protection, the manifestations of the power of God in
Nature, and the holy mountain with its historic associations — all these
prepared the ear of the prophet to hear God's still small voice. Moses's
hesitation, like that of Jeremiah, reveals his high sense of responsibility.
His full appreciation of the greatness of the task and his faith in
God's power and ability to realize his divine purposes in human history
are the unfailing marks of a true prophet.
§ XXH. THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES
Then Jehovah said to Moses, Pharaoh's heart is stubborn ; 1. Je- _
he refuseth to let the people go. But thou shalt say to him, ^a™- "
'Jehovah, the God of the Hebrews, hath sent me to thee to ggta
say, "Let my people go that they may worship me in the raoh
wilderness; but hitherto thou hast not hearkened. Thus
saith Jehovah, In this thou shalt know that I am Jehovah;
behold, I wiU smite, and the fish that are in the Nile shall
die, and the NUe shaU become foul, so the Egyptians shaU
loathe to drink the water from the NUe." '
Thereupon Jehovah smote the NUe, and the fish that were 2. De-
in the NUe died, and the NUe became foul, so that the Egyp- J^nt
tians could not drink the water from the Nile. And all the °f*e
Egyptians dug round about the NUe for water to drink ; for
they could not drink the water of the NUe.
When seven fuU days had passed after Jehovah had |^arma
smitten the NUe, Jehovah commanded Moses, Go in to 0fai"
Pharaoh, and say to him, ' Thus saith Jehovah, "Let my iloef
people go that they may worship me. And if thou refuse
to let them go, then I wiU smite aU thy territory with frogs;
and the NUe shaU swarm with frogs which shaU go up and
come into thy house, and into thy bedchamber, and upon
thy bed, and into the house of thy courtiers, and upon thy
people, and into thine ovens and kneading troughs; and the
frogs shall come up even upon thee and thy people and aU
thy courtiers."' Thereupon Jehovah smote the land of
Egypt with frogs. 169

THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES
4. Pha- Then Pharaoh called for Moses and said, Make suppli-
rrauest cation to Jehovah, that he may take away the frogs from
me, and my people; then I wiU let the people go, that they
may sacrifice to Jehovah. And Moses said to Pharaoh,
Will you graciously inform me at what tune I shaU make
supplication in your behaU and in behalf of your courtiers
and people, that the frogs be destroyed from your palaces
and be left only in the Nile? And he answered, To-morrow.
Then Moses said, Be it as you say ; that you may know that
there is none like Jehovah our God. The frogs shaU de
part from you, and from your palaces, from your courtiers
and people, they shall be left only in the NUe.
6. His Then when Moses had gone out from Pharaoh, he cried
perfidy ^0 jehovah in regard to the frogs which he had brought
upon Pharaoh. And Jehovah did according to the word
of Moses; and the frogs died out of the houses, out of the
courts, and out of the fields. And they gathered them to
gether into innumerable heaps ; and the land was filled with
a vile odor. But when Pharaoh saw that a respite had come,
he hardened his heart.
6. Then Jehovah said to Moses, Rise up early in the morning,
ofgad? and stand before Pharaoh, just as he goes out to the water,
flies and say to him, 'Thus saith Jehovah, "Let my people go
that they may worship me. For U thou wUt not let my people
go, then I wiU send swarms of gad-flies upon thee, thy court
iers, and thy people, and into thy palaces, so that the houses
of the Egyptians shall be fuU of swarms of gad-flies, as well
as the ground whereon they are. And I wUl set apart in
that day the land of Goshen, in which my people dweU, so
that no swarms of gad-flies shall be there, in order that
thou mayest know that I am Jehovah in the midst of the
earth. And I will put a division between my people and
thy people ; by to-morrow shall this sign be." ' And Je
hovah did so; and there came troublesome swarms of gad
flies into the palace of Pharaoh; and in all Egypt the land
was ruined because of the swarms of gad-flies.
7. Pha- Then Pharaoh called Moses, and said, Go, sacrifice to
consent vour God here in this land. But Moses said, It is not ad-
remiest v^sawe so to do; for we shall sacrifice to Jehovah our God
that which the Egyptians abhor; if now we sacrifice before
170

THE EGYPTIAN BLAGUES
their eyes that which the Egyptians abhor, will they not
stone us? We wish to go three days' journey in the wilder
ness and sacrifice to our God, as he shall command us.
And Pharaoh said, I will let you go, that you may sacrifice
to Jehovah your God in the wilderness; only you shall
not go very far away. Make suppUcation in my behalf.
And Moses said, I am now going out from you, and I wUl
make suppUcation to Jehovah that the swarms of gad-flies
may depart from Pharaoh, from his courtiers and people
to-morrow; only let not Pharaoh again deal deceitfully
by refusing to let the people go to sacrifice to Jehovah.
So Moses went out from Pharaoh and made supplication 8. His
to Jehovah. And Jehovah did according to the word of ptated
Moses; and he removed the swarms of gad-flies from Pha- Perfidy
raoh, from his courtiers and people, until not one was left.
But Pharaoh was stubborn in heart this time also, and he
did not let the people go.
Then Jehovah said to Moses, Go in to Pharaoh and tell 9.
him, 'Thus saith Jehovah the God of the Hebrews, "Let Sethe
my people go that they may worship me. For if thou refuse cattle
to let them go and still holdest them, then will the hand of lgyPe-
Jehovah be upon thy cattle which are in the field, upon the tians
horses, the asses, the camels, the herds and the flocks, in
the form of a very severe pest. But Jehovah will make a
distinction between the cattle of Israel and the cattle of
Egypt, and nothing shall die of all that belongs to the
IsraeUtes." ' Accordingly Jehovah appointed a set time,
saying, To-morrow Jehovah shall do this in the land. And
Jehovah did that thing on the morrow: and all the cattle
of Egypt died; but of the cattle of the IsraeUtes none died.
Then Pharaoh sent and found that not even one of the cattle
of the IsraeUtes was dead. But the heart of Pharaoh was
stubborn and he did not let the people go.
Then Jehovah said to Moses, Rise up early in the morning, iouDe-
and stand before Pharaoh, and say to him, 'Thus saith l™~
Jehovah, the God of the Hebrews, "Let my people go, that haU
they may worship me. Dost thou still exalt thyself against
my people, in that thou wilt not let them go? Then to
morrow about this tune I will send down a very heavy fall
of hail, such as hath not been in Egypt since the day it was
171

THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES
founded, even until the present." ' So Jehovah sent thunder
and hail; and fire ran down upon the earth; and Jehovah
rained haU upon the land of Egypt. And the hail was very
severe, such as had not been in aU the land of Egypt since
it became a nation. And the hail smote all the vegetation
of the field, and shattered every tree of the field. Only in
the province of Goshen, where the IsraeUtes were, was there
no hail.
n.Pha- Then Pharaoh sent, and caUed for Moses, and said to him,
raoh's j have sinned this time; Jehovah is in the right and I and
tinued my people are in the wrong. Make suppUcation to Jehovah
perfidy — fQr f^ere jjas j,een more than enough of these mighty
thunderings and hail. I wiU let you go, and you shall stay
no longer. Then Moses said to him, As soon as I am gone
out of the city, I will spread out my hands in prayer to Je
hovah ; the thunders shall cease, and there shall be no more
hail, that thou mayest know that the land is Jehovah's.
But as for you and your courtiers, I know that even then
you wiU not fear Jehovah. So Moses went out of the city
from Pharaoh, and spread out his hands to Jehovah. Then
the thunders and hail ceased, and the ram was no longer
poured upon the earth. But when Pharaoh saw that the
rain and the hail and the thunders had ceased, he sinned
yet again and was stubborn in heart, he together with his
courtiers.
i2.Je-_ Then Jehovah said to Moses, Go in to Pharaoh. So
hovah's ]yroses went in to Pharaoh, and said to him, Thus saith
ing Jehovah, the God of the Hebrews, 'How long wilt thou
refuse to humble thyself before me? let my people go that
they may worship me. For if thou refuse to let my people
go, to-morrow I will bring locusts into thy territory, and they
shall cover the surface of the earth, so that one shall not be
able to see the earth, and they shall eat the residue of that
which is escaped, which remaineth to you from the hail,
and shall eat every tree which groweth for you out of the
field ; and thy palaces shall be filled, and the houses of all
thy courtiers, and of all the Egyptians; neither thy fathers
nor thy fathers' fathers have seen the like, since the day
that they were upon the earth to this day.' Then he turned
and went out from Pharaoh. 172

THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES
Thereupon Pharaoh's courtiers said to him, How long is i3.par.
this man to be a snare to us? Let the men go that they tial
may worship Jehovah their God. Do you not know that of Pha-
Egypt is being destroyed? So Moses was brought again to [ndhis
Pharaoh, and he said to him, Go worship Jehovah, your °our"
God ; but who are they that shall go ? And Moses said, We 'era
wUl go with our young, and with our old men, with our sons
and with our daughters, with our flocks, and with our herds
wUl we go ; for we must hold a feast to Jehovah. And he
said to them, May Jehovah then be with you. If I let you
go together with your Uttle ones, beware, for evil is before
you. Nay, rather, you men go and worship Jehovah, for
that is what you desire. Then they were driven out from
Pharaoh's presence.
And Jehovah caused an east wind to blow over the land i4.De-
aU that day, and aU the night ; and when it was morning the tkfn of
east wind had brought the locusts, and they settled down jjj£db
in aU the territory of Egypt, exceedingly many ; before them iocustsy
there were never so many locusts as they, neither after
them shaU there ever be so many. For they covered the
surface of the whole land, so that the land looked dark,
and nothing green was left, either tree or herb of the field,
throughout all the land of Egypt.
Then Pharaoh caUed for Moses in haste, and said, I have
sinned against Jehovah your God, and against you. Now
therefore forgive, I pray thee, my sin only this once, and
make suppUcation to Jehovah your God, that he may at
least take away from me this deadly plague. So he went
out from Pharaoh and made suppUcation to Jehovah. And
Jehovah caused to blow from the opposite direction an ex
ceeding strong west wind, which took up the locusts and
cast them into the Red Sea; not a single locust was left in
aU the territory of Egypt.
Then Pharaoh called Moses, and said, Go, worship Je- i6.
hovah, only let your flocks and your herds remain behind; f°lif^
let your Uttle ones also go with you. But Moses said, You te.™ew
must also give us sacrifices and burnt-offerings, that we Fha-
may sacrifice to Jehovah our God. Our cattle also must raoh
go with us ; not a hoof shaU be left behind ; for we must take
these to offer to Jehovah our God ; and we do not know what
173

THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES
we must offer to Jehovah, until we come thither. There
upon Pharaoh said to him, Begone from me, beware, never
see my face again ; for in the day you see my face you shall
die. And Moses said, You have spoken truly, I shaU never
see your face again.
17. The But Moses said, Thus saith Jehovah, 'About midnight
^m- I will go throughout the midst of Egypt; and aU the first-
mg born in the land of Egypt shaU die, from the first-bom
of Pharaoh who sitteth upon his throne, even to the
first-born of the maid-servant, that is behind the miU. And
there shall be a great wail of lamentation throughout all
the land of Egypt, the hke of which has never been, and
shall never be again.' But against none of the IsraeUtes
shaU a dog move his tongue, against neither man nor beast;
that you may know that Jehovah doth make a distinction
between the Egyptians and Israel. And all these your
courtiers shall come down to me, and prostrate themselves
before me, saying, 'Go forth, together with all the people
that follow you'; and after that I will go out. Thereupon
he went out from Pharaoh in hot anger.
is. pi- Then Moses called all the elders of Israel, and said to them,
regard? Draw out and take lambs from the herds and kiU. And you
depart- saau ta^e a Duncn 0I hyssop, and dip it in the blood that is
ure in the basin, and strike the lintel and the two door-posts
with the blood that is in the basin ; but, as regards yourselves,
none of you shall go out of the door of his house. For
Jehovah will pass through to smite the Egyptians; and when
he seeth the blood upon the lintel, and on the two door
posts, Jehovah will pass over the door, and wUl not suffer
the Destroyer to come into your houses to smite you. Then
the people bowed low then- heads in worship.
19. And it came to pass at midnight, that Jehovah smote all
otethe the first-bom in the land of Egypt, from the first-bom of
bSrn" of Pharaoh who sat on his throne to the first-bom of the cap-
the tive that was in the prison. Then Pharaoh rose up in the
tifn?" night, together with all his courtiers and the Egyptians,
and there arose a great wail in Egypt for there was not a
house where there was not one dead. And he called Moses
and Aaron by night and said, Arise, go forth from the midst
of my people, together with the IsraeUtes; go, worship Je-
174

THE DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PLAGUE STORIES
hovah as you have requested. Also take with you your
sheep and your cattle, as you have requested, and go and
ask a blessing for me. And the Egyptians urged the people
strenuously, that they might send them quickly out of the
land, for they said to themselves, Else we shall be dead.
Therefore the people took their dough before it was leavened,
then- kneading troughs being bound up in their clothes
upon their shoulders.
I. The Different Groups of Plague Stories. In the remarkable
treaty, which Ramses II concluded early in his reign with the Hittites
who held northern Syria (Introd.IIIvi), provision was made for cooper
ation in punishing delinquent subjects and in the extradition of political
fugitives and immigrants, so that it was almost impossible to escape
from the power of the Pharaoh. The problem of why the Israelite serfs
were ever allowed to depart from Egypt was evidently in the minds of
the later Hebrew narrators. All the traditions are agreed that the
Egyptians did not consent until a series of remarkable calamities had
broken their spirit and weakened their resources. Regarding the
nature of these calamities each group of narrators had its characteristic
version. In the late priestly narratives the plagues are all of a miracu
lous origin and character. They are, in fact, not so much plagues as
wonders, performed in the presence of Pharaoh by Aaron's magical
staff, to prove his superiority over the Egyptian magicians. In the
Northern Israelite narratives Moses himself wields the staff which calls
forth the plague. In the early Judean narratives (cf. above) Jehovah
sends the plagues after Moses has each time warned Pharaoh of the
coming calamity. In these oldest records the plagues are not miracles,
but simply natural phenomena characteristic of Egypt. Their magni
tude and severity alone are unprecedented. Fortunately, this oldest
history has been quoted fuUy, only two or three paragraphs having been
lost. Separated from the later versions, it furnishes a closely connected
account of seven distinct plagues.
II. The Oldest Account of the Plagues. Each plague is introduced
by the same formulas and scenes. Each succeeding plague is more
severe than the preceding, until the divine judgment reaches it culmina
tion in the death of the first-born. They also appear to stand in a cer
tain logical and chronological order. The defilement of the waters of
the Nile may well have occurred in July or August, when the river is at
its height. The second plague would fall most naturally in September,
175

THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES
when frogs are most common in Egypt. Their rapid increase would
naturally follow from the defilement of the waters. In the hot climate
of Egypt the huge heaps of decaying frogs would inevitably breed great
swarms of flies in the following months of October and November.
The flies would in turn spread abroad the disease germs which attacked
the animals and flocks in the pest-ridden region of the Nile. In the land
of Egypt the plague of hail would be possible only in the rainy month of
January. The great swarms of locusts, which may have obscured the
sun, causing the local darkness described in the Northern Israelite nar
ratives, came most naturally in the early spring just before the Passover,
with which the last plague was associated.
III. The Egyptian Background of the Plagues. Owing to the
presence of vegetable matter or minute organisms washed down by the
Nile when it rises in June, the water is first colored green and then later
turns to a dull reddish tinge. Many early travellers have commented
on the unwholesomeness of the water at this stage. To-day, as in the
past, the Nile is the only source of water supply in lower Egypt. Any
unusual natural or local cause, which would corrupt the water of this
sacred river, would bring in its train the plagues which immediately
follow each other in the biblical stories. Early writers report repeated
plagues of frogs in different parts of the ancient world. Gnats and sting
ing flies of various kinds are perennial plagues in the land of the Nile.
Cattle plagues are also common. One was reported in 1842, which de
stroyed forty thousand oxen. In the late priestly account the plague
attacked men as well as animals. The Hebrews, hving apart in the
land of Goshen, were in a different zone and would naturally escape
those plagues which appear, according to the earhest records, to have
been confined to the lower Nile valley.
Thunder storms, with lightening and hail, although very rare in
Egypt, are not unknown during the rainy months. One observer saw
hail storms but three times in twelve years. Lepsius states that "in
December, 1843, there was a terrific storm with hail which made the
day dark as night." The statement in the Northern Israelite version
that the plague came "when the barley was in the ear and the flax was
in the bloom" fixes the date about the middle of January.
Although the locust plagues are more common in Palestine, travellers
in Egypt have observed great swarms of these insects, which often ob
scure the light of the sun and destroy all vegetation in their path.
Prom ancient times Egypt has been the home of many kinds of
pestilence. Its hot climate and dense population favor the propagation
176

THE EGYPTIAN BACKGROUND
and spread of contagious diseases. The preceding plagues had pre
pared the way for the sudden and terrible pestilence which spared neither
young nor old, strong nor weak, cutting off the flower (the first-born) of
every Egyptian home. Again, however, the Hebrews, living apart from
the afflicted district, escaped the dread scourge.
IV. Historical Facts Underlying the Plague Stories. The con
temporary Egyptian records contain no direct references to the biblical
plagues. Merneptah, in his old age, succeeded his father Ramses II.
For ten years at least, until 1215 B.C., he maintained the Egyptian rule
in Palestine. He also succeeded in repelling the Libyan hordes which
came from the northwest, and died peacefully and was buried with his
ancestors at Thebes.
After the death of Merneptah, however, a series of calamities overtook
Egypt, which are probably the basis of the Hebrew plague stories.
Rival pretenders contended for the throne and civil war broke out in
many parts of the empire. By the close of the thirteenth century com
plete anarchy prevailed. The local nobles and chiefs improved the
opportunity to proclaim their independence or to make war upon each
other. The land was deluged with blood. A later king (Ramses III)
states that, "Every man was thrown out of his right; they had no chief
ruler for many years until later times. The land of Egypt was in the
hands of the nobles and rulers of towns; each slew his neighbor, great
and small" (Harris Papyrus, TV, 398). Famine with aU its misery and
horrors followed.
At this time also a certain Syrian proclaimed himself king. " He made
the entire land tributary to him; he united his companions and plun
dered their possessions. They made the gods like men and no offerings
were presented at the temples " (Harris Papyrus). While no one would
attempt to identify this Syrian with Moses, the narrative reveals a state
of affairs in Egypt, which made it very easy for the Hebrews on the
eastern borders to break away from their hateful bondage. The Libyans
and other foreign invaders also improved this opportunity to invade
and plunder Egypt. In the hot, unsanitary climate of the Nile, the
anarchy and bloodshed and famine that prevailed may weU have given
rise to a series of plagues culminating in a terrible pestilence, as recorded
in the oldest Hebrew traditions. Although differing in details, the
oldest biblical narratives and the contemporary records are therefore
in fundamental agreement.
V. The Significance of the National Calamities. The Egyptian
king, who finally succeeded in restoring order, imphes in the account of
177

THE EGYPTIAN PLAGUES
his work that the preceding disasters were due to the disfavor of the
gods. With true insight Israel's prophetic historians saw in these same
events the hand of Jehovah preparing the way for the deliverance of his
people. As the traditions were handed down, each succeeding genera
tion expressed this truth in more definite and concrete terms, until the
stories have assumed their present form. Underlying these stories is
the great truth that there is no chance in God's universe. The seemingly
important and unimportant events in human history aU conserve his
divine purpose. No human power — the wiU of kings nor the might
of empires — can hinder the realization of that purpose. Those who
resist it are broken, but those who, like the IsraeUtes, act in ac
cord with the divine will are trained for service and led on to a noble
destiny. VI. The Traditional Origin of the Passover. Both the early and
the late Hebrew traditions agree in tracing the origin of the feast of the
Passover to the great deliverance from Egypt. Moses's original request
of Pharaoh was that the Hebrews might go out three days' journey
into the wilderness to sacrifice to their God. The object was evidently
to celebrate the spring festival which had long been an estabhshed
institution among the Semitic ancestors of the Hebrews. At this
ancient feast all members of a clan or tribe came together to renew the
covenant with their tribal god. A lamb was sacrificed and its flesh eaten
amidst feasting and rejoicing (cf. St. O.T., IV, p. 258). It was a time
of joy and thanksgiving. In associating it with the great dehverance
from Egypt, the later Hebrew prophets and priests gave it a new mean
ing, and yet at the same time emphasized the original content of the old
Semitic feast. Even as the ancient Teutonic and Roman festivals
were transformed into Christmas, so the old Semitic feast of thanks
giving became the Hebrew Passover. It remained preeminently the
festival of the family or clan. The pascal Iamb symbolized the renewal
of the covenant with Jehovah. The blood sprinkled on the door-posts
and lintels, the dish of bitter herbs, the girded loins, the sandals on the
feet, and the staff in hand all recalled the great detiverance. The songs
and prayers appropriately voiced the gratitude of the race for this and
the subsequent proofs of Jehovah's tender love and care.

