.IJ?^-'! ''c€^.-e. n /^mce; most men need to be encouraged and drawn on to it. The men who are edu cated by force, or by persuasion, really cri^iitd the general atmos phere of literature and learning, without which the self-made men so called, could never arise. Seli-made men of the highest order are exceptional, and most even of these, have not become so thoroughly well-made, as to leave nothing to desire. No one is more anxious to provide a thorough education for others, than the man of vigorous mind, who has been denied the beneflt of liberal training. Theremin demands a more conversational method ol instruc tion. A lecture, properly so-called, should be extempore and fresh, carrying the hearers along with the current of thought; not declama tory or pathetic, but strictly methodical, dignifled, and earnest, accomplishing its purpose by clearness and depth ol thought in stead of foreign oj-namentation. As it is not designed for immediate effect, but to excite thought and mental activity on the part ol students who think and act for themselves, it is of great importance that these latter should seek to retain the substance of the lecture by sketching it on paper, and afterwards reproducing it in its main outlines. Such a note-book prepared by the student, accompanied with marginal notes of inquiry and illustration, will De ol great and permanent value. Little is gained by the mere attendance on lectures and listening to theni, without subsequent writing. Especially stimulating, howe\-er, are disputatio liJi under the guidance of the professor, and independent societies for practice among the students. SECTION XX. HOW TO USE THE ADVANTAGES OF EDUCATION. The first requisite to a real use of the advantages of educa tion is a hearty responsive effort on the part of the pupil. There must be careful reading and listening, thorough fixing in the memory, and complete digestion of what has been read and heard. But more than this, the student should cultivate him self by judicious reading outside of the course of study. There should be preparation, appropriation, repetition and elaborat ion. The study of encyclopsedia and methodology helps to produce system into theological study. Preparation und repetition constitute the bonds ol union between private industry and the objects sought in the heannij of th.^ lecture. Discussion with fellow-students will provide the intellectual gymnastics by which the faculties are HOW TO USE THE ADVANTAGES OF EDUCATION. 26 strengthened and made trustworthy. Care however must be taken as to the spirit in which religious matters are discussed. READING.* There are certain rules which ought to be observed by the stu dent, and which together constitute the Proper Method of Reading. These maybe reduced to three classes, as they regard i)the quantity 2) the quality of what is to be read, or 3) the mode of reading what is to be read. 1) As concerns the quantity, there is a single rule,— Read much, but nofmany wor^s (multum non multa). Hobbes said "that if he had read as much as other men, he would have known as little." The man who has one line perfectly grasped in hie memory and un derstanding, may bring it to bear a thousand times in his life-time, while a man that has a confused knowledge of hundreds of books may never be able to bring a solitary line of them into practical use. a) As concerns the quality of what is to be read, there may be given flve rules. a) Select the works of principal importance, estimated by rela tion to the several sciences themselves, or to your particular aim in reading, or to your individual disposition and wants. To know what books ought to be read in order to learn a science, is in fact frequently obtained only after the science has been already learned. Theological Encyclopsedia aims to supply the advice which the theological student here requires. 6; Read not the more detailed works upon a science, until you have obtained a rudimentary knowledge of it in general. A conspectus, — a survey ol the science as a whole, ought, therefore, to precede the study of it in its parts. In entering upon the study of such authors as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Leibnitz, Locke, Berkeley, Kant, Schleiermacher, etc., it is proper that we flrst ob tain a preparatory acquantance with the scope of their philosophy in general, and of the particular work on which we are about tb enter. c) Make yourself familiar with a science in its present state, before you proceed to study it in its chronological development. It is thus improper to study philosophy historically, or in its past progress, before we have studied it statistically, or in its actual re sults. d) To avoid erroneous and exclusive views, read and compare together the, more important works of every party. This applies, in particular, in philosophy, and in such sciences as proceed out of philosophy. The precept of the Apostle, "Prove all things; hold fast that which is good," is a percept which is appUcable equally in philosophy as in theology, but a percept that has not been more frequently neglected in the one study than in the other. e) To avoid a one-sided development of mind, combine with the study of works which cultivate the understanding, the study of works which cultivate the taste. 3) As concerns the mode or manner of reading itself, there are four principal rules. a) Read that you may accurately remember, but still more, that you may fully understand. Reading is valuable only as it may supply to us the materials which the mind itself elaborates. * See Sir William Hamilton's Lectures on Logic, edited by Mansel and Veltch, pp. 486—493. 26 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 6) Strive to compare the general tenor of a work, before you attempt to judge of it in detail. . c) Accommodate the intensity of the reading to the importance of the work. Some books are, therefore, to be only dipped into; others are to be run over rapidly; and others to be studied long and sedulously. ¦* Rapidity in reading depends, however, greatly on our acquaintance with the subject ol discussion. d) Regulate on the same principle the extracts which you make from tlje works you read. WRITING. Another important aid in culture is writing. First of aU make valuable excerpts, especially from books not in your own library, and to which in future you may not have access. These excerpts are the more valuable if they are carefully arranged, numbered, and indexed. Some of the most precious things we read, should we take no note of them, after a time leave in the mind only a tormenting recollection that they were beautiful and valuable. We can neither recollect them sufficiently to use them, nor recall where we saw them. These excerpts form collections of material for all our future work, and a man may have in a narrow compass the quintesscence of a good library, so far as its contents would be of use to himself. Herder calls excerpts the cells which bee-like industry constructs, the hives in which it prepares its honey. It is also an excellent plan to make indexes of good books which are destitute of them. ORIGINAL COMPOSITION, f The old adage, nulla dies sine linea, is a good one. It means that we should write something every day, and that we should take care not to write too much, sine linea. Herder's advice to the young man is this: "Young man, every day write something, put down what you might otherwise forget, write of the difflcuities that arise, or of the solutions that have come. The stylus (our stylus is the pen) sharpens the intellect, gives precision to our language, develops our ideas, imparts delightful activity to the soul. I close as I began, nulla dies sine linea." ' The great ancient orators are unanimous as to the necessity of writing to the formation of a flnished orator. They never read their speeches, but always wrote them if possible. An ancient orator regarded an extempore speech as justiflable only in a case of insup erable necessity, and the ancients believed that no man who had not long and thorough culture as a fj}riter could deliver an extempor aneous speech worthy of being listened to. It is well to compose with sufflcient rapidity to make a record of all our thoughts as they arise. Afterward revise with great care. After you are matured as a writer, compose rapidly, correct slowly. Do not risk the losing of one ofyour best trains of thought, by hunt ing up some trifle or settling some minute point in spelling that can be done afterward. You not only lose the train of thought, but you lose the tone of mind favorable to composition. Though writing is so important, we should not be too early drawn to making public what we write, especially in print. Preco cious writers are like precocious pippins; they are ripened untimely, because there is a worm in them, and about the time the healthy • Compare also Bacon's celebrated essay, QfSttidiea. t Condensed from the Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth. FORMATION OF CHARACTER. 27 pippins reach their ripeness, the precocious fruit has rotted on the ground. Niebuhr says, "there is no such thing as a wise young man," and adds "a young tree should grow wood and not be in a hurry to put forth fruit." SECTION XXI. FORMATION OF CHARACTER.* Other men are good as men ; ministers ought to be good, not only as men, but as ministers. The man who has not learned goodness is not educated for the ministry. A minister without a pure character, whatever may be his gifts by nature or education, is a failure, even regarded as such by bad and careless men. The formation and development of character, is as much, if not more, the end of training for the ministry, than is mere scientific culture. Those institutions who do not even attempt to mould the character of those who are prepar ing for the ministry, are fatally defective. I. The student of theology ought personally to be by pre eminence a Christian. 2. He should be a Christian student — should bring to his studies the earnest, patient spirit, characteristic of a truly re generate man. He should fully realize, that he has chosen the noblest profession of them all, and that he owes it to his calling, to his Church, and to his Saviour, to pursue his studies with a consuming professional zeal.f He should aim to become a well- grounded theologian (i Tim. 4: 15). Christian theology, is a science — the science of divine things, and it cannot be mastered without profound study by day and by night, and through many years ; it never will be fully learned here on earth. Whether a man has really mastered his profession or not, will be soon found out. They who belittle theology, partly perhaps because they have never studied it and thus do not know its rich contents, are simply dishonoring their profession. 3. His character should be shaped by the probabilities of the future, the hope of being called in due time of God through His Church to become a Christian minister. What is sometimes * Condensed from the Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth. t See Dr. Henry B. Smith's lecture on "The spirit that should animate a true student of Theology," In his IntroAuctwn to Christian Theology, pp. 25—35. 28 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. confounded with the true vocation, to wit, a mere impulse or desire to be a minister, will prove not only futile, but perilous, if it lead a young man to neglect anything which may qualify him to respond to the vocation which shall come at length from the Church. There are young men, who puffed up with the idea that they have been inspired supernaturally with the conviction that they should become ministers, exhibit great arrogance and self-sufficiency. What care they for culture either of mind or character ! 4. He should consider his professor not merely as his teacher, but as one who cares for his soul. The relation of the pupil to the professor should be one of tender confidence. He should not hesitate to open to him his doubts and perplexi ties, his difficulties of conscience, and all in which Christian sympathy and mature counsel can aid him. He ought to rea lize that the true professor is a near and faithful friend. The student who passes through the course without forming strong attachments to his teachers, and feeling the influence of their character, as well as receiving their instructions, has lost the richest of the gifts which it is possible for them to impart. If the professor be the true Christian man, what he is, is of com parable more value than what he knows. There is no educa tion like that of personal association with noble men. 5. The Christian student should set before him a high ideal of character. And herein lies the great value of reading bio graphies of the great and noble men who have left their im print upon the ages. There is no way in which moral impres sions so healthy and deep may be left on the conscience and heart.* 6. In all his studies he~ should be animated by supreme love to truth, a) He should, first of all, be spiritually minded. He should have a living sense of the reality of God's King dom, as centering in the person and work of Jesus Christ, b) He should possess a spirit of reverential humility. " He cannot be a true divine who is not awe-struck and reverential, a humble • See also J. Starr King's famous lecture "On Books and Beading," In his ««&- stance and Show, pp. 854—388. FOEMATION OF CHARACTER. 29 learner, before the mysteries ofthe Incarnation and ofthe Atone ment, who does not feel and know that in these grand facts there is that which calls upon him to put off his shoes from off his feet, who has not the conviction that here is holy ground."* c) There ought to be an honest love of the truth for its own sake. To the fine remark of Augustine, " that no truth is per fectly known which is not perfecdy loved", we may add, "no truth is perfectly known which is not loved for itself alone." d) The student should also possess a trustful spirit, — a belief that, under the illumination of God's spirit, the truth which is the substance of theology may be found. 7. Be fervent, constant, and thorough in prayer. Begin in the morning with prayer. Go not to your devotions at night so wearied that you are in the danger of falling asleep in the midst of them. Pray before you study and in your studies, and after your studies. Bene orasse, bene studuisse. It is better to pray often, than to pray at length, 8. Examine yourselves, your aims, the condition of your hearts, your progress or decline in the life of God. 9, Seek self-knowledge. Know especially your besetting sin. Be faithful in watching, strong in resisting, pitiless in weeding out. Your besetting sin may come in the form of in dolence, or pride, or the love of sensuous enjoyments. We do not say sensual, for we speak to you as Christians. Clergymen are often charged with a peculiar fondness for the pleasures of the table. We need always to be on our guard. Avoid all use of wine for example's sake. Avoid taking food at improper times, when it will cloud the reason or break your rest. The glutton is father ol the drunkard. Avoid all habits, which, on an honest examination, seem to you to be inconsistent with the sublime truth that our bodies are "the temples of the Holy Ghost." In regard to the use of tobacco it may be said : a) that in any case, and to any man, the excessive use of it is reprehensi ble. ^) Many use it to whom it certainly brings no benefit — if it has any good in it, it has none for them, f ) If there be feebleness of constitution— lack of vital stamina — the use of * See Dr. Henry B. Smith's Lecture already referred to. 30 THEOLOGICAL ENCYOLOrEDIA. tobacco is likely to be very pernicious, if not fatal, d) If, on looking at the whole matter, there is fixed in your mind the slightest doubt of the propriety of this practice, avoid it whol ly. Whether we eat or drink, or whatsoever we do, we should do it as unto the Lord, and to His glory, (i Cor. .10: 31). As to the grosser forms of sensuous enjoyment, to which we have referred as sensualism, better had that man never been born, who, with polluted soul, with an imagination loving to linger on impurity, profanes the approach to the temple, and at last ministers at its altar. Devils themselves may see some thing to pity, as compared with their own lot, in the doom of the lost ministers of Christ. The very confidence which clus ters around the minister of Christ and the theological student may expose them to peculiar temptations ; while it makes its most solemn appeal to them, above all men, to be pure in heart. There is a world of real meaning in St. Paul's words for a young minister, when he says : "As sisters in allpurily." (i Tim. 5: 2). With some the besetting sin is ostentation in piety. They are in danger of becoming hypocrites. They run into cant and pious twaddle. Some are passionate, some are bitter, some are officious and meddlesome. No minister is more certain to destroy his in fluence and make himself a general nuisance, than the one who is perpetually meddling with what does not concern him, how ever kind his feeling and good his intentions. The besetting sin ot some is levity of manners, trifling. Their actions and words seem to involve a want of earnest pur pose. Be natural, be spontaneous, but never compromise your dignity as a man, and the sacredness and dignity of your pro fession as a Christian. The besetting sin of some is proneness to tale-bearing, the betraying of confidence. Some are in danger of meanness, of littieness of feeling and conduct, of narrow and envious emo tion. Watch against all that is opposed to frankness and no bleness, all that is the opposite of manliness. The Bible tit le for ministers is "Men of God"—a\m at being such. FORMATION OF CHARACTER. 31 IO. Be careful in the choice of associates. "He that walketh with wise men shall be wise.'' As opportunity offers, cultivate the acquaintance of your superiors in knowlege and experience. II. Finally, to a healthy character morally and intellectu ally belong, to some extent, bodily health and strength. Take exercise daily and judiciously, as much as possible in the open air. The day into which you put two hours of hearty exercise is two hours longer than the day in whichj you take none. The feeble health of the student and of the minister is more frequently the result of an inexcusable neglect of the great divine laws of health, than the necessary result of their labors. Do not try to make the brain and stomach do their full work together. In the great majority of cases in which you feel indisposed, you will find the following simple rules very helpful : i) Less study and more sleep. 2) Less stimulation and more air. 3) Less animal food and more exercise. No theological teacher who has comprehended his duty should avoid entering into intimate relations with earnest students. The means of theological study : Oratio, meditatio, tentatio. The practice of quiet and frequent self-communion, meditation, the trustful look and elevation of the soul to God in prayer, courage and endurance in the conflict against doubt, and against the influ ence ol sloth and pride, hypocricy and passion, bitterness and dis couragement — these are the methods by which the theologian is developed into a man of God. It is usual to demand physical qualiflcations, also, of the future servant of the Church, and not without propriety. A sound, physical constitution is a fundamental condition of ministerial effectiveness. Good lungs are a manifest necessity for the preacher. Reading aloud and singing are to be particularly recom mended, and no less outdoor exercise. There has been a narrow age which condemned physical exercises like gymnastics, as not suitable for a theologian, through a perversion of 1 Tim. 4: 8. Students need have no scruples with regard to indulgence in these forms of exercises, unless the ignorance or littleness of others cre ates an artiflcial difflculty. Prudishness in regard to exercise has sent many a theological student into a premature grave, and has sent many others, with Uttle life, into the most taxing of professions. This prudishness in regard to exercise is a lingering of the old spirit of asceticism. The great importance of social intercourse. The imprudence of forming marriage engagements before the end of the theological course. SELECT LITERATURE OF SUBJECTS DISCUSSED IN THE INTRODUCTION. 1. THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA AND METHODOLOGY. 1. Harless' Theologische Encyklopddie und Methodologie. Neurn- berg, 1837. 2. Hofmann's Encyklopddie der Theologie. N8rdlingen, 1879. 3. Lange's Grundriss der theologischen Encyklopddie mit Ein- schluss der Methodologie. Heidelberg, 1877. 4. Rothe's Theologische Encyklopddie. Wittenberg, 1880. 5. Schleiermacher's Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums. Second edition. Berlin, 1830. Translated into English under the title of Brief Outline qf the study of Theology, by William Farrer. Edinburgh, 1850. 2. BOOKS AND READING, 1. Blackie, John Stuart. On Self-Culture. A Vade Mecum for Young Men and Students, New York, 1874. Very cheap editions can be had of this excellent work. 2. Hamerton, Philip Gilbert. The Intellectual Life. Boston, 1884. 3. Hints for Home Reading, a series of chapters on books and their use. Edited with an introduction by Lyman Abbott, New York, 1880. In this small work we have some notable contributiong by such authorities as Charles Dudley Warner, F. B. Perkins, Ed ward Everett Hale, Joseph Cook, and others. Priced lists of suggested selections of 500, 1,000 and 2,000 volumes of the most desirable and important books are also given. 4. Porter, Noah, Books and Reading, or. What books shall I read and How shall I read them ? New York, 1881. Especially interesting are the chapters which treat of "The Moral Influence of Books and Reading," "The Religious Cha racter and Influence of Books and Reading," "A Christian Literature— how conceived and deflned," "Biography and Biographical Reading," "Religious Books and Simday Reading." 5, Watts, Isaac, The Improvement of the Mind. Edited by Joseph Emerson. An invaluable little work, but sadly neglected of late. SELECT LITERATURE. 33 3. MINISTERIAL EDUCATION. 1. Bridges, Charles. The Christian Ministry. New York, 1847. 2. Brown, John. The Christian Pastor's Manual, a selection of tracts on the duties, difflcuities, and encouragements of the Christian Ministry. Philadelphia, 1837. This work contains Mason's Student and Pastor. and tracts by Doddridge, Cecil, John Newton, Scott, Watts, and others. 3. Guth, Heinrich. P astor alspiegel. Erlangen, 1873. An excellent little work, which ought to be translated into English. It has already been translated into Swedish. 4. Herder, J. Gottfried. Briefe das Studium der Theologie be- treffend. 4 vols. Second edition. 1785. 5. Hood, Edwin Paxton. Lamps, Pitchers and Trumpets. Lec tures on the Vocation of the Preacher. Two volumes in one. New York, 1872. A quaint work, full of illustrations, biographical and histor ical, of every order of pulpit eloquence, from the great preachers of aU ages. 6. Mathews, William. Oratory and Orators. Chicago, 1879. Very suggestive and stimulating. Especially valuable are the two flnal chapters on "Pulpit Orators" and on "A Plea for Oratorical Culture." 7. Miller, Samuel. Letters on Clerical Manners and Habits. Philadelphia. No date. 8. Oxenden, Ashton. The Pastoral Office: its duties, difficulties, privileges, and prospects. London and New York. 9. Parker, Joseph. Ad Clerum. Advices to a Young Preacher. Boston, 1871. Fresh and inspiring, an excellent work. 10. Phelps, Austin. Men and Books. New York, 1882. In twenty-two most interesting lectures, "delivered in re sponse to the practical inquiries of students on the eve of en trance upon their life's work," Dr. Phelps discusses such sub jects as "The Study of Men," "The Study of Literature," "The Choice of Authors," "The Study of the Bible," "Methods and Plans of Study," and other kindred topics. 11. Preacher and Pastor. Edited and accompanied with an In troductory Essay by Edwards A. Park. New York, 1849. •This work contains 1) Fenelon's incomparable Dialogue on Eloquence, 2) George Herbert's delightful little work The Country Parson, 3) an abridgment of Baxter's Reformed Pas tor, of which a celebrated critic says, "there is scarcely anything superior to this valuable practical treatise, in close pathetic ap peals to the conscience of the minister of Christ upon the primary duties of his office," and 4) Campbell's Lectures on Pulpit Eloquence. 34 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 4. FORMATION OF CHARACTER. 1. Alexander, Joseph Addison, Life of, by H. C. Alexander. 2 vols. New York, 1870. 2. Anselm, Saint, Life of, by R. W. Church. London, 1870. 3. Arnold, Thomas, Life and Correspondence of, by Arthur P. Stanley. New York, 1880. 4. Bernard, Saint, Life and Times of, by James C. Morrison. London, 1868. 5. Brainerd, David, Memoirs of, by Jonathan Edwards and S. E. Dwight. New Haven, 1822. 6. Bunsen, Baron C. C. J., Memoirs of, by Baroness Bunsen. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1869. 7. Calixtus, George, Life and Correspondence of, or German 'Theology during the Thirty Years War, by W. C. Dowding. Oxford, 1863. 8. Carey, William, Life of, by J. Belcher. Philadelphia, 1853. 9. Chalmers, Thomas, Memoirs of the Life of, by William Hanna. 4 vols. New York, 1850. 10. Chrysostom, John, Life of, by Augustus Neander. London, 1845. 11. Deutsch, Emanuel, Literary Remains of, with a brief Memoir. New York, 1874. 12. Erasmus, Life and Cliaracter as shoion in his Correspondence and Works, by Robert B. Drummond. 2 vols. London, 1873. 13. Fliedner, Theodore, Life of, translated from the German. London, 1867. 14. Guthrie, Thomas, Autobiography and Memoir of, by his Sons. 2 vols. New York, 1874. 15. Hall, Robert, Life of, by Olinthus Gregory. London, 1846. 16. Hare, Augustus J. C, Memorials of a Quiet Life. New York, 1872. 17. Heber, Reginald, Life of. 2 vols. New York, 1830. 18. Hodge, Charles, Life of, by A. A. Hodge. New York, 1880. 19. Huss, John, Life and Times of. 2 vols. Boston, 1863. 20. Kingsley, Ghaxles, Letters and Memoirs of Lifeof. New' York, 1877. 21. Kitto, John, Life of, by John Eadie. Edinburgh, 1861. 22. Livmgstone, David, Life of, by W. G. Blaikie. New York, 1880. 23. Luther, Martin, Life of, by Juhus KOstlin. New York, 1883. 24. MacCracken, H. M. The Lives of the Leaders of our Church Universal. New York, 1879. SKLECT LITERATURE. 35 S. Macleod, Norman, Memoir qf. by Donald Macleod. 2 vols. New York 1876. 26. Melanchthon, Philip, Z\fe of, bv C. F. Ledderhose. PMladel- 27. Bobertson, Frederick William, Life and Letters of, by Stopford A. Brooka New York, 187a 28. Savonarola, Life and Times of, by W. B. Clarke. London, 1878. 29. Schafl, Philip. Germany, its Ujiiriirstties, Theology, and Seli- gion. Philadelphia, 1^7. 30. Schleiermacher, F. E., Life of, as unfolded tn his Autobiographv and Letters. 2 vols. London, 1860. 31. Smiles, Samuel. Self-Help. Various editions. 32. Smith, Henrv B., Life and Work of, edited by his Wife. New York, 1881. 33. Sprague, William B., Ajinals of tfie American Pulpit. 9 vols. New York, 1857, etc. 34. Stier, Rudolph, i(fe o/, by J. P. Lacroix. New York, 1874. ^. Swartz, Christian Frederick, Life and CorrespoTidence of. 2 vols. London 1839. 36. Todd, Jolm, Story o/i^e of, told mainlv bv himself. New York, 1876. 37. Winkworth, Catharine. Christian Singers of Germani/. Phila delphia. No date. 5. DEVOTIONAL. 1. Andrewes, Bishop, TJie Devotions of. Oxford, 1848. 2. Arndt. John. Tnte Christianity. Fhiladelpbia, 1868. 3. Augustine. Confessions. Andover, 1871. 4. Bc^atzfcy's Golden Treasury. New York, 1867. a. Bonar, Horatins. Hymns of Faith and Hope. 3 vols. New York, 1872. 6. Banyan, John. Pilgrim's Progres. Various editions. 7. Gerhardt, Paul Spiritual Sotigs. 8. Goulburn, Edward M. Thoughts on Personal Religion.. New York, 1876. An Introduction to the Devotional Stu dy of the Holy Scriptures. New York, 1866. .- ITie Pursuit of Holiness. New York, 1870. 9. Huntington, F. D. Hymns of the Ages. 3 vols. Boston, 1860—64. 10, Keble, John, The Christian Tear. Various editions. 36 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCL0P.«;DIA. 11. Kempis, Thomas A. Of the Imitation of Chnst. Various editions. 12. March, F. A, Latin Hymns unth English Notes. New York, 1874. 13. Monod, Adolphe. Luailla and the Abbi, or The Reading of the Bible. Second edition. New York, 1864. 14. Palmer, Roundell. The Book of Praise. Selected from the best English hymn-writers. Cambridge. 1865. 15. Seiss, Joseph A. The Golden Altar. New York, 1883. 16. Taylor, Jeremy. Holy Living. Various editions. Holy Dying. Various editions. 17. Tholuck, A. Hours of Christian Devotion. From the German. New York, 1875. 18. Wilson, Bishop. Sam-a Privata. New York, 1863. 19. Winkworth, Catharine. Lyra Germanica. Hymns for the Sundays and Chief Festivals of the Christian Year. Trans lated from the German. First and Second series. New York, 1856, 1864. The German and the Scandinavian Languages are especially rich in Devotional Literature. It is only necessary to refer to the works of such authors as Ahlfeld, John Arndt, Besser, Bring, J. C. and S. L. (Swedish), Dieffenbach, Emanuelson (Swedish), Francke, Funcke, John Gerhard, Paul Gerhardt, Gerok, Louis Harms, Lohe, Luther, Heinrich Mueller, Rosenius (Swedish), Christian Scriver, Tholuck, and others. 6. WORKS FOR GENERAL REFERENCE. 1. Anthon's Classical Dictionary. 2. Crabb's English Synonyms. 3. Harper's Latin Dictionary. Revised edition. 4. Haydn's Dictionary of Dates, with American supplement. 5. Johnson's New Universal Cyclopoedia. 4 vols. 6. Liddell and Scott's Greek Lemcon. Seventh edition. 7. Roget's Thesaurus of English Words. 8. Skeat's Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 9. Spiers and Surenne's French-EnglisJi Dictionary. 10. Webster's Dictionary, Unabridged. 11. Whitney's German-English Dictionary. PART I, THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, GENERAL PART. Its external Belations to the other Sciences, and the different Tendencies in it. SECTION XXII. THEOLOGY AS A POSITIVE SCIENCE. Theology, like law and medicine, is a positive or applied science. It does not deal with pure abstractions or with truth simply for truth's sake, but is conditioned by its relation to the life and needs of the Church and of mankind. Language is not studied by the Theologian as it is by the philologist. History is not to him what it is to the mere investigator and general reader. When science in theology is no longer hallowed, when it is considered as the end and not as the means, it falls from its great intent, and diffuses curses instead of blessings. To the botanist every plant is as such alike. To the physi cian, on the other hand, a plant is interesting only as a part of Materia Medica. Theology is related to truth more after the analogy of the physician than of the botanist. Theology manifests a closer relationship with law and medicine, the remaining positive sciences, than either of these bears to the other. The Theologian must possess the gift of oratory in com mon with the lawyer, and be closely connected with the work of the physician, particulally in the fleld of pastoral theology. He is accordingly required to unite in himself quaUties which are usually presumed in both the lawyer and the physician, SECTION XXIII. Hence theology demands a high measure of practical adaptation to its ends. It is a science, in order that it may be an art, for art is apphed science. The theologian thinks that he may move men to activity. SECTION XXIV. THEOLOGY IN ITS HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. As Christian theology pre-supposes the existence of the Christian religion and the Christian Church, and embraces 38 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. those forms of knowledge and practical skill which arise from the characteristic features of that religion and Church, the scientific character of Christian theology cannot be com prehended apart from the development of these in history. The origin and usage of the word theology. In order to under stand the science of theology, the student must have a preliminary knowledge of its history. Various considerations led to a scientiflc treatment of Theology. The contents of Theology. The form of the various doctrines influenced by philosophy. The efforts made to reconcile theology and philosophy, faith and knowledge. The influence of Aristotle during the Middle Ages. The Apologists of the second century. Origen (d. 254). Atha nasius. (d. 373). Augustine (d. 430). Abelard (d. 1142). Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). The Mystics of the 14th century. Reuchhn (d. 1523)) The Lutheran and Reformed theologians of the 16th and 17th centuries. Spener (d. 1705) and Pietism. Kant (d. 1804). Schleiermacher (d. 1834). It has been the task of modern Theology, before all else, to comprehend its own nature in the light of history, and to secure a clear idea of its relation to the present age. Some would ignore the whole of the historical development of theology and reconstruct everything anew from the beginning; others would return to the theology of the 17th century, while still others would build on the theology of the 16th century. All that in other lands has acquired reputation as theological science is more or less closely connected with the course of develop ment in Germany. SECTION XXV. RELATION OF THEOLOGY TO PREPARATORY CULTURE. Like every positive science, theology presupposes a strictly scientific preparatory culture in the form of a good general education. It regards the pure sciences partly as preliminary forms of knowledge, and partly as continuous and auxiliary. The former are c&Wed propedeutic (see Greek derivation), the latter boethetic (see Greek). Some branches of knowledge are both propaedeutic and boethetic, /. e., we use them before we study theology, and use them while in its study — as for ex ample, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, German and History. SECTION XXVI. THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE PREPARATORY SCIENCES. In their application to theology, the first rank among the pure sciences is taken by philology and history. The mathe matical and physical studies take the second rank. "We RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PREPARATORY SCIENCES. 39 affirm, therefore," says Hagenbach, "that the classic humanistic culture is and abides the only firm foundation of a sound Protestant Theology." The study of ^^i.jtotog'^ is of great importance for the cultiva^ tion of the mind. The scientiflc study of your own mother-tongrue is absolutely necessary, but the power of language to cultivate the mind only becomes fully manifest when the abiUty to compare several languages with each other has been acqmred. Besides the formal value for the cultivation of the mind, the knowledge of Greek and Latin is not only of great practical utiUty in the study of theology, but to the Theologian a matter of absolute necessity. In modem times the value of classical studies has been much discussed. Of the necessity of obtaining a clear and accurate knowledge of the history of the ancient world, and of history in general, it is not necessary to speak. While the study of languages and of history thus forms the real foundation for theological study, mathematics and the natural sciences are also of great value. The formative value of mathematics is unquestioned; it af fords the test of the mind's demonstrative power, and is sometimes caUed a practical logic, like the science of language. "Hence," says Herder, "as Pythagoras had inscribed upon the walls of his lec ture-room, 'Without geometry let none enter here,' so the inscrip tion on the doors of our higher institutions of leaming should read 'Without geometry let none graduate'." The philosophical value of mathematics, however, has been overrated, and Bengel truly remarks, "Mathematics affords useful aid in certain directions, but it dethrones the understanding in re lation to truths which Ue outside its sphere." Mathematical modes of thought are as unsatisfactory in theology as the juridical. The value of the study of the natural sciences, Astronomy, Bi ology, Chemistry, Geology, etc., especiaUy in the department of Apologetics. It may truly be said, that in no other profession is an knowledge of so much service, as in the study of theology. In our day the neglect of certain theologians to acquaint themselves with natural science and its results is especiaUy inexcusable. In the face of the ignorance that results, unbeUef wUl be able to ap peal more shamelessly and deflantly to the progress of those sci ences. The foUowing table given by Zockler may be of interest in this connection: 40 theological encyclopaedia. God. Theology. THE NATURAL WORLD. SPIRITUAL LIFE. The Natural Sciences. Historical Sciences. A. Theoretical. A. Theoretical. Mathematics, Astrophysics, History, Philology, Ethnol- Geophysics, Chemistry, Bi- ogy. Linguistics, etc. ology, etc. B. Practical. B. Practical. Medicine, Rural Economy, Juris-prudence, National Technics, etc. Economies, etc. ^ , J Man. Philosophy. SECTION XXVII. RELATION OF THEOLOGY TO THE FINE ARTS AND TO GENERAL CULTURE. In conjunction with scientific culture, it is desirable also that there should be a cultivation of the aesthetic feeling. A sense of the beautiful and of the ideal is needful in theology. No man without this can enter into the meaning of much that is most sublime in the Word of God. The Theologian prizes true rhetoric as giving grace to style, and the principles of oratory as an aid in effective delivery. He should love nature, and if he loves her aright, he will find her a quickener to a fondness for painting, sculpture, and architecture in their holy relations and uses. In the pulpit, and hardly less at the altar, a refined taste will be a source of pure influence. Especially is music, when sanctified to its highest ends, a form of art which should be dear to the theologian and pastor. The pastor teaches as much almost by what he is as by what he says. And the real difference be tween different ministers is not so much in what they say and do as in how they say and do it. True culture, then, is one element of real force. More attention should be given to stimulating the sense of the beautiful in early youth. Early practice in written as well as oral expression, and also in free discourse, will especially be of inestimar ble value to the future theologian. Rhetoric and poetry in the fleld of art are parallel with philology and history in the fleld of science. The great importance of art will become apparent in connection with Liturgies. Without a knowledge of music the theologian will THE RELATION OF THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHY. 41 be debarred from entering on an essential department of Christian worship. Luther held that "next to the Word of God nothing is so deserving of esteem and praise as music." SECTION XXVIII. THE RELATION OF THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHY.*) Philosophy is to be the constant attendant of theology, without, however, any mingling of the two in such a way as could possibly confound them. Each has its appropriate sphere, each must do its own work, though the influence of a pure form of either on the other is of the highest kind. Philosophy should be regarded as the companion of theology rather than as the antecedent to it. In regard to the useful ness of philosophy in theology, there has been a deversity of opinion from the beginning. The words of St. Paul (Col. 2: 8), imply no condemnation of a true philosophy, but the very contrary. He implies that there is a true philosophy which is no empty deceit, is not after the tradition of men, and is according to Christ. The Word of God pre-supposes a philosophy. Nor can there be thinking, nor a presentation of thought, which does not involve some philosophy. The proper attitude of philosophy and theology lay atthe bottom of the contests during the Middle Ages between the Scholastics and the positive theologians. Among the Scholastics themselves the struggle between the Realists and Nominalists had its influence upon theology. The Reformation was strongly opposed to the then dominant philosophy. Luther spoke with special violence against the Aristotelian philosophy and perverted reason, and barren speculation in general. In this respect he was an anticipative Bacon. The animus of Bacon and his method were but applications in the secular sphere of Luther's philosophical tendency in theology. When we look back upon the Middle Ages we are com pelled to acknowledge that with all the censure heaped in af ter times upon the barrenness of Scholastic speculation, it was wonderfully acute, and it has rich results to invite the scholar to a thorough acquaintance with it. • Based on Krauth and Hagenbacb. 