178

THE EXODUS

§ XXIII. THE EXODUS

Now the IsraeUtes went forth from Egypt, about six l.The
hundred thousand men on foot, not including children. ^art"
And a mixed multitude went up also with them; and flocks £om
and herds, even very great possessions. And they baked *
unleavened cakes of the dough which they had brought
forth out of Egypt; for it was not leavened, because they
had been driven out of Egypt, and could not wait, neither
had they prepared for themselves any food for the way.
And Jehovah went before them by day in a piUar of cloud, 2. je-
to show them the way, and by night in a pillar of fire, to hoyah'a
give them fight; that they might march by day and by See"
night ; the pUlar of cloud by day and the piUar of fire by night
did not depart from before the people.
When the king of Egypt was told that the people had fled, 3. Pha-
the feeling of Pharaoh and his courtiers toward the people ™£*it
was changed, and they said, What is this we have done, ofthe
that we have let Israel go from serving us? And he made *tesael"
ready his chariot, and took his people with him, and all the
chariots of Egypt.
And when Pharaoh drew near, the Israelites lifted up 4. Ter-
their eyes and saw the Egyptians marching after them; [ge°f
and they were exceedingly afraid, and they said to Moses, V*™1-
Was it because there were no graves in Egypt, that you have Ites
taken us away to die in the wUderness? Why have you
dealt thus with us, in bringing us forth out of Egypt? Is
not this what we told you in Egypt, when we said, 'Let us
alone, that we may serve the Egyptians? For it was better
for us to serve the Egyptians than that we should die in the
wilderness.' And Moses said to the people, Fear not, stand
still and see the dehverance which Jehovah will accompfish
for you to-day ; for as surely as you now see the Egyptians,
you shall never see them again forever. Jehovah wUl
fight for you, and you are to keep still.
Then the piUar of cloud changed its position from before 5. The
them and stood behind them. And the cloud Ughted up SehVer-
the night ; yet throughout the entire night the one army did ance
not come near the other. And Jehovah caused the sea to
179

THE EXODUS
go back by a strong east wind all that night, and made the
bed of the sea dry. And it came to pass in the watch be
fore the dawn, that Jehovah looked forth through the pUlar
of fire and of cloud upon the host of the Egyptians, and he
bound thek chariot wheels, so that they proceeded with
difficulty. Then the Egyptians said, Let us flee from before
Israel; for Jehovah fighteth for them against the Egyptians.
But the sea returned to its ordinary level towards morning,
whUe the Egyptians were flying before it. And Jehovah
overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea, so that not
one of them remained. Thus Jehovah saved Israel that
day out of the power of the Egyptians; and Israel saw the
Egyptians dead upon the sea-shore.
6. song Then Moses and the IsraeUtes sang this song to Jehovah,
thanks- using these words:

giving

I wUl sing to Jehovah for he is greatly exalted;
Horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea.
Jehovah is my strength and my song,
For to me hath he brought dehverance;
This is my God, him I praise,
My fathers' God, him I extol.
7. je- Jehovah is indeed a warrior, Jehovah is his name:
hovahs Ipbg chariots of Pharaoh and his host hath he cast into
^^.nr the sea;
And the best of his captains have sunk down in the Red Sea ;
The floods cover them, they have gone down into the
depths hke a stone.
Thy right hand, 0 Jehovah, is glorious in power,
Thy right hand, 0 Jehovah, shattereth the foe.
Through the greatness of thy majesty thou over-
throwest thine opposers.
Thou sendest forth thy wrath, it consumeth them hke
stubble.

warrior

By the wrath of thy nostrils were the waters pUed up,

8. His
overthrow _- -*
of the The surging waters stood upright as a heap.
tiara" The floods were congealed hi the midst of the sea.
180

THE TRIPLE TRADITION OF THE EXODUS
The foe said, • I wiU pursue, yea, I will overtake,
I will divide spoil, on them shall my desire be satisfied,
I wiU draw my sword, my hand shall destroy them.'
Thou didst blow with thy breath, the sea covered him,
Down in the mighty waters they sank like lead.
I. The Triple Tradition of the Exodus. As in the case of each im
portant event in early Hebrew history, there are three distinct accounts
of the deliverance from Egypt. These have been closely blended into
a continuous narrative, but the task of separating them is not difficult.
The early Judean prophetic and the late priestly versions are each com
plete. The Northern Israelite account has been quoted only in part,
but can be supplemented in the light of Joshua's address found in
Joshua 24. These three distinct versions illustrate well the transforma
tion through which the story passed, when transmitted from generation
to generation through different groups of teachers. In the earliest
account the narrative is circumstantial and in harmony with conditions
pictured in the contemporary Egyptian inscriptions. The instrument
of dehverance, the east wind which blows back the waters, is in perfect
keeping with the means used by Jehovah to accomplish his purposes,
in the present as in the paist. The late priestly version, however, which
comes from those exiUc teachers who were more profoundly impressed
by God's transcendent power than by the actual ways in which he
accomplishes his ends, magnifies the supernatural element.
II. The Number of the Hebrews. In the early Judean narrative
it is stated that the Hebrew refugees included six hundred thousand
men, not counting children. This number is repeated in Exodus 12s7,
which belongs to the same source. Possibly the Hebrew text originally
read and should be translated, six hundred clans. Inasmuch as
definite numbers are rarely given in this early source, it is also possible
that the present statement was added by some later compiler. Certainly
it is not supported by the .evidence which comes from the subsequent
stories. As has already been noted, the Northern Israelite narrative
of Exodus l15"19 suggests that they numbered hundreds rather than
thousands. Even in the days of Deborah, when they had absorbed
many other desert and Canaanite tribes, only about forty thousand
warriors rallied on the battle-field. In the days of David the census
of the larger northern tribes reveals but eight hundred thousand fight
ing men. The stories of the deliverance, the wilderness wanderings
and the conquest, all indicate that not more than a few thousand He-
181

THE EXODUS
brews were included in that nucleus of the later nation which escaped
from the land of bondage.
III. Their Probable Route. The late priestly narrative states that
the Hebrews rallied at Succoth (Egyptian Thuku, cf. § XVIIP-), which
may be identical with the Pithom of the earliest records. Two routes lay
before them. One ran to the north, then turned to the northeast along
the .shore of the Mediterranean. This was known as the " Way of the
Philistines" and led directly to the land of Palestine. It was, however,
more exposed to Egyptian attack, and advance was barred on the bord
ers of Palestine by the Philistines, who were a strongly intrenched,
energetic people. Escape along this route, therefore, was almost im
possible. The Hebrews evidently chose the so-called, "Way of the Red
Sea," the highway which ran straight out into the desert along the cara
van route which ultimately led to Elath and central Arabia. A journey
of fifteen or twenty miles along the valley, which extended eastward
toward the desert, brought them to the frontier fortresses which guarded
the eastern entrance to the land of Egypt. From the reign of Merneptah
comes a list, prepared by an officer of one of the frontier garrisons which
guarded the caravan route, of those who passed by on this great artery
of communication between Asia and the land of the Nile. It would
seem that this frontier fortress was built near either the western arm
of the Red Sea or the series of shallow lakes which marked its northern
extension. It is also probable that a frontier wall ran from the fortress
and connected with these lakes, compelling all who entered or departed
from the land of Egypt to pass through its gates.
TV. The Method of Travel in the Wilderness. The early Judean
narrative gives a vivid picture of the way in which the Hebrews marched.
The underlying historical facts are suggested by the way in which carar
vans still journey through the wilderness. The leader who goes in front
often bears aloft, on the end of a long pole, a brazier filled with smoking
coals from which rises a column of smoke. In the clear Ught of the
desert, this column of smoke can be seen by the different members of
the caravan, even though they lag many miles behind. Thus it is possi
ble to determine at all times the position of the leader and the direction
in which the caravan is moving. By night these glowing coals, held on
high, accomplish the same end and make possible the long midnight
journeys, which are often required in order to reach the distant springs.
In the inimitable language of the early story-tellers, the fundamental
truth that Jehovah through his prophet was ever leading them by day
and by night on to their destiny is forcibly set forth.
182

THE GREAT DELIVERANCE
V. The Great Deliverance. Soon after the news of the flight of the
Hebrew serfs is brought to the Egyptian authorities, a detachment of
cavalry is in hot pursuit. As the Hebrews approach the border fort
ress they evidently find its gates closed and their way of escape cut off.
In the light of the Egyptian records and the topography of the region
the situation can readily be imagined: before them, the fortress with
walls which extended out into the shallow waters of the Sea of Reeds;
behind them, the pursuing Egyptians; and in their own ranks fear and
distrust of the prophet, who had held up before them in the name of
Jehovah the definite promise of deliverance. Escape seems impossible
to all save the undaunted leader, whose trust is fixed in the God who had
revealed himself on the sacred mount.
The more familiar late priestly narrative pictures Moses, as simply
stretching out his hand over the sea, and then leading his followers
through the divided waters, which stand as a wall on either side. The
older and simpler narrative, however, suggests the historical facts. In
the time of their direst need the God, who controlled the forces of Nat
ure, sent forth a strong east wind, which drove back the shallow waters
of the Sea of Reeds, malting it possible for his people to escape around
the guarding walls across the bed of the sea and out into the freedom
of the desert. The Egyptians, pursuing with their heavy chariots, were
caught and overwhelmed in the returning waters.
VI. Similar Natural Phenomena. Many analogies to the phe
nomenon here recorded might be cited from modern records. As is
well known, the Russians, in 1738, entered and captured the Crimea
through a passage made by the wind through the Putrid Sea. The clos
est analogy, however, is recorded by Major-General Tulloch, who states
that the shallow waters of Lake Menzaleh, which lies a short distance
north of the scene of the dehverance of the Hebrews, were driven back
seven miles by a strong wind, leaving the bottom of the lake dry (Journal
of the Victorian Institute, Vol. XXVIII, p. 267, and Vol. XXVI, p. 12).
A recent iUustration of the power of wind over water, especially when re-
enforced by the tide, is found in the Galveston disaster of 1900.
VII. The Song of Thanksgiving. The prophetic narrators have
quoted two lines of the refrain, and possibly certain other stanzas of the
song which the grateful Hebrews sang after the signal dehverance.
The later poets, famiUar with the present composite narrative, have
extended this refrain into a noble and commemorative ode, which re
calls the different scenes in that great crisis which revealed so clearly
God's power and love for his people. 183

THE EXODUS
VIII. Significance of the Great Deliverance. The fact that Goa
used natural means "his wonders to perform" makes the deliverance
none the less significant. It simply illustrates the truth that there is
no chance in his universe. Not so much the method, but the oppor
tuneness of the dehverance clearly revealed the divine hand. At the
moment of their supreme need, he showed not only his power but his
eagerness to deliver his people. The great dehverance confirmed the
authority of Moses and made it possible to impress profoundly his per-
sonaUty and teaching upon the character and consciousness of his race.
It also established a basis for that covenant which they conceived of as
existing between them and the God, who had thus signally saved them.
All Hebrew literature abounds in references to this event. Amos and
Hosea appeal to it as the supreme reason why Israel should be loyal to
its God. In the laws of Deuteronomy, generosity toward the slave,
kindness and justice toward the resident alien, and charity toward the
poor and needy, are all urged "because thou wast a slave in the land of
Egypt and Jehovah thy God redeemed thee."

184

THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS AND EAST OF
THE JORDAN
§XXTV. THE REVELATION AND COVENANT AT SINAI
Then Moses led Israel onward from the Red Sea, and they l- Ex-
went out into the wUderness of Shur and marched three ences
days into the wilderness, without finding water. Then they ^aiBil
came to Marah, but could not drink the water of Marah be
cause it was bitter. Hence its name was called Marah
[Bitterness]. Therefore the people murmured against Moses,
saying, What shaU we drink? And he cried to Jehovah,
and Jehovah showed him a tree, and he cast it into the
waters, and the waters were made sweet.
And they came to Elim where there were twelve springs 2. At
of water, and seventy palm-trees, and they encamped there Eiun
by the waters.
Then they journeyed from EUm, and they came to the |jaroh
wUderness of Sinai and encamped in the wilderness. to
Then Jehovah said to Moses, I will come down in the ^1^ane
sight of aU the people upon Mount Sinai. And thou shalt divine
set bounds for the people all about, with the command, yons"
' Take heed to yourselves that ye go not up on the moun
tain nor even approach its base; whoever toucheth the
mountain shaU surely be put to death; nothing shall touch
it without being stoned to death or shot through; whether
it be beast or man; he shall not five.'
And Mount Sinai was wholly enveloped in smoke, be- 5. The
cause Jehovah came down upon it in fire ; and the smoke a^ j|? *
of it ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole hovah
mountain quaked violently. And when Jehovah came down
upon Mount Sinai to the top of the mountain, he called
Moses to the top of the mountain; and Moses went up.
185

THE REVELATION AND COVENANT AT SINAI
And Jehovah said to Moses, Go down, warn the people
solemnly lest they press forward to see Jehovah, and many
of them perish. And let the priests also, who come near
Jehovah, sanctify themselves lest Jehovah break forth upon
them. So Moses went down to the people and told them.
6. The Then Jehovah said to Moses, Hew out two stone tablets,
tebiets an<* ^e rea<ty by morning, and come up in the morning to
of Mount Sinai, and present thyseU there to me on the top of
stone ^ mountam. And no one shaU come up with thee;
neither let any one be seen in any part of the mountain, nor
let the flocks and herds feed before that mountain. So
he hewed out two stone tablets ; and Moses rose early hi the
morning, and went up to Mount Sinai, as Jehovah had com
manded him, and took hi his hand two stone tablets. And
Moses stood with him there and caUed on the name of
Jehovah.
7. The And Jehovah said, Behold, I make a covenant. Observe
of"the that which I command thee to-day:
£% THOU SHALT WORSHIP NO OTHER GOD.
nant THOU SHALT MAKE THEE NO MOLTEN GODS.
THE FEAST OF UNLEAVENED BREAD SHALT THOU
OBSERVE.
EVERY FIRST-BORN IS MINE.
SIX DAYS SHALT THOU TOIL, BUT ON THE SEVENTH
THOU SHALT REST.
THOU SHALT OBSERVE THE FEAST OF WEEKS
AND INGATHERING AT THE END OF THE YEAR.
THOU SHALT NOT OFFER THE BLOOD OF MY SACRI
FICE WITH LEAVEN.
THE FAT OF MY FEAST SHALL NOT BE LEFT UNTIL
MORNING.
THE BEST OF THE FIRST-FRUITS OF THY LAND
SHALT THOU BRING TO THE HOUSE OF JEHO
VAH THY GOD.
THOU SHALT NOT SEETHE A KID IN ITS MOTHER'S
MILK.
8. Re- Then Jehovah said to Moses, Write these words; for in
the ten accordance with these words have I made a covenant with
words thee and with Israel. And he was there with Jehovah forty
days and forty nights; he neither ate bread nor drank water.
186

RECORDS OF REVELATION AND COVENANT
And he wrote upon the tablets the words of the covenant,
the ten words [Decalogue].
Then Moses came and called for the elders of the people, 9. Ac-
and set before them all these words which Jehovah com- %?£
manded him. And all the people answered together, and ofthe
said, All that Jehovah hath spoken we wUl do. And Moses words
reported the words of the people to Jehovah.
And Jehovah said to Moses, Come up to Jehovah, together 10. The
with Aaron, and Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the f^{
elders of Israel, and worship afar off ; and Moses alone shall meaJ
come near to Jehovah; but they shall not come near; neither
shall the people go up with him. So Moses went up to
gether with Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the
elders of Israel, and they saw the God of Israel ; and under
his feet it was like a pavement of sapphire stone, and like
the very sky for clearness. And against the nobles of the
IsraeUtes he did not stretch out his hand; so they beheld
God and ate and drank.
I. The Records of the Revelation and Covenant at Sinai. Sinai,
the sacred mountain of God, was regarded by succeeding generations
as the spot where the covenant between Israel and Jehovah was es
tablished and where all of Israel's laws were promulgated. The further
removed from the days of Moses, the more firmly did each succeeding
generation cherish this tradition. Each new code, although it incor
porated new principles and laws adapted to new conditions, was at
tributed to Moses. In time all of these codes naturally found a place
in the growing body of legislation that was connected with Mount
Sinai. The earliest prophetic narratives suggest the historical basis of this
later expanded tradition. In slightly different form, they each picture
the revelation at Sinai and preserve that primitive decalogue, which ap
pears to have been the basis of the original covenant between Jehovah
and his people.
II. The March Through the Desert. The earliest narrative im
plies that the Hebrews, on leaving Egypt, marched directly across the
desert. After three days' journey they found one of the brackish springs,
which characterize that desert region. A little later they come- to Elim,
with its twelve springs of water and grove of palm-trees. The only
satisfactory indentification of this fertile spot is at the head of the north-
187

THE REVELATION AND COVENANT AT SINAI
eastern arm of the Red Sea. As the name suggests, it is probably to
be identified with the biblical Elath, the important port which con
nected the trade of Canaan and Edom with Arabia, India and Africa.
It was also at the end of the caravan route which led directly across the
desert from Egypt (cf. map opp. p. 185). It was a journey of about
two hundred miles, and could be comfortably made by a caravan in
about a week. That Moses would lead his fugitive followers along
the same direct highway to the land of Midian, as he himself had fol
lowed years before, was to be expected. In this way it would be possible
most quickly to escape beyond the rule and pursuit of the Egyptians
into a friendly asylum among kindred peoples. His aim was, doubtless,
also to lead them to the sacred mountain of Jehovah, where he, a short
time before, had received his divine call to lead forth his people from
the bondage of Egypt.
III. The Situation of Mount Sinai. The course of the march of
the Israelites turns in part upon the identification of Mount Sinai.
The tradition, which identifies it with one of the imposing peaks in the
southern part of the Sinaitic peninsula, cannot be traced earlier than the
third or fourth century of the Christian era. It comes from those cen
turies in which the process of identifying biblical sites advanced most
rapidly. It was an age in which conjecture and zeal to fix the back
ground of every important event were regnant, with the result that nine
out of every ten of these identifications have been shown by modern
excavation and research to be incorrect.
All the Old Testament references to Sinai indicate clearly that the
mountain was in the vicinity of Edom and probably one of the many
imposing peaks to the southwest of Mount Seir. In the ancient song
of Deborah, Judges 5, Sinai is associated with Mount Seir and the land
of Edom (§ XXXV"). In the early poem, found in Deuteronomy 33,
the paraUelism is equally significant.
"Jehovah came from Sinai,
And beamed forth from Seir,
And shone forth from Mount Paran."
Elijah's journey (recorded in I Kings 193-8) from Beersheba to Mount
Horeb would have been possible if the mountain of God had been one
of the southwestern spurs of Mount Seir, but practically impossible,
if at the southern end of the Sinaitic peninsula. In the light of the
Egyptian inscriptions and the recent excavations conducted by Pro-
188

THE SITUATION OF MOUNT SINAI
fessor Petrie (cf. Researches in Sinai), it is evident that there were im
portant quarries and mines guarded by Egyptian garrisons on the eastern
side of the peninsula. It is highly improbable, therefore, that the He
brews would have journeyed along a caravan route thus guarded by
Egyptian soldiers. Even if they had succeeded in reaching the traditional
Mount Sinai, they would not have escaped Egyptian pursuit. The
statement that Moses, when he received his call, arrived at the sacred
mountain with the flock of Jethro, his father-in-law, after a journey of
only three days, indicates that it was not far from the land of Midian.
The imphcation that Mount Sinai was the mountain at which the
Midianites worshipped the same God as the Israelites, clearly points to
a northern rather than a southern site, for at this period the Midianites
were found only to the south and east of Mount Seir. Mount Sinai
also appears to have been near Kadesh (only fifty miles south of Beer
sheba, cf. map, opp. p. 185) the centre of the Hebrew life in the
wilderness. Thus, with remarkable unity, all the early evidence points
to one of the southwestern spurs of Mount Seir as the sacred mountain
of Jehovah.
IV. Nature of the Revelation at Sinai. The Old Testament con
tains three distinct accounts of the divine revelation at Sinai. In the
late priestly, the cloud is represented as covering the mountain and
the appearance of the glory of Jehovah is like a devouring fire on the
top of the mountain. Into this cloud Moses ascends and there receives
the law. In the Northern Israelite version a thick cloud likewise en
velopes the mountain, which is designated as Horeb or simply the
mountain. When, at God's command, the people approach, they are
so terrified by the thunder and the lightnings that they request Moses
to receive for them the divine message. In the early Judean version the
people are forbidden to approach Mount Sinai, which is enveloped
with smoke and quakes violently. Moses himself alone ascends to re
ceive the divine message.
The three narratives, therefore, agree in the statement that a bright
cloud, lighted up by flames of fire, shrouded the mountain. The North
ern Israelite version implies that a raging thunder storm revealed to
the waiting people below the presence of their God. The picture in
the early Judean and late priestly narratives perhaps suggests an
active volcano. Either phenomenon, so majestic and awe-inspir
ing, was calculated to make a profound impression upon the con
sciousness and memory of a primitive people, accustomed to the dry,
almost rainless tracts of Egypt and the desert. Thus it is that, in
189