42 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Profound scholars in the history of speculative thinking, like Sir William Hamilton— the most largely traveled man in this walk among the English writers ofthis century— accord the highest praise to the scholastic philosophy in many ofits aspects, and it rules very largely the ignorant world which derides it. In the Roman Catholic Church, since the Refor mation, the Jansenists, who represent the purer and more re formatory tendency, were opposed to the philosophy most in favor in their Church. The Jesuists were in favor of philosophy, but the philosophy they favored was a philosophy which favored them. Subsequentiy to the Reformation, the influence of the Aristotelian philosophy began, after a short reaction, to be more and more felt, as indeed in some of its aspects it well deserved to be. Luther's antagonism was in fact directed more against the scholastic abuses of Aristotle, than against Aristotle himself. Modern philosophy has attempted to solve its problems by two great generic methods — the first, the method of experience ; the second, the method of speculation, that is, of scientific evolution from ideas. Bacon is the great leader in the first, by his empiricism, and Descartes led in the second by rationalism. The fundamental principle oi Bacon (1561 — 1626) is, that truth is not to be sought from ideas by evolution, but through experience and induction. Very different estimates have been formed of the value of Bacon's labors and of his mental great ness. Maucalay's Essay on Bacon expresses very eloquently the accepted opinion ; and in consonance with it a recent wri ter in our own country (Dr. Noah Porter) in his admirable work on the "Human Intellect" says: "Bacon was one ofthe most gifted benefactors of his race, and one of the greatest men of any people." And it must be conceded that, while his influence was injurious in intellectual science, it was of the highest value in the world of physical investigation. Closely associated with the name of Bacon is that of Thomas Hobbes (1588 — 1679). The philosophical stand- THE RELATION OF THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHY. 43 point of Hobbes may be described as an application of the Baconian method and principles to the study of man, and the results of this process were a psychology and a morals utterly antagonistic, not only to Christianity, but to religion in general. Neither God nor religion has any proper place in his system. Thoroughly materialistic, it bore in its consequences — speculative, civil, and moral — its own annihi lation. The style of Hobbes is a model of the didactic, clear and deep as the pen of an engraver. Hallam says truly, that one could no more change a word or expression in it than in the exactest mathematical formula. It does its duty in distinctly expressing distinct thought. Against Descartes (1596 — 1650) a powerful opposition arose in the Church. In the Netherlands his philosophy caused violent controversies. He is the great master of the system of philosophical rationalism. Rationalism divides itself into two forms, dualism and monism. In the dualism of Descartes the opposition be tween the subjective and the objective is retained ; in it, spirit is a real essence, and matter is a real essence, iwo essences, hence dualism. Monism, under the same general system of rationalism, is represented by Spinoza. Over against its serious errors, the philosophy of Des cartes has given to the world great and fruitful truths, out of which modern philosophy has developed most important re sults in every direction. He established the authority of reason in its own sphere, and on the witness of consciousness he con structed a barrier sufficiently strong to resist the efforts of skepticism and a narrow, false theology. He has marked the profound distinction between what pertains to soul and what pertains to body, and between the method proper in the study of thought itself and that which is proper in the study of its organs. But not alone in method, but in results Descartes has great merit. Among other things, he has shed special light on the idea of the infinite, and has fixed upon it an argument for the existence of God. Pantheism still lifts its head, but Deism may 44 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. be said to have been philosophically annihilated by Descartes. The errors of Descartes' system have passed away, his truths still abide— they are fixed in the heart of modern philosophy, and it lives by them. The immortal Leibnitz (1646— 1716), the father of Ger man philosophy, was at once one of the most independent thinkers and one ofthe profoundest scholars of his age, and of all time. His influence has been greatiy felt in theology. Spinoza (1632— 1677) ceased to be a Jew without be coming a Christian. He attempted to establish an absolute unity on the basis of absolute realism or pantheism. His influence upon our time is larger than upon his own. He has greatly impressed himself upon much of the subtiest specula tion of our century. The favorite heresy in the speculation of our time is pantheism, in some of its multiform shapes, and to this Spinoza has largely contributed. The English Deists and the French Encyclopaedists brought the name of philosophy into disgrace; a philosopher came to mean, at least, a free thinker, if not an absolute Atheist. At the beginning of the iBth century. Wolf had introduced a modification ofthe philosophy of Leibnitz in a strictly demon strative method. He was assailed by the Pietists at Halle, driven away in 1723, but restored to his chair in 1740. Philo sophy now came into hopor, and was considered a means of supporting orthodox views, until Kant (1724 — 1804) destroyed this connection. From the time ot Kant it was impossible for theology to ignore the progress of philosophy, without destroy ing its own scientific character. Not until the rise oi Fichte's (1762 — 1814) absolute Sub jective Idealism, of ,5i:^i?//z«^'.9 (1778 — 1854) "Doctrine ofthe Absolute," and oi Hegel's (1770 — 1831) "Doctrine ofthe Imma nent Spirit," were the life questions of Christianity, which Kant had set aside by his moralism with its contracted scope, lifted again to become speculative questions of philosophy. Jacobi, Fries, and others pressed the distinction between faith and knowledge; others, as Herbart and his school, placed them selves in an attitude of indifference toward theology. Schlei- THE RELATION OF THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHY. 45 ermacher, inclined as he was to profound speculation, and considered by his countrymen as the most finished logician of his time, a Plato in these last days, wished philosophy and theo logy to be kept apart, although his own theology is pene trated to the core by his philosophy. He considered that theology had nothing to do with speculation, any more than religion, which he considered, a matter of emotion, has to do with thinking. The adherents of the school of Hegel, after their master's death, divided into two parts, of which one called the "right wing," was on the side of Christianty ; the other, or "left wing," took ground against Christianity, and sank to the vulgar infi delity under the name of Nihihsm. Others, under speculative influence, have attempted to form an independent philosophi cal foundation for Christianity, and to bring about a harmony between philosophy and revealed truth. At the present mo ment the anti-Christian or un-Christian philosophers seem wearied of the whole process of unaided speculation, acknow ledge its barrenness and its inability to determine truth. In this rapid, historical sketch, it is manifest that theology, without any formal connection with philosophy, has always occupied close relations either of sympathy or of antagonism to it, never of absolute indifference. It is clear, that whatever might seem to be the benefit of ignoring philosophy, it is im possible to ignore it. It is utterly out of the question to take an intelligent attitude to the theology ofour day, without some philosophical culture, if it only be to reject philosophy. To trample upon it effectually we must have some knowledge ofit. It will not do simply to be familiar with the old-fashioned com mon-places of philosophy. It is impossible, indeed, to com prehend, not to say the full meaning, but the very words, singly taken, of the most recent theologians of Germany, with out a knowledge of the philosophical system which underlies their thinking and terminology. The study of philosophy is therefore a necessity, and if, as is for the most part the case, there has been no attention given to it, or at least a very superficial one, in the preparatory 46 THEOLOGICAL ENCJyOLOPEDIA. training ofthe student, it would be desirable to embrace, in the theological training proper, the most necessary elements of it as they bear upon religion. As we cannot battle with Rom anism without understanding it thoroughly, so we must know infidelity in all its compass and subtiety to overthrow it. We can never expose the weakness of any system effectually, until we understand its strength. If it be granted, therefore, that all the philosophy ofour time is perplexingly intricate and mis chievous, still must we, in spite of this, and in some sense in consequence of it, study this philosophy thoroughly. If it were confessedly pure and useful we might the better leave it to itself The more sure we feel that it is the serpent which is luring men to eat the forbidden fruit, the more we should endeavor to put ourselves into a position to crush it beneath our feet. But the study of philosophy need notbe defended as a sort of necessary evil; on the contrary, it is of direct and incalcul able value. The mental confusion which is sometimes produced by philosophical study, or by what passes for it, is doubtless often the result of defects in the teacher or in the method. The terminology itself, especially in philosophers of the present day, is often pedantically abstruse ; yet a knowledge of it is necessary. One great source of difficulty is the disposition of metaphysicians to use old terms in new senses. You carry from one system a set of terms with a certain meaning, and for a time the next system is a chaos to you, because the familiar terms have unfamiliar senses. It is more perplexing than to learn an entirely new language. Imagine a language which you were to study — every word of which was English in sound — and not a sound of which had an English meaning. The later metaphysicians persist in putting their new wine into the old bottle. The object ofthe study of philosophy is not so much to fur nish results all made up to the learner's hand, as it is to teach him to think philosophically. Fischer, in his "Life of Kant," says : "Times without number Kant declared from his professor's THE RELATION OF THEOLOGY TO PHILOSOPHY. 47 chair, that no one was to Iearn philosophy from him, but only to philosophize" In this he merely echoed a famous ancient saying. In the use of philosophical illustrations, especially in the pulpit, we should not only be careful to employ such as are in themselves intelligible, but we should be careful not to obscure by philosophical phrases whaf would be clear enough to an ordinary hearer if couched in ordinary language. For this reason, and for others, it is a good exercise to endeavor, as nearly as possible, to express philosophical ideas in popular terms. Translate your author's language into your own. See how nearly you can express familiar philosophical ideas without using the ordinary term. Discuss subject and object without the use of these terms. Anything which re quires the absolute and purely technical phrases of philosophy should be excluded from the pulpit, unless it be in sermons to the clergy, or in some other exceptional cases. , We should avoid the weakness which is so common, especially among those who know nothing ofthe great German thinkers, the weakness of sitting in judgment upon the systems of modern philosophy before we have mastered them. As a pure, severe mental discipline, nothing perhaps is equal to a complete study of modern German metaphysics, for one any who has traced German thinking from Kant to this hour knows that there is a logical sequence between the so-called transcendental idealism of Kant, through the subjective idealism of Fichte, to the objective idealism of Schelling, and to the extn mest views of Hegel. Philosophy, should, however, not be studied in an isolated way; it should be conjoined with positive studies, with the study of history and of language. It is desirable that philo sophy should connect its spirit with the highest practical ends of real life. It is good advice, frequently given for the student, to take up a particular system and master it. Among the systems which give intellectual exercise of special value may be men tioned Plato and Aristotie, among the ancients; Descartes, 48 THEOLOGICAL ENOYCLOPjEDIA. Leibnitz, Kant and his successors, German and French, down to Hegel and Cousin, among the Continental metaphysicians; among the English metaphysicians, Locke, Berkeley, and recently Bain, and Herbert Spencer; among the Scotch, Reid, Dugald Stewart, Brown, and Sir William Hamilton, with , whose writings should be compared the views of his ablest reviewer, John Stewart Mill. ' For the latest phases of German thought it is desirable to examine the philosophical writings of Schleiermacher, Scho penhauer, Herbart, Beneke, and Lotze. Among living repre sentatives of philosophy in America may be mentioned, as worthy of study, McCosh and Porter. When it is possible, read the author through in the origi nal. Remember that you know more in understanding one page or one sentence of an author thorougly, than in mis understanding or in half understanding a thousand pages. Read a philosopher as your read every great author, in the connection of his works with each other, or of the relation of the parts of his one work with the other parts, and also in its connection with its own time, and as largely as you can with the works which helped to originate it and which it helped to originate. Leibnitz, for example, is called the father of German philosophy — therefore in reading Kant, make yourself ac quainted with Leibnitz. Kant was stimulated to a new investiga tion of the grounds of certainty by the skepticism of Hume. To understand Kant you must know something of the philoso phical writings of Hume. Hume again derived his skepticism by applying to mind the principles which Berkeley had appHed to matter. Berkeley had been driven to his idealism by way of reaction against the sensuous tendencies of the philosophy of Locke and the extravagance of the dualism of Descartes and Malebranche. To understand Kant, therefore, you must pay attention to the systems of all these writers in their mutual relations. But Kant himself stands neither at the end nor in the beginning of a new movement, but in the middle. To un derstand him, therefore, you must trace the progressive or reactionary system which either developed or controverted THE RELATION OF PHILOSOPHY TO THEOLOGY. 49 his; and in fact you cannot master one great philosophical thinker without a knowledge of the systems of the whole past. This, of course, in the case of one who does not devote his whole life to it, is not to be accomplished by actual perusal ol the works of these men. Its practical benefits can be largely secured by good histories of philosophy. Many of the best systems also have large notices of the history of the various points. Sir William Hamilton's Lectures are more valuable for their historic notices than as the development of a complete system. Dr. Porter's work is rich in historical notices. Philosophy is to be valued, but is not to be overvalued. Philosophy can invent nothing. As natural philosophy cannot make a species of plants, or really generate a gas, so cannot philosophy proper do more than discover what is ; and even here its sphere, grand though it be among human sciences, is narrow and humble as compared with that of theology. Lu ther called reason, by which he meant what is often called philosophy, the old woman who makes weather, the mother oi vapors. But the old woman cannot make weather or vapors ; she can only watch them, and venture at times upon a prophecy, which is very apt not to be fulfilled. Philosophy cannot open to us the way to the heart of God, nor to the home ofthe redeemed. It cannot justify nor sanctify nor save. After the struggles of ages and the glorious triumph of the philosophic mind, the sentence of Mirandula still retains its force: "Philo sophy seeks the truth ; Theology finds it ; Religion appropri ates it." SECTION XXIX. THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY AS RELATED TO THEOLOGY. The diversity of philosophical systems need not mislead us. Theology is able to make some use of all systems. It can apply to its own ends every philosophical system which ac knowledges the essential distinction between God and the world, spirit and matter, freedom and necessity. But it can also find a soul of good in things evil, and knows how to ex- 50 THEOLOGICAL ENCYOLOPJEDIA. tract benefits even from the systems of error: first, because great errors are often mingled with great truths ; secondly, because error itself is instructive as a disease of the mind; and thirdly, because the error may be associated with an ability in the handling which may be useful to us in the defence of truth. The diversities of systems should no more make us indif ferent to the question which is the true one, than the multipli city of religious creeds should make us careless in the forma tion of our faith. There is one absolutely true philosophy, as there is one absolutely true religion. The true philosophy is yet in process of discovery, as in a certain sense the true re ligion is in a course of ampler development in the Christian consciousness and confession. But there is one great difference between the two. Philo sophy is advanced by the unaided powers of the human in tellect. Religion is set forth in its absolute perfection in the Word of God, and is reached by the Church under the super natural aid of the Holy Ghost. Hence, while there may be a genuine eclecticism in philosophy, there can be none among theological systems. There must be on earth one part of the Christian Church at least, fellowship in which involves no asso ciation with doctrinal error. Those who imagine that the pure doctrine exists nowhere, as a whole, but is found in fragments, in all denominations, mixed with errors, imagine that no man can be in any part ofthe Church without ignoring some truth, or aiding some error. This is to concede that the gates of hell have prevailed against the Church. The affectation of entire independence of the various schools of philosophy is a very weak one. A man must go either with existing systems, or vindicate his right to ignore them all by making a system of his own superior to all. Speculation may be allowed a wide range, so long as it does not enddnger faith; and we must not be too much in a hurry to imagine that faith is going to be hurt. It has a much more robust constitution than many of its friends are willing to credit it with. THE RELATION OF PHILOSOPHY TO THEOLOGY. 51 One of the great errors in the philosophy of our time is the tendency to materialism. It makes the testimony of the senses supreme. It does away with the idea of God, of spirit, and of moral freedom. But there has also been in philosophy an exactly opposite tendency — that of a false spiritualism, or idealism, which holds God and spirit, or spirit without God, or intellectual phenome na without spirit or substance, to be the only reality ; denies that the world of matter has real being ; and so far as it teaches freedom at all, teaches an unlimited, absolute liberty, in which the ego, the personal thinker, or the thought which involves no thinker, is deified. A god without a world is not the God of Christianity. Christ was no materialist nor idealist. A spirit which has no flesh to triumph over is not the spirit of Christianity. A free dom which has no sense oi responsibility to God, no feehng of dependence on Him, is not the freedom of His children. The Bible everywhere sets forth a parallelism of God and the world, of heaven and earth, of matter and spirit, realities not only by the side of each other, but often in antagonism. The parallelism is to move on forever, but the antagonism is yet to be overcome. Out of this general admission of parallelism arise two opposite tendencies. One of these looks upon the opposition as fixed. This is the deistic view. The second, which con founds the elements, is the pantheistic. The deistic was the old form of unbelief; the pantheistic is the prevalent one. The one is the error of a shallow common sense. The other is the error of an unquenchable spirit of speculation. Deism is the more natural resource ofthe vulgar, and Pantheism, ofthe more refined intellect. In Deism, God and the world are not only distinguished, but are separated. It imagines a God who has created the world and then leaves it to itself He is a mechanist, not a Father. Men are his manufacture, not His children ; the universe is His workshop, not his home. God has no living relation to His creatures. Deism regards Him in its view as no more than the Establisher of Laws, under 52 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. which henceforth by necessity all things, and man as part of them, move; but it knows nothing of prophecy, of miracles, of mystery, or of redemption. It ignores all proper providence. Over against Deism comes the philosophy of identity, which fuses and confuses what Deism had arbitrarily and mechanically sundered. The one is the Nestorianism of philo sophy, the other its Eutychianism. Nestorius separated the two natures of Christ, so as to make two persons ; Eutyches intensified the one personality till the reality and distinction of two natures vanished before it. Like the first, Deism so distinguishes God and the world, that God is without the world and the world is without God. Like the second, the panthe istic identity so blends God and the world, that God is the world and the world is God, and there is neither true world nor true God. The philosophic tendency of Pantheism has moved under two opposite impulses. Under the first it merges God in the world, and thus falls into Materialism; in the other it merges the world into God, and thus becomes Absolute Ideahsm. Over against this tendency theology can only link itself with the philosophy which acknowledges a living, personal God. No system that is not theistic as over against atheistic or pantheis tic can be harmonized with Christianity. SECTION XXX. THE VARIOUS DISCIPLINES OR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY IN THEIR RELATION TO THEOLOGY. Philosophy constitutes a grand whole. There can be, therefore, no arbitrary ignoring utterly of certain parts of it as of no use to the theologian. The formal side of philosophy — i. e., logic or dialectics — and the general basis of it — i. e., psychology and anthopology — are of great value, although it is in the sphere of ethics as the philosophy of morals and religion that it comes into most direct contact with theology. In recent times, in the Continental training, the Encyclopcedia of Philosophy has been made one of the subjects of instruction in the universities. This part of philosophical instruction is of THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES AS RELATED TO THEOLOGY. 53 great importance to the theologian, as it gives him a wide survey and general knowledge of the whole ground, and puts him in the position for further and independent study. Logic in its ordinary shape had lost the esteem in which it was once held. So great was the revolution through which philosophy had passed, that everything seemed to be unset- tied. Men who were masters in logic seemed to be so erratic in thinking, that both their admirers and their opponents were tempted, for opposite reasons, to suspect that logic had in their case very little value. But with returning sobriety of thought men have come again to see that without genuine logic all philosophy becomes but a confused world of dreams. Psychology, in its latest tendencies has shown more and more a disposition to link itself with natural science. So far as this opposes itself to a spurious spiritualism the move ment is healthy ; but the tendency must be guarded to prevent its running from one extreme to another, merging the spiritual in the bodily, and so swinging from spiritualism into material ism. The true philosophy of religion will always be dependent upon a sound psychology, on a genuine philosophic apprehen sion of the nature of the soul and of the different spheres of the soul — anthropology. This brings us to the sphere designated of old as Ontology or Metaphysics. These terms have been exchanged for others, but in substance they still form the object of what is called speculative philosophy. If we accept the old Platonic- Aristo telian division of philosophy into physics, ethics, and dialectics, we have something analogous to the disciplines mentioned as propaedeutic and boethetic. Philosophy and mathematics cor respond with logic, the natural sciences with physics, history with ethics. As we associate the arts with the sciences, the philosophy of the beautiful,^^j/^i?A« or philosophy of art— presents itself with claims upon our notice. The position of these departments of philosophy to the professional studies is clear in the nature of the case. Natural philosophy is the foundation of medicine ; the' philosophy of law of the legal profession ; and the philo- 54 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. sophy of religion and moral philosophy are the basis of theo logical study. All these branches, however, are useful to a theologian; but especially is the philosophy of art to be recom mended, on the general ground of the desirableness ofa culti vated sense of the beautiful in the theologian. Finally, the history of philosophy is a necessary condition to the study of philosophy itself; but its value as an auxiliary is more naturally estimated at its place in the history of religion, of the Church, and of doctrine. SELECT LITERATURE OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES. 1. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES. 1. Beck, Jos. Philosophische Propcedeutik. 12th ed., 1876. 2. Krauth-Fleming. A Vocabulary of the Philosophical Sciences. New York, 188 L This work, though not an Encyclopsedia, properly belongs here. It contains two important works, 1) A Vocabulary of Philoso phy by Prof. William Fleming, D. D., and 2) A Vocabulary of the Philosophioai Sciences by Prof. Charles P. Krauth, S. T. D., LL. D. To the student of philosophy no better guide can be given. 3, Ritter, H. Encykl. d. phii. Wissenschaften. 3 vols. GOttingen, 1862—64. 4. Rosenkranz, K. System der Wissenschaften. KOnigsberg, 1850. 2. PSYCHOLOGY. 1. Bascom, John. Principles of Psychology. New York. 2. Beneke, F. E. Lehrbuch der Psychologic als Naturwissenschaft. Berlin, 3rd ed., 1861. English Translation of this edition by G. Eaue, London, 1871, under the title of Elements of Psychology. 3. Day, H. N. Psychology. New York. 4. Erdmann, J. E. Grundriss der Psychologic. 4th ed., 1862. 5. Haven, Joseph. Mental Philosophy. Boston. 6. Hickok, L. P. Empirical Psychology. New York. Rational Psychology. New York. 7. Mahan, Asa. System of Mental Philosophy. Chicago. 8. Porter, Noah. The Human Intellect. "Hew York. 9. Ulrici, Hermann. Gott und der Mensch. Vol. I. Leib und Seele. Leipsic, 1866. Part I of this remarkable work under the special title of "Body and Soul", contains the author's Outlines of Human Psychology. SELECT LITERATURE OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES. 55 3. LOGIC. 1. Bowen, Francis. Treatise on Logic. Cambridge, 1864. 2. Davis, Noah K. The Theory of Thought. ATreatise on Deductlc Logic. New York, 1880. 3. De Morgan, Augustus. Formal Logic, or the Calculus of Infer ence, Necessary and Probable. 1847. 4. Hamilton, Sir William. Lectures on Logic. Edited by Mansel and Veitch. Boston, 1868. 5. Jevons, W. Stanley. Elementary Lessons in Logic ; Deductive and Inductive. New York and London. Studies in Deductive Logic. 6. Mill, J. S. System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive. New York. 7. Thomson, WiUiam. An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought. New York and London. 8. Ueber weg, Friedrich. System, of Logic and History of Logical Doctrines. Translated from'the German. London, 1871. 9. Ulrici, Hermann. Compendium, der Logik. Leipsic, 2nd ed., 1872. 10. Whately, Richard. Elements of Logic. 11. Wilson, W. D. Elementary Treatise on Logic. New York. 4. ESTHETICS. 1. Bascom, John. Msthetics, or Science of Beauty. New York. 2. Day, H. N. Principles of Msthetics. New York. 3. Kames, Lord (Henry Home). Elements of Art Criticism. New York. 4. Ruskin, John. Modern Painters. Five volumes in two. New York, 1884. 5. ^wason, (Jr. W. Elements of Art Criticism. Philadelphia. 6. Vischer, F. T. Msthetik, oder die Wissenschaft des Schoenen. 7. Zimmeimann's Geschichte der M.sthetik. Vienna, 1858. 5. MORAL PHILOSOPHY OR ETHICS. 1. Alexander, Archibald. Outlines of Moral Science. New York. 2. Bascom, John. Principles of Ethics. New York. 3. Calderwood, Henry. Handbook of Moral Philosophy. MIZ. 4. Day, H. N. Science of Ethics. New York. 5. Fleming, William. Manual of Moral Philosophy. London. 6. Haven, Joseph. Moral Philosophy. Boston. 7. Hickok, L. P. A System of Moral Science. Revised by Presi dent Seelye. Boston. 8. Hopkins, Mark. The Law of Love and Love as a Law, or Christian Ethics. New York. 9. Kant, Immanuel. Critique of the Practical Reason. London. 10. Porter, Noah. The Elements of Moral Science. New York, 1885. 56 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 6. METAPHYSICS. 1. Bowen, Francis. Modern Philosophy, from Descartes to Schopenhauer and Hartmann. New York. 2. Day, H. N. Ontology. New York. 3. Hamilton, Sir William. Metaphysics. Edited by Mansel and Veitch. Boston. 4. Krauth, Charles P. Berkeley's Principles of Human Know ledge, with Prolegomena and Annotations. Philadelphia. 5. McCosh, James. The Intuitions of the Mind. New York. 6. Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason. New York and London. 7. Lotze, R. H. Metaphysik. Leipsic. Outlines of Metaphysics. Dictated Portions of the Lectures of Hermann Lotze, translated and edited by Prof. George T. Ladd. Boston. 7. PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. 1 . Bascom, John. Philo.sophy of Religion. New York. 2. Caird, John. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion. New York. 3. Kant, Immanuel. Religion within the Limits of Mere Reason. London. 4. Pascal, Blaise. Thoughts. New York 1859. 5. Ulrici, Hermann. Gott und die Natur. Leipsic, X9&%. 8. PHILOSOPHY OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 1. Bushnell, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural. New York. 2. Butler, Joseph. The Analogy of Religion. 3. Calderwood, Henry. Philosophy of the Infinite. London, 1872. 4. Haven, Joseph. Studies in Philosophy and Theology. Andover. 5. Hickok, Laurens P. Rational Cosmology. New York, 1871. 9. THEODICY AND NATURAL THEOLOGY. 1. Argyll, The Duke of. The Reign ofsLavi. 1884. 2. Bampton Lectures, The. 3. Blackie, Jo hn Stuart. The Natural History of Atheism. New York, 1882. 4. Bledsoe, A. T. A Theodicy. New York, 1853. 5. Bridgewater Treaties, Tfie. 6. Candlish, Robert S. Reason and Revelation. London. 7. Christlieb, Theo. Modi^rn Doubt aiid Christian Belief. New York. 8. Diman, J. Lewis. The Theistic Argument, as affected by Recent Theories. Boston. 9 Drummond, Henry. Natural Lavi in the Spiritual World. New York, 1884. 10. Fisher, G. P. Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief. New York, 1883. 11. Flint, Robert, ^wti-rTietsWe rfteories. Edinburgh and London. PREDOMINANT THEOLOGICAL TENDENCIES. 57 12. Harris, Samuel. The Philosophical Basis of Theism. NewYork. 13. Hickok, Laurens P. Creation and Creator. Boston. 14. Janet, Paul. Final Causes. Edinburgh. 15. Liefchild, John R. The Higher Ministry of Nature. London and New York. 16. Mahan, Asa. The Science of Natural Theology. Boston. 17. McCosh, James. The Method of Divine Government. NewYork, 18. Young, John. The Province of Reason. New York. 10. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY. 1. Erdmann, J. E. Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophic. 2 vols. Berlin. Better adapted to complete than to begin the study of the History of Philosophy. 2. Schwegler, Albert. A Handbook, of the History of Philosophy, translated by Seelye. New York. Translated and annotated by Stirling. Edinburgh. For the beginner the best work published. 3. Tennemann, W. T. Manual of the History of Philosophy. Edited by Morell. London, 1852. 4. Ueberweg, Friedrich. A History of Philosophy. Translated by Morris, with additions by Noah Porter. 2 vols. New York. The standard work, especiaUy valuable on account of the Literature cited. SECTION XXXI. PREDOMINANT THEOLOGICAL TENDENCIES. Closely connected with the relation of philosophy to theo - logy, yet not dependent on it alone, is our judgment ofthe different theological tendencies, and of the position we should take to them. It is necessary, therefore, at this point to exhibit the character of these tendencies as they make themselves felt through every department of theology, although a complete understanding of them, and the most matured and intelligent decision in regard to them, is only possible when theological study itself has been carried out with great thoroughness. It is the duty of the teacher to be entirely fair with what he proposes ; to let his pupils see it in all its real strength. No man knows the weakness ofa strong system who does not do justice to its strength, and no man understands the full strength of the views he advocates till he apprehends wherein they are, or seem to be, weak. 58 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. The instructor is not to think for the learner, but to aid him in honest investigation, that he may think for himself And, even in furnishing materials of strength, he is to warn the pupil against the idea, that having the material of thinking is think ing itself. SECTION XXXII. THE RELIGIOUS AND SCIENTIFIC TENDENCY IN THEOLOGY.*) It may be said in general that in theology there have exis ted from the beginning, and now exist and will probably exist forever, two mighty and inevitable tendencies which are dis tinct, yet not necessarily divided. One tendency may be called the religious, the other the scientific. One is internal, the other is affected by external influences ; one may be called historical, the other ideal. Now as one of these tendencies in fluences the other, healthfully or unhealthfully we have a desir able or undesirable result. When one is out of due proportion to the other, or seeks to repress it, we have sometimes Ratio nalism, Mysticism, Pietism, Idealism, or Fanaticism. That these two tendencies are both, in their proper nature and limitation, healthy and promotive of each other's highest ends, is clear from the fact that they existed in the earliest Church, often in unison ; and only when they were exaggerated or one-sided did they come into conflict. The oldest heresies arise largely from the abuse of one or other tendency. Within the ancient Church Catholic the antithesis often repeats itself Irenaeus {d. 202) and Tertullian {d. 220) represent one side, Clement {d. 220) and Origen {d. 254) the other. Arianism and Nestorianism are anticipations of Rationalism. Pelagius rises up to represent the scientific as arrayed against the religious, and is met by Augustine {d. 430), who represents the religious as vitalizing and sanctifying science. He was incomparably more scientific and more religious than Pelagius. In the Middle Ages we see the same illustrations of anti thesis in the conflicts in regard to the Lord's Supper and other doctrines. Among the scholastics, we find an Abelard * See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Erautb. THB RELIGIOUS AND, SCIENTIFIC TENDENCY IN THEOLOGY. 59 {d. 1 142), the brilliant nuisance of his era, representing the ra tionalizing, if not rationalistic, tendency ; and opposed to him and it we have the glorious name of Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1 109), and Bernard of Clairvaux {d. 1153). The«mystics sought to give internal depth and life to the Church doctrine, but in their hands the positiveness of a well-defined faith often vanished in a vague idealism, and they commuted history into symbol and allegory. In the Reformation the two tendencies appeared. Luther was the mighty opponent of rationalism, in the one extreme, as he was of a spurious supranaturalism in the other. He har monized the two tendencies — the religious and scientific — and it was this which made him so absolutely great as a leader. Zwingli more than any other reformer may be considered as the forerunner of rationalism. He was no thinker, but was essentially a man of activity. His sphere was more naturally in political life than in theology. He was fitted rather to be the leader ofa revolution than ofa reformation. In Calvin the Zwinglian tendency, rationalistic and radical, was checked, but not removed; and hence in the Zwinglian- Calvinistic Church arose Socinianism, which is rationalism systematized, and Arminianism, which is but rationalism not yet fully developed into consistency. The influence of English deism was felt in the eighteenth century in theology. The apologists of Christi anity of that era too often defended it from a latitudinarian ground, which made that defense in some respects more mis chievous than the assault, inasmuch as the admission ofa friend carries more weight than the assertion of a foe. There arose on the continent a system of natural religion, or rationalistic theology, which planted itself by the side of positive Biblical churchly theology, as in fact, though not at first in form, a rival to it. Under the influence of the philosophy of Kant and the spirit of the times, the rationalistic tendency grew stronger and stron ger. Over against Rationalism at this era stood, for the most part Supranaturalism which, while as opposed to Rationalism contended for much peculiar to the old faith of the 60 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Church, shared also in the infection of the time and abandoned much. In the more recent conflicts Pietism has largely taken the place of the older Supranaturalism. The name Pietism comes to us from the time of Spener and Francke. The living piety of these early men, who.-ie fervor was tempered with sobriety, was not reproduced in the mass of their followers. Pietism ran out into a pretentious Formalism — the Formalism of Pseudo-spiritualism, and finally became a Pharisaism with a thin robe of Christianism. It is evident that, even at its best estate. Pietism lacked certain elements of the highest form of Lutheran Christianity. In Spener, as compared with Luther, there was a certain dry ness and prosiness of mind. He lacked the large temperament, that harmony, proportion and depth of character which appear in Luther. As compared with Melanchthon and Chemnitz, Spener was destitute of clearness of thinking, of order and harmony in conception, of purity and simplicity of style. The best Pietism has all the features of Christianity, but some of them are exaggerated, and some are pinched. The Reformation was full of the spirit of piety, but it had no Pietism. Pietism, in its best shape is a pure Christianity in a feeble and feverish state of health, lacking force, freshness, and largeness. Mysticism is not to be confounded with Pietism. In its purest form it is as old as the Church. Its spirit is that of di rect communion with God ; its abuse is a tendency to sink into Quietism. To the purest and best Mysticism, the secret of God is re vealed. It makes religion the intercourse, silent but deep, be tween the soul and God, the source of all its life and light. The clearest thinkers have often been the deepest mystics. Gerhard's. Loci, for example, show him to have been clear beyond even most of the great theological thinkers, while his Meditations show him to have been a true mystic. ATTITUDE OF STUDENT TOWARDS THESE TENDENCIES. 61 In philosophy the better school of Mysticism is represented by a Pascal {d. 1662) and a Malebranche {d. 1715), two of the greatest names in the annals of human thought. The deepest and most abiding movement of the theology of our day is that of Churchly Positivism, that of renewed fidelity to the truth of the Word as the Church confesses it. The pure doctrinal life of our Church has lifted itself .out of the chaos of Rationalism and false philosophy in the Nineteenth Century, as it lifted itself out of the chaos of Romish supersti tion in the Sixteenth. So far as we are aware, there is not a theologian on the Continent of the highest order who holds the old Calvinistic system in its integrity as a system of faith, nor even as a mode of thinking. In our country Calvinism Ungers as a mode of thinking, though it has died as a system of faith. On the other hand, it may be said of Lutheranism that it was never held more purely, intelligently and fervently than it is at this hour by millions in Christendom, and among these are many of the princes of theology. Every other system seems to bear the marks of decadence. No other appears able to vindicate itself alike by an appeal to the Word of God and to the highest science of the day. The grand conflict ofthe time is among the three tendencies — i) the purely positive tendency of a fixed Faith, 2) the Nihilism of the various forms of unbelief, and 3) the unionistic Eclecticism and indeterminateness. The last of the three has the advantage of plausibleness. But the clear logic of the matter lies between the first and the second tendency. The decision, which will have to be made, is between a consistent thorough-going faith on the one hand, and a fixed un belief on the other. Between the two Unionism must ultimately be ground to powder. SECTION XXXIII. THE ATTITUDE OF THE STUDENT TOWARDS THESE TENDENCIES. The student must of necessity understand all these tenden cies. If he be earnest, careful in investigation, prayerful and 62 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. watchful of his personal piety, he need have no fears that he will be swept away by the torrent of error in which his pursuit of thetruth will compel him to swim. As long as a man's heart is above the water, his head cannot sink under it. Here, as everywhere, the promise is true that God will not permit us to be tempted beyond what we are able to bear. The conscien tious exaniination which is given to the diseases of thought by him who expects to be the physician of souls, is like that which the medical student gives to the contagious disorders which are brought together in the hospitals. There have been instances of contagion in both cases, but the theological student m.iy have a mightier safeguard than the student of medicine can have. With hearty love of truth he has the great amulet against, at least, fatal contagion. One thing is certain : if he cannot bear the contagious influence of a mere abstract knowledge of error when he is preparing for the ministry, with all the aids which Christian sympathy and sanctified learn ing bring around him, he is still less able to bear the contagion ofthe actual surroundings of after life, where error is not the shadowy phantom ofthe mind, but comes in all the concreteness of actual seduction. To be ignorant here is not to be innocent. Our intellectual life lies in the same condition of toil and hazard as our natural life, and to be mighty in the truth, we must have met and fairly vanquished the false. We cannot strengthen others against the force or charm of error, unless we have met and overcome it ourselves. Very different before God and before his own conscience is the man who needlessly meddles with dangerous books and dangerous ideas, in the mere spirit of curiosity or of self-reliance, and the man who learns evil only to overcome it and to save others from its snares. "Prove all things"; and you can prove nothing without understanding it. "Prove all things; hold fast to that which is good". He holds fastest to the good who has put evil to the proof That man has an armor of proof who goes forth to the hardest battle with holy purpose. 