THE REVELATION AND COVENANT AT SINAI
language peculiar to itself, each tradition records the fact that the
Deity made his presence powerfully felt at this initial stage in the Ufe
of his people.
V. Meaning of the Covenant in Ancient Semitic Life. The well-
authenticated tradition that a covenant was established between Je
hovah and his people at Sinai is in harmony with the peculiar customs
of the ancient nomadic East. To-day, as in the past, a covenant is the
strongest bond that can bind together men or tribes. In certain parts
of Arabia, as in the ancient East, a covenant is established between two
individuals, when they have drunk their mingled blood. Such a solemn
covenant carries with it an obligation on the part of each to protect the
other, even at the cost of life. Henceforth they owe to each other the
same duties, as do those who are descended from common ancestors.
Thus it was that tribes in ancient times made afiiances with each other.
The ancient Semites also conceived of their deities as dwelling in certain
definite abodes and capable of entering into solemn covenants with men
and tribes. This prevalent Semitic conception clearly underlies the
Hebrew tradition of the covenant at Sinai.
VI. The Giving of the Law at Sinai. In welding into a nation
the scattered fugitives from Egypt and the kindred tribes of Midian,
it was natural that Moses should employ the well-established Semitic
institution of the covenant. That he did so is confirmed by combined
testimony of the earliest records. Sinai would naturaUy be chosen as the
scene of this covenant, for it was a covenant binding together those
tribes, which regarded the sacred mountain as Jehovah's abode. Both
of the earlier prophetic narratives record a solemn sacrificial feast,
which symbolized the establishment of this covenant. According to
the Northern Israelite version, oxen were sacrificed and the blood was
sprinkled upon the people, as in the later Hebrew ritual. The essen
tial element, however, in the covenant was not the symbolism but the
terms of agreement to which each of the contracting parties subscribed.
Jehovah's promises to deliver and protect his people had already been
proclaimed by Moses and fulfilled in the marvellous deliverance from
Egypt. The oldest traditions state that the obligations assumed by
the people were formulated in ten brief commands. According to the
early Judean narrative in Exodus 34, these commands were inscribed by
Moses on two stone tablets which he had prepared by divine command.
In the later versions of the story, Jehovah himself is represented as having
inscribed with his own finger these ten words on two tablets which he
gave to Moses.
190

THE ORIGINAL DECALOGUE
VII. The Original Decalogue. In the present order of the narra
tives in Exodus, two distinct decalogues are given, the familiar one in
Exodus 20 and the more distinctly ceremonial decalogue in Exodus 34.
The implication of the narratives, however, is that the same decalogue
was promulgated in both cases, and there is no suggestion that its
original form was changed in the second account of the giving of
the law.
In the light of the variations between the two decalogues, two distinct
questions arise: Which was the older and original of these decalogues?
and, What is the explanation of their present position and order ? The
contents of the decalogue given in Exodus 34 at once suggest that it is the
older of the two. It demands absolute loyalty to Jehovah. This loy
alty is to be expressed, however, in the observation of the ancient festi
vals, in the sacrificial gifts from the flocks and herds and field, and in
conformity to the requirements of the early ritual. It contains in out
line that ancient, popular definition of religion, which prevailed among
the Hebrews, until the great ethical prophets, like Amos, Hosea and
Isaiah placed the emphasis on spirit and deeds. It is, therefore, in
harmony with the point of view of Moses's age. Furthermore, its lan
guage is that of the early Judean narrative. In its original form it was
apparently the immediate sequel of the account of the divine revelation
in Exodus 19. Practically aU of its regulations are repeated in slightly
different form in the corresponding Northern Israelite laws found in
Exodus 2022-2319- Thus the two oldest prophetic narratives testify
that this ceremonial decalogue was a common heritage coming from
the earhest period of Hebrew history. It is also significant that each of
its regulations is repeated in the Old Testament at least three, and
some of them six or seven times. It would seem, therefore, to represent
the foundation of Israel's legal system. Moreover, these distinct yet
converging oldest lines of evidence all point to Moses as the great
prophetic leader, who first formulated in this simple direct form the
duties of the new-born nation.
VIII. The Duty of Loyalty to Jehovah. The first command de
mands the entire loyalty of the Hebrews to Jehovah. The denial of the
existence of other gods is left to a later age; but within the ranks of that
bond of Arab tribes known as Israel, the first command leaves no place
for the worship of other desert deities. Henceforth Israel's strength
lay in the fact that it was a people which acknowledged one rather than
many gods.
The second command does not forbid the worship of those family
191

THE REVELATION AND COVENANT AT SINAI
gods and graven images which appear to have been found in the home
of every early Israelite (as for example, that of David, I Sam. 19, cf.
also § XXXIV). Isaiah and Jeremiah first openly denounced this time-
honored practice. The ancient command is rather a protest agamst
the molten gods of heathen nations, such as the Egyptians, the Baby
lonians and the Phoenicians. It is, therefore, but a further appUcation
of the great principle laid down in the first command. It may also be
a result of that strong reaction against the polytheism and idolatry of
the Egyptians, which is traceable in the early Hebrew religion.
The third command enforces the obligation to observe the ancient
Semitic spring festival; although the fact that it is called the feast of
unleavened bread may reveal later Canaanite influence. The fourth
and ninth commands specify the tribute which each member of the
nation should bring to his Divine King as evidence of loyalty and de
votion. They but reiterate the more or less clearly defined customs
already in vogue throughout the Semitic world.
IX. The Seventh Day of Rest. The law of the sabbath presents
many problems. The life of the nomad with his flocks and herds gives
little opportunity for rest from labor. It is only on the agricultural
stage that the command to rest on the seventh day could be f uUy carried
out; yet it seems probable that the institution of the sabbath was already
in existence in the days of Moses; for the most satisfactory explanation
of its origin connects it with the primitive worship of the moon.
The moon god was especially worshipped at the cities of Ur and
Haran, which the Hebrews regarded as the home of their ancestors.
Recent archaeological discoveries also indicate that the moon god was
revered throughout Arabia. This worship was* natural among a people
who regarded the sun, with its hot, burning rays, as hostile, and the moon,
with its cold, clear light, as friendly. Even to a modern observer no
object in the heavens is as impressive as the moon with its changing
phases. To the ancient nomads, as they pastured their flocks or made
their long journeys by night through the desert, the moon was a never-
ceasing miracle. Its four distinct phases — the crescent moon, at its
first appearance in the west, the half moon, when the circle was clearly
divided between fight and darkness, the full moon, with its rounded orb,
and the gibbous' moon, with its pecuUar form — each made its profound
impression upon early man, who saw in the wonderful and unusual the
highest revelation of the Deity. Many early peoples held sacred each
of the four days at which the moon entered its different quarters. Among
the Hebrews the new moon and the sabbath were closely connected.
192

THE SEVENTH DAY OF REST
Both of these sacred days were apparently observed by the same cere
monies and the same rest from labor. As Strabo states, rest from labor
was demanded by the ancients on all sacred days. If the sabbath,
therefore, was originally a sacred day, observed at the beginning of each
new phase of the moon, there is every reason to believe that it was already
an established institution among the Midianites and the ancestors of the
Hebrews. It was natural that the sabbath law should also have
found a place in the decalogue coming from the days of Moses. The
emphasis upon rest perhaps reflects that nobler social and philanthropic
interpretation of the sabbath, which was first clearly formulated by the
later prophets and reasserted by Jesus, when he declared that "the
sabbath is for man and not man for the sabbath."
X. Ceremonial Laws. The sixth command requires the observa
tion of the ancient Semitic feast of the ingathering at the end of the year.
The seventh, eighth, and tenth demand the careful observation of certain
ceremonial rites, the origin of which goes back to such a primitive stage
in the history of rehgion that it is difficult to determine the original
motive. Possibly leaven was not to be used in connection with the sacri
ficial blood because it represented corruption. Since the fat and the
blood were the parts especially sacred to the Deity, the law that the fat
should not be left until the morning was probably to guard against
the possibility of decay and to insure its being offered by fire to
Jehovah. XL The History of the Oldest Decalogue. The tradition that
this decalogue was written on two tablets of stone is found in both of
the early prophetic histories. Possibly these tablets with the ten words
were first set up in the temple of Solomon that their contents might be
read and thus impressed upon the consciences of the people. The brief
decalogue form suggests, however, that the ten words were originally
intended to be written not on stone, but upon the popular memory.
The simplest explanation of their decalogue and pentad form is that
they originaUy consisted of two groups of five short commands or words,
each of which was to be remembered in connection with a finger of the
two hands. Ten clearly defined decalogues are found in Exodus 20-23,
and the parallel passages in Deuteronomy (cf. §§ LIX, LX). Others are
included in the so-called "Holiness Code" of Leviticus 17-26. The
decalogue would appear to have been the form in which, from earUest
times, Israel's popular laws were cast. This simple but effective method
of impressing vital truths upon untrained minds is well worthy of the
inspired genius of a great prophetic leader like Moses.
193

MAN'S INDIVIDUAL DUTIES TO GOD AND MAN

§ XXV. MAN'S INDIVIDUAL DUTIES TO GOD AND MAN
God also spoke all these words :
1. THOU SHALT HAVE NO OTHER GODS BEFORE
ME.
2. THOU SHALT NOT MAKE FOR THYSELF ANY
GRAVEN IMAGE.
3. THOU SHALT NOT TAKE THE NAME OF THE
LORD THY GOD IN VAIN.
4. REMEMBER THE SABBATH DAY TO KEEP IT
HOLY.
5. HONOR THY FATHER AND THY MOTHER.
6. THOU SHALT NOT KILL.
7. THOU SHALT NOT COMMIT ADULTERY.
8. THOU SHALT NOT STEAL.
9. THOU SHALT NOT BEAR FALSE WITNESS.
10. THOU SHALT NOT COVET.
I. Character of the Prophetic Decalogue. The laws considered
in the preceding section define the obligations of the nation Israel to
Jehovah. If they had stood alone in Exodus 20-34, no one would have
failed to recognize in them the ten words originally promulgated by
Moses. The decalogue, however, now most closely associated with Moses
and the covenant at Sinai, contains the famiUar ten words of Exodus 20.
Its superior ethical value is incontestible. It represents "the corn,"
if not "the full corn in the ear," while the decalogue of Exodus 34 is but
"the blade." It defines religion in the terms of life and deed, as well as
worship. The noble standards maintained by Amos and Isaiah are
here formulated in short, forcible commands. This prophetic decalogue
certainly represents one of the high water-marks of Old Testament
legislation. It fully merits the commanding position at the head of the
Old Testament laws and its unique place in the hearts of Jews and
Christians. II. Its Literary History. A careful examination of the context
of Exodus 19-34 reveals much editorial revision. In view of the
transcendent importance of Sinai and Moses in the thought of later
generations, such revision was almost inevitable. In their present
setting the presence of two distinct decalogues, written on tablets of
stone, is explained by the story of the apostasy of the IsraeUtes in con-
194

ITS LITERARY HISTORY
nection with the golden calf. The evidence, however, is strong that the
story of the golden calf is one of the later additions to Exodus, and that
it was not found in the early Judean history. The earlier prophets, and
even Elijah and Elisha, make no protest against the calves or bulls,
overlaid with gold, which Jeroboam I set up in the national sanctuaries
at Bethel and Dan (cf. § LXI). The obvious protest, which the story of
the golden calf contains, clearly comes from the more enlightened age,
when prophets like Amos and Hosea had begun to look askance at the
practices which flourished at the popular shrines. A later compiler has
found or made a place for the ancient decalogue of Exodus 34 in the light
of the statement that Moses, at the sight of the golden calf, destroyed the
first two tablets. The compiler fails, however, to explain why the two
versions differ so widely in theme and content. When the late material
has been removed, the original decalogue in Exodus 34 appears as the
immediate sequel of the Judean account of the revelation at Sinai.
Similarly the sequel of the Northern Israelite version of the revelation is
not the decalogue in the first part of Exodus 20, but the closing verses
of that chapter and the laws which follow. It would seem, therefore,
that a later compiler made the words, " Moses spoke and God answered
him" (at the close of chapter 19), the occasion for introducing the nobler
ethical decalogue of Exodus 20.
III. The Parallel Version in Deuteronomy 5. This decalogue is
found again in a very different setting in Deuteronomy 5. It is attrib
uted to Moses, but the occasion is not the establishment of the covenant
at Sinai but his farewell address on the plains of Moab. In the sabbath
command the older term observe is used in the Deuteronomic version
rather than remember, suggesting that the Deuteronomic version is the
older of the two. Otherwise the original ten brief words in Exodus 20
and Deuteronomy 5 are identical. Each version has, however, been sup
plemented by many explanatory and hortatory notes. Those in Deu
teronomy 5 agree in part and differ in part from those in Exodus 20,
showing that each version has passed through different hands. Thus,
for example, to the exhortation in Exodus 20 to "honor thy father and
thy mother that thy days may be long," the version in Deuteronomy
adds, "and that it may go well with thee."
IV. The Real Character of the Decalogue in Exodus 20. As
has been already noted, the decalogue in Exodus 34 defines the religious
and ceremonial obligations of the nation to Jehovah. The ten words
in Exodus 20 (Deuteronomy 5) define the obligations of the individual
to God, to his parents and to other members of society. The two are
195

MAN'S INDIVIDUAL DUTIES TO GOD AND MAN
not antithetic but rather supplement each other. While the decalogue
of Exodus 34 was in all probability the basis of the original covenant at
Sinai, the ten words of Exodus 20 may also represent the personal ob
ligations which Moses impressed upon each individual Israelite.
V. Date and Authorship of the Decalogue in Exodus 20. The
date and authorship of the noblest of the decalogues can never be
definitely determined. Because of its high ethical standards and its
close relationship with the teachings of the later prophets, it has been
assigned by many modern scholars to the eighth or seventh century
B.C. The law against making graven images embodies a principle first
clearly proclaimed in the seventh century before Christ. These wooden
images apparently survived in the homes of the Hebrews long after the
public idols were torn down. They correspond to the sacred pictures
and images of the Virgin and saints that are still tolerated by certain
Christian churches. Even such a spiritual prophet as Hosea continued
in the eighth century to regard them as legitimate (Hos. 34). In its
earliest form the second command, like the first, may have been a dupli
cate of the corresponding law in the older decalogue, and have read
molten instead of graven image.
The command not to covet reveals a highly developed moral sense;
but otherwise there is no law in this decalogue, which might not in its
extant form have come from Moses. Most of the principles which under
lie it were already in force in the days of Hammurabi, although the great
prophets of Israel were the first to make them the basis of reUgion.
Although the settings of the different versions of this prophetic decalogue
are late, the prominence which is given to it indicates that it is much
older than its present literary settings. In the Ught of all these facts
there is a strong probability that the traditions, which trace its origin
back to Moses, are substantially historical; at least, it is more than prob
able that, as the judge and prophet of the Israelite tribes in the wilder
ness, he laid down and enforced the principles which are incorporated
in these ten words.
VI. Meaning of the Different Commands. The laws fall into
two groups. The first pentad defines the duties of the individual to
his divine and human parents. The meaning of most of the commands
is clear. Originally the first may have simply demanded that Jehovah
be given the first place in the faith and worship of Israel. Later prophets,
like Elijah, and Isaiah, interpreted it as excluding all other cults. The
second command was made very explicit by later commentators. All
attempts to represent the Deity by any image or likeness, or the worship
196

MEANING OF THE DIFFERENT COMMANDS
of these sacred objects was absolutely forbidden. The strongest possi
ble warnings and promises guard the observance of the law.
In the third command the Hebrew idiom, "Thou shalt not take the
name," means, "thou shalt not invoke the name of Jehovah thy God in
vain." The meaning of the command turns on the expression "in
vain." The Hebrew term thus translated means, (1) purposelessly
and therefore flippantly and irreverently; (2) for destruction, as, for ex
ample, in cursing another; (3) for nothing, that is in swearing to what is
false, and (4) in connection with any form of sorcery or witchcraft.
It is possible that the command was intended to include all these differ
ent ways in which the sacred name and reputation of Jehovah might be
desecrated by his people. The later Hebrew law of Leviticus 2410
made death the penalty for blaspheming the name of Jehovah.
VII. The Law of the Sabbath. The fourth command, like the fifth,
emphasizes the obligation to observe the sabbath as a day holy to Je
hovah. In this law the earUest significance of the institution is empha
sized and its social and humane significance is only implied. The
prophetic commentators, however, have brought out this later and nobler
meaning very clearly. It is the day of rest for all who toil, whether mas
ter or slave or guest or wearied ox. A still later commentator has
quoted, as an added reason for observing it, the late priestly account of
Jehovah's resting after he had completed the work of creation (Gen. 22- 3).
In the paraUel version in Deuteronomy, however, the reason urged
rests upon the noblest ethical basis; it is the responsibility of the employer
to the employed. The motive is the debt of gratitude which the Israel
ites owe to Jehovah who delivered them, a race of slaves, from the bond
age of Egypt.
VIII. The Obligation to Parents. In their oldest form the first
four commands define those personal obUgations to Jehovah which are
to be expressed in personal loyalty, in the worship, in speech, and in
the institution of the sabbath. The fifth command enjoins respect and
loyalty to parents. It recognizes the fact that obedience to human
parents was necessary to the development of the proper reverence and
obedience to the Divine Parent.
The primitive Hebrew laws (Ex. 2116- 17) punished by death the child
who struck or cursed his father or his mother. The very old Sumerian
law of Babylon made slavery the punishment for the son who repudi
ated his father. The fifth command provides no penalty, however, but
appeals simply to the moral sense. The prophetic commentators add
the promise of long life and prosperity to him who obeys.
197

MOSES'S WORK AS JUDGE AND PROPHET
IX. Obligations to Others. The second pentad deals with the re
lations of the individual to other members of society. All primitive
peoples punished the crime of murder; but in dealing with lesser crimes
most nations were more rigorous than the Hebrews, who ever had a
high regard for the sanctity of human Ufe (cf. St. O.T., IV. § 83).
Adultery, with its baneful consequences, was also made a capital of
fence (cf. St. O.T., TV. §§ 70, 71). Not without reason, most primitive
Semitic peoples punished this and kindred crimes against society even
more severely than they did murder. The penalties for theft were
double or fourfold restitution (cf. Dt. 221"4 St. O.T., TV. § 90).
The last command rises from the plane of action to the impelh'ng
motive. Even as did Jesus, it traces the crime back to the thought in
the mind of man. To make the law definite later prophets have added
a list of those things which the ordinary man was most in danger of
coveting. In its simpler and original form the command is even more
comprehensive and impressive.
§ XXVI. MOSES'S WORK AS JUDGE AND PROPHET
l.The Now when Jethro the priest of Midian, Moses's father-in-
jethro law, heard of all that God had done for Moses and for Israel
his people, how that Jehovah had brought Israel out of
Egypt, Jethro, Moses's father-in-law, took Zipporah, Moses's
wife, and her two sons, of whom the name of one was Ger-
shom [An alien resident there]; for he said, I have been a
resident ahen in a foreign land ; and the name of the other
was Eliezer [My God is a help]; for he said, The God of
my father was my help, and delivered me from the sword
of Pharaoh; and Jethro, Moses's father-in-law, came with
his sons and his wUe to Moses in the wUderness where he
was encamped, at the mountain of God. And he said to
Moses, I, thy father-in-law Jethro, am coming to you with
your wife, and her two sons with her. And Moses went
out to meet his father-in-law, and bowed before him, and
kissed him ; and when they had asked regarding each other's
welfare, they came into the tent. Then Moses told his
father-in-law all that Jehovah had done to Pharaoh and the
Egyptians for Israel's sake, all the hardship they had en
countered on the march, and how Jehovah had dehvered
them.
198

MOSES'S WORK AS JUDGE AND PROPHET
Then Jethro rejoiced because of all the goodness which
Jehovah had done to Israel, in that he had deUvered them
from the power of the Egyptians. And Jethro said,
Blessed be Jehovah 2. His
Who hath deUvered them from the power of Pharaoh ; {ffilf-
Who hath deUvered the people from under the power of »vfag"
the Egyptians. * saandri.
Now I am persuaded that Jehovah is greater than all gods, S££„
For in that, wherein they acted so arrogantly toward them,
hath he thrown them into confusion.
Moreover Jethro, Moses's father-in-law, took a burnt-offer
ing and sacrifices for God, and Aaron came with all the
elders of Israel to eat bread with Moses's father-in-law be
fore God.
Now on the next day Moses sat as judge to decide cases 3.
for the people, and the people stood about Moses from $$£"
morning until evening. But when Moses's father-in-law <* iea
saw all that he was doing for the people, he said, What is ,udge
this thing that you are doing for the people? Why are you
sitting all alone, while aU the people stand about you from
morning until evening? And Moses answered his father-
in-law, Because the people keep coming to me to inquire of
God. Whenever they have a matter of dispute, they come
to me, that I may decide which of the two is right, and make
known the statutes of God, and his decisions.
Then Moses's father-in-law said to him, This thing which 4. ap-
you are domg is not good. Both you and these people who %?™l~ot
are about you wUl surely wear yourselves out, for the task minor
is too heavy for you ; you are not able to perform it by your- iudges
self alone. Now hearken to me, I will give you good coun
sel, so that God will be with you: You be the people's ad
vocate with God, and bring the cases to God, and you make
known to them the statutes and the decisions, and show
them the way wherein they must walk, and the work that
they must do. Moreover you must provide out of all the
people able, God-fearing, reliable men, hating unjust gam ;
and place such over them to be rulers of thousands, rulers of
hundreds, rulers of fifties, and ralers of tens; and let them
199

MOSES'S WORK AS JUDGE AND PROPHET
judge the people at all times. Only every great matter let
them bring to you; but every smaU matter let them decide
themselves; so it will be easier for you, and they will bear
the burden with you. If you do this thing — and God com
mand you so — then you wUl be able to endure, and aU these
people also will go back to their places satisfied. So Moses
hearkened to the advice of his father-in-law, and did aU
that he had said. And Moses chose able men out of all
Israel, and made them heads over the people, rulers of
thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties and rulers
of tens. And they judged the people at all tunes; the diffi
cult cases they brought to Moses, but every small matter
they decided themselves. Then Moses let his father-in-law
depart, and he went his way to his own land.
e. Mak- And Jehovah said to Moses, Say to the IsraeUtes, 'Ye
tSltent are a wilful people; if I go up into the midst of thee for one
of moment, I shall consume thee ; therefore put off thy orna-
S™ " ments from thee, that I may know what to do to thee.'
So the IsraeUtes despoiled themselves of then: ornaments
from Mount Horeb onward, and with these Moses made a
tent. . . .
e. je- Now Moses used to take the tent and pitch it outside the
reveta-8 camp at some distance from the camp, and he called it the
through *en* °* meeting. And whenever any one wished to consult
Moses Jehovah, he would go out to the tent of meeting, which was
outside the camp. And whenever Moses went out to the
tent, all the people would rise and stand, every man at his
tent door, and look after Moses until he had gone into the
tent. And when Moses had entered into the tent, the pUlar of
cloud would descend, and stand at the door of the tent, whUe
Jehovah spoke with Moses. And whenever the people saw
the pillar of cloud standing at the door of the tent, all the
people stood up and worshipped, every man at his tent door.
Thus Jehovah used to speak with Moses face to face, as a
man speaks to his friend. Then he would return to the
camp ; but his attendant Joshua, the son of Nun, a young
man, did not leave the tent.
I. Moses's Activity as Tribal Judge. The present section is found
for the most part in the Northern Israelite prophetic group of narratives.
200

MOSES'S ACTIVITY AS TRIBAL JUDGE
It is, therefore, one of the older sources in the Pentateuch, and throws
clear light upon the vexed question of Moses's relation to Hebrew legis
lation. Its background is Mount Sinai, at the period immediately following
the estabhshment of the covenant between Jehovah and the nation.
As they are encamped at the foot of the sacred mountain, Moses's father-
in-law, the priest of Midian and worshipper of Jehovah, the God of Sinai,
visits Moses. It is significant that he, not Moses, takes the initiative in
offering the sacrifices to the common God worshipped by the Hebrews
and their Kenite kinsmen.
In the ancient East the duty of deciding questions of dispute between
tribes and individual members of the tribes, always feU to the civil au
thorities. Even in ancient Babylon there does not appear to have been
a distinct class of judges, but instead, every man in authority was called
upon to discharge at certain times judicial, as well as administrative
functions. The historical basis of this characteristically oriental usage
is found in the customs of the desert. Then, as to-day, the head of the
tribe was the one to whom all questions of dispute were referred. While
he had no absolute authority to execute his decisions, he was accepted
by both parties to the dispute as their arbiter, and his renderings were
accepted as final. These decisions were in accordance with oral or
customary law. Unusual and difficult cases, however, were necessarily
decided according to the judgment of the arbiter. Thus, a great oppor
tunity was given for each individual judge to establish new precedents
and to contribute to the ever-growing body of customary law.
As the acknowledged leader of the different Hebrew tribes, it was in
evitable that many legal cases would be referred to Moses. That this
was so is definitely stated in the present narrative. Jethro, recognizing
that Moses was overwhelmed by his judicial duties, wisely counselled
that he should appoint certain reliable men as judges. These were to
decide ordinary questions in accordance with the established precedents
and customs. The difficult cases, presenting new problems, were still
to be laid before Moses.
II. Moses's Relation to Hebrew Legislation. In this simple, defi
nite way Moses made known to the Israelites the laws and principles
which they were to observe. It illustrates very definitely Moses's re
lation to Hebrew legislation as a whole. The precedents, which he thus
established, were based upon the divine principles which he, as Jehovah's
prophet, was endeavoring to impress upon the conscience of his race.
They were thus constantly held up before the eyes of the people, not
201

MOSES'S WORK AS JUDGE AND PROPHET
in abstract but in concrete and permanent form. The precedents in
time inevitably developed into fixed customs which regulated the life
of the nation. As new needs arose, the principles underlying these
customary laws were applied, and the resulting decisions supplemented
still further the constantly growing body of customary law. Then-
present literary form indicates that in time the more important custom
ary laws crystalUzed into decalogues, each containing ten short words,
which were originally treasured in the memory of succeeding generations.
When these decalogues and customary laws became so numerous that
they could not easily be remembered, and when the Hebrews learned
the art of writing, these laws were naturally put into written form. It
is evident, however, that the development of written codes was one of the
later stages in the history of Hebrew law.
It is unimportant whether or not Moses ever wrote down any of the
laws found in the Old Testament. On this point the earliest writers
have Uttle to say beyond the statement that Moses inscribed the terms
of the original covenant between Jehovah and the nation upon two
tablets of stone. If Moses never wrote down a single statute, the claim
that he was the father of Hebrew law is attested by the earhest Hebrew
records and the evidence of later traditions. The prophet always pre
cedes the lawgiver; the principle is enunciated before the detailed
regulation appears, which formulates and applies the principle to the
needs of the age. As Jehovah's prophet, Moses proclaimed those ger
minal principles which underlie the Old Testament laws. As judge,
he formulated these principles in definite decisions, which in time grew
into customary law, and then by slow stages were expanded into the ever
growing body of legislation. The process of growth was so gradual and
the connection with Moses so close that each succeeding generation
naturally and inevitably regarded Moses as the author of each and every
code. III. The Tent of Meeting. The early Judean narratives, in their
present form, contain no references to the tent of meeting or dwelling.
In the Northern Israelite history is found a very brief account of the mak
ing of this tent of meeting. Originally this account was evidently much
fuller, but it has been curtailed to make way for the later priestly account
of the dwelling or tabernacle. The earliest account states that the tent
of meeting was made from the ornaments which the Israelites contributed.
It was apparently a simple tent of goats' hair and was pitched at a little
distance outside the camp. Thither the people went, as did the ancient
Arabs to the kahin or seer, to receive from Moses the divine teaching
202

THE TENT OF MEETING
or decisions which he, as Jehovah's prophet, stood ready to give them.
This simple story has been expanded by the later priestly writers into the
elaborate plan and description of the tabernacle, to which the later
part of the book of Exodus is largely devoted.
IV. Moses's True Prophetic Character. In this oldest form of the
story of the tent of meeting is recorded the all-important fact that Moses
was recognized by his own and later generations, as not only a judge
and therefore a lawgiver, but above all as a prophet. Jehovah de
clares, in the ancient poem found in Numbers 12, that through the
early prophet he made known his will by means of the vision or dream,
but "Not so with my servant Moses;
In all my house he is faithful.
Mouth to mouth do I speak with him,
Plainly and not in enigmas,
And the form of Jehovah doth he behold."
Not through the various devices used by the ancient seers and augurs,
but directly, as the spirit of Jehovah touched the spirit of Moses, came
that message which made him the great prophetic leader and teacher of
his race. The character of his message and nature of his work confirm
the testimony of this ancient poem: in the method in which he saw the
truth, in his sense of the imminent presence of God, and in his practical
grasp of the existing conditions and forces, Moses stands side by side
with the great prophets of the later age, such as Amos, Isaiah and Jere
miah. Although his conception of the character of God and of the truth
was by no means as complete, as that of the later prophets, his unique
relation to his race and their peculiar needs gave him an opportunity,
shared by no other prophet in Hebrew history, to impress his personality
and message upon his nation. His was the privilege not only of proclaim
ing but of executing. The experiences in Egypt and of the exodus and
the grim life of the desert turned the eyes of his foUowers toward him
as their God-given and divinely commissioned leader. In their need
they looked to him for counsel and deUverance. Not only once, but
throughout the years of the wilderness sojourn, he was able in public
and in private, by word and by symbol, by command and by act, to im
press upon his race the few fundamental truths that constitute the essence
of his divine message.

203

THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS

§ XXVII. THE LIFE OF THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS
1. The Then as they journeyed from the mountain of Jehovah,
SSeh the ark of Jehovah went before them, to seek out a halting
place for them. And whenever the ark started, Moses
would say, Arise, 0 Jehovah,
And let thine enemies be scattered;
And let those who hate thee flee before thee.
And when it rested, he would say,
Return, O Jehovah,
To the ten thousand of thousands of Israel.
2. com- Now the rabble which was among them began to have a
ofthe8 strong craving, and even the IsraeUtes began to weep again,
people ana t0 saVj o that we had flesh to eat. We remember the
fish which we used to eat in Egypt without cost: the cu
cumbers, and the melons, the leeks, the onions and the garlic ;
but now we pine away; there is not a thing to be seen except
this manna.
3. And the anger of Jehovah was greatly aroused. When
Moses's therefore Moses heard the people weeping throughout their
eour- famines, every man at the door of his tent, Moses was dis-
mrat pleased. And Moses said to Jehovah, Why hast thou dealt
j}°m_ ill with thy servant? and why have I not found favor in
plaint thy sight, that thou layest the burden of aU this people upon
me? Have I conceived aU this people? Have I brought
them forth, that thou shouldest say to me, Carry them in
thy bosom, as a nursing-father carries the sucking child,
to the land which thou swarest to their fathers? Whence
should I have flesh to give to all this people? for they
oppress me with then: weeping, saying, 'Give us flesh that
we may eat.' I am not able to bear all this people alone,
because it is too heavy for me. And if thou deal thus with
me, kiU me, I pray thee, kill me, tf I have found favor in
thy sight; and let me not see my wretchedness.
204

THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS
Then Jehovah said to Moses, Say to the people, « Sanctify 4. je-
yourselves for to-morrow and you shall eat flesh, for you J?"™11'8
have wept loudly in the hearing of Jehovah, saying, " 0 rep y
that we had flesh to eat! for it was well with us in Egypt."
Therefore Jehovah will give you flesh that you may eat.
Not one day nor two, nor five, nor ten, nor twenty days shall
you eat, but a whole month, until it comes out at your nos
trils, and is loathsome to you; because you have rejected
Jehovah who is among you, and have wept before him, say
ing, " Why did we come out of Egypt?" ' Then Moses
said, The people among whom I am, are six hundred thou
sand men on foot; yet thou hast said, ' I will give them flesh
that they may eat a whole month.' Can flocks and herds
be slam sufficient for them? or can all the fish of the sea
be gathered sufficient for them? But Jehovah said to
Moses, Is Jehovah's power Umited? Now shalt thou see
whether my promise to thee shall come to pass or not.
Then Moses went out, and told the people the words of 5. The
Jehovah. And a wind went forth from Jehovah and brought andjfhe
quaUs from the sea and scattered them upon the camp, divine
about a day's journey on this side, and a day's journey on ment
the other side, round about the camp, even about two cubits
above the surface of the earth. Therefore the people spent
all that day and aU the night, and all the next day, in gath
ering the quails. He who gathered least gathered about
one hundred bushels ; and they spread them all out for them
selves about the camp. While they were still eating the
flesh, before the supply was exhausted, the anger of Jehovah
was aroused agamst the people, and Jehovah smote the
people with a very great plague. Hence the name of that
place was called Kibroth-hattaavah [Graves of the Craving],
because there they buried the people who had the craving.
From Kibroth-hattaavah the people journeyed to Haze-
roth, and remained at Hazeroth.
Afterwards the people set forth from Hazeroth, and en- 6.com-
camped in the wUdemess of Paran. And the people were $"£*
thirsty there for water, and murmured agamst Moses, and poer°g°k
said, Why have you brought us up from Egypt to kill us with of
our children and cattle, with thirst? Moses answered, water
Why do you test Jehovah? So he caUed the name of the
205

THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS
place Massah [Testing], because they tested Jehovah, saying,
Is Jehovah among us or not?
7. The Then Amalek came and fought with Israel in Rephidim.
andle And Moses said to Joshua, Choose men and go, fight with
victory Amalek. To-morrow I will stand on the top of the hUl,
with the rod of God in my hand. So Joshua did as Moses
had said to him, and fought with Amalek; and Moses,
Aaron and Hur went up to the top of the hUl. And whenever
Moses held up his hand, Israel prevaUed ; and whenever he
let down his hand, Amalek prevaUed. But when Moses's
hands became weary, they took a stone and put it under
him, and he sat on it, while Aaron and Hur held up his
hands, the one on the one side and the other on the other.
So his hands were supported untU the going down of the sun.
And Joshua laid Amalek and his people low with the edge of
the sword.
s.Cause Then Jehovah said to Moses, Write this for a memorial
hired- m a book an<i rehearse it in the ears of Joshua : that I wUl
itary utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under
tufty heaven. Then Moses built an altar, and called the name
gainst of jt jehovah-nissi [Jehovah my Banner] ; and he said, Je-
Amaie- hovah hath sworn; Jehovah will have war with Amalek
63 from generation to generation.
1 I. The Records of the Life in the Wilderness. It is not surprising
that the records of the experiences of the Hebrews during this wilderness
period are incomplete and often confusing. The later priestly writers,
with their elaborate plans of the tabernacle and of the arrangement
of the different tribes, represent the period as one of solemn procession
through the desert wastes. There is little connection between their
idealized picture and the actual wilderness background and the
condition of the Hebrew tribes at this stage in their development
Rather these later stories represent the projecting backward, upon
this ancient background, of the ideas and institutions peculiar to the
post-exilic Jews. The early prophetic narratives, embedded in the late
priestly laws and traditions in the book of Numbers, give, however,
certain glimpses of the real life and meaning of the period.
II. Geographical Background. The background is the wilder
ness which lies to the south of Canaan. It contains many miles of burn
ing sands and rocky desert, but much of this territory in the past, as
206

GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND
to-day, supports a large nomadic population. The term, wilderness,
which in the Hebrew means a lonely place, unoccupied by cities or towns,
truly describes it. In the north and east there are rolling, rocky plateaus
and jagged mountain peaks. These are, for the most part, parched and
treeless, but in the valleys are found at rare intervals gushing springs,
which supply the simple needs of nomads. The South Country marked
the gradual transition from the more barren wilderness on the south and
west to Judah on the north. To the Hebrews it must have seemed, in
contrast to the desert, a land of plenty. In later times it contained
many strong and populous cities, but it ever remained a land where
Nature was very niggardly with her gifts of food and water.
III. The Life of the Wilderness. The life of the Arab tribes,
which to-day inhabit this same region, reveals in minutest detail the life
of the ancient Israelites. Probably in ancient times the costume worn
by the men was the same long tunic with the goats' hair mantle which
protected them by day from the sun and rain. By night it was their bed.
Beside the sacred springs the Hebrews pitched their black or striped
goats' hair tents and lived for the most part out in the open air, exposed
to the inclemency of the changing seasons, ever journeying from place
to place in quest of food and water. As to-day, their chief article of diet
was probably the laban or curds, which they made from the milk from
the herds and flocks which they had brought with them when they
came forth from the Land of Goshen. At the feast days and marriages
and special celebrations, animals from the herd were slain. At the proper
season they also doubtless hunted the quails and other game which is
found in this wilderness region. Sometimes, when all their resources
failed they gathered, Uke the modern Arab, the gum that exudes from
the tamarisk tree or the lichens from the rocks, and from these, which
probably represent the manna of the wilderness, they made a coarse
flour and bread. This unpalatable food kept them alive until the winter
rain again brought comparative plenty. It was a life of freedom, of
constant activity, of privation and often of suffering. The lack of food
and water was an ever-present spur, and constantly led them to turn with
anxious longing toward the green hills and pasture lands of Palestine.
It was a fife full of danger and fear, not only lest grim Nature should fail
to meet their natural wants, but lest their foes should overpower them.
Barren though it was, the South Country was a territory for the posses
sion of which many hostile tribes were contending with an intensity
and cruelty proportionate to the scarcity of food and water. Any day,
any hour, a hostile tribe might suddenly attack them, rob them of their
207

THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS
possessions, slay the men and bear away the wives and children to Uves
of slavery and ignominy. Their life developed, therefore, the habit of
constant watchfulness and the sense of dependence. It bound together
all members of the tribe by the closest possible bonds. It also, in turn,
bound the tribe to its tribal God by the powerful bonds of fear and de
pendence and gratitude.
IV. Duration of the Sojourn. As usual, only the latest narratives
give any definite data regarding the duration of the sojourn in the wilder
ness. In the Old Testament the number forty is constantly used as the
concrete equivalent of many. The absence of any definite data in the
early prophetic narratives leaves the question of time entirely open. If,
as seems probable, the date of the exodus was about 1200 B.C., the Israel
ite conquest of southern Palestine would not have been possible before
about the middle of the twelfth century. Ramses IH of the twentieth
Egyptian dynasty, reigned between 1198 and 1167 B.C. He succeeded
in re-establishing and maintaining Egyptian authority in southern
Canaan. While it would have been possible for small desert tribes to
gradually press in to the outlying districts of southern and eastern
Palestine, no general settlement of aliens would have been aUowed by
the Egyptian authorities. It is not clear, however, that the Egyptian
rule was estabUshed east of the Jordan, so that it is possible that a partial
conquest of that region by the Hebrews may have foUowed very soon
after the exodus. The story of the spies, also indicates that an attempt
was made to invade Canaan from the south, but that this was only par
tially successful. The majority of the Hebrew tribes appear, as the
later tradition states, to have remained in the wilderness and the South
Country for at least a generation.
V. Tribal Organization. The oldest narratives suggest that the
Hebrews quickly adapted themselves to the pecuUar conditions of the
wilderness. Probably dividing into different tribes, as the limited food
and water supply of the desert made necessary, they subsisted by migrat
ing from one pasture land to another, each tribe under its tribal
leader. The centre of their life was Kadesh, which has been identified in
recent times with the modern Ain Kadish, a famous spring fifty miles
south of Beersheeba. As in the earliest times, it is still regarded by the
natives as sacred, as its name (Holy Spring) suggests. The spring itself
gushes forth from the side of a sheer rock, and its waters go coursing down
through a rather broad valley which it irrigates. This little oasis stands
in striking contrast to the dry, barren, rocky territory about. While the
208

TRIBAL ORGANIZATION
water supply was not sufficient to meet the needs of a numerons people,
its perennial spring and the tillable soil about, doubtless furnished enough
to meet the needs of Moses and of the leaders who joined with him in
ruling the alUed tribes. There the people doubtless came to him with
their cases of dispute or to learn through him Jehovah's will. Thither
came the different tribes in the spring time and in the autumn, not empty
handed, to present their gifts to Jehovah and to celebrate the sacred
festivals. It appears to have been the common centre about which
the different tribes revolved, and from which Moses exercised his lead
ership and direction.
VI. The Tradition of the Manna. The later traditions represent
the Hebrews as subsisting upon food supernaturaliy supplied. The
early Judean historians, on the contrary, clearly state that the Israelites
lived on the natural products of the wUderness. The tradition that
the Hebrews at this time numbered many thousands has clearly influ
enced the form of this narrative. It explains the fact that, while the
source of the supply was natural, the quantity far exceeded that which
the wilderness ordinarily supplies. Back of these stories of the manna
and of the marvellous supply of water, is the historic truth that, in this
barren environment and trying period of their history, Jehovah amply
provided all that was needed for the welfare of his people. By
means of these stories the prophetic historians bring out in clear relief
that care and love which ever attends those who put their trust in the
Divine Father.
VII. The Battle with the Amalekites. Another phase of the
desert fife of the Hebrews is reflected in the story of the battle with the
Amalekites. Possibly this was for the possession of the sacred spring
at Kadesh. These desert tribesmen figure in the later history, especially
of Saul and David, as the inveterate foes of the Hebrews. They were
found, not in the Sinaitic peninsula, but in the South Country on the
border of Judah. This fact suggests that the occasion was an initial
advance of the Hebrews toward Palestine. The episode is impor
tant because it reveals the warlike life of the wilderness period. The
conflicts with these small desert tribes gave the Hebrews that experi
ence and training which were essential if they were to win on the
larger battle-fields of Palestine. Here, as elsewhere in their narratives,
the prophetic historians focus attention on the supreme, fact that it was
Jehovah's strong arm which gave them the victory.
VEIL The Significance of the Ark. The early Judean narrative
mentions the ark in connection with the journey through the wilderness;
209

THE HEBREWS IN THE WILDERNESS
but gives no description of its origin and form. The latest compiler of
Exodus has evidently substituted for the older prophetic, the late priestly
account of its construction. It was apparently a simple wooden chest,
made from such wood as could be found in the desert. From its prom
inence and use by the Hebrews in their early conflicts with the PhiUstines
(as recorded in the opening chapters of Samuel), it is clear that in that
later day it enjoyed a reputation which could have been gained only
through many generations. This evidence strengthens the testimony
of the early Judean historian that the Hebrews, as they left Mount Sinai,
bore with them some such rude chest or ark.
The presence of corresponding arks or ships among the ancient
Babylonians, Egyptians and Phoenicians indicates that the institution
was very old, and throws further Ught upon the original meaning of the
symbol. Among the Egyptians each god had its sacred ship, on which
the image of the god was borne in solemn procession up and down the
Nile. In Babylonia corresponding arks or chests were similarly used
to bear the images of the gods in the processions, which marched along
the sacred streets on certain great feast days.
If the primitive decalogue of Exodus 34 comes from Moses, it would
seem clear that from the first Jehovah was not represented by an image.
The analogies and the references in the early sources indicate that the
ark was apparently regarded either as the symbol of the presence of
Jehovah or as the throne of the God of Sinai. In the minds of the early
Hebrews, it may well have represented the transfer of Jehovah's place of
abode from the sacred mountain to the temple at Jerusalem, in which
the ark occupied a central place. Some such belief as this explains the
ancient song in1. Before this symbol of Jehovah's presence Israel's
foes were vanquished. Under Moses's direction it was the signal
for the Hebrews to advance or to halt in their march. Above all, it
symbofized to them in all their wanderings and varied vicissitudes the
all-important fact that Jehovah, their God, was in their midst, guiding
and directing them.
§ XXVIII. THE ATTEMPT TO ENTER CANAAN FROM THE
SOUTH
1. The Then Moses sent certain men to spy out the land of Canaan,
sending j^ gaid to them, Go up now into the South Country and on
up into the hiU-country, and see what the land is and the
people who dwell therein, whether they are strong or weak,
210

of the
spies

ATTEMPT TO ENTER CANAAN FROM THE SOUTH
whether few or many, and what the land is in which they
dwell, whether it is good or bad ; and what the cities are in
which they dwell, whether in camps or in strongholds; and
see what the land is, whether it is fertile or barren, whether
there is wood in it or not. Be brave and bring some of
the fruit of the land. Now it was the time of the first
ripe grapes.
So they went up by the South Country, and came to He- 2. Their
bron; and Ahiman, Sheshai and Talmai, the children of J°umey
Anak, were there. (Now Hebron was built seven years
before Zoan in Egypt.) And when they came to the valley
of Eshcol, they cut down from there a branch with one
cluster of grapes, and carried it upon a staff between two
men, and also some of the pomegranates, and some of the
figs. That place was called the vaUey of Eshcol [Grape-
cluster], because of the cluster which the IsraeUtes cut
down from there.
And they returned to Kadesh, and brought back a report 3. Their
to them, and showed them the fruit of the land. And they report
told Moses, saying, We came to the land to which you sent
us; and surely it flows with milk and honey; and this is
the fruit of it. But the people who dwell in the land are
strong, and the cities are fortified, and very large ; and, more
over, we saw the children of Anak there.
(The Amalekites were dwelling in the land of the south;
and the Hittites and the Jebusites and the Amorites in the
hUl-country; and the Canaanites were dwelling by the sea,
and beside the Jordan.)
Then Caleb stilled the people before Moses, and said, We
surely ought to go up and take possession of it; for we are
well able to overcome it. But the men who went up with
him said, We are not able to go up against the people ; for
they are stronger than we. And there we saw NephiUm
[giants] ; we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so
were we in their sight.
Then the people wept that night, saying, Why did Jehovah 4.Mur-
bring us to this land, to fall by the sword? Our wives and of the
our Uttle ones wUl be a prey! Were it not better for us to p*°pi«
return to Egypt? And they said to one another, Let us make
a captain and return to Egypt. 211

ATTEMPT TO ENTER CANAAN FROM THE SOUTH
5. But Moses said to them, If Jehovah delighteth in us, then
2ou8r2ei he will bring us into this land, and give it to us ; a land which
flows with milk and honey. Fear not the people of the
land, for they are our bread. Then: defence is removed
from over them, for Jehovah is with us; fear them not.
But the people would not trust Jehovah.
e.je-i Therefore Jehovah said to Moses, How long wiU this
e°™h 3 people despise me ? and how long will they refuse to trust me,
demna- m spite of all the signs which I have worked among them?
of°the I will smite them with a pestilence, and disinherit them,
uesael and will make thee a nation greater and mightier than they.
7. t But Moses said to Jehovah, Then the Egyptians wUl hear
Moses's it £for thou hroughtest this people in thy might from among
foTthe tnem)> an<* tney 'will tell it to the inhabitants of this land.
P°eopie They have heard that thou, Jehovah, art in the midst of this
people; for thou, Jehovah, art seen eye to eye, and thy
cloud standeth over them, and thou goest before them in a
pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night. Now
if thou shalt kill this people as one man, then the nations
which have heard the fame of thee will say, ' Because Je
hovah was not able to bring this people into the land which
he promised to them with an oath, therefore he hath slain
them in the wilderness.' But now, I pray thee, let the power
of the Lord be great, according as thou hast spoken, saying,
'Jehovah is slow to anger, and abundant in mercy, for
giving iniquity and transgression; although he does not
leave it unpunished, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon
the children upon the third and fourth generation.' Pardon,
I pray thee, the iniquity of this people, according to thy
great mercy, and according as thou hast forgiven this people,
from Egypt even until now.
8. The Jehovah said, I have pardoned according to thy word;
jJJeift DU* as surely as I Uve, and as surely as the whole earth shaU
u^on he filled with the glory of Jehovah, of all the men who have
people seen my glory and my signs which I performed in Egypt
and in the wilderness, and yet have tempted me these ten
times, and have not hearkened to my voice, not one shaU
see the land which I promised to their fathers with an oath,
neither shall any of those who despised me see it; but my
servant Caleb, because he had another spirit in him, and
212

ATTEMPT TO ENTER CANAAN FROM THE SOUTH
hath foUowed me unreservedly, him will I bring into the
land to which he went, and his descendants shall possess it.
But your little ones, that ye said should be a prey, them will
I bring in, and they shall know the land which ye have re
jected. But as for you, your dead bodies shall fall in this
wilderness. And your children shall be wanderers in the
wilderness forty years.
Now when the Canaanite king of Arad, who dwelt in the 9. De-
South Country, heard that Israel had come by the way of the*°f
Atharim, he fought against Israel, and took some of them ?™el-
captive. Then Dathan and Abiram the sons of EUab the son of 10. Mu-
Pallu, son of Reuben, took men, and rose up before Moses. Dathan
And Moses sent to summon Dathan and Abiram the sons of Jgjj
EUab; but they said, We will not come up; is it a small
thing that you have brought us up out of a land flowing
with milk and honey, to kill us in the wilderness, but you
must even make yourseU a prince over us? Moreover you
have not brought us into a land flowing with milk and
honey; wiU you throw dust in our eyes? we will not come up.
Then Moses was very angry and said to Jehovah, Do not 11.
respect then: offering; I have not taken a single ass from protest
them, neither have I hurt one of them. And Moses rose up j^
and went to Dathan and Abiram, and the elders of Israel ing
foUowed him. And he said to them, Depart, I pray you,
from the tents of these wicked men, and touch nothing of
theirs, lest you be swept away in all their sins. And Dathan
and Abiram came out, and stood at the door of their tents,
with their wives and sons and Uttle ones.
Then Moses said, By this you shaU know that Jehovah 12. His
hath sent me to do all these works ; that it was not of mine to?!-1
own choice. K these men die the common death of men, or f°^_
if they share the usual fate of men, then Jehovah hath not vine de-
sent me. But if Jehovah does something unprecedented, CI3lon
and the ground opens its mouth, and swallows them up, with
all that belongs to them, and they go down alive to Sheol, then
you shall understand that these men have despised Jehovah.
And it came to pass as he finished speaking all these i3.Fate
words, that the ground which was under them was cleft. So °ebeu
they and all that belonged to them, went down alive into Sheol.
213

ATTEMPT TO ENTER CANAAN FROM THE SOUTH
I. The Natural Approach to Canaan. As has already been noted,
two ways opened before the Hebrews as they departed from Egypt.
They chose the southern, the Way of the Red Sea, because it led to free
dom and association with their kinsmen. They avoided the northern
route, the Way of the Philistines, which was the more direct road to
Canaan, because it was guarded by Egyptian garrisons and by strongly
intrenched agricultural peoples, whom the nomad Hebrew clans could
not hope to conquer.
From the first, Canaan, with its springs and fertile fields, was the load
stone which attracted the Hebrews. With Kadesh as a centre, they
found their temporary home on the southern borders of this land of their
hopes. The most natural and direct line of approach from Kadesh was
directly northward. A journey of seventy-five or one hundred miles
would bring them into the heart of southern Canaan. No strong, nat
ural barriers barred their progress. Instead, the rolling, rocky South
Country gradually merges into the rounded limestone hills of Judah.
II. The Report of the Spies. The story of the spies is the traditional
record of the attempt of the Hebrews to enter Canaan from the south.
Three distinct and variant versions of the tradition are found in Numbers,
but they all agree regarding the essential facts. From Kadesh, Moses
sent out certain men with Caleb at their head, to investigate conditions
in the South Country and Canaan. Hebron they found in the possession
of certain powerful clans. From the valleys of Judah they brought back
convincing evidence of the vine culture which flourished there. In
contrast to the barren life of the wilderness, even rocky Judah was a
veritable paradise; but the cities were strong and fortified, and to the
majority of the spies the conquest of Canaan seemed an impossibility.
Caleb advocated an immediate advance; but the people were daunted
by the report of the majority, and abandoned the hope of immediate
conquest. A later prophetic editor, standing in the full light of later
events, and inspired by a nobler faith, has introduced (6_s) a powerful
arraignment of the people because of their cowardice and lack of faith
at this critical moment in their history. The courage of Caleb was re
warded by the promise that his descendants should be established in
southern Judah.
III. Reasons for the Failure. Egyptian inscriptions supplement
the testimony of the oldest biblical records by revealing the real reasons
why the Hebrews did not go up at once from the south to the conquest
»f Canaan. Chief among these was the fact that Egypt still maintained
its rule in southern Palestine and thus bound together the different
214

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE
local clans and enabled them to offer a successful resistance to invasion
from the desert. On the other hand, the Hebrews were not prepared
to conquer the highly civilized peoples of Canaan. Excavation has re
vealed the strength and height of many of the walls which encircled
their towns. Desert tribes have no means of attacking and capturing
walled viUages. The needs of their flocks and herds and the lack of
military training make it impossible for them to maintain a protracted
siege. The experiences of the Hebrews in Egypt had given them no
training in warfare, but had tended to weaken rather than develop their
courage. A generation of hardship in the desert under the inspiring
direction of their prophet leader was necessary before they could become
an efficient fighting force. It was also important that they should first
intrench themselves in some semi-agricultural district and develop their
resources and base of supply, before they could maintain a systematic
and continuous attack.
IV. The Tribes that Entered Palestine from the South. The older
narratives record an attempt on the part of the Israelites to capture Arad,
one of the outlying Canaanite towns, and of their defeat at the hands
of their foes. The testimony of these earliest narratives is that a majority
of the Hebrew tribes remained for a generation or more in the wilder
ness, and ultimately entered Palestine from the east, rather than from
the south. The prominence of Caleb, however, in the story of the spies
and in the later account of the conquest of southern Canaan undoubtedly
reflects the fact that the tribe of Caleb entered from the south, before the
majority of the Hebrew tribes had settled in central Canaan. These
Calebites were intrenched south of Hebron. Near them were found
certain other Arab tribes, such as the Jerahmeelites, the Kenites and
the Kenizzites. Possibly these were the vanguard of the Hebrew ad
vance, or they may have already entered the South Country before the
Hebrew tribes fled from Egypt. The subsequent records indicate that
they affiliated with the Judahites and constituted a large and im
portant part of that southern IsraeUte tribe.
V. Rebellions Against Moses's Authority. The rivalry of differ
ent tribes and the hardship of their life in the desert naturally begat
strife and rebefiion. Hostility between rival tribes is the rule rather
than the exception in Arabia. The authority of the tribal sheik or leader
is ill-defined, and depends chiefly upon the needs of the moment and the
personal ability of the leader. In the face of discouragements it was
almost inevitable that discontent should find open expression and that
many of the tribal sheiks should oppose the authority of their prophetic
215

THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS
leader. This state of affairs is revealed in the many traditions of re
bellions against Moses. Quick, decisive measures were doubtless adopt
ed to put down these uprisings. It was by patience, tact and courage
that the great leader finally overcame opposition and graduaUy welded
the different tribes into a strong political unit.
VI. Significance of the Wilderness Sojourn. In the Ught of its
historical background and the testimony of the earfiest traditions, it is
possible to estimate the significance to the Hebrews of their wilderness
experiences. The necessities and hardships of their life graduaUy and
inevitably gave them habits of courage, persistence and self-denial.
Their strenuous life developed physical strength and endurance,
courage and skill in warfare. It impressed upon them the necessity
and advantages of combined action, and facilitated the work of Moses
in moulding the incipient nation. Their constant feeling of hunger
and fear of attack deepened their sense of dependence upon divine
power. Their simple reUgious life, which apparently centred in K&-
desh, enabled Moses to impress upon them his own sense of Jehovah's
constant presence and care for his people. On the other hand, as then-
judge and prophet, he was able definitely to illustrate those simple
ethical principles, which appear from the first to have been the corner
stones of Israel's faith and civilization. Thus, in divine Providence,
quietly out in the solitude and privation of the wilderness, under the
leadership of one of the world's great prophets, a nation, ambitious,
strong of limb and loyal to its tribal God and leader, was being prepared
for the destiny which awaited it.

§ XXIX. THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS AND
BALAAM'S PROPHECY
i. Then Moses sent messengers from Kadesh to the king
JJjSUrt of Edom, Thus says your kinsman Israel, 'You know all
the hardship that has befallen us: how our fathers went
down into Egypt, and we Uved in Egypt a long time ; and
the Egyptians ill-treated us and our fathers; but when we
cried to Jehovah, he heard our voice and sent a Messenger
and brought us out of Egypt; now we are in Kadesh, a city
on the frontier of your territory. Pray, let us pass through
your land. We will not pass through field or vineyard,
and we will not drink of the water of the wells ; we wiU go
216

THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS
along the king's highway; we will not turn aside to the right
hand or to the left, untU we have passed your border.
But Edom said to him, You shall not pass through my 2.
territory, lest I come out with the sword against you. Then E<Jom's
the IsraeUtes said to him, we will go up by the main high-
way; and if I drink of your water, I and my cattle, then will
I pay for it. Only— since it is nothing— I would like peace
fully to pass through. But he said, You shall not pass
through. Therefore Edom came out against him with a
mighty host and a strong force. Thus Edom refused to
give Israel passage through his territory; so Israel turned
away from him.
Then they journeyed from Kadesh by the way leading to 3. The
the Red Sea, to go around the land of Edom ; but the people jj^
became discouraged, because of the journey. And the pents
people spoke against Jehovah and Moses, Why have you
brought us out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? for there
is no bread and no water, and we loathe this worthless food.
Then Jehovah sent fiery serpents among the people, and they
bit the people, so that many IsraeUtes died. And the people
came to Moses and said, We have sinned, for we have spoken
agamst Jehovah and against you; intercede with Jehovah
that he take away the serpents from us. So Moses inter
ceded for the people. And Jehovah said to Moses, Make
a fiery serpent, and set it on a standard; and it shall come
to pass, that any one who is bitten, when he seeth it, shall
five. And Moses made a bronze serpent, and set it upon
the standard ; and it came to pass that, if a serpent had bit
ten any man, when he looked at the bronze serpent, he Uved.
Then they encamped in the wilderness, which is opposite 4. Ex-
Moab on the east. From there they journeyed and en- enTesin
camped in the valley of the brook Zered. From there they jje
journeyed and encamped on the other side of the Arnon, about
which is in the wilderness that stretches out from the terri- Moab
tory of the Amorites ; for the Arnon is the Moabite boundary,
between Moab and the Amorites. Therefore it is said in
the Book of Wars of Jehovah,
We passed through Waheb in Suphah,
And the vaUeys of Amon,
217

THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS
And the slope of the vaUeys,
Which extends to the site of Ar,
And borders on the frontier of Moab.
And from thence the IsraeUtes journeyed to Beer [Well].
Then Israel sang this song :
Spring up, 0 weU;
Sing ye to it;
To the well which the chieftains dug,
Which the nobles of the people delved,
With the leader's wand, with their staves.
And from Beer they journeyed to Mattanah; and from
Mattanah to NahaUel; and from NahaUel to Bamoth; and
from Bamoth to the valley which is in the region of Moab,
to the top of Pisgah, which looks out upon the desert.
5. Now Moab was seized with fear because of the IsraeUtes.
ff°a of3 Therefore Moab said to the elders of Midian, Now wUl this
Israel multitude Uck up all that is round about us, as the ox Ucks
up the grass of the field. And Balak the son of Zippor was
king of Moab at that time. And he sent messengers to
Balaam the son of Beor, to the land of the Ammonites, say
ing, A people has come out from Egypt ; behold, they have
completely covered the face of the land, and are abiding
over against me. Come, therefore, I pray, curse this people
for me ; (for they are stronger than I) ; perhaps I may be able
to defeat and drive them out of the land. Then the elders
of Moab and the elders of Midian departed with the fee for
divination in their hands, and they came to Balaam, and
repeated to him the words of Balak, Behold, the people that
has come from Egypt is covering the face of the land ; come
now, curse them for me; perhaps I may be able to fight
agamst them and drive them out. For I wUl reward you
with very great honor, and whatever you say to me I wUl
do. Come therefore, I pray, curse this people for me. And
Balaam answered and said to the servants of Balak, If
Balak should give me his house full of sUver and gold, I
could not go beyond the word of Jehovah my God, to do
less or more. 218

THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS
Then he saddled his ass and went with them. But God's 6. Ba-
anger was aroused because he went, and the Messenger ^^2.
of Jehovah placed himself in the way as an adversary against ®°c^e
him. Now he was riding upon his ass, and his two servants way
were with him. And when the ass saw the Messenger of
Jehovah standing in the way, with his drawn sword in his
hand, the ass turned aside out of the way, and went into
the field. Then Balaam struck the ass to turn her into the
way. But the Messenger stood in a narrow path between
the vineyards, a waU being on this side, and a wall on that
side. And when the ass saw the Messenger of Jehovah,
she pressed herself agamst the wall and crushed Balaam's
foot against the waU; so he struck her again. Then the
Messenger of Jehovah went further, and stood in a narrow
place, where there was no way to turn either to the right
hand or the left. And when the ass saw the Messenger of
Jehovah, she lay down under Balaam; and Balaam's anger
was aroused, and he struck the ass with his staff. Then
Jehovah opened the mouth of the ass, and she said to Balaam,
What have I done to you, that you should have struck me
these three times? And Balaam said to the ass, Because
you have made sport of me ; I would that there were a sword
in my hand, for now I would kill you. And the ass said to
Balaam, Am not I your ass, upon which you have ridden aU
your life long untU to-day? Has it been my habit to deal
thus with you? And he said, Nay. Then Jehovah opened
the eyes of Balaam, and he saw the Messenger of Jehovah
standing in the way, with his drawn sword in his hand ; and
he bowed his head and fell on his face. And the Messen
ger of Jehovah said to him, Why hast thou struck thine ass
these three times? behold, I have come forth as an adversary,
because thy conduct is perverse before me ; and the ass saw
me, and turned aside before me these three times. Unless
she had turned aside from me, surely now I had even slain
thee, and saved her aUve. Therefore Balaam said to the
Messenger of Jehovah, I have sinned; for I did not know
that thou stoodest in the way against me; now therefore
if it displeases thee, I will go back again. But the Messen
ger of Jehovah said to Balaam, Go with the men; but only
the word I shaU speak to thee, that thou shalt speak. And
219

THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS
when Balak heard that Balaam was coming, he went out
to meet him at Ir of Moab, which is on the boundary formed
by the Arnon, which is at the extremity of the boundary, and
said to him, Am I not able to honor you? Then Balaam
went with Balak, and they came to Kiriath-huzzoth.
7. His So Balak took Balaam to the top of Peor, which looks out
J^j- over the eastern desert. Now when Balaam saw that it
to pleased Jehovah to bless Israel, he did not go to consult
future3 omens as he had done time and again, but he turned toward
nils' ^e wUderness. And when Balaam lifted up his eyes, he
saw Israel dwelling according to their tribes; and the spirit
of God came upon him, and he uttered his oracle saying,
The oracle of Balaam the son of Beor,
Even the oracle of the man who seeth truly,
The oracle of him who heareth the words of God,
Who seeth the vision of the Almighty,
Falling down and having his eyes open:
How beautiful are thy tents, 0 Jacob,
Thy dwellings, 0 Israel!
Like vaUeys are they spread out,
Like gardens by the river-side,
Like Ugn-aloes which Jehovah hath planted,
Like cedars beside the waters.
Water shall flow from his buckets,
And his seed shaU be sown in abundant waters,
And his king shall be higher than Agag,
And his kingdom shaU be exalted.
God who brought him forth out of Egypt;
Is for him like the strength of the wUd-ox.
He shall devour the nations, his adversaries,
And shall break their bones in pieces,
And shatter his oppressors.
He croucheth, he lieth down like a Uon,
And Uke a Uoness, who shall stir him up?
Blessed is every one who blesseth thee,
And cursed is every one who curseth thee.
8. His J
reiter-
predio- Tlien Balak's anger was aroused agamst Balaam, and
tion he smote his hands together; and Balak said to Balaam,
220

REASONS FOR THE JOURNEY
I caUed you to curse my enemies, and, behold, you have
done nothing but bless them. Now therefore flee to your
home. I intended to honor you greatly; but, as it is, Je
hovah hath kept thee back from honor. But Balaam said
to Balak, Did I not say to your messengers whom you sent
to me, ' If Balak should give me his house full of silver and
gold, I could not go beyond the word of Jehovah, to do either
good or bad of my own will; what Jehovah speaketh that
must I speak ? ' And now, behold, I am going to my people :
come let me teU you beforehand what this people will do
to your people in the days to come. And he uttered his
oracle, saying,
The oracle of Balaam the son of Beor,
Even the oracle of the man who seeth truly,
The oracle of him who heareth the words of God,
And knoweth the knowledge of the Most High,
Who seeth the vision of the Almighty,
Falling down and having his eyes open:
I see him, but not now;
I behold him, but not near;
A star cometh forth out of Jacob,
And a sceptre ariseth out of Israel,
And shattereth the temples of Moab,
And the skull of all the sons of Seth.
And Edom shall become a possession,
Seir, his enemies, shaU also become a possession,
Whiie Israel doeth vaUantly.
And out of Jacob shaU one have dominion,
And shall destroy the remnant from the city.
I. Reasons for the Journey. The opportunity to secure a base from
which to invade Palestine, first offered itself to the Hebrews in the east-
Jordan territory. The Amorites, possibly to escape Egyptian rule, seized
the rolling uplands east of the Jordan. By the Moabites and Ammon
ites these invaders were naturally regarded as afiens. Hence in case of
attack from their neighbors the Amorites could expect no aid. Accord
ing to the earliest records, it was from these aliens that the Hebrews
wrested the fertile lands on which they made the transition from the life
of the wilderness to the settled agricultural civilization of Palestine.
221

THE JOURNEY FROM THE WILDERNESS
To reach the east-Jordan territory, the nearest way led across the
northern territory of Edom and south of the Dead Sea. The Edom
ites, suspicious of the IsraeUtes, refused them a passage. The journey
around the southern end of Edom was long and toilsome, but the He
brews chose it rather than battle with the Edomites.
II. The Journey Around Edom. The prophetic historians have
preserved a few stories and fragments from the folk songs connected
with the events of this journey. Again the people were discouraged
and rebelled against Jehovah and Moses. The calamity which over
took them is interpreted as a divine judgment. The tradition states
that fiery serpents came among them and bit them. Divine forgiveness
and deliverance came only in response to the earnest prayers of Moses.
In II Kings 184 it is stated that Hezekiah, under the inspiration of the
preaching of Isaiah, "broke in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses
had made, for up to that time the Israelites had offered sacrifices to it,
and they called it Nehushtan (the brazen one)." From this reference
it appears that the present story is the traditional interpretation of the
origin and meaning of this ancient symbol. The fact that it was de
stroyed in connection with Hezekiah's reform work indicates that the
later age, under the preaching of the prophets, realized its true character.
The early prophetic historians preserved the story because it illustrated
vividly and concretely the duty of foUowing God's leadership, without
complaint even amidst the most adverse conditions. It also revealed that
divine love which ever responds to the cry of contrition. Thus to the
old heathen symbol these early prophets gave an interpretation which
anticipates the later Gospel message.
The Song of the Well was probably sung by the women, as they went
out to draw water from the famous well at Beer. It commemorates
either the time when the well was originally dug, or the combined action
of the leaders and people at some period of protracted drought. A list
is also given of the stations in the caravan route which led from the
desert northward.
III. The Two Versions of the Balaam Stories. In its present
setting, the remarkable Balaam story is one of the episodes of the
journey from Kadesh to the Jordan. Two complete and variant ver
sions of this story are found in the book of Numbers. The Northern
Israelite version makes Balaam a famous prophet from Pethor beside
the Euphrates. He therefore lived on the borders of the land of Aram,
from whence came the ancestors of the Hebrews. At the divine com
mand he responded to the invitation of the king of Moab; but instead
222

THE TWO VERSIONS OF THE BALAAM STORIES
of cursing, he pronounced a blessing which foretold the future prosperity
and military glory of the Israelites. In the older, the early Judean
narrative, Balaam was a famous Ammonite seer called to curse the Isra
elites. Brought to his senses by the voice of his patient ass, which is
thought of as gifted with speech, even as the serpent in the early Judean
story of man's fall, Balaam uttered a true and noble prediction con
cerning Israel's future victories under the leadership of Saul and David.
IV. The Balaam Oracles. Underlying the ancient story is the com
mon belief that a curse, especially if it proceeds from the lips of one who
has great influence with the Deity, possesses a malign power. The
Balaam story also indicates that the early Hebrew historians held that
divine revelation was not limited to seers and prophets of their own race.
The setting and poetic form of Balaam's predictions are characteristic
of ancient oracles. Although the exact meaning of the Hebrew is ob
scure, the opening words seem to indicate that the seer was in a state
of trance, repeating that which he saw in his vision. The oracles, in
terpreted into prose, predict the fertiUty of the land of Palestine and the
great numbers of the Hebrews. They fix the attention on the Hebrew
king who was to bind together the different tribes of Israel and conquer
their hostile neighbors, the Moabites and the Edomites. The picture
is not of spiritual but of material splendor and conquest. The portrait
of the victorious ruler is true of but one man in Israel's history, and that
is the great conqueror David. His cruel treatment of Israel's fallen
foes is made the theme of exultation rather than of condemnation. Its
spirit is that of victorious Israel in the days when the united kingdom
stood at the zenith of its power. The words well fit the lips of a court
poet greeting the victorious army of Israel, as it came back under the
leadership of Joab, sated with victory and bearing the spoils of conquest.
Like Shakespeare's prediction of the glories of the reign of Queen
Elizabeth (Henry VIII), they are placed with great dramatic effect in
the mouth of an ancient seer.
V. The People of Destiny. As in Noah's blessing, it is clear that
Israel's later experiences as a nation lie back of these ancient songs.
They reflect the hopes of the Hebrews at the height of their miUtary glory.
There is no trace of the disasters that followed the death of Solomon.
The influences of the higher ethical standards and of the law of love,
which characterize the writings of later prophets, priests and sages, are
nowhere apparent. Yet in these ancient oracles, Israel's consciousness
of a unique calling and destiny is clearly expressed. Apart from and
hostile to the rest of the world, the Hebrew nation stands like a crouch-
223

THE EAST-JORDAN CONQUESTS
ing lion, yet assured of Jehovah's unique blessing and protection. The
roots of that hope are found in the remarkable experiences of the past,
and especially in the great deliverance from Egypt. The popular be
lief has deepened into a conviction that, not by chance but as the reali
zation of divine destiny, the handful of fugitive slaves, in the face of
overwhelming obstacles, have grown into a great and powerful nation.
This sense of destiny and the conviction that they are Jehovah's peculiar
people have already become so strong, that even the earUest prophets,
projecting it backward, voice it, not only on the lips of an Abraham,
Jacob and Moses, but even on the lips of a heathen seer. Israel's history
as a whole is a sublime iUustration of the truth that to beUeve is to achieve,
even though the ultimate realization may be very different from the orig
inal hope.
§ XXX. EAST- JORDAN CONQUESTS AND MOSES'S FAREWELL
i.vic- Then Israel sent messengers to Sihon king of the Amor-
ov« si- *tes> saymg> Let me now pass through your land. We wUl
hon not turn aside into field or vineyard ; we wiU not drink from
the water of the weUs; we wiU go by the king's highway,
until we have passed through your territory. But Sihon
would not aUow Israel to pass through his territory. There
fore Sihon gathered all his people together, and went out
against Israel in the wilderness, and came to Jahaz, where
he fought against Israel. And Israel smote him with the
edge of the sword, and seized his land from the Arnon to
the Jabbok, even to the Ammonites.
2. The Then Israel took and dwelt in all the cities of the Amorites,
tiCo°n of " in Heshbon, and in all its dependent viUages. For Hesh-
ujndn s k°n was t*ie "ty of Sihon the king of the Amorites, who had
fought agamst the former king of Moab, and taken aU his
land out of his hand, even to the Arnon. Therefore the
bards sing: Come to Heshbon!
Let it be rebuUt!
Let the city of Sihon be re-established!
For fire went out from Heshbon,
Flame from the city of Sihon;
It devoured Moab, 224

VICTORIES OVER THE AMORITES
The lords of the high places of Arnon.
Woe to thee Moab!
Undone art thou, 0 people of Chemosh,
Who has made his sons fugitives
And his daughters captives,
So their offspring have perished from Heshbon to
Dibon
And their wives ... to Medaba.
Thus Israel came to Uve in the land of the Amorites.
And the cluldren of Machir the son of Manasseh went to 3. Con-
Gilead and took it, and dispossessed the Amorites who were GuSd°f
therein. And Jair the son of Manasseh went and took their g^han
tent-villages and called them Hawoth-jair [Tent-villages M an
of Jair]. And Nobah went and took Kenath, and its de
pendent towns, and called it Nobah after his own name.
Then Jehovah said to Moses, Behold, thy time approacheth 4. Jeho-
that thou must die ; call Joshua, and present yourselves in com-
the tent of meeting, that I may give him a charge. And ™aud
Moses and Joshua went and presented themselves in the Moses
tent of meeting. And Jehovah appeared in the tent in a
pillar of cloud; and the pillar of cloud stood over the door
of the tent. And he gave Joshua the son of Nun a charge
saying, Be courageous and strong ; for thou shalt bring the
Israelites into the land which I promised them with an oath ;
and I wUl be with thee.
Then Moses went up to the top of Pisgah. And Jehovah 5. The
showed him all the land. And Jehovah said to him, This scenes3
is the land which I promised with an oath to Abraham, Moses's
Isaac, and Jacob, saying, ' I will give it to thy descendants' ; life
I have caused thee to see it with thine eyes, but thou shalt
not go over thither. So Moses the servant of Jehovah died
there in the land of Moab. And Jehovah buried him in
the ravine in the land of Moab over against Beth-Peor; but
to this day no man knows of his burial-place. And there
has not arisen a prophet since in Israel like Moses, whom
Jehovah knew face to face.
I. Victories over the Amorites. Later conquests may perhaps
be reflected in the tradition of the victory over the Amorites, but there
225

THE EAST-JORDAN CONQUESTS
is doubtless an underlying basis of historic fact. The ancient song in'
is probably an extract from an older and fuller poetic source to which
the prophetic writers had access. This extract apparently refers to the
victories which the Hebrews won over the Moabites. It impUes that
the Israelites had already captured Heshbon, the Amorite capital, and
made it the base of attack against the Moabites in the south. As in the
book of Joshua, the historical perspective may be foreshortened, so that
the events of a century or more are represented as taking place in one
year. It seems probable that at least some of the Hebrew tribes suc
ceeded in capturing certain territory to the east of the lower Jordan and
there intrenched themselves, preparatory to the westward movement
toward Canaan.
II. Importance of the East Jordan Conquest. As has already
been noted, throughout all its history the east- Jordan land has been the
territory in which the nomads from the desert have made the gradual
transition from their wandering life to the settled occupations of an
agricultural people. The plateaus furnish abundant grass for the herds
and flocks. At many points there are fruitful fields which yield abundant
crops of grain. Here the nomad learns how to till the soil and tastes
the joys of settled agricultural Ufe. From these eastern highlands the
Hebrew immigrants looked longingly across the deep vaUey of the
Jordan to the rolling hills of Judea and Samaria. The pressure behind,
of other tribes moving in from the desert, and the rapid increase in then-
own numbers, which would result from a more settled and favorable
method of Ufe, were powerful forces impelUng the Hebrews to cross the
Jordan and seek homes among the huls to the west.
III. Moses's Farewell. Tradition records that on these heights
east of the Jordan, Moses was given his first and last view of the promised
land of Canaan. In the older traditions, the account of his farewell
and death is very brief. Joshua the son of Nun, who had attended Moses
in the tent of meeting, is given command to lead the IsraeUtes across the
Jordan into the land of their hopes. With the assurance that the ulti
mate goal of their wanderings would soon be attained, the servant of
Jehovah laid down the heavy burden, which he had borne so nobly.
Tradition fails to recall the spot where Israel's great leader was buried.
Mystery surrounds the death scene of the great prophet. Like Elijah
of the later story, the background of his activity was the lonely, mys
terious wilderness, with its caves and dry, jagged mountains. On the
borders of civilized life, he suddenly disappears and his work is
done. 226

SETTING OF THE BOOK OF DEUTERONOMY
TV, Literary Setting of the Book of Deuteronomy. Later gener
ations, recognizing that Israel's early judge and prophet had laid the
foundations for all later Hebrew legislation, naturally regarded him as the
author of that remarkable collection of exhortations and laws found in
the book of Deuteronomy. Its literary setting is dramatic and appro
priate. The laws and exhortations anticipate the various needs that
arose in the later experiences of the Israelites in Canaan. As the He
brews were about to pass from the wilderness to the conquest of Canaan,
Moses is represented as giving these detailed laws in the form of a long
prophetic address. In a very real sense the implications of this literary
setting are historically true. Later prophets like Amos, Hosea and
Isaiah still further interpreted the fundamental principles of Israel's
faith. Their disciples formulated these principles in the definite laws
found in the book of Deuteronomy. It was, however, the initial work of
Moses that made this later national and social development possible. It
was his spirit and faith that inspired his race to conquer and to achieve.
It was his simple prophetic message that lay at the foundations of the
growing body of Israel's legislation. Though in divine Providence
other voices and other pens determined the final form of the laws, they
nevertheless represent Moses's message to his race in the midst of its
new Ufe and environment.
V. The Real Work of Moses. Every student of the Old Testament
is familiar with the profound impression which Moses made upon suc
ceeding generations. It is more difficult to determine the real nature
of the work which he did for his own age and race. About his person
have gathered so many traditions, that it is also difficult to gain a clear
conception of his personaUty. In the preceding sections an attempt
has been made to trace his character and work in the light of the oldest
narratives. Contemporary historical conditions and analogies in the
experiences of later prophets also aid in this task. Moses was doubtless
a man of his times, subject to the limitations of the primitive age in which
he Uved. Yet, like every true prophet, he rose as a towering mountain
peak above his contemporaries, and with inspired vision caught glimpses
of truth which made him a man of conviction with a message to his race.
Prophet that he was, he saw conditions as they were, and having
seen, he did not hesitate to speak and act. Like every inspired leader
of men, he was doubtless gifted with a constructive imagination, which
enabled him to picture, to a certain extent, the noble destiny in store for
his people. Above all, he was conscious of a Divine Power ruling over
Nature and the destinies of his race, of a God not only powerful but per-
227

MOSES'S FAREWELL
sonally interested in delivering the oppressed and in righting the wrongs
of those who put their trust in him. In the mind of Moses the keen
sense of his people's need, on the one hand, and of Jehovah's presence
and character on the other, crystallized into a conviction that the God
of Sinai was able and would deliver his people. Moses also recognized
that he himself was called to be the herald of this great truth. His con
viction and message were similar to those of the true prophets of a later
age. His method was adapted to the pecuUar conditions of his day.
He was called, not merely to proclaim, but to lead. The dramatic ex
periences of his followers in the exodus and wilderness life confirmed his
authority and gave him a supreme opportunity to impress his message
upon them.
The very simplicity of his message added to its strength. Briefly
expressed, it appears to have been: (1) Jehovah is able and eager to de
liver his people from their bondage and to lead them to a land of freedom
and opportunity. (2) The people must be loyal to Jehovah, rendering
to him their full worship, expressed in gifts and ritual.
In addition, it is probable that Moses emphasized the necessity of
their showing loyalty to Jehovah by the just treatment of their fellow-
men. Thus it would appear that Israel's faith was from the first unique,
because of this close blending of ethics and religion. As prophet,
judge and leader, Moses touched every side of the life of his nation and
left an impress which was simply deepened by later experiences.
VI. The Desert Training. The Hebrews acquired in the desert
characteristics which may be traced in all the later stages of their his
tory. There is a certain sternness and. austerity in their character
which they have never lost. Their tendency to stand aloof and to re
gard all other peoples as hostile is but the survival of a habit first en
gendered by the Ufe of the desert, where every ahen tribe is regarded as
a foe. Their intense racial loyalty is another mark of the primitive
tribal instinct. Throughout their history they showed themselves
restive under any strongly organized central authority. Only under
the pressure of direst necessity did the different tribes consent to lay down
their individual independence and acknowledge a common authority.
From the desert they also brought that spirit of freedom and democracy
which is so marked under the tribal organization. Each man is the
equal of his fellow, and the tribal leader rules only by common consent
and as a servant of the whole. To preserve this sacred heritage of de
mocracy, the Israelites repeatedly passed through bloody and disastrous
revolutions. 228

THE DESERT TRAINING
Even though they came under the sway of the polytheistic Canaanite
civilization, their desert instinct, which led them to revere but one God,
as the God of the tribe and nation, repeatedly asserted itself in response
to the appeals of their prophets. Loyalty to Jehovah was therefore
their supreme heritage from their desert days and from their great
prophet Moses. It was also the foundation stone upon which was
reared Israel's later political, social and ceremonial institutions. Stand
ing on this same foundation, the inspired Hebrew prophets, priests and
sages in later days developed that noble, ethical religion which is Israel's
supreme contribution to the faith and progress of humanity.

229

APPENDIX I
THE LATE PRIESTLY STORY OF CREATION
THESE ARE THE GENERATIONS OF THE HEAVENS AND OF
THE EARTH WHEN THEY WERE CREATED
In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth, l.in-
And the earth was waste and void, and darkness was upon tl°nfc'
the face of the deep; and the Spirit of God was brooding °£final
over the face of the waters.
Then God said, Let there be Ught, and there was Ught. 2. Work
And God saw that the Ught was good. God caused the fJte
Ught to separate from the darkness. And God called the day=
Ught Day, and the darkness he called Night. And there SS"
was evening and there was morning, a first day. f'rom
Then God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst £ark-
of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters, g633
Thus God made a firmament, and caused the waters which Second
were under the firmament to separate from the waters ££¦£.
which were above the firmament, and it was so. And ai^.of
God called the firmament Heaven. And there was evening ma-
and there was morning, a second day. ment
Then God said, Let the waters under the heavens be 4.
gathered together into one place, that the dry land may d^T1
appear. And it was so. And God also called the dry land ^a»-

Earth, and the gathering together of the waters he called land
Sea. And God saw that it was good. Moreover God said, ^er
Let the earth put forth vegetation : herbs which yield seed, a^wth

and fruit-trees which bear fruit on the earth after their kind, of vege-
wherein is their seed. And it was so. Thus the earth tatIon
brought forth vegetation, herbs which yield seed after their
231

APPENDIX
kind and trees which bear fruit after their kind, wherein is
then seed. And God saw that it was good. And there was
evening and there was morning, a third day.
5. Then God said, Let there be Ughts in the firmament of
d^.rth heaven to distinguish between day and night. Let them also
crea- be f or signs, and for seasons, and for days and years ; and let
the11 °£ them be Ughts in the firmament of heaven to shed Ught upon
heaven- ^ earth. And it was so. Thus God made the two great
bodies Ughts: the greater to rule the day, and the lesser Ught to
rule the night; also the stars. And God set them in the
firmament of heaven to shed Ught upon the earth, and to
rule over the day and over the night, and to distinguish be
tween Ught and darkness. And God saw that it was good.
And there was evening and there was morning, a fourth
day.
6. Then God said, Let the waters swarm with swarms of
dayh living creatures, and let birds fly over the earth in the open
crea- firmament of heaven. Thus God created the great sea-
a°enof monsters, and all Uving, moving creatures with which the
ures of waters swarm, after their kind, and every winged bird after its
the air kind. And God saw that it was good. And God blessed
water them, saying, Be fruitful, and become numerous, and fUl
the water in the sea, and let the birds become numerous
on the earth. And there was evening and there was morn
ing, a fifth day.
7. Then God said, Let the earth bring forth Uving creatures
|^th after their kind: cattle and creeping things and beasts of
crea- the earth after then: kind. And it was so. Thus God made
iand° the beasts of the earth after their kind, and the annuals after
[Jjjjg their kind, and everything that creeps upon the ground
reptiies after its kind. And God saw that it was good.
sects"1" Moreover God said, Let us make man in our image, after
atioStf our likeness, that they may have dominion over the fish of
man the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over the
SVine cattle, and over all the beasts of the earth, and over all
11 the creeping things that creep upon the earth. Thus God
created man in his own image, in the image of God created
and' he him; male and female created he them. God also
author- Dlessed them, and said to them, Be fruitful, and become
ity numerous, and fill the earth, and subdue it; and have
232

gence
andwill.

APPENDIX
dominion over the fishes of the sea, and over the birds of
the heavens, and over every Uving thing that creeps upon
the earth.
God also said, Behold, I give to you every herb yielding 9. Man
seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every j£sJsh
tree, in which is fruit yielding seed; it shall be food for £?her-
you. And to every beast of the earth, and to every bird ro^"
of the heavens, and to everything that creeps on the earth, 10-.
wherein there is Ufe, I give every green herb for food. And ve^e
it was so. And when God saw everything that he had Sailt"
made, behold, it was very good. And there was evening perfect
and there was morning, a sixth day.
Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all n-
then host. When on the seventh day God had finished his enth
work which he had done, he rested on the seventh day from ^:
all his work which he had done. God also blessed the
seventh day, and hallowed it ; because in it he rested from all
his work which he, God, had done in the process of creation.

II
A PRACTICAL BIBLICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY
Purpose of a Reference Library. The number of books on biblical
and related subjects is appallingly great. Many of them are intended
simply for technical students; some are out of date, and others are more
misleading than helpful. The most difficult problem that confronts
the ordinary reader is to determine what books are the most reliable
and helpful for the elucidation of the Bible. Not many, but a few
clear, interestingly written books are required, which will put the
student into possession of the important information which comes from
the related fields of biblical geography, contemporary history, archae
ology and modern biblical research. Together the books of a practical
reference library should give a comprehensive survey of the entire
biblical field, and above all they should focus attention upon the Bible
itself and aid in interpreting that spiritual truth which constitutes its
chief and abiding value.
Books for Constant Reference. In the corresponding first volume of
the Student's Old Testament, entitled The Beginnings of Hebrew History,
233

APPENDIX
teachers and readers will find the more detailed introductions to the first
three books of the Old Testament and the reasons which have led to the
separation of the older from the later narratives and additions. Variant
versions of the same incidents are printed in parallel columns and the
important interpretative and textual notes are placed at the foot of each
page. In the Appendix is also given a selected bibliography with de
tailed references to both English and foreign works, and citations from
the more important extra-biblical documents. For the contemporary
Babylonian and Egyptian history, the Bible student should also have on
his table Goodspeed's History of the Babylonians and Assyrians and
Breasted's History of the Ancient Egyptians. A good, modern Bible
dictionary is likewise indispensable. Hastings' shorter edition (to be
issued soon), or preferably the larger edition of five volumes is undoubted
ly the most satisfactory.
Additional Books of Reference: Introductions. In addition to
the books for constant reference, the teacher and student and general
reader should be able to refer readily to a score or more of the most
important books in English, which throw Ught upon different subjects
connected with the period represented by this volume. These volumes
should be found at least in every working college, Sunday-school, or
public library. As a general introduction to. the problems which are
commanding the attention of thoughtful men and women to-day, either
Dods, The Bible, Its Origin and Nature, or Kent, The Origin and
Permanent Value of the Old Testament, will be found useful. In many
ways the most illuminating, brief, popular introduction to the indi
vidual books of the Old Testament is that by Professor McFadyen.
Equally clear and attractive, and somewhat more detailed and compact
is the Introduction to the Old Testament by Professor Cornill. For Bible
classes Hazard and Fowler, The Books of the Bible, is an exceedingly use
ful hand-book. A more technical treatment of the subject is found in
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. The articles
in Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, on the individual books also furnish
a valuable and yet popular introduction. For the purely Uterary study,
the more recent work by Professor Gardiner on The Bible as English
Literature is exceedingly suggestive, and supplements, from the modern
point of view, the older epoch-making work of Professor Moulton on
the Literary Study of the Bible.
Contemporary Literature and History. For the contemporary
Babylonian literature Johns, Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts
and Letters; King, The Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi; and
234

APPENDIX
The Seven Tablets of Creation; King and Hall, Egypt and Western Asia
in the Light of Recent Discoveries; Ball, Ught from the East, and Clay,
Light on the Old Testament from Babel, are the chief authorities. Winck-
ler, The Tel-El-Amarna Letters, contains an excellent translation of
these important documents. The contemporary Egyptian documents
will be found either in Breasted's History of the Ancient Egyptians or
in his more voluminous History of Egypt or in his Ancient Records.
In addition to the histories of Breasted and Goodspeed, already men
tioned, the reader will find Paton's compact and reliable little Early
History of Syria and Palestine exceedingly suggestive. Maspero's
large and beautifully illustrated volumes on the Dawn of Civilization
and The Struggle of the Nations are still delightful mines of information.
Winckler's recently translated History of Babylonia and Assyria also
supplements, although it does not supplant Goodspeed's earlier work.
Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians, presents in concise form the life and
customs of these ancient peoples, and Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria, gives a clear picture of their beliefs and religious institu
tions. Hebrew History. For a brief, popular treatment of early Hebrew
history, Wade, Old Testament History, and Cornill, History of the People
of Israel, are suggestive and useful. Smith, Old Testament History, is
more critical and thorough in its method.
The Early Hebrew Traditions. The literature in this field is espe
cially rich. Davis, Genesis and Semitic Traditions, and Ryle, The Early
Narratives of Genesis, are popular yet exceedingly suggestive inter
pretations of the opening stories in the Old Testament. Gunkel,
The Legends of Genesis, and Peters, Early Hebrew Stories, throw
much new light upon the origin and interpretation of these early
narratives. In his Early Traditions of Genesis, Professor Gordon has
made a fresh and illuminating study, especially from the philosophi
cal and theological side, of these early chapters. Worcester, Gene
sis in the Light of Modern Knowledge, contains a full collection of
parallel traditions, gathered both from the ancient Orient and Oc
cident. By far the best EngUsh commentary on the book of Genesis is that by
Professor Driver, although the older work by Professor Dillmann and
the brief hand-book by Professor Dods are still of great value. The
volume in the International Critical Commentary by Professor Gray on
Numbers contains a thorough treatment of the difficult problems pre
sented by that book. 235

APPENDIX

III

GENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL
RESEARCH
For readers and students questions are of value either in focussing the
attention, while reading, on those subjects which are of vital importance,
and in formulating definitely the results of the reading; or else in guid
ing and inspiring the student to enter new but related fields of research.
The following questions have been prepared and classified with these
two distinct ends in view. They follow the chapter or general section
divisions of the Historical Bible. The bibUcal text or the accompany
ing notes furnish the data for answering the General Questions. This
first group of questions also aims to suggest in outline a practical order
in which the important subjects presented by each chapter may be con
sidered in the class-room or in general discussion. The themes for
practical discussion and suggestions regarding the personal appUcation
of the teachings contained in each section wiU be reserved for the teacher's
manual, which will be issued later.
The Subjects for Special Research point to the larger horizon with
which the teacher should be familiar, and give the detailed references
which are most helpful in gaining this wider vision. They also suggest
certain related lines of study which are of interest and value to the gen
eral reader and student. In class-room work many of these topics
may be profitably assigned for personal research and report. The
references are to pages, unless otherwise indicated. Ordinarily several
parallel references are given, that the student may be able to utilize the
book at hand. More detailed classified bibliographies wiU be found in
Sanders and Fowler's Outlines of Biblical History and Literature and
in Appendix I of Student's Old Testament, Vol. I.
INTRODUCTION
I. The Old Testament World. General Questions: 1. In what
ways did the character of the land in which they lived influence primitive
peoples? Cite illustrations. 2. Describe the boundaries and general
character of the Old Testament world ? 3. The Lower Tigris-Euphra
tes valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt, and the type of civilization which
they each produced. 4. The general characteristics of Syria and Pal-
236

APPENDIX
estine. 5. The migrations of the different Semitic peoples from their
original home, and their final settlement.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. A detailed comparison of the
physical characteristics of the Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile valleys.
Goodspeed, Hist. Babs. and Assyrs., 3-13; Erman, Life in Anc. Egypt,
5-28; Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 3-13; Hist, of Egypt,
3-12; Hastings, D.B., I, 214, 653-5; Maspero, Dawn of Civilization,
1^46, 702-84; Articles in standard encyclopaedias. 2. The great zones
of Palestine and their physical peculiarities. Kent, Hist. Heb. Peop.,
United Kgd., 18-26; Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, 6-13, 46-59;
Hastings, D. B., Ill, 640-8; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3534-44; Stewart, Land of
Israel 3. Relation of the Semitic peoples to the other branches of the
human race, and the physical and mental characteristics of the Semites.
Hastings, D.B., Extra Vol., 72-91; Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins,
Ch. I; Keane, Ethnology, 391-5; Brinton, Cradle of the Semites.
II. The Babylonian Background of Early Hebrew History.
General Questions: 1. Describe the ancient Babylonian system of
writing, and explain why it developed at so early a period in the lower
Tigris-Euphrates vaUey. 2. The more striking characteristics of the
ancient Babylonian civilization. 3. The Babylonian conception of the
universe. 4. The different classes in early Babylonia. 5. The three
or four distinct stages of political development which may be traced in
Babylonia. 6. The empire and reign of Sargon I. 7. The character,
conquests, poUcy, building enterprises and code of Hammurabi. 8. The
important dates in Babylonian and Assyrian history. 9. Babylonia's
contributions to human civilization.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The records of the earliest Se
mitic civilization and their discovery. Goodspeed, Hist, of Babs. and
Assyrs., 14-36; Hastings, D.B., 1, 220^; Encyc. Bib., I, 425-9; Jastrow,
Relig. of Bab. and Assyr., 6-19. 2. The Sumerians. King and Hall,
Egypt and Western Asia, 143-50; Hastings, D.B., I, 214-5; Winckler,
Hist, of Bab. and Assyr., 12-17. 3. Early Babylonian Chronology.
King and Hall, Egypt and Western Asia, 184-90, 246-8; King, Studies
in Eastern Hist., II, 76-137. 4. The Early Babylonian Cities. Good-
speed, Hist, of Babs. and Assyrs., 49-54. 5. Code of Hammurabi.
Kent, St. O. T., TV, Israel's Laws and Legal Precedents, 3-7, 291-7;
Johns, Bab. and Assyr. Laws, Contracts and Letters; King and Hall,
Egypt and Western Asia, 274-316; Cook, The Laws of Moses and the
Code of Hammurabi. 6. The Kassites. Goodspeed, Hist, of Babs.
and Assyrs. 121-7; Winckler, Hist, of Bab. and Assyr., 71-92.
237

APPENDIX
III. The Egyptian Background. General Questions: 1. De
scribe the beginnings of Egyptian history. 2. Building enterprises
of the fourth Egyptian dynasty. 3. Rule of the twelfth dynasty.
4. Origin and rule of the Hyksos. 5. The development of the Egyp
tian empire and the rule of Ramses II. 6. The great pohtical changes
in Old Testament world about 1200 B.C.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The character of the earUest
Egyptian civilization. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 29-51;
Hist, of Egypt, 25-50. 2. The building of the great pyramids. Encyc.
Brit., article "Pyramids"; Breasted, Hist, of Anc. Egyptians, 103-16;
Hist, of Egypt, 111-23. 3. The Egyptian mines in the Sinaitic pen
insula. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 160; Erman, Life in
Anc. Egypt, 468-9; Petrie, Researches in Sinai. 4. Egyptian armies
and methods of conquest under the eighteenth dynasty; Erman, Life
in Anc. Egypt, 520-34; Breasted, Hist, of Anc. Egyptians, 223-43;
Hist, of Egypt, 233-5, 243. 5. Probable origin of the Hittites. Article
"Hittites," in Encyc. Brit.; Hastings, D.B., II, 390-2; Encyc. Bib., II,
2094-2100. TV. The Early Palestinian Background. General Questions:
1. Describe the different sources of information regarding the pre-
Hebrew history of Palestine. 2. The dates and ways in which the cult
ure of Babylonia touched Syria and Palestine in the pre-Hebrew period.
3. The Amorite and Canaanite invasions of Palestine. 4. Life in
Palestine about 2000 b.c 5. The nature and effects of Egyptian rule
in Palestine. 6. The light thrown upon conditions in Palestine by the
el-Amarna letters. 7. The relative date of Israel's appearance, and the
characteristics of the civilization which the Hebrews found in Palestine.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Excavations at Lachish. Hast
ings, D.B., III, 15, 16; Petrie, Tell-el-Hesy; Bliss, A Mound of Many
Cities. 2. At Gezer. Quarterly Statements of the Palestinian Exploration
Fund during the years 1905-8; Macalister, Bible Side-lights from the
Mound of Gezer. 3. The light shed by the Babylonian and Egyptian
inscriptions upon early Palestine. Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and
Pal., 49-62; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 14-19. 4. The Amorite-
Canaanite Period. Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Pal., 24-46, 63-72;
McCurdy, Hist. Prophecy and the Monuments, I, 152-223. 5. The
Egyptian Rule in Palestine. Hastings, D.B., I, 660-2; Encyc. Bib., II,
1238-42; Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Pal., 74-102; Breasted, Hist.
of the Anc. Egyptians, 251-2; Hist, of Egypt, 233-50. 6. History and
contents of the el-Amarna letters. Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 332-7,
238

APPENDIX
382-9; Winckler, The T ett-El- Amarna Letters; Petrie, Syria and Egypt
from the T ell-el- Amarna Letters; Clay, Light on the 0. T. from Babel,
251-82. 7. Compare the contemporary Mycenaean civilization with that
of the Eastern empires. Goodspeed, Hist, of the Anc. World, 77-80;
Bury, Hist, of Greece, 11-53; Morey, Outlines of Greek History, 86-94.
V. Israel's Religious Heritage. General Questions: 1. Describe
the different ways in which religion influenced the life and civilization
of the ancient Babylonians. 2. The religion of the Sumerians. 3. The
gods and cultus of the early city states. 4. Political forces that devel
oped the Babylonian pantheon. 5. The religion of the Canaanites.
6. Contributions of these earlier Semitic religions to Israel's faith.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. A definition of religion, cf. dic
tionaries and encyclopaedias; Clarke, Outlines of Christian Theol.;
Brown, Christian Theol. in Outline; Menzies, Hist, of Relig. 2. A
comparison between the growth of the Babylonian and Egyptian re
ligions. Hastings, D.B., I, 215-6, 665-7; Encyc. Bib., I, 431-7, II,
1214-9; Sayce, Babs. and Assyrs., 231-64; Jastrow, Relig. of the Babs.
and Assyrs.; Encyc. Brit., VII, 714-8; Budge, The Gods of Egypt;
Erman, Life in Anc. Egypt. 3. The history of the temple at Nippur.
Peters, Nippur, I, II; Hilprecht, Explorats. in Bible Lands, 289-568.
4. Describe an ancient Canaanite sanctuary and its cultus. Marti,
Relig. of the 0. T., 80-96; Encyc. Bib., II, 2064-9; Curtiss, Primitive
Sem. Relig. To-day, 133-43.
VI. The Oldest History of Israel. General Questions: 1. De
scribe the way in which ancient Semitic histories grew. 2. The four
distinct lines of evidence which aid in distinguishing the quotations from
the older and later sources. Illustrate. 3. Scope and literary char
acteristics of the oldest history of the Hebrews. 4. Its primary aim
and value. 5. The different sources from which its narratives were
drawn. 6. Its date and place of composition.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. History of the discovery of the
different sources. Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Hexateuch, I,
1-17, 33-48. 2. Israel's heritage of oral traditions. Kent, St. 0. T.,
3-12; Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 36-61, 75. 3. The transmission
and crystallization of Israel's traditions into literature. St. 0. T., I,
13, 16-20; Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 62-11. 4. Their literary
characteristics. St. O. T., I, 13-15; Gardiner, The Bible as Eng. Lit.,
34-76; Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 76-87. 5. The Early Judean
Prophetic Narratives. St. 0. T., I, 31-7; Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby, Hexateuch, 97-110; Driver, Genesis, xii-xxii.
239

APPENDIX
VII. The Later Parallel Histories. General Questions: 1. De
scribe the characteristics of the northern prophetic history. 2. Its
aims and contents. 3. Method in which the two prophetic histories
were combined. 4. Characteristics and aims of the late priestly his
tory. 5. Result of the final blending of the older and later histories.
6. Practical value of distinguishing and separating the older from the
later histories.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The detailed characteristics
and origins of the Northern Israelite prophetic history.* St. 0. T.,
37-41; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Hexateuch, I, 110-20.
2. Of the late priestly history, St. O. T., 1, 43-8; Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby, Hexateuch, I, 121-57. 3. The blending of the Gospel
narratives in Tatian's Diatessaron. Journal of Bib. Lit., 1890, pp.
201-15; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Hexateuch, 8-11; Hill,
The Earliest Life of Christ. 4. Prepare a chronological table or dia
gram showing the approximate dates of the original documents and the
work of the compilers who have given the first four books of the Old
Testament their present form. St. 0. T., I, Frontispiece.
THE BEGINNINGS OF HEBREW HISTORY
§ I. The Story of Man's Creation. General Questions: 1. What
evidence is found in the story that it is very old and that its author was
a prophet? 2. What appears to have been the oldest Hebrew tradition
regarding the creation of the earth and heavens? 3. Make a table
giving in parallel columns the testimony of the Early Judean (§ I), the
late priestly (Appendix I), the early Babylonian (I") and the later
Babylonian (I™) accounts of creation, regarding (1) name of the cre
ator; (2) method of creation; (3) order, and (4) aim. 4. What did the
tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evU represent?
5. What are the teachings of the story regarding (1) God, (2) man, and
(3) the basis of the marriage relation.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The Babylonian Creation
Stories. St. 0. T., I, 360-70; Hastings, D. B., I, 501-7; Encyc. Bib.,
I, 938-41; Worcester, Genesis, 110-47; Clay, Light on the O. T. from
* In the more technical articles on the sources, the early Judean prophetic
narratives are designated by J, and the later additions to it by J* or J2; the North
ern Israelite or early Ephraimite prophetic narratives by E, and its supplements
by E» or E2; the compiler, who combined J and E by RM; the late priestly narra
tives by P, and its supplements by P! or P2.
240

APPENDIX
Babel, 59-76. 2. Parallel stories among other nations. Hastings.
D. B., extra vol., 177-81; Encyc. Bib., I, 942-4; Worcester, Genesis,
95-110; Lenormant, The Beginnings of Hist. 3. The modern scientific
theory of the origin of man. Peschel, Races of Man, 1-34; Morris'
Man and His Ancestor; Clay, Man, Past and Present.
§ II. Man's Sin and Its Consequences. General Questions:
1. Describe the literary characteristics of this story. 2. Its real theme
and object. 3. The role of the serpent. 4. Define (1) temptation,
(2) sin. 5. The nature and effects of sin as illustrated by the story.
Subjects for Special Research: l.The ancient parallels to the story.
St. 0. T., I, 370-3; Driver, Genesis, 4A, 51-7, 60-1 ; Worcester, Genesis,
184-256. 2. The Babylonian and Egyptian idea of sin. Hastings,
D. B., extra vol., 566-7; Jastrow, Relig. of the Babs. and Assyrs., 312-27;
Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 173-5. 3. The later Jewish conception of
the origin of sin. Porter, in "Biblical and Semitic Studies" (Yale
Bicentennial Publications), 98-156; Hastings, D. B., TV, 531-2; Ten-
nent, Sources of the Doctrines of the Fall and Original Sin. 4. Milton's
interpretation of the story in Paradise Lost.
§ III. The Story of Cain and Abel. General Questions: 1. De
scribe the state of society reflected in this story. 2. The evidence
that Cain and Abel originally represented tribes or nations. 3. The de
velopment of Cain's character. 4. Cain's attitude toward society, and
the cause of his fear. 5. The ancient and modern methods of punish
ing murder. 6. Jehovah's choice, as illustrated by the story.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The evidence that the story is of
early Hebrew rather than of Babylonian origin. St. 0. T., I, 61;
Driver, Genesis, 71-2; Worcester, Genesis, 269-77. 2. The Semitic
law of blood-revenge. St. O. T., TV, 91, 114-6; Gordon, Early Trads.
of Genesis, 201-6; Smith, Religion of the Semites, 72, 420. 3. Tribal
marks, Encyc. Bib., I, 973-4; Gordon, Early Trads. of Genesis, 206-11.
§ IV. The Traditional Origin of Early Semitic Institutions.
General Questions: 1. Describe the origin and object of the genea
logical list. 2. Compare the Hebrew and Phoenician traditions regard
ing the origin of the arts. 3. Give the probable origin of the story of
Enoch. 4. The meaning of the different traditions connected with
Lamech. 5. The interpretation of the story of Noah, the first tiller of
the soil. 6. Teachings of the story.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The Babylonian list of the ten
antediluvian kings. St. O. T., I, 58; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz.,
591-4. 2. Compare the ancient theories of the origin of the arts with
241

APPENDIX
those of modern science of society. Peschel, Races of Man; Taylor,
Primitive Man; Deniker, Races of Man; Keane, Ethnology. 3. Israel's
popular folk-songs. St. 0. T., I, 16; Hastings, D.B., TV, 11-12.
§ V. The Story of the Great Flood. General Questions: 1. Give
the probable origin and prophetic interpretation of the story regarding
the sons of God and the daughters of men. 2. Compare the two bib
lical versions of the flood story. 3. The early Babylonian and the early
Hebrew versions. 4. What was the probable origin of the flood story.
5. By the aid of the Babylonian parallels trace its history. 6. What are
the fundamental differences between the biblical and other flood stories.
7. What are the teachings of each of the two biblical accounts of the flood ?
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The history of the Babylonian
flood story. St. 0. T., I, 373-8; Hastings, D.B., II, 17-18; Worcester,
Genesis, 374-411; Maspero, Dawn of Civiiiz., 566-72. 2. Flood stories
among other peoples. Worcester, Genesis, 361-73; Hastings, D.B., II,
18-22, extra vol., 181-2. 3. The scientific accuracy of the biblical nar
ratives. Ryle, Early Narratives of Gen., 112-3; Davis, Gen. and Semitic
Trads., 130-1; Driver, Genesis, 82-3, 99; SoUas, Age of the Earth, 316 jf.;
Suss, Race of the Earth, I, 20-40, 63-5, 69, 71-2.
§ VI. The Traditional Origin of the Nations. General Ques
tions: 1. What mound probably gave rise to the story of the tower of
Babel? 2. What does the Hebrew story seek to explain? 3. Indicate
the principles of classification followed in the table of the nations.
4. The identification and home of the different nations. 5. The ethno
graphic, geographic and religious value of the table.
Subjects for Special Research : 1 . Parallels to the story of the Tower
of Babel. Worcester, Genesis, 497-521 ; Clay, Light fromBabel, 89-124.
2. The modern theory regarding the origin of languages and races.
Taylor, Primitive Man; Peschel, Races of Men, 102-14, 129-
31; Deniker, Races of Man; Keane, Ethnology. 3. Corresponding
tables among other nations. Gordon, Early Trads. of Gen., 87-9.
4. Different identifications of Ophir. Hastings, D.B., HI, 626-8;
Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3513-5; Driver, Genesis, xix; Keane, The Gold of
Ophir; Peters, Eldorado of the Ancients. 5. Classify the traditions in
§§ I-VI according to their probable Babylonian, Aramean or Hebrew
origin. 6. Their value (1) as literature; (2) as historical sources;
(3) as illustrations of religious and ethical principles. St. 0. T., I, 3-12;
Worcester, Genesis, 55-69; Gunkel, Legends of Genesis.
§ VII. Abraham's Call and Settlement in Canaan. General
Questions : 1. Describe the probable origin and history of the Abraham
242

APPENDIX
stories. 2. The later traditions regarding Abraham. 3. The probable
origin of the two names, Abraham and Abram. 4. The original home
of the Hebrews. 5. Meaning of the divine promises to Abraham.
6. Compare the spirit and ambitions of Abraham and Lot.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The four great divisions of the
book of Genesis. St. 0. T., I, 21-3; Worcester, Genesis, 55-69; cf.
0. T. Introductions. 2. Abraham's genealogy. Bible dictionary arti
cles, "Nahor," "Milcah," "Sarah." 3. Abraham in late Jewish
tradition. Hastings, D. B., 1, 16, 17; James, The Testament of Abraham.
4. Sacred trees and the oaks of Mamre. Hastings, D. B., Ill, 224-5;
Smith, Relig. of the Semites, 185-95; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3352-4; Thom
son, Land and the Book, II, 104, 171-2, 222, 474; Curtiss, Primitive
Semitic Relig. To-day, 91, 93.
§ VIII. The Promise of a Son to Sarah. General Questions:
1. Describe the geographical background of the story of Hagar. 2. The
purpose of the story. 3. Does Hagar represent an individual or a tribe ?
4. The character and quality of Abraham's hospitality. 5. The Greek
parallel to the story of the divine guests. 6. Ideas of God reflected in
these stories.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. History of the Ishmaelites.
Hastings, D. B., II, 502-5; Encyc. Bib., II, 2211-2. 2. The Northern
Israelite account of the expulsion of Hagar. St. 0. T., I, 93-4. 3. The
historical character of Genesis 14. St. 0. T., I, 84-6; Driver, Genesis,
156-73; Paton, Early Hist, of Syria and Palestine, 31-46.
§ IX. The Destruction of Sodom. General Questions: 1. De
scribe the scene of the story. 2. Character of the ancient Canaanites.
3. Aim of the story. 4. Abraham's intercession. 5. Historical value
of the story. 6. Its moral and religious teachings.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Geological history of the Jordan
and Dead Sea valley. Smith, Hist. Geography, 467-71. 2. The Dead
Sea. Hastings, D. B., I, 575-7; Encyc. Bib., I, 1042-6; Smith, Hist.
Geography, 499-516. 3. Parallels to the biblical story. Cheyne, in
New World, June, 1892. 4. The early history of the Moabites. Hast
ings, D. B., Ill, 408-10; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3175-7. 5. The early
history of the Ammonites, Hastings, D.B.,1, 82-3; Encyc. Bib., 1, 142-4.
§ X. Birth and Sacrifice of Isaac. General Questions: 1. What
was the meaning of the Semitic rite of human sacrifice? 2. What
ancient peoples practised it? 3. When did the Hebrew people begin
to condemn it? 4. What are the aims of the present story? 5. De
scribe Abraham's character as portrayed in the early prophetic stories.
243

APPENDIX
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The original meaning of sacri
fice. St. 0. T., TV, 238; Hastings, D. B., TV, 329-31; Encyc. Bib., TV,
4216-26; Smith, Religion of the Semites, 213-43, 252-440; Gordon,
Early Trads. of Genesis, 212-6. 2. The priestly account of the cir
cumcision of Isaac. St. 0. T., I, 82-4, 89; Driver, Genesis, 184-91;
Hastings, D. B., I, 442-4. 3. Abraham's character as portrayed by
the late priestly historian. Hastings, D. B., I, 14; Encyc. Bib., 1, 25.
§ XL Securing a Wife for Isaac. General Questions: 1. De
scribe the literary characteristics of the story and its seven distinct
scenes. 2. The character of Abraham's servant. 3. The Semitic
marriage customs reflected in the story. 4. Contrast the characters
of Abraham and Isaac.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The land of Aram. Hastings,
D. B., I, 138-9; Encyc. Bib., I, 276-8. 2. Oriental methods of court
ship. Hastings, D. B., Ill, 270-2; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 2942-6; Smith,
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. 3. Characteristics of the
South Country (Negeb). Hastings, D. B., Ill, 505-6; Encyc. Bib., Ill,
3374-9. 4. Stories regarding Isaac. St. 0. T., I, 76-81; Hastings,
D. B., II, 483-5; Encyc. Bib., II, 2174-9.
§ XII. Jacob and His Brother Esau. General Questions:
1. What two nations traced their descent from Jacob and Esau? 2. In
what sense was Esau the older, and what superior rights did the descend
ants of Jacob enjoy ? 3. Describe the ancient Semitic idea of the birth
right and of a father's dying blessing. 4. What special promise had
been given to the race ? 5. What different means did Jacob employ to
secure the rights of the eldest? 6. The effect upon Esau and Jacob.
7. Compare the characters of the two brothers, as sketched in this nar
rative. 8. In what respects is Jacob a true representative of the He
brew race?
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Compare the two accounts of
Jacob's theft of the birthright. St. O. T., 1, 103-7. 2. Trace the early
history of the Edomites. Hastings, D. B., I, 644-5; Encyc. Bib., II,
1181-4. 3. Law of inheritance among the early Semites. Encyc,
Bib., Ill, 2728-9; Hastings, D. B., II, 470-3; Johns, Bab. and Assyr.
Laws, Contracts and Letters, 161-7.
§ XIII. Jacob's Experiences as a Fugitive. General Questions:
1. Describe the situation of Bethel. 2. The meaning and traditional
origin of the name. 3. The meaning and fulfilment of the promise to
Jacob. 4. Jacob's wooing of Rachel. 5. The meaning of the traditions
regarding the ancestry of the different Hebrew tribes. 6. Indications
244

APPENDIX
that Jacob is (1) an individual, or (2) simply the traditional ancestor
of the twelve tribes.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Origin and nature of the an
cient Hebrew sanctuaries. Peters, Early Heb. Story, 81-116; Hastings,
D. B., TV, 395-7, extra vol., 615-8; Libbey and Hoskins, Jordan Val
ley and Petra, I, 171-207. 2. The meanings of the names of the
twelve tribes. Cf. articles in Bible dictionaries. 3. Compare the
different portraits of Jacob in the early prophetic and late priestly nar
ratives. St. 0. T., 1, 103-13; Hastings, D. B., II, 526-35; Encyc. Bib.,
II, 2306-11.
§ XIV. Jacob's Return to Canaan. General Questions: 1. Give
the reasons for Jacob's flight from Laban. 2. What was the nature
and meaning of the struggle beside the Jabbok? 3. Is there a marked
contrast between Jacob's character before and after this experience?
4. Describe Jacob's faults and virtues. 5. In what respects was he
inferior to Esau. 6. Why was Jacob best fitted to be the traditional
ancestor of the Hebrew race ?
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The Arameans. Hastings,
D.B., I, 138-9; Encyc. Bib., I, 276-280; Peters, Early Heb. Story,
45-7, 115-6, 133-4; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 126. 2. The
household gods or teraphim. Hastings, D. B., TV, 718; Encyc. Bib.,
TV, 4974-5; Moore, Judges, 379-81. 3. Sites of Mizpah, Maha-
naim, Penuel and Succoth. Driver, Genesis, 300-2; articles in Bible
dictionaries. 4. Contrast the characters of Abraham and Jacob.
§ XV. Joseph Sold by His Brothers. . General Questions: 1. De
scribe the literary characteristics of the Joseph stories. 2. Joseph's
early home life and character. 3. The character and attitude of his
brothers. 4. Situation of Dothan. 5. The effect of the life in Egypt
upon Joseph's character.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Eastern dress. Hastings, D. B.,
I, 623-8; Encyc. Bib., I, 1135-41; Maspero, Dawn of Civiliz., 55-8,
265, 685. 2. The early caravan and trade routes in the ancient Semitic
world. Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 368-75. 3. Society and religion
in Egypt under the eighteenth dynasty. Breasted, Hist, of the Ancient
Egyptians, 193-206; Hist, of Egypt, 233-52; Erman, Life of the Ancient
Egyptians, 102-29.
§ XVI. Joseph Made Governor of Egypt. General Questions:
1. Describe the dreams of Joseph's fellow-prisoners and the interpre
tations. 2. The oriental estimate of dreams. 3. Pharaoh's dreams.
4. Joseph's plans for the period of famine. 5. His policy in adaptmg
245

APPENDIX
himself to the peculiar customs of Egypt. 6. The Egyptian system of
land tenure. 7. Joseph as an administrator.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The ancient and modern atti
tude toward dreams. Hastings, D. B., I, 622-3; Encyc. Bib., I, 1118;
Driver, Genesis, XXI, 342; cf. modern psychologies. 2. Recorded
famines in Egypt. Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 160-1; Hastings, D. B.,
II, 773-4; Encyc. Bib., II, 2591; Driver, Genesis, 346-7. 3. The pos
sessions and privileges of the priests in Egypt. Maspero, Dawn of
CivUiz., 124-6, 266, 305; Erman, Life of the Ancient Egyptians, 104-5,
292-3, 298-304; Herodotus, II, 168.
§ XVII. Joseph and His Brothers. General Questions: 1. De
scribe Joseph's early interviews with his brothers. 2. Aim and justi
fication of his hiding the money in their sacks. 3. The portrait of the
aged Jacob. 4. The character of Judah and his appeal for Benjamin.
5. The final scene between Joseph and his brothers. 6. Qualities in
Joseph's character reflected in the story.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Divination. Driver, Genesis,
358; Hastings, D. B., 1, 611-13; Encyc. Bib., 1, 1117-21; Strabo, XVI, 39.
2. Effect of famine in the East. Cf. reports of recent famines in India;
Kipling, "William the Conqueror," in The Day's Work. 3. Egyptian
methods of eating. Erman, Life of the Anc. Egyptians, 193, 250-5.
4. Houses of wealthy Egyptians. Erman, Life of the Anc. Egyptians,
153, 177-88; Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 88-90. 5. Oriental methods
of showing emotion. Encyc. Bib., Ill, 2694-6; 3220-2; Hastings,
D. B., Ill, 453-4.
§ XVIII. Joseph's Loyalty to His Kinsmen. General Ques
tions: 1. Why was Joseph's treatment of his kinsmen especially noble?
2. Describe the land of Goshen and the life of the Hebrews while there.
3. Interrelations between Egypt and Asia at this period. 4. The
meaning of Jacob's dying blessing. 5. The distinctly Egyptian
elements in the Joseph stories. 6. Parallels to the story of Joseph in
ancient contemporary literature. 7. The date of Joseph. 8. The
literary, historical, archaeological and religious value of the Joseph
stories. Subjects for Special Research: 1. Semitic ideas and influences in
Egypt during the reigns of Amenhotep III and D7. Breasted, Hist.
of Ancient Egyptians, 248-79; Hist, of Egypt, 328-37, 352-79.
2. The Egyptian method of embalming and burial. Maspero, Dawn
of CivUiz., 112, 361; Struggle of the Nations, 509-26; Encyc. Bib., II,
1284-5; Herodotus, II, 86-89; Budge, The Mummy, 160 ff. 3. Compare
246

APPENDIX
the character, fortunes and services of Joseph and Ulysses. Driver,
Genesis, 320-1, 400-1; Hastings, D. B., II, 770.
THE BONDAGE AND DELIVERANCE FROM EGYPT
§ XIX. The Oppression of the Hebrews in Egypt. General
Questions: 1. Describe the general characteristics of the three biblical
accounts of the bondage and exodus. 2. Effect of the policy of the
rulers of the nineteenth dynasty upon the serf class in Egypt. 3. The
store cities of Pithom and Ramses. 4. The evidence that Ramses II
was the Pharaoh of the oppression. 5. The historical facts underlying
the biblical stories of the sojourn in Egypt. 6. Influence of the Egyp
tian sojourn upon the life and faith of the Hebrews.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Excavations at Pithom. Hast
ings, D. B., Ill, 886-7; Naville, Store-City of Pithom and the Route
of the Exodus; Hogarth, Authority and Archaeology, 54-5, 61 ,68. 2. The
reign and policy of Ramses II. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians,
303-26; Hist, of Egypt, 423-63; Maspero, Struggle of the Nats., 385-
430; Hastings, D. B., I, 662; Encyc. Bib., II, 1241-2. 3. A com
parison of modern industrial conditions with those in Egypt under
Ramses II. Brown, Social Message of the Modern Pulpit.
§ XX. Moses's Childhood and Training. General Questions:
1. Describe Moses's boyhood training. 2. The justification and sig
nificance of Moses's slaying the Egyptian taskmaster. 3. Moses's
adoption into the Midianite clan. 4. Did Moses first learn of Jehovah
from the Midianites? 5. Influence of his life in the wilderness upon
the character and faith of Moses.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The story of the childhood of
Sargon I. Marti, Relig. of the O. T., 18-21; Peters, Early Heb. Story,
192^4; Maspero, Dawn of CivUiz., 597-8. 2. The Egyptian system of
education. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 92-4, 395; Hist, of
Egypt, 98-100; Maspero, Dawn of CivUiz., 288; Erman, Life of the
Anc. Egyptians, 328-68. 3. The Midianites. Hastings, D. B., Ill,
365-6; Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3079-81. 4. Origin of the Jehovah religion.
Budde, Relig. of Israel, 1-38; Gordon, Early Traditions of Gen., 106-10;
Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 626-7.
§ XXI. Moses's Call to Deliver the Hebrews. General Ques
tions: 1. Describe the three different accounts of the way in which the
divine revelation came to Moses. 2. The vital points in which they
all agree. 3. The causes of Moses's hesitation, and the different ways
247

APPENDIX
in which his objections are met. 4. In the light of the situation and
in the language of to-day, describe Moses's training and call to be a
prophet leader. 5. Pharaoh's defiant refusal to let the Hebrews go.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The magicians of Egypt. Er
man, Life in Anc. Egypt, 352-6, 373-4; Hastings, D. B., Ill, 207. 2.
Meaning of the divine names. Driver, Genesis, 402-9; Encyc. Bib., Ill,
3323-6; Hastings, D. B.„ extra vol., 625-6. 3. Compare Moses's
call with that of Isaiah (Is. 6) and Jeremiah (Jer. 1). 4. The serf
class in Egypt. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 236, 254;
Hist, of Egypt, 308-9, 339, 496-7; Maspero, Dawn of CivUiz., 309,
326-7. § XXII. The Egyptian Plagues. General Questions: 1. Describe
the form of the plague stories in each of the groups of Hebrew narratives.
2. The early Judean account of each of the seven plagues. 3. The
peculiar sanitary conditions in the land of Egypt. 4. The natural
and national calamities reflected in the plague stories. 5. The effect
of these calamities upon (1) the Egyptians and (2) the Hebrews. 6. The
origin and new significance of the passover.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Plagues in antiquity and the
popular explanations of them. Hastings, D. B., Ill, 887-92; Encyc.
Bib., Ill, 3784-9. 2. Conditions in Egypt at the end of the nineteenth
dynasty. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 333-5; Hist, of Egypt,
464-79. 3. The Pharaoh's place in the religious hierarchy of Egypt.
Breasted, Hist, of the Anc. Egyptians, 63-4; Hist, of Egypt, 62, 122-3,
456; Maspero, Dawn of CivUiz., 266, 304. 4. History of the Semitic
spring festival. St. 0. T., TV, 258; Hastings, D. B., Ill, 688-90;
Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3589-3600; Barton, Semitic Origins, 110-1; Gray,
Numbers, 404-7.
§ XXIII. The Exodus. General Questions: 1. Describe the es
cape from Egypt, as recorded in the earliest biblical narrative. 2. Mod
ern parallels. 3. Probable number of the Hebrew fugitives. 4. The
direction and manner of the march through the wilderness. 5. Mean
ing of the song of deliverance. 6. Effect of the great deliverance upon
Hebrew character, literature and faith.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Compare the priestly with the
early prophetic accounts of the exodus. St. 0. T., I, 172-6. 2. Car
avan travel through the desert. Palmer, The Desert of the Exodus;
Stanley, Sinai and Palestine; Doughty, Wanderings in Arabia. 3. The
references to the exodus in later Hebrew literature. Cf. article, "Ex
odus," in Bible dictionaries. 248

APPENDIX
§ XXIV. The Revelation and Covenant at Sinai. General
Questions: 1. Describe and explain the growing importance of Sinai
in Hebrew thought. 2. The probable situation of the sacred mountain.
3. The different accounts of the way in which Jehovah revealed himself
to his people, and their meaning. 4. The establishment of the cove
nant between Jehovah and Israel. 5. The original decalogue defining
Israel's obligations to Jehovah. 6. History of this decalogue. 7. Prob
able origin and early significance of the sabbath.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The recent excavations in the
Sinaitic peninsula. Petrie, Researches in Sinai. 2. The late tradi
tions of the march through the wilderness. St. 0. T., 1, 176-8. 3. The
covenant in early Semitic life. Hastings, D. B., I, 509-15; extra vol.,
630-2; Encyc. Bib., I, 928-36; Trumbull, The Blood Covenant. 4. The
four biblical versions of the revelations and covenant at Sinai. St. O.T.,
I, 181-8. 5. History of the sabbath. St. 0. T., TV, 257-8; Hastings,
D. B., TV, 317-19; Encyc. Bib., TV, 4177-9; Gordon, Early Trads. of
Genesis, 216-23.
§ XXV. Man's Individual Duties to God and Man. General
Questions: 1. Compare the two decalogues given, according to tra
dition, to Moses. 2. Explain why the prophetic decalogue is assigned
the first place in Exodus. 3. Describe its probable date and author
ship. 4. Its original simple form, and the expanded versions in Exodus
20 and Deuteronomy 5. 5. Man's primary duties (1) to God, (2) to
parents and (3) to others. 6. The place of this decalogue in the Jew
ish and Christian religions.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Different possible divisions of
the decalogue. Hastings, D. B., I, 580-2; Encyc. Bib., I, 1049-52.
2. Jesus's version of the different commands of the prophetic decalogue.
Cf. Matt. 517-"8, 618-21' 121-12' »l- 32' 153'5' 2286-39, 12-31. 3. Similar formu
lations of primary duties in other literatures.
§ XXVI. Moses's Work as Judge and Prophet. General Ques
tions: 1. Describe the visit of Moses's father-in-law. 2. Moses's
activity as judge. 3. The way in which laws come into existence among
primitive people. 4. In what sense is Moses the father of Hebrew law.
5. Describe the origin and use of the tent of meeting. 6. Moses's work
as a prophet.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The origin and growth of He
brew law. St. O. T., TV, 8-15; Hastings, D. B., Ill, 64-7; Encyc. Bib.,
Ill, 2714-8. 2. The appointment and duties of Babylonian and He
brew judges. St. O. T., TV, 86-8; Johns, Bab. and Assyr. Laws,
249

APPENDIX
Contracts and Letters, 80-4; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians, 195-9.
3. The late priestly tradition of the tent of meeting or dwelling. St.
O. T., TV, 149-57; Hastings, D. B., TV, 654-68; Brown, The Tabernacle.
4. Definition of prophet. Cf. § XXI3; Hastings, D. B., TV, 108-9;
Encyc. Bib., Ill, 3853-9.
§ XXVII. The Life of the Hebrews in the Wilderness. Gen
eral Questions: 1. Describe the scene of the wilderness wanderings.
2. Life in this region. 3. The spring of Kadesh. 4. Traditions re
garding the food supply. 5. Contests with native tribes. 6. Form
and significance of the ark. 7. Duration of the wilderness sojourn.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Contents of the book of Num
bers. St. 0. T., I, 24; Hastings, D. B., Ill, 567-73; Encyc. Bib., Ill,
3439-49. Cf. also Biblical introductions. 2. Life in the Arabian
desert. Palmer, The Desert of the Exodus and WUderness Wandering;
Stanley, Sinai and Palestine; Doughty, Wanderings in Arabia, I, 70-
159. 3. The late priestly tradition of the ark. St. 0. T., TV, 149-51;
Hastings, D. B., I, 149-51; Encyc. Bib., I, 300-9.
§ XXVIII. The Attempt to Enter Canaan from the South.
General Questions: 1. Why did the Hebrews not go at once from
Egypt to Canaan? 2. What is the history and the significance of the
journey of the spies? 3. The evidence that certain tribes entered
Canaan directly from the south. 4. Causes and nature of the rebelhons
against Moses's authority. 5. Effect of the wilderness Ufe and of
Moses's activity upon the character and faith of the Hebrews.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The three different accounts
of the journey of the spies. St. 0. T., I, 215-18. 2. Palestine under
the rule of the twentieth Egyptian dynasty. Breasted, Hist, of the Anc.
Egyptians, 360-4, 373-4, 375, 378; Paton, Early Hist, of Syria
and Palestine, 144-50; Breasted, Hist, of Egypt, 465-6, 470, 512-19;
Hastings, D. B., I, 662-3. 3. In the light of the oldest records was
Moses's great work accomplished by natural or miraculous means?
§ XXDI. The Journey from the Wilderness, and Balaam's
Prophecy. General Questions: 1. Describe the events in the
journey about Edom. 2. The different traditions regarding Balaam.
3. Meaning of his oracles. 4. Their probable date. 5. Trace in early
Hebrew life the development of the belief that Israel was a people with
an unique destiny.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The territory of Edom and
Moab. Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, 555-72 ; Hastings, D. B., I,
644-5, III, 403; Encyc. Bib., II, 1181-4, III, 3166-71; Libbey and
250

APPENDIX
Hoskins, Jordan Valley and Petra, I. 2. Ancient oracles. Smith,
Religion of the Semites, 133, 177-81; Hastings, D. B., Ill, 629; Encyc.
Bib., Ill, 3516; Gray, Numbers, 345-8, 350-7, 360-71. 3. Did other
early peoples believe that they were under the especial protection and
care of their gods? Cf. St. O. T., II, 495.
§ XXX. East-Jordan Conquests and Moses's Farewell. Gen
eral Questions: 1. What was the significance of the victory over the
Amorites? 2. Meaning of the ancient song of victory? 3. Nature
of the east-Jordan territory. 4. The death of Moses. 5. Moses's
relation to the book of Deuteronomy. 6. Moses's work as prophet,
leader and judge. 7. The essence of his message.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Literary analysis and contents
of Deuteronomy. Hastings, D. B., I, 596-603; Encyc. Bib., I, 1079-
93; St. 0. T., TV, 33-4. 2. The variant traditions of Moses's farewell.
St. 0. T., I, 250-2. 3. The religion of Moses. Hastings, D. B., extra
vol., 631-4; Marti, Religion of the Old Testament, 36-71. [/

251

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