63 SELECT LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM AND ALLIED TOPICS. 1. IN FAVOR OF RATIONALISM. 1. Arnold, Matthew. Literature and Dogma. New York. 2. Clarke, James Freeman. Orthodoxy : Its Truths and Errors. Boston. 3. Colenso, John WilUam. The Peutateuch and Book of Joshua, critically examined. New York. 4. Essays and Reviews. London, 1861. 5. Hedge, Frederick Henry. Reason in Religion. Boston. 6. Renan, Ernest. The Life of Jesus. NewYork. 7. Rueckert, L. J. Der Rationalismus. Leipsic. 8. Strauss, David F. The Old Faith and the New Faith. From the German, New York. 2. IN FAVOR OF SUPRANATURALISM. 1. Aids to Faith. A series of Theological Essays by several writers. New York and London. An able reply to Essays and Reviews. 2. Cairns, John. Romanism and Rationalism, as opposed to Pure Christianity. London. 3. Fisher, George P. Faith and Rationalism. New York. 4. Green, W. H. The Pentateuch vindicated from the Aspersions of Bishop Colenso. New York. 5. Krauth, Charles P. Ulrici' s Review of Strauss's "The Old Faith and the New Faith." Philadelphia and Edinburgh. 6. Luthardt's Allgem. evang. luth. Kirchenzeitung. Leipsic. 7. Schafl. Philip. The Person of Christ; the Miracle of History, with a reply to Strauss and Renan. Boston and New York. A work that cannot be too highly commended. 8. Vilmar, A. F. C. Die Theologie der Thatsachen wider die Theologie der Rhetorik. Guetersloh, 1876. 9. Young, John. TTie C/imif o/ifistorj/. New York and London. 3. WORKS ON MYSTICISM AND PIETISM. 1. Bigelow, John. Molinos the Quietist. New York. 2. Dorner, J. A. Der Pietismus, insbes. in Wuertemburg. Ham burg, 1846. 3. Goerres, J. Die Christliche Mystik. 4 vols. Regensburg, 1836 — 42. 4. Heppe, H. Geschichte des Pietism/us und der Mystik in der re form. Kirche. Leyden, 1879. 5. Schmid, H. Qeschichte des Pietismus. NOrdlingen, 1863. 6, Vaughan, Robert A. Houra with the Mystics. 2 vols. London, 64 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 4. HISTORY OF RATIONALISM. 1. Cairns, John. Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century. New York. 2. Farrar, A. S. A Critical History of Free Thought. New York and London. 3. Frank, G. Geschichte des Ration, und seiner Gegensdtze. Leipsic, 1875. 4. Hagenbach, K. R. German Rationalism. Its rise, progress and decUne. From the German. Edinburgh, 1865. 5. Hurst, John F. History of Rationalism. New York. An excellent work; the best for the beginner. 6. Lecky, W. E. H. History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism, in Europe. 2 vols. NewYork. 7. TuUoch, John. Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the Seventeenth Century. 2 vols. Edinburgh and London. PART II, THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA, SPECIAL PART. The Departments of Theology and their Mutual Relations. SECTION XXXIV. THE DIVISIONS OF THEOLOGY. Positive theology by its own nature divides itself into four main departments: /) Exegetical, 2) Historical, j) System,atic and 4) Pract ical. This according to Hagenbach is the proper division and proper succession of parts. There can be no serious dispute on the general correctness of this division, though there may be some in regard to the order of succession. Exegetical theology corresponds to philology. Historical to his tory, Systematic to philosophy, and Practical to art. Individual qualifications often lead to distinct results, so that the student who excels in the study of languages usually becomes a good exegete, and he who has the historical faculty becomes a Church historian. Philosophical ability will find its proper fleld in systematic theolo gy, and a talent for using the vernacular in artistic description, etc., indicates the coming preacher and liturgist. The student must begin with Exegesis and flrst of all become acquainted with the Bible. Not until the mind has developed its powers by historical studies, and has acquired facility in the broad philosophical management of thought, will it be fltted to attempt the study of Dogmatics. Every division, however, is only relative, for in every single de partment of theological study all the others are involved. Exeget ical theology involves historical elements (Introduction, Archseolo gy), as well as doctrinal (Criticism, Hermeneutics) and practical (Practical Exposition). The same is true of the other departments; in fact it would not be difficult to distinguish 1) exegetical, 2) historical, 3) systematic, and 4) practical elements in each of the four main departments. Each takes the hand of the other, and af fords an outlook into the other. In the arrangement of Theological Literature, or of a theolo gical library, it is usual to place as a General Introduction to Exe getical Theology, 1) all books pertaining to Encyclopcedia of The ology, and Theological Bibliography, as well as 2) all collected works of several or single authors, embracing the several Depart ments of Theology. 66 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. I. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. SECTION XXXV. DEFINITION OF EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY. Exegetical Theology comprises all that relates to the exposition and elucidation of the Holy Scriptures, It conse quently embraces Exegesis as an art, and all the branches of knowledge auxiliary to that art. Its results are presented in Biblical Theology, which is divided according to its historical and dogmatical elements, into Biblical History and Biblical Doctrine. SECTION XXXVI. OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES AS THE OBJECT OF EXEGESIS. The Bible is a collection of original or primary documents, either of a directly religious character, or pertaining to a his tory ofreligion. It was written in various ages and by various authors, mainly, but not exclusively, in Palestine. Considered as a whole it is bound in unity under the loftier idea of the Word of God. In it history and doctrine are related as in no other book. It has as its aim, the teaching of one religion, the founding of one Church. It is the source of Christian faith and of Christian life. This collection formS the Biblical Canon, as distinguished especially from the Apocrypha (the claim of whose canonicity is spurious) and as distinguished in general also from all human writings. The Bible is absolutely divine in its spirit, yet truly human in its body. In it the Holy Spirit is, as it were, incarnate, as in Christ Jesus, the Son of God is incarnate. It is God's Word mediated through man. The structure of the Bible is closely analogous to the structure of the Person of our Lord. Both the Bible and Christ in their divine character are called the Word of God, and in both perfect divinity and perfect humanity are inseparably conjoined. There is nothing divine in the Bible, which is isolated from true humanity, and nothing huinan in the Bible, separated from true Divinity, so that although we recognize the human and divine elements as distinct, we receive them as inseparable,*) *) See Manuscript Lectures ol Dr, Krauth. THE RELATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TO THE NEW. 67 SECTION XXXVII. THE RELATION OF THE OLD TESTAMENT TO THE NEW. The Biblical Canon comprehends the books of the Old and the New Testaments or Covenants. On this double sense of the original Greek word, Dr, Knapp (of Halle) beautifully says: "We should read the Testament not as a lawyer, who goes over it critically, but as a child who inherits under it." The original implies a covenant under which we receive after the manner of a testament, a covenant by a will, coming into effect by a death, and hence the expression "New Covenant" is not to be allowed as a total synonym or substitute for "New Testament". Though to the Christian Theologian, the New Testament assumes in certain respects a pre-eminence, as a direct source of the revelation of Christ, yet must he. also make the Old Testament Scriptures the object of his diligent investigation. And for these reasons : i) because the New Testament in the conception ofthe one only God, which lies at its foundation, rests upon the Old Testament. One grand Monotheism per vades both. The order of salvation, or the economy of grace, which comes forth in itg clearness in the New Testament has its way prepared in the Old Testament. Both reveal one personal God in the same attributes, relations and general plans. 2) The verbal peculiarities, the language and the modes of thought found in the Old Testament, furnish the only clue to the meaning of the New. No man can be a master of the New Testament without a deep acquaintance of the Old. 3) The Old Testament is rich in matter, of inexpressible interest and value, a value which grows rather than diminishes with time. It is rich in instruction, rich in all that edifies. It is so glorious a book, that if we had not the New Testament, we might have denied that the Old Testament could have had an equal. 4) It is a divine Revelation. It, too, is God's book, and so linked with the New Testament in evidence, that both stand or fall together. What is a key without a lock, and what is a lock without a key !*) •) See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth. 68 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. The Bible can never be rightly studied unless the two Testaments are comprehended in their unity and harmony. If the Old Testament is in the New in fulfilment, the New is in the Old in promise. SECTION XXXVIII. THE OLD TESTAMENT. The Old Testament embraces the great original documents connected with the national and religious history of the Hebrew race down to a certain fixed point of time. The books of which it consists are ordinarily divided into x) Historical,. 2) Prophetical, and 3) Poetical books. But this division must not be urged too far, for the Books of Moses though historical, contain a great deal of poetry and law, the prophetical books contain also history, and Proverbs and Ecclesiastes though counted among the poetical books, are \ not poetical in the modern sense ofthe term. Still the division, in the main, holds good. It expresses the predominant char acter of the books with sufiicient accuracy for popular de signation. The Old Testament does not form a chronological conjunction with the New. Between the period of its closed Canon, and the opening of the New Testament Canon, the world, as it were, lies fallow. Miracles and revelations cease until both again open with unexampled lustre in the person of our Lord. To this intermediate period belong the Apocryphal books of the Old Testament. The best of these are more in affinity with the Old Testament times than any other books. There are in all fourteen Apocryphal books, or portions of books, all but three of which were pronounced Canon ical by the Church ot Rome at the Council of Trent in 1546. As forming the most important historical link between the Old and New Testament, as furnishing evidence of the interpretation of the Old Testament received in the Jewish Church in the era be fore Christ, as well as for their intrinsic beauty and excellence these books are entitled to the place they take in all the translations of the Scriptures made during the Reformation (even in the most Calvinistic ones, all the versions retain thera). Let the Apocryphal books, so indicated as not to be confounded with the Canonical Scriptures, continue to stand where the old Reformers retained them, between the Old and New Testament. They are not, how ever, to be regarded as the Word of God, nor are any proofs for any doctrine of the faith to be drawn from them. In modern times, twice has an agitation been raised against them, each time begun in England (1825 and 1850). Up to 1826 they were printed in all Protestant Bibles, as also by the British and Foreign Bible Society, but since 1826 this Society has omitted them, and the American Bible Society has followed its example. SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO EXEGESIS. 69 SECTION XXXIX. THE NEW TESTAMENT. The Old Testament stretches over an era of thousands of years, — from the Creation to a little less than four hundred years before Christ. Its history ranges over an immense period and the absolute time of its composition, without intro ducing the earliest documents which Moses may have used under divine guidance in the composition oi Genesis, is more than a thousand years. The history of the New Testament is confined to one gener ation, and the composition falls within one century. Its great theme is Jesus Christ, and the founding of his Church. The Old Testament tells us how the many sons of God formed one nation; the New Testament tells us how the one and only be gotten Son redeemed and established a Church which em braces, or is to embrace all nations {KrautK). SECTION XL SCIENCES AUXILIARY TO EXEGESIS. To Exegetical Theology as necessary aids belong : I. A knowledge of the original languages of Holy Scrip tures {Sacred Philology). 2. A knowledge of the sciences which deal with things as over against words. This embraces Biblical Antiquities, Geo graphy and Physical Science (Biblical Archceology). 3. A knowledge of the rise and history of the Canon and of its parts {Isagogics or Biblical Introduction and Canonies). 4. A knowledge of the laws in accordance with which we are to judge the canonicity, genuineness, and authenticity oi an entire writing as a whole {Higher Criticism'), as also the laws which determine the incorruptness or integrity ofthe text in its individual parts {Textual Criticism). This is the Science of Biblical Criticism.. 5. A knowledge ofthe rules of interpretation or the laws of exposition {Hermeneutics). 70 THBOLOaiOAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. SECTION XU. THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES^ OF THE BIBLE. SACRED PHILOLOGY. The Old Testament was originally written in the Hebrew language, with the exception of a few portions, which were written in Chaldee (Dan. 2 : 4 — 7 : 28 ; Ezra 4 : 8 — 6 : rS ; 7 : 1 2 — 26; Jer. 10: ii). The New Testament was written in Hellenistic Greek, with the possible, but by no means probable, exception of the Gos pel of St. Matthew. The words occasionally occurring in the Bible, from other languages (Egyptian, Persian, Latin, etc.), are not to be con sidered elements of what we properly call the sacred languages. SECTION XLII THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. A knowledge of the Hebrew language is indispensable to the thelogian. I. It is necessary as a means for the genuine study of the Old Testament. There is perhaps no language of equal im portance whose contents are more imperfectly reached by translations than the Hebrew. 2. It is likewise indispensable to the proper exegesis of the New Testament. a) For the New Testament idiom largely rests on the He brew. It is a Hebraizing Greek. The Aramaic, which was probably the early domestic vernacular of our Lord, and of most of the New Testament writers, is closely cognate with the Hebrew, and through it as well as through the Old Testament writings and the Septuagint, which is a Hebraizing Greek, the New Testament receives its Semitic impress. The New Testa ment, therefore, to use Luther's expression, "is full of the He brew mode of speaking." b) The citations from the Old Testament can only be properly understood after being compared with the original. c) The New Testament itself is to some extent, we know not how largely, a translation of what was uttered in the THE HEBREW LANGUAGE, 71 Aramaic dialect. It is quite possible and indeed highly prob able that both our Lord and his Apostles used both languages. That both languages were in general use, is universally admitted ; the question, however, whether our Lord spoke for the most pkrt in Greek, or in Hebrew (Aramaic), is not so definitely settied. Of our Lord himself it is expressly stated that on four occa sions he made use of the Aramaic : when he raised the daugh ter of Jairus (Mark 5: 41); when he opened the ears of the deaf man (Mark 7 : 34); when upon the cross (Mark 15: 34); and when he manifested himself to Paul near Damascus (Acts 26 : 14). We are also definitely informed that St. Paul on cer tain occasions spoke in the Hebrew language (Acts 21: 40; 22: 2). The Hebrew language is also of especial value to the phil ologist as it is a prominent member ofthe large family of lan guages known as the Semitic *). The Semitic languages are in digenous to hither Asia, and confined to Palestine, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Arabia and Ethiopia. * The relations ol the dialects may be seen from the lollowing table, which Is designed to Include all Semitic forms ot speech that can la; claim to linguistic In dividuality: I. NoBiB Semitio. ii South Semitic. 1. Eastern. 1. Northern. a. Babylonian. Arabic. 6. Assyrian. 2. Southem. 2. Northern. a. Sabsean, or Hlmyarltlc, ijsmalc. a. East Aramaic. aa. Syriac [Dialect of Edessa]. hh. Mandean. ec. Nabathean. b. West Aramaic. aa. Samaritan. bb. Jewish Aramaic. [Daniel, Ezra, Targums, Talmud]. ec. Palmyrene. M. Egyptian Aramaic. 3." Western, a. Phoenician. Old Phoenician. Late Phoenician [Punic]. S. Hebrew. e. Uoabltlsh and other Canaanitish dia lects. See Article on Semitic Languages in Schafl-Heizog's EncyclopacUa cfBeUgiout Knowledge, Vol 3, p. 2154, b., by Prof. C. H. Toy. Mahrl 1. HaUU (BbklU). b. Geez, or Ethiopic. aa. Old Geez. bb. TIgre. cc. Tlgrtna. dd. Amharlc. ee. Hararl. 72 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. The name Hebrew is usually derived from Eber or Heber, the ancestor of Abraham (Gen. lo: 24, 25 ; 14: 13)- Hebrew was the language ofthe Jewish people during the time ot their national independence, and, with some modification, down to the destruction of Jerusalem (a. d. 70). It has continued to be their sacred language, and is used in the synagogue, more or less, to this day, and by a few of them, chiefly the older orthodox bodies in Germany and Austria, it is to some extput still written and spoken. Everything seems to indicate that the Semitic people emi grated from a common centre in the desert on the south of Babylonia, the Arabic group separating first, next the Aramaic, then the Hebrew, while the Babylonian gained ultimately the mastery ofthe original Akkadian of Babylonia, andthe Assyri an founded the great empire on the Tigris, The book of Genesis (11: 31) represents Abram as going forth from this Central seat of Ur of the Chaldees, at first northward into Mesopotamia, and then emigrating to Canaan. The monu ments of Ur reveal that about this time (b. c. 2000), it was the seat of a great literary development. Whether Abraham adopted the language of the Canaanites, or brought the He brew with him from the East, is unimportant, for the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian are nearer to the Hebrew and Phce nician than they are to the other Semitic families. Thus the Hebrew language, as a dialect of the Canaanites and closely related to the Babylonian, had already a considerable literary devc-lopment prior to the entrance of Abram into the Holy Land*). Jacob and his family carried the Hebrew language with them into Egypt, and their descendants preserved it as the medium of communication among themselves, and after their sojourn carried it back again to its original home in Ca- *) See an excellent presentation of this subject by Prol. Charles A. Briggs In his BibliAMl Study, pp. 46—50. Prol, Briggs also discusses some ot the most prominent characteristics of the Hebrew language: 1) Its simplicity and naturalness, 2) the striking correspondence ol the language to the thought, 3) Its ma,1esty and sublim ity, 4) Its richness In synonyms (having 55 words for destroy, 60 lor break, and 74 for iote', etc.), 5) its life and fervor, etc. THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. 73 The Hebrew language remained substantially unmodified, either by accretion from other languages or by growth and de velopment within itself^- during the whole period of its literary period. Its literature may properly be divided into three periods : i) The Mosaic writings. These contain archaic and poetic words and forms seldom fcfund elsewhere. 2) The Davidic or Solomonic period, the golden Age, ex tending from Samuel to Hezekiah (b. c. i ioo — 700). Here belong the older prophetic and poetic writings and all the Davidic Psalms. This period includes the lives and writings of David, Solomon, Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Obad iah, Jonah, Amos and Hosea. 3) The third period includes the interval between the Babylonian exile and the times of the Maccabees (b. c. 600 — 160). Its marked feature is the approximation of the Hebrew to the kindred Aramaic and Chaldee. This may be seen to a greater or less extent in Ezra,. Nehemiah, Chronicles, Esther, Haggai, Zachariah, Malachi, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel and the later Psalms. Gradually the Aramaic or Chaldee super seded the Hebrew as the spoken language of the people. When the New Testament speaks of Hebrew as the then cur rent language in Palestine, we must understand it to mean the Aramaic dialect. The history of the critical study of the Hebrew begins with the Jewish grammarians and scribes, the Talmudists and Ma soretes, who carefully collected all that pertains to the text of the Hebrew Scriptures. The Christian Fathers with the ex ception of Origen, Epiphanius, and especially Jerome, were ignorant of the Hebrew language, and derived their knowledge of the Old Testament from the Greek Septuagint and the La tin Vulgate. During the Middle Ages, Hebrew was almost exclusively cultivated by learned Jews, especially in Spain during the Moorish rule, such as Aben Ezra {d. 1176), David Kimchi {d. 1235), and Moses Maimonides {d. 1204).* After the revival of letters some Christians began to learn it * Condensed tvovaHxe^MtHaon Bebrew LanguMgeiaSehnaon's TlniversalOyc- lopcedia by Dr. ScbaS. 74 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. from Jewish Rabbis. Reuchlin (d. 1522), the uncle of Melanch thon, is the father of modern Hebrew learning in the Christian Church. The reformers cultivated and highly recommended the study of Hebrew, and the Protestant translations of the Bible were made directly from the original languages, and not from the Vulgate. Luther, the greatest master perhaps in the annals of the race as a translator, . almost despaired at times of giving German equivalents for parts of the Old Testament. He speaks ofthe book of Job and ofthe other parts of the Old Testament as if their writers were resolutely determined not to speak in German, and to the last year of his life, Luther labor ed in giving greater perfection to the whole translation. The characteristic difference between Luther's German version and the Authorised (and Revised) English version, is that the English more closely follows the words of the original, while Luther's reflects more perfectly the spirit and thought. The one is a splendid illustration of the mechanical, the other of the artistic. The English often reads like an interlinear transla tion, Luther's version almost constantly reads as if the transla tion were an original, as if the holy writers were speaking in German as their own vernacular. Luther's translation was at once the most spirited, the most dramatic, the most lucid ever given of the Old Testament, but when we see that even it fails very often to convey perfectly the exact sense of the Hebrew, we feel the importance ofa thorough study of that language.* During the seventeenth century Johann Buxtorf, the Elder {d. 1629), and his son, Johann Buxtorf, the Younger {d. 1664), both of Basel, Louis Cappel {d. 1658) of Saumur, and Salomon Glassius (d. 1656) of Jena were the most prominent Hebrew and Talmudic Scholars. Johann David Michaelis {d. 1791) gave a great impetus to the study of the Oriental languages, especially through his Oriental and Exegetical Library, begun in 1771. In the present century, Wilhelm Gesenius, professor in Halle (i 786-1 842), and Heinrich Ewald, professor in Gottingen (1803-73), created a new epoch in the study of Hebrew. Rod- iger, Hupfeld, Hitzig, Fuerst, Delitzsch, Bottcher, Olshausen * See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth. THE HEBREW LANGUAGE 75 and Bickell of Germany, Ginsburg, Cheyne, Davidson, Driver, Perowne and Davies of Great Britain, Moses Stuart, {d. 1852), Edward Robinson {d. 1863), Bush, Conant, Tayler Lewis, Green, and others ofour country, deserve special mention as Hebrew scholars. HELPS TO THE STUDY OF HEBREW.* 1. THE MOST APPROVED METHOD OF STUDING HEBREW. A great deal depends upon the method, used by the teacher in giving instruction in' Hebrew. Though every competent instructor has, more or less, a way of his own in teaching, yet in all instruction especial stress from the very beginning ought to be laid 1) upon a correct and fluent reading of the text, 2) upon a thorough mastery of the principles of grammar, and especially of the verb, and 3) upon storing the memory with words and their meaning. (For acquiring a working vocabulary we would above all recommend Prot. Harper's Hebrew Vocabularies, and on account of its portable form and cheapness his Hebrew Word Lists tor class use, or for private study). With some of our most experienced teachers we believe that it is better to begin with a, full grammar than, as many do, with a skeleton or mere outline, though the complete mastering of the whole is not to be attempted at once. The more important parts, usually printed in larger type (as in the well-known grammars of Gesenius and Green), ought to be studied first, and the rest, in smaller type, to be left for after study and for reference. The study of the grammar ought to be accompanied from the outset, by the reading, translating,analysing and memorizing of Hebrew, illustrat ing the principles studied, and the strictly grammatical study of the language ought to be flnished in one hundred recitations or lectures, preparing the student to read any part of the Old Testa ment with ease and with proflt. Too much stress cannot be laid * There has been a great awakening of late In the Study of Hebrew. This Is mainly to be attributed to the energetic labors of Prof. W. R. Harper, Ph. D., of the Theological Seminary at Morgan Park, Chicago, who for several years has been at the head of a Hebrew Correspondence School, which has been conducted with much enthusiasm, ability, and success. The work of the Correspondence b'chool and of the Summer Schools of Hebrew is now under the general management of TA« Insti tute of Hebrew which is composed of thirty-seven Professors of Hebrew In the Uuited States, Prof. Harper, however, Is still the moving spirit, and the Principal of the several schools of the JresKtete. The aim ofthe Institute Isl) to furnish preparatory Instruction in Hebrew to Students about to enter Theological Semi naries; 2) to furnish elementary and advanced Instruction In Hebrew to pastors aud others; 3) to furnish opportunities for the study of the cognate languages, and of such historical, literary and theological sub,1ects connected with the Old Testa ment as m.iy be desired; 4) to promote a more general laterest in Old Testament Study, This work Is done through a Correspondence School which continues through the twelve months of the year, and through Summer Schools held at different places during the months ot June, July and August 76 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. upon the importance of committing to memory Hebrew words and their meanings. 2. ELEMENTARY TEXTBOOKS. 1. Ball, C. J. A Hebrew Primer. Adaptedj;to the Merchant Taylor's Hebrew Grammar. In three parts: 1) Easy flrst exercises; 2) First reading, with notes; 3) English pieces with hints, for Hebrew Composition. London, Bagster and Sons. . 2. Davidson. A. B. An Introductory Hebrew Gramrnar. With progressive exercises in reading and writing. Fifth edition. Edinburgh, 1882. For beginners who wish to study privately ,[or for those,, who wish to review their Hebrew, nothing better cah be recommend- ed.^Itjs^^an easy introduction to the, larger ^scientific grammars. 3. Deutsch, Solomon. A New Practical Hebrew Grammar, with Hebrew-English, and English- Hebrew Exercises, and a Hebrew Ohrestomathy. New York, 1868. 4. Green, William Henry. An Elementary Hebrew Gramrnar, with reading and writing lessons and vocabularies.] New York. 5. Harper, William R. Elements of Hebrew by an Inductive Method. Third Edition, 1882. Chicago. To be used in connection with the Hebrew Correspondence School already referred to. 6. Kautzsch, E. Uebungsbuch zu Gesenius-Kautzsch's Hebrais- cher Grammatik. Zweite verbesserte Auflage. Leipsic, 1884. 7. Mezger, K. L. F. Hehrdisches Uebungsbuch. Ein Hilfsbuch fuer Anfaenger und zum Selbstunterricht, im Anschluss an die Grammatiken von Gesenius-Kautzsch (23 Ausg.) und Naegels- bach (3 Ausg.). Vierte umgearbeite Ausgabe. Leipsic, 1883. One of the best helps for those who understand German. 8. Mitchell, H. G. Hebrew Lessons. A book for beginners. Boston, 1884. 9. Strack, Herm. L. HebrWische Gramtnatik mit Uebungsstuecken, Litteratur und Vokabular. Zum Selbststudium und fuer Unterricht. Karlsruhe und Leipsic, 1883. 10. Wolf, J. Robert. A Practical Hebrew Gi'ammar, with progressive constructive Exercises to every rule; and a Reading Book. Lon don, Bagster and Sons. An excellent little work. 3. HEBREW GRAMMARS. 1. Bickell, Gustavus. Outlines of Hebrew Grammar. Revised by the author, and annotated by the Translator, Samuel Ives Cur tiss. With a lithographic table of Semitic Characters. Leipsic, 1877. This small work, though containing only 140 pages, can be re garded as the most scientiflc discussion of the Hebrew language which has yet been produced, and is designed for students in comparative philology, and for those who have already made some progress in Hebrew. 2. Boettcher, F. Ausfuehrliches Lehrbuch der hebr. Sprache, hersg. von F. Muehlau. 2 Bde. Leipsic, 1866—68. Though incomplete, not containing the Syntax, is stiU very valuable, as it serves as a sort of grammatical concordance to the Old Testament. HELPS TO THE STUDY OF HEBREW. 77 3. Driver, S. R. A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew. Second Edition. Oxford, 1881. 4. Ewald, Heinrich. Syntax of the Hebrew Language. Translated from the Eighth German Edition by James Kennedy. Edin burgh, 1879. The study of flwald's Grammar is indispensable to him who would gain a thorough.knowledge of Hebrew. A marked and valuable" feature of this work is its copious citation of illustrat ed passages from the Old Testament, there being no less than 4,500 of such references in this volume. 5. Gesenius, Wilhelm. Hebrew Grammer. Translated by Benja min Davies, from Roediger's Edition. Thoroughly revised and enlarged on the basis of the latest edition of Prof. E. Kautzsch, by Edward C. MitcheU. Andover, 1882. This well-known Grammar holds its ground as one of the best books for learners, and also as a book of reference. 6. Green, William Henry. A Grammar of the Hebrew Language. Third Edition, 1869, (Fourth Edition, in press). New York. An honor to American Scholarship. 7. Kalisch, M. M. A Hebrew Grammar with Exercises. 2 vols. London, 1862—3. 8. Mueller, August. Outlines of Hebrew Syntax. Translated and edited by James Robertson. Glasgow, 1883. An exceUent introduction to a systematic study of the Syntax. Possibly the best work on Hetoew Syntax that could be put in the hands of students. 9. Olshausen, Justus. Lehrbuch der Heh. Sprache. Braunschweig, 1861. Incomplete, the Syntax having never been published. On the whole, the best and most scientific exposition of Hebrew Gram matical forms. 4. LEXICONS, CONCORDANCES, ETC. 1. Bagster and Sons. Hebrew-English Lexicon. By W. O. London. This is a very handy pocket lexicon, of great merit. 2. Davies, Benjamin. A Compendious and complete Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament, with an English-He brew Index. Carefully revised by Edward C. Mitchell. Andover, 1883 For all practical purposes the best Lexicon that can be placed in the hands of students. It is based upon the Lexicons of Fuerst and Gesenius, and all the definitions have been re written and condensed without being abridged. 3. Fuerst, Julius. A Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. Translated from the German by Samuel Davidson. Leipsic and London. 4 Librorum Sacrorum V. T. Concordantia Hebraicse atque Chaldaicse. Leipsic, 1840. 'This is an edition of Buxtorfs great Concordance, and con tains much supplementary matter, but its etymological prin ciples are faulty. 5. Gesenius, Wilhelm. Hebraisches und Chaldaisches Handwoer- terbuch usher das Alte Testament. (9th Edition, 1883). Leipsic. 78 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. An English translation of this work has been announced. 6. GIrdlestone, R. B. Synonyms of the Old Testament: their bearing on Christian Faith and Practice. London, 1871. 7. Orelli, Conrad von. Die hebraischen Synonyma der Zeit und Ewigkeit genetisch und sprachvergleichend dargestellt. Leip sic, 1871. 112 pages. 8. Pappenheim, Salomon. Yerioth Shelomoh (The Curtains of Solomon) 3 vols. 1784—1811. Dyhrenforth and Redelheim. This remarkable work treats of the Hebrew Synonyms of the Bible, and it is the only lexicon which embraces the synonyms of the whole Biblical Hebrew. The importance of this work can hardly be overrated. 9. Robinson, Edward. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, including the Biblical Chaldee. From the Latin of William Gesenius. 22nd Edition. New York. This is considered as "the best full Hebrew Lexicon extant in our language." 10. Ryssel, Victor. Die Synonyma des Wahren und guten in den semitischen Spracnen. Leipsic, 1872. 54 pages. 11. Tedeschi, Moises. Thesaurus Synonymorum linguae hebraicae. Padova, 1880. 12. Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible. Con taining every word in alphabetical order; arranged under its Hebrew and Greek original. Edinburgh and New York. A very valuable work, which as far as pertains to the Old Testament, to all intents and purposes, takes the place of the more expensive and scholarly Concordances of Buxtorf, Fuerst and Noldius. SECTION XLIII. THE OTHER SEMITIC DIALECTS. Closely allied, as we have seen, with the study of the He brew, is that of the Semitic dialects. As introductory to the presentation of this subject, we will mention the languages which it is desirable for the theologian to understand, and will give them in an order in accordance with their relative im portance.* I . The Greek, as the language of the New Testament. 2. The Hebrew, including the Biblical Chaldee, as the lan guage of the Old Testament. 3. The Latin, as the great key to the erudition of ancient, mediseval and modern theologians. 4. The German, as the great storehouse of theological trea sures since the Reformation. * See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth. THE OTHER SEMITIO DIALECTS. 79 5. The Syriac and non- Biblical Chaldee, the two forming the Aramaic. These furnish the key to the oldest of the New Testament Versions and to the Targums or Chaldee paraphra ses, which are so important in the illustration ofthe Old Testa ment, and in the mastery of the Rabbinic which contains the treasures ofthe post- Christian Jewish Biblical interpretation. 6. The Arabic, the most copious of the Semitic languages, with a great literature of its own, and invaluable in Hebrew lexicography. 7. The Semitic dialects not already enumerated, e. g., the Samaritan and Ethiopic, which are easy of acquisition when any one of the family has been mastered, and are useful in lexi cography and interpretation. 8. The Sanscrit, as the oldest in the great .family of the Indo-European languages, and of importance in theology, es pecially as fixing the etymology and original force of disputed words. Some of the most important critical questions of the day centre around the Old Testament, and he who would be an authority in these subjects must have mastered the Hebrew language, not only in its classical form, but also in those cognate dialects which so frequently illustrate both the thought and the idiom of the Old Testament. He must know Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and the composite tongue (Rabbinic), which is the language of Jewish tradition and Jewish exegesis. Although it seems to be accepted as fixed that none but professional theologians shall devote themselves to these languages in any large measure, yet experience has shown that pastors in active duty can make themselves masters of at least a portion of them in sufficient degree to find their knowledge useful. All students, preparing for entrance into a Theological Semi nary, ought to be granted the privilege of electing Hebrew (instead of Latin), as one of the studies of the Senior year of College, a privilege which has already been granted by some of our leading institutions. Itis likewise desireable that provision be made in our Theologi cal Seminaries, to furnish to such students as may desire it, instruc tion in Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, etc. These Cognate languages are already taught in many of the Presbyterian and Congregational Theological Seminaries of our country. SELECT LITERATURE OF THE MOST SERVICEABLE ORIENTAL LANGUAGES. 1. BIBLICAL CHALDEE AND POST-BIBLIOAL HEBREW. 1. Brown, Charles R. An Aramaic Method, a Class Book for the Study of the Elements of Aramaic from Bible and Targums. Part 1. Text, Notes and Vocabulary. Chicago, 1884. 2. Buxtorf, Johannis. Lexicon Chaldaioum, Talmudicum et Rah- binicum, etc. Basel, 1640. 3. Chaldee Reading Lessons, consisting of the whole of the Biblical Chaldee, with grammatical Praxis, and an Interlinear translation. Bagster and Sons. London. 4. Fischer, Bernard. Talmudische Chrestomathie, mit Anmer- kungen, Scholien und Glossar. Leipsic, 1884. 5. Levy, Jacob. Neuhebrdisches und Chaldaisches Wosrterhuch ueber die Talmudim und Midraschim nebst Beitraegen von H. L. Fleischer. 4 Bde. Leipsic, 1876—83. (Only three volumes have as yet appeared.) 6. Luzzatto, S. D. Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Language and the Talmud Babli Idioms. Translated from the Italian, and largely renewed by J. S. Goldammer. New Yor]?, 1876. 7. Riggs, Elias. A Manual of the Chaldee Language, containing a Chaldee Grammar, chiefly from the German of Winer ; a Ohrest omathy, consisting of selections from the Targums, and includ ing notes on the Biblical Chaldee ; and a Vocabulary. Third edition, revised. New York, 1866. 8. Strack, Herm. L. Pirke Avoth. Die Sprueche der Vaeter. Ein ethischer Mischna-Traktat, mit kurzer Einleitung, Anmerkun- gen und einem Wortregister. Karlsruhe und Leipsic, 1882. 9. Strack, Herm. L. und Siegfried, Carl, Lehrbuch der neu-hebrdi- schen Sprache und Literatur. Karlsruhe und Leipsic, 1884. A Chrestomathy by the same authors is in preparation. 10. Winer's ChaldCiische Grammatik fuer Bibel und Talmud. 3. Aufl. verm, durch eine Andeutung zum Studium des Midrasch und Talmud von B. Fischer. Leipsic, 1882. 2. SYRIAC. 1. Castell, Edmund. Lexicon Syriacum, etc. Goettingen, 1788. This is stiU the best available lexicon. 2. Cowper, B. Harris. The Principles of Syriac Gi-ammar. TT&ns- lated and abridged from the work of Hoffmann. London, 1858. 3. (Davidson, B). Syriac Reading Lessons. With the elements of Syriac Grammar. Samuel Bagster and Sons. London. 4. Henderson, E. A Syriac Lexicon to the New Testament. Sa muel Bagster and Sons. London. This is an edition of Gutbir'a SELECT LITERATURE. 81 Syriac Lexicon and is very cheap. It can also be had, bound with Henderson's edition of Gutbir's Syriac New Testament. For beginners no better book can be recommended. 5. Merx, Adalbert. Grammatica Syriaca, quam post opus Hoff mann refecit. Halle. 6. Nestle, Eberard. Brems Linguw Syriaca Grammatica (Peter- mann's Series). Carlsruhe and Leipsic, 1881. 7. Phillips, George. A Syriac Grammar. Third edition. Cam bridge, 1866. 8. Roediger, Aemilius. Chrestomathia Syriaca. Editio altera aucta et emendata. HaUe, 1868. 9. Schaaf, C. Lexicon Syriacum Concordantiale. Leyden, 1708. This is appended to Schaaf 's edition of the Syriac New Testa ment, and is the best lexicon for the New Testament, and valu able as a concordance. 10. Smith, Robert Payne. Thesaurus Syriacus, etc. This is an immense work, now publishing at Oxford, of which nearly 2,500 pages have already appeared, although the letter M is not yet completed. 11. Uhlemann's Syriac Grammar. Translated from the German by Enoch Hutchinson, with a course of exercises in Syriac Gram mar, a Chrestomathy, and brief Lexicon. Second edition, with additions and corrections. New York. 3. ARABIC. 1. Arnold, F. A. Chrestomathia Arabica. Halle, 1853. 2. Catafago, Joseph. An English and Arabic Dictionary. Second edition. London, 1873. 3. Davis, N., and Davidson, B. Arabic Reading Lessons. With the elements of Arabic Grammar. Samuel Bagster and Sons. London. AU of Bagster's Elementary text-books of the Oriental lan guages are valuable. 4. Freytag, G. W. Lexicon Arahico- Latinum ex opere suo majore in usum tironum excerptum edidit. HaUe, 1837. For the great majority of students this work will answer every purpose, being an abridgement of the author's larger work in four volumes. 5. ,-Lane, Edward William. An Arabic Lexicon, etc. An immense work, continued by Stanley Lane Poole. It contains already, though incompleted, nearly 3,000 pages, in 6 volumes. 6. Newman, Francis W. A Handbook of Modern Arabic. Consist ing of a Practical Grammar, with numerous examples, dialogues, and newspaper extracts in a European type. London, 1866. 7. Palmer, E. H. A Gi'ammar of the Arabic Language. London, 1874. 8. Petermann, J. H. Brevis Lingua Arabica Ghrammatica, Literatura, Chrestomathia cum Glossario. Editio secunda emendata et aucta. Berlin, 1867. 9. Wright, W. A Grammar of the Arabic Language, translated from the German of-Caspari. Second edition, revised and great ly enlarged. 2 vols. London, 1874, 75. 82 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 10 An Arabic Chrestomathy, with, complete Glossary. 2 vols. London, 1870. 4. SAMARITAN. 1. Nicholls, G. F. A Grammar ofthe Samaritan Language, with extracts and Vocabulary. Samuel Bagster and Sons. London. 2. Petermann, J. H. Brevis Lingua Samaritance xGrummatica. Berlin, 1873. 5. BTHIOPIC.j 1. Dillmann, August. Grammatik der JEthiopischen Sprache. Leipsic, 1857. 2 Chrestomathia Mthiopica. Leipsic, 1866. 3 Lexicon Lingua j^thiopica. Leipsic, 1865. 4- Wright, W. TAe 5ooA; o/7owffi?i. in four Semitic Versions, viz., Chaldee, Syriac, JEthiopic, and Arabic. With corresponding Glossaries. Williams and Norgate. London, 1857. This work ought to be in the hands of all students of the Semitic dialects. 6. ASSYRIAN. 1. Budge, Ernest A. Assyrian Texts. With philological notes. Bagster and Sons. London. 2. Delitzsch, Fried. Assyrische Lesestuecke. 2te Auflage. Leip sic, 1878. 3 Assyrisches Worterhuch. (In preparation). 4. Haupt, Paul. Assyrische Grammatik. (In preparation). 5. Sayce, A. H. An Elementary Grammar and Reading Book of the Assyrian Language, in the Cuneiform character: Contain- the most complete Syllabary yet extant, and which will serve also as a Vocabulary of both Accadian and Assyrian. Second edition, revised and corrected. Bagster and Sons. London. 6 Lectures upon the Assyrian Language, and Syl labary, delivered to the students of the Archaic classes. Bagster and Sons. London. 7. Schrader, Eberhard. Die Assyrisches-babylonische^ ^eHirv- schriften. Leipsic, 1872. 7. EGYPTIAN. 1. Birch, S. Egyptian Texts. For the use of students. Samuel Bagster and Sons. London. The best reading book for beginners. 2. Brugsch, H. Grammaire Hieroglyphique. Only second to De Rough's Grammar, and more complete. 3 Hieroglyphisch Demotisches Woerterbuoh. The fullest and best Ancient Egyptian Lexicon. 4. Poole, Reginald S. Article on Hieroglyphics in Encyclopsedia Brittannica. Ninth edition. A most valuable contribution to Egyptology, a volume in it self. 5. Renouf, P. le Page. An Elementary Manual of the Egyptian Language. Samuel Bagster and Sons. London. The best grammar for beginners. SELECT LITERATURE. St 6. RougS, Vicomte de. Chrestomathie Egyptienne. The best Egyptian grammar. 8. SANSCRIT. 1. Ballaiftyne. James R. First Lessons in Sanskrit Grammar, to- f ether with an Introduction to the Hitopadesa. London, 187,3. ienfey, Th. A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language for the use of early Students. Second edition. Revised and cor rected. London, 1868. 3 A Sanskrit-English Dictionary with reference to the best editions of Sanskrit Authors and Etymologies and comparisons of cognate words chiefly in Greek, Latin, Gothic and Anglo-Saxon. London, 1866. 4. Lanman, Charles Rockwell. A Sanskrit Reader, with Vocabu lary and Notes. For use in Colleges and for private study. This excellent work is intended as a companion volume to Whitney's Sanskrit Grammar. 5. Stenzler, Adolf F riedrich. Elementarhuoh der Sanskrit Sprache, Grammatik, Text, Woerterbuch. Dritte vermehrte Auflage. Breslau, 1875. 6. Whitney, William Dwight. A Sanskrit Grammar, including both the classical language, and the older dialects, of Veda and Brahmana. Boston. This is the best grammar for the student. 7. Williams, Monier. A Practical Grammar ofthe Sanskrit Lan guage, arranged with reference to the classical languages of Europe, for the use of English students. Third edition, much enlarged and improved. Oxford, 1864. 8 Sanskrit Manual. Second edition, enlarged. With a vocabulary English and Sanskrit. London, '(1869. 9 Story of Nala. The Sanskrit Text, with a copi ous Vocabulary, Grammatical Analysis, and Introduction. With a metrical translation by Dean Milman. Oxford, 1860. 10 A Sanskrit-English Dictionary etymologically and philolpgically arranged with special reference to Greek, Latin, Gothic, German, Anglo-Saxon and other cognate Indo- European Languages. Oxford, 1872. SECTION XLIV. THE HELLENISTIC-GREEK LANGUAGE. We have seen that the Hebrew is necessary not only for the study of the Old Testament, but for a thorough study^ of the New ; and it might be thought that by combining a knowl edge of Hebrew with a knowledge of classical Greek we would have all that is necessary for the New Testament inter preter. Such however is- not the f case. The New Testament is indeed^written in Greek, but this'Greek both grammatically and lexically differs'from the°classic Greek in very important 84 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. respects. Simple and certain as this fact is, it has been rejected by pious ignorance under the impression that such an admis sion in someway conflicts with the inspiration of the New Testament, as if it involved that the Holy Spirit did ncrt: inspire man to use the purest Greek. The fact in the case is this, that classic Greek is Pagan Greek. The most important differences of the New Testament idiom from the classic Greek, either in no sense conflict with its adaptation as the organ of revelation, or actually adapt it to that work. The Greek of the New Testament was influenced by Hebraistic elements, by transitions of the Greek into the He brew, of the Hebrew, into the Greek, and of oriental modes of thought and speech into occidental forms. It was influenced by the Alexandrian age, which bridged over the chasin be tween the Orient and the West. The foundation of the New Testa nent Greek is the so- called Common Greek dialect which in the time of Augustus was completely and absolutely dominant in literature. This Common dialect has been deeply tinged by Jewish Hellenistic thinking and phraseology. To understand the common groundwork we go to the writers in the common dialect, such as Polybius and Plutarch, and more especially, however, to the Septuagint Version of the Old Testament, the Old Testament Apocrypha, Philo and Josephus, But all this philological preparation is far from exhausting what is needful for the New Testament interpreter. The New Testament opened a New world of spiritual conception. Its authors were compelled to create a new language; they could express Christian ideas only in words which had a Christian force. This new language they created by taking old terms and vitalizing them with a higher meaning. There are consequently three elements necessary to the general study ofthe New Testament: i) a knowledge of the Greek; 2) of the Jewish and Old Testament elements, verbal and|real, which tinge the Greek, and 3) of the new distinctive Christian elements. But in the study of the particular parts we require more than this ; each of the New Testament writers has his own peculiarities. The Greek of one is purer than THE HBLLENISTIC-GREEK LANGUAGE. 85 that of another ; one has more of the Hebraizing elements than another. The least influence of the Hebrew element linguistically, is seen in the Gospel of St. Luke, the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Hebrews. The structure of the style and the arrangement of words is different in the various New Testament writers. Some of the writers more largely than others use certain words in a peculiar sense, as St. John for instance uses the term logos, (word,) etc. St. Paul uses in a special sense such words as faith, righteousness, grace reconciliation, etc. ; St. James also uses the word faith in a sense different from that of St. Paul. In addition to these lexical differences, there are also diversities of grammar. Clergymen should never forget that the Scriptures of the New Testament have been written in the Greek tongue, and that it is the distinct work of the preacher's life to unfold the meaning of the Word of God and enforce its truths. No man can do this with proper confidence, when he draws his knowledge at second hand from commentators. Whatever our hearers may do with transla tions, ministers, at least, should read the New Testament in the original, critically and with ease. He who would train himself to be a reverential thinker, a scholarly Christian, a sound divine, must habituate himself to a patient and thoughtful study of the very words of Christ and His Apostles. If the words of the Greek New Testament be divinely inspired, then surely it is a pastor's noblest occupation, patiently and lovingly to note every change of expression, every turn of language, every variety of inflection, to analyze and to investigate, to contrast and to compare, until he has obtained some accurate knowlege of those outward elements, which are permeated by the inward influence and powers of the Holy Spirit. All sober thinkers will agree, that there is no one thing for which a minister will have hereafter to answer before the dread tribunal of God with more terrible strictness than for having attempted to explain the everlasting words of life with haste and precipitation. Every particle and preposition has a distinctive meaning, and we should pause before we presume to hurry through the sanctuary of God, with the dust and turmoil of wordly, self- seeking, irreverent speed. It is useless to disguise that the close analysis of the sacred text is very difficult — it requires a calm judgment, a disciplined mind, no less than a lo.ving and teachable heart. No one can acquire this power in a week or in a month. But if the Greek text be inspired, no labor in this direction can be too severe, no exercise of thought to close or persistent, no prayer for guidance to earnest. The science of Greek grammar is now so much advanced- syntax and logic, the meaning of individual passages and the analogy of faith, are now so well and happily combined — that no one who is really in earnest and to whom God has given a fair measure of ability, can for a moment justly plead that an accurate knowledge of the Greek of the New Testament is beyond his grasp. 86 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. We purposely say, Greek of the New Testament, for an accurate knowledge of the language of the Greek Testament may be acqired far more easily than at flrst might be imagined. The formal differences of the Greek of the New Testament from classical Greek are partly differences of vocabulary and partly differences of construction. We can arrange these differences under four classes: 1) changes in orthography; 2) peculiarities of inflection; 3) formation of new words, mainly by composition; and 4) irregiUar constructions in the combination of words. These peculiarities of the New Testament language, however, have only a remote connection with interpretation. There are other peculiarities which have a more important bearing on the sense.* These are in part Hebraisms, and in part modifications of language resulting trom the substance of Christian revelations, and may be arranged under three classes: 1) Hebraisms in expres sion; 2) Hebraisms in construction; 3) the purely Christian element. Reuss in his History of the New Testament under Hebraisms distinguishes 1) Hebrew technical and theological terms (Messiah, Satan, gehenna, manna, pascha, etc.), 2) Greek words with Hebrew meaning (sperma, derp,on, skandalon, prophet, etc.); 3) Greek words in purely Hebrew phrases; 4) new words derived from the Hebrew; 5) Hebrew metaphors; and 6) Hebrew constructions. He also dis tinguishes between Hebraisms and Aramaisms, referring to i latter, expressions belonging to Jewish theology, such as diaholos antichristos, etc. f Ihe purely Christian element in the New Testament requires h most careful treatment. Words and phrases already partially urren t were transfigured by embodying new truths and forever consecrated to their service. To trace the history of these is a delicate question of lexicography, but much assistance in this de partment has been given by Dr. Hermann Cremer of the Univer sity of Greifswald, in his Biblico-Theological Lexieonj>f New Testament Greek. *f See an excellent article on The Language of tbe New Testament by Canon Westcott In Smith's Dictionary of t?w Bible, Vol. 3. pp. 2139— 214;i (Hurd and Houghton's edition). t See Eeuss's Bistory of tbe Sacred Scripture.^ ofthe New Tcstanwn*, translated by Edward Houghton, Vol. 1. pp. 36, 37. SELECT LITERATURE OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. 1. TEXT-BOOKS IN GREEK. 1. Boise, James R. First Lessons in Gfreek : Adapted to 'R-a.dlej'a Greek Grammars, also an Appendix with referenses to Good win's Greek Grammar. Intended as an Introduction- to Xeno phon's Anabasis. Chicago. S. C. Griggs & Co. 2 Exercises in some of the more difficult principles of Greek Syntax : With references to the Grammars of Crosby, Curtius, Goodwin, Hadley, Koch and Kuehner. A sequel to Jones's Exercises in Gi'eek Prose Composition, and intended for the first year in CoUege. Chicago. S. C. Griggs & Co. 3. Crosby, Alpheus. A Grammar 'of the Greek Language. For the use of Schools and CoUeges." Revised edition. New York and Chicago. 4. Goodwin, WiUiam H. An Elementary Greek Grammar. Re vised and enlarged Edition. Boston. 5 Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek Verb. Seventh Edition. Revised and enlarged. Boston. 6. Hadley, James. A Ch-eek Grammar for Schools and CoUeges. Revised and in part rewritten by F. D. AUen. New York. D. Appleton & Co. 1884. 7. Jones, Elisha. Exercises in Greek Prose Composition : With references to Hadley's, Goodwin's, and Taylor's Kuehner's Greek Grammars; and a fuU English-Greek Vocabulary. Chicago. S. C. Griggs & Co. No better guides for the thorough study of the Greek language can be selected than the elementary works of Boise and Jones, here referred to. The beginner should take up first of aU, in connection with Hadley's or Goodwin's Grammar, Boise's First Lessons in Greek, which would famiUarize him with the ordi nary inflection of words and furnish him with a sufficient amount of grammatical knowledge, to enable the learner successfuUy to enter upon the study of Xenophon's Anabasis. After this, while reading Xenophon's Anabasis, Jones's Exercises in Greek Prose Composition should be studied, which contains sufflcient work in prose composition for admission to any American CoUege, and is admirably adapted for laying a thorough foundation for more advanced study of the language. FinaUy in Boise's Exer cises in Greek Syntax, we have an admirable help for those who wish rapidly and surely to bmld up the most complete and thorough scholarship. For those who wish to review th«ir 88 THEOLOGICAL ENCYOLOPOEDIA. Greek thoroughly, no better method can be suggested than the above. 8. White, John Williams. A Series of First Lessons in Greek : adapted to Goodwin's Greek Grammar. With a companion pamphlet of parallel references to Hadley's Greek Grammar. Boston. Ginn, Heath & Co. An admirable work which is especially adapted to Goodwin's Greek Grammar, and which may be substituted for Boise's First Lessons in Greek., above referred to. 2. GRAMMARS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. 1. Buttmann, Alexander. A Grammar of the New Testament Greek. Authorized Translation, with numerous additions and corrections by the Author, by J. H. Thayer. Warren F. Draper. Andover, 1876. This is the most important treatise on the subject which has appeared since Winer's. It is not so elaborate as the latter, and therefore more suitable for beginners. Prof. Thayer, in his translation, has added running references to the Classical Gram mars most in use in this country. (Hadley's, Crosby's, Goodwin's Syntax of Moods and Tenses). There are four very elaborate indexes, very carefully prepared, and the last contains at least 10,000 references to passages in the N. T., which are either ex plained or cited. 2. Gary, G. L. An Introduction to the Gh-eek of the New Testa ment. Second Edition. Pp. 66. Warren F. Draper. Andover, 1881. An excellent little work for those who are unacquainted with the Greek language, and who would nevertheless be glad to read the New Testament in the original. He who begins with this book will soon be able to use more elaborate works. 3. Greek Student's Manual. I. A Practical Guide to the Greek Testament, designed for those who have no knowledge of the Greek language. II. The New Testament, Greek and English. III. A Greek and EngUsh Lexicon. Pages 676. Bagster and Sons. London. 4. Green, Samuel G. Handbook to the Grammar of the Gh-eek Testa ment. Together with a complete Vocabulary, and an examina tion of the chief New Testament Synonyms. The Religious Tract Society. London. An exceUent Manual, probably the very best that can be placed in a student's hands. It is a sufflcient guide to Biblical Greek in the great majority of cases. It contains exercises in transla tion, preparatory reading lessons, an examination of the chief New Testament Synonyms, an analytical exercise on the whole of 2 Thessalonians, and a very full vocabulary of the Received Text. 5. Winer, George Benedict. A Grammar of the Idiom of the New Testament, prepared as a solid basis for the interpretation of the New Testament. Seventh edition, enlarged and improved. By Dr. Gottlieb Luenemann. Revised and authorized Translation by Prof. J. Henry Thayer. Pp. 728. Warren F. Draper. Ando ver, 1877. SELECT LITERATITRE OF NEW TESTAMENT GREEK. 89 This is the most elaborate and valuable work ever pubUshed on this subject, the standard authority. The three indexes to this volume are models of their kinds, covering 84 pages, and ^ marked and valuable feature of this Grammar is the copious ci tation of passages in the New Testament, there being at least, on a close calculation of Index No. 3, more than 21,000 passages cited as iUustrations. There is no exaggeration in saying that the student who has in his Ubrary the grammars of Green, Buttman and Winer, pos sesses a grammatical commentary on every difflcult text, we might say, on every difflcult construction, in the whole Greek Testament. 3. LEXICONS. Analytical Greek Lexicon to the New Testament. 4to, pp, 490. Bagster and Sons. London. This work contains as a preface, tables of the declensions and conjugations, with explanatory grammatical remarks. The Dic tionary consists of an alphabetical arrangement of every occuring inflection of every word contained in the Greek New Testament with a grammatical analysis of each word. This work is adapted to those who have but a very Umited knowledge of Greek. Cremer, Hermann. Bihlisch-theologiscTies Woerterbuch der new- test. Gradtdt. Dritte Auflage. Gotha, 1882. The second German Edition has been translated into English, of which three editions have already appeared from the weU- known house of T. & T. Clark, Edinburgh, under the title Bibli co-Theological Lexicon of the New Testament Greek. This is the most important contribution to the study of New Testament Exegesis which has appeared for many years, but the student must not expect to flnd in it every word which the New Testament contains. For words whose ordinary meaning in the classics is retained unmodified and unchanged in Scripture, we "must resort stiU to classical lexicons (LiddeU and Scott), or to Robinson's Lexicon of the Greek New Testament, for Dr. Cremer only discusses words and expressions wliich are of a biblical and theological import, words whose meanings are modified, and which have become the bases and watchwords of Christian Theo logy. Green, Thomas S. A Pocket Greek-English Lexicon to the New Testament. Bagster and Sons. London. Price 2s. 6d. An exceUent little work, which wiU sufflce for ordinary use, and can be had, bound with Scrivener's Edition of the Greek New 'I?estament. Greenfield, W. A Greek Lexicon to the New Testament; in which the various senses of the words are distinctly explained in En gUsh, and authorized by references to passages of Scripture. Bagster and Sons. London. Price Is. 6d. A handy pocket-lexicon, also to be had, bovmd with the Poly- micrian Greek New Testament. Grimm, C. L. W. Lexicon Grceco-Latinum in Libros Novi Tes tamenti. Second Edition. Leipsic, 1879. 90 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Grammatical, not theological, is very useful, especially for yomiger students. An English translation with many improve ments by Prof. J. H. Thayer will shortly appear. 6. Melander, A. Gi'ekiskt o. Svenskt Handlexikon till Nya Testa- mentet. Stockholm, 1867. 7. Robinson, Edward. A Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament. A new edition, revised and in great part rewritten. Harper & Brothers. New York, 1880. This is a standard work, and has not yet been superseded, but it needs a careful revision, especially as regards textual criticism. 8. Schirlitz, S. C. Griechish-deutsches Woerterbuch zum Neuen Tes tament. Dritte Auflage. Giessen, 1868. 4. CONCORDANCES. 1. Bruder, Car. Herm. Concordantia omnium vocum Novi Testa menti Graeci. Third edition. An indispensible aid to an exact study of the Greek Testament. 2. Hudson, Charles P. A critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament, revised and completed by Ezra Abbot. Seventh edition. Boston and London, 1882. One of the very best manuals for constant use. 3. Schmidt, Erasmus. A Greek Concordance to the New Testament. Bagster and Sons. London. Price 3s. M. Remarkable for its cheapness, but it includes no critical read ings. 4. Trommius, Abr. Concordantia GracaVersionis LXX. Interpre tum. 2 Vols. Amsterdam, 1718. 5. Wigram, George V. The Englishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament. New York and London. 6. Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible, on an en tirely new plan, containing every word in alphabethical order, arranged under its Hebrew or Greek original, and the literal meaning of each and its pronunciation. Exhibiting about 311,000 references, marking 30,000 various readings in the New Testa ment. With the latest information on Biblical Geography and Antiquities, etc. Designed for the simplest reader of the English Bible. Revised edition. Edinburgh and New York. A work that ought to be in every clergyman's library. 5. OTHER PHILOLOGICAL HELPS. 1. Curtius, George. Principles of Greek Etymology. Translated from the German. 2 Vols. London, 1875 — 6. Very valuable for derivation of words. 2. Jelf.W. E. A Grammar of the Greek Language. Fourth edition. 2 Vols. Oxford, 1866. In this work particular attention is paid to the constructions of the Greek Testament. 3. Middleton, Thos. P. The Doctrine of the Greek Article, applied to the criticism and illustration of the New Testament. New edition. London, 1855. 4. Scha!fE, PhiUp, A Companion to the Greek Testament and the English Version. New York, 1883. KNOWLEDGE NECESSARY TO THE EXPOSITOR. 91 The first chapter on The Language of the New Testament (pp. 1—81) contains a most valuable .summary of the whole subject. Schmidt, J. H. Synonymik der greich. Sprache. 3 Bd. Leipsic, 1876—1879. Sophocles, E. A. A Gfreek Leooicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods. Boston, 1870. Student's Analytical Gfreek Testament. Presenting at one view the Text of Scholz and a grammatical analysis of the verbs, in which every occuring inflection of verb or participle is minutely described and traced to its proper root, etc. Bagster and Sons. London. An excellent help to those who are not proficient in Greek. Trench, R. C. Synonyms of the New Testament. Ninth edition, revised. London, 1880. Webster, William. The Syntax and Synonyms of the Gfreek Testament. London, 1864. SECTION XLV. KNOWLEDGE OF THINGS NECESSARY TO THE EXPOSITOR. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. As the grammar and lexicon are indispensable to the un derstanding of the words of the Bible, so to a thorough com prehension of the things oi the Bible, a knowledge of the historical, physical, geographical, statistical, economical, politi" cal and social relations and circumstances under which the Bible was produced, is necessary. Of the antiquities of other nations which came in contact with the Hebrews, either on account of race relationship, such as the Aramaeans, Arabians, Canaanites, Philistines, etc., or through some political combination, such as the Egyptians, Assyrians, Chaldaeans, PerslSns, Greeks, and Romans, we ad mit only that which has a direct bearing on some scriptural passage. We see, therefore, that Biblical Archaeology is a most important aid, not only to the expounder, but also to every reader, ofthe Bible.* The Archaeology of the Bible is both more difficult and more interesting than that of the Greeks and Romans ; and its interest is commensurate with its importance, f In one aspect, Biblical Archaeology is a preparation for Exegesis, in another, it is a result of it. * See Rueetschl In Sohafl-Herzog's Encyclopaedia under Archceology. t See Farrar In Alexander-Kltto's Uyclopsedla under AreJiceology. 92 THEOLOGICAL ENOYOLOFEDIA. The sources of this science comprise: I. Antique monu ments and buildings, plastic representations, inscriptions and oins, and the ruins of such cities as Baalbec, Palmyra, Perse- polis, Nineveh and Petra. Not only these, but the temples and palaces of Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Phoenicia and Syria, with their plastic and pictorial representations are also included. II. Written sources : i. Among the written sources the Bible occupies the first place, though a careful discrimination is necessary between the various epochs in which the various books were written. 2. The works of Philo and Josephus give excellent information with regard to their own times; but, for the older periods, they must be used with caution. 3. The Apocryphal books of the Old Testament, the Targums, and the Talmud (consist ing of the Mishna or text, and the Gemara or commen taries on it). The Talmud, however, forms "a rich but not clear source". 4. Ancient Greek and Latin authors, as Xenophon, Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, Pliny, Tacitus, and especially Herodotus. 5. Oriental writers as the Arabic geographers and natural philosophers, the religious books of the Arabs and Parsees (Koran and Zend- Avesta). Something too, can be gleaned from writers who, like Jerome and Ephraem the Syrian, lived in Syria. 6. Books of Travel. These have added very largely to our knowledge of Biblical Archaeology, because of the stationary character ot all oriental forms of civilization.* The material of Archaeology may be classified under the following heads : I. Biblical Geography. \ Of the importance of Sacred Geography to the theologian it is not necessary to speak. Locality has given a peculiar tone and coloring to the whole literature and language of the Bible. The historical interest of Sacred Geography, though belonging in various degrees to Mesopotamia,^Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy, is, like Sacred History itself,| concentrated on the peninsula of Sinai and on Palestine. But this science was not reduced to a system ? See Articles by Rueetschl and Farrar, already referred to. t See a most valuable article on Geography by J. Leslie Porter In Alexander- Kltto's Cyclopoedia. KNOWLEDGE NECESSARY TO TECE EXPOSITOR. 93 until a comparatively recent time. To Samuel Bochart (1599— 1667), a French Protestant clergyman, belongs the honor of writing the first systematic work on Biblical Geography. His Geographia Sacra is a work of vast and varied learning, from which, as from a storehouse, all subsequent writers on Biblical Geography and Ethnoj'raphy have drawn freely. In i?i4, Hadrian Reland (1676 — 1718) published his Palestina, which remains to this day the standard work on the geography of Palestine. Dr Edward Robinson's Biblical Researches in Palestine, and in the Adjacent Regions (3 vols. Boston, 1867), opened a new era in Biblical Geography. Though the most valuable contribution that modern learning and enterprise have made to our knowledge in this department, it is nevertheless neither complete nor systematic ; it is only a book of travels, with most important historical and geographical illustrations. Carl Ritter's Complete Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula (translated and adapted to the use of biblical students by W. L. Gage. 4 vols. Edinburgh, 1866) aims at system and completeness, but it is too diffuse. It gives a resume of every thing that has been written on Bible lands. To enumerate all the books written on Bible lands would be practically useless. A carefully selected list of the more important works bearing on the subject of Sacred Geography, in addition to the works already mentioned, will be given in the list at the end of this section. A special part of Biblical Geography is Biblical Topogra phy, an exact and scientific description in minute detail of certain places or sites in Bible lands, e. g., ferusalem, the Temple, etc. 2. Natural History of the Bible (Physica Sacra). This science is most intimately connected with Biblical Geography. The importance of securing a vivid idea of the natural (geolo gical, topographical, and climatic) conditions of a country which has left such a remarkable impress upon the language of the Bible, and upon the religious thought of the Hebrews, is self-evident. By the Natural History of the Bible we under stand not only a sys,teinatic survey of the natural productions of Palestine, but also and chiefly, an enumeration ofthe peculiar 94 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPCEDIA. features of their origin, growth, continuation, cultivation and use. To this general subject belong the departments of i) Physical Geography (climate, seasons, winds, rivers and lakes, fountains and wells, mountains, valleys, caverns, plains, deserts, the fertility ofthe Holy Land, its productions, etc.), 2) Botany, 3) ,^oology, and 4) Mineralogy of the Bible. 3. Biblical Ethnography. This science includes a descrip tion of the Domestic Antiquities of the Jews, and of other nations incidentally mentioned in the Scriptures. It involves the study I ) of main's relation to nature (agriculture, herding cattie, hunting, and fishing) and of his modes of preparing the raw materials provided by nature for his use (dwellings, clothing, ornaments, food, utensils, handics^afts, navigation) and 2) of man's relations to society (social customs, marriage customs, domestic life, general intercourse, hospitality, amuse ments, journeys, commerce, relations with strangers, war, slavery, diseases mentioned in the Scriptures, treatment of the dead, funeral rites). 4. Political Antiquities of the fews. Here we treat of the different forms of government and the political state ofthe He brews i) under Patriarchs ; 2) Moses ; 3) Judges ; 4) Kings ; 5) during the Babylonish captivity ; 6) after their return to Palestine ; 7) under the Maccabees ; 8) Herodian Family ; 9) Roman Procurators; ofthe courts of judicature (Jewish and Roman), legal proceedings and criminal law of the Jews (against God, parents and magistrates, property, person etc.), of the punishments mentioned in Scripture, of the modes of computing time, of tributes and taxes, of covenants, contracts and oaths, of the laws respecting strangers, the aged, blind, deaf and poor, ofthe military affairs of the Jews and other nations mentioned in the Scriptures, etc. 5. Sacred Antiquities of the fews.* Here are discussed i) The sacred places (the tabernacle, the temple, the high places or oratories of the Jews, the synagogues) ; ? Compare An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge qftJieBolf Scriptures. Edited by Thomas Hartwell Home, John Ayre and Samuel Prideaux Tregelles. Twelfth edition. London, 1869. (No change has been made In later editions). KNOWLEDGE NECESSARY TO THE EXPOSITOR. 95 2) The sacred and theocratic persons (the Levites, the priesthood, the high priest. Judges, prophets. Scribes, Nazarites, Rechabites, proselytes, Hellenists, etc.) ; 3) The sacred usages (I. Offerings of blood, a) occasional, i) burnt-oflerings, 2) peace-ofierings, 3) sin-offerings, 4) tres pass- oflerings ; b) riational, i) the daily, 2) weekly, 3) monthly, 4) yearly sacrifices ; II. Unbloody ofTerings ; or meat-offer ings, which were taken from the vegetable kingdom, meal, bread, cakes, ears of grain, oil and frankincense; III. Drink- offerings, which accompanied both bloody and unbloody sacrifices; IV. Other oblations, a) ordinary, i) shew-bread, 2) incense; b) voluntary, i) vow of consecration; 2) vow of engagement; c) prescribed, i) first-fruits of corn, 2) first-born of man and beast, 3) tithes) ; 4) The sacred seasons i) the Sabbath, 2) the new moons, 3) the annual festivals, a) passover, b) pentecost, c) feast of tabernacles, d) feast of trumpets, e) day of atonement, and later/) the feast of Purim, g) the feast of dedication, and 4) other stated festivals, a) the Sabbatical year, and b) the year of Jubilee) ; 5) The sacred obhgations and duties of the Jews (of vows, of their prayers and fasts, purifications, etc. ; 6) The corruptions ofreligion among the Jews (of idolatry, idols, divination, magic, of the Jewish sects, mentioned in the New Testament, Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Samaritans, Herodians, Galileans, Zealots, Sicarii, etc.). 6. Literature, Science and Arts cultivated by the fews. Under this topic we treat of their schools, their method of teaching, of the studies of the Jews (history, poetry, oratory, ethics, physics, arithmetic, astronomy, astrology, surveying, mechanic arts, geography), of the art of writing, engraving, of music and musical instruments, etc. SELECT LITERATURE OF BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 1. GENERAL AROHEOLOGICAL WORKS EMBRACING DICTIONARIES OF THE BIBLE. 1. Barnum, Samuel W. A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Bible. Mainly abridged from Dr. WilUam Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, but comprising Important additions and improvements, and iUustrated with flve hundred maps and engravings. Pp. 1219. New York, 1867. 2. Bible Educator, The. Edited by E. H. Plumptre. Four volumes in two. London and New York. / 8. Eadie, John. A ,Bi6ZjcaZ Cj/ctopcBcifo,- or. Dictionary of Eastern antiquity, geography, natural history, sacred annals, and bio graphy, theology, and biblical literature, illustrative of the Old and New Testaments. Pp. 690. London, 1870. 4. Fairbairn, Patrick. The Imperial Bible Dictionary, historical, biographical, geographical, and doctrinal; including the natural history, antiquities, manners, customs, religious rites and ceremonies mentioned in the Scriptures, and an account of the several books of the Old and New Testaments. 2 vols. Pp. 1007, 1151. Edinburgh and London. 5. Herzog, Plitt and Hauck. Real-Enoyklopoedie fuer Protest. Theologie und Kirche. Second revised edition in 15 vols. Leipsic, 1877—85. 6. Kitto, John. Cyclopadia of Biblical Literature. Thi'rd edi tion greatly enlarged and improved, edited by William Lind- sayf Alexander. 3 vols. London and Philadelphia, 1866. Very valuable, especially in its archaeological articles. 7. M'Clintock and Strong. Cyclopadia of Biblical Theology and Ecclesiastical Literature. 10 vols. New York. 8. Peloubet, F. N. and M. A. A Dictionary of the Bible, com prising its antiquities, biography, geography, natural history and literature. (A revision of Smith's Dictionary of the Bible). Pp. 818. Philadelphia, 1884. A most excellent work, at a low price. 9. Riehm, Ed. G. Aug. Handw'drterbueh des Biblisches Alter- tums fuer gebildete Bibelleser. With many illustrations. Biele feld and Leipsic, 1875—84. A valuable work, in which the editor has been assisted by such well-known scholars as Beyschlag, Delitzsch, Ebers, Klei- nert, Schrader, etc. 10. SchafE, Philip. A Dictionary of the Bible, including biography, natural history, geography, topography, archseology, and lite rature. With 12 colored maps and over 400 illustrations. Third revised edition. Philadelphia and New York. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 97 11. Schaff-Herzog. ^1 Religious Encyclopivdia, or Dictionary of BibUcal, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology. 3 vols. New York. This work ought to be in the hands of every clergyman. 12. Smith, WiUiam. A Dictionary of the Bible, Comprising its antiquities, biography, geography, and natural history. Re vised and edited by H. B. Hackett and Ezra Abbot. 4 \"ols. New York, 1873. A Ubrary in itself, and valuable especiaUy on account of the careful selection of the Bibliography. 13. Winer, George Benedict. Biblisches Real-Worterbiich. Dritte sehr verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Leipsic, 1847. A work that has not as yet been superseded, an almost per fect encyclopaedia of biblical knowledge. 2. SPECIAL WORKS ON BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 1. Conder, F. K. A Handbook to tht Bible. Being a guide to the study of the Holy Scriptures, derived from ancient monu ments and modern exploration. London and New York. 2, Ewald, Heinrich. T?ie Antiquities of Israel. Translated from the German by H. S. Solly. London, 1876. A valuable work. 3. Jahn, John. Biblical Archaology. Translated from the Latin by T. C. Upham. New York, 1863. This work, however, has been superseded. 4. KeU, Karl Friedrich. Handbuch der biblischen Archceologie. 2 Auflage. Frankfurt, 1875. An EngUsh translation of this standard work in two volumes is announced by the Clark Brothers of Edinburgh. 5. Nevin, John W. A Summary of Biblical Antimdties. For the use of Schools, Bible Classes and FamiUes. Philadelphia, 1873. Popular, but of permanent value. 3. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. 1 Bsehr, K. C. W.'T. Symbolik des Mos. Kultus. 2 Bande. Hei delberg, 1837, 39. Band I in zweiter Auflage, 1874. Very suggestive. 2. Edersheim, A. The Temple. Its ministry and services as they were in the time of Jesus Christ. London, 1874. 3. Kurtz, J. H. Sacrificial Worship ofthe Old Testament. Transla ted from the German. Edinburgh, 1863. A work that ought to be in the library of every clergyman. 4. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. 1. Barrows, E. P. Sacred Geography and Antiquities. With maps and iUustrations. New York. 2. Bible Atlas, The, of Maps and Plans to illustrate the Geography and Topography of the Old and New Testaments, and the Apocrypha, with explanatory notes by Samuel Clarke. Also a complete index of the Geographical names in the English Bible, by George Grove. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. London, 1868. 98 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 3. Burt, N. C. The Land and its Story; or, the Sacred Historical Geography of Palestine. Illustrated With numerous maps and engravings. New York, 1869. 4. Coleman, Lyman. An Historical Text-book and Atlas of Bibli cal Geography. Philadelphia, 1877. 5. Conder, C. R., and Kitschener. Map of Western Palestine. In 26 sheets. London, 1880. ^ ' , The most scientific and accurate map that has as yet appeared, pubUshed under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration So ciety. 6. Kiepert, H. Neue Wandkarte von Palastina. Size 49x75 inches. Berlin, 1854. , t.-t,i- , A most excellent map, recommended by many BiWical Scholars. 7. Kitto, John. Scripture Lands described in a series of Historical, Geographical, and Topographical Sketches. H. G. Bohn. Lon don, 1850. 8. Lihrary Atlas, The, of Modern, Historical, and Classical Geo graphy. Consisting of 100 maps, etc. (Putman). New York, 1875. 9, Menke, Theo. Bihelatlas in acht Biattern. Gotha, 1868. Very valuable. 10. Palmer, E. H. The Desert of the Exodus. Journeys on foot in the wilderness of the forty years' wanderings, undertaken in connection with the ordinance survey of Sinai and the Palestine exploration fund. With maps and numerous illustrations from photographs and drawings taken on the spot by the Sinai Sur vey Expedition, and C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake. New York, 1872. A most valuable and interesting work. 11. Eaaz, A. Wall Map of Palestine. Photo-lithographed from a Relief. English lettering. Size 32x54 inches. New York. The plastic effect of this map is surprising. It appears to the eye to be an actual relief, and it not only answers the same purpose, but is preferable because of its cheapness, dura- biUty and more convenient material. It ought to be inj^every library. 12. Stanley, Arthur P. Sinai and Palestine, in connection with their history. New edition, with maps and plans. New York. The Standard work. No clergyman can afford to be without this work. 13. Tobler, Titus. Bihliographia Geographica Palcestina. Zunachst kritische Uebersicht gedruckter und ungedruckter Beschreibungen der Reisen ins heilige Land. Pp. 270. Leipsic, 1867. 14. Van de Velde, C. W. M. Map of tlie Holy Land. 8 Sheets. Sec ond edition. London, 1865. One of the very best maps published. 15. Wyld. J. A Scripture Atlas, containing 30 colored maps, in which will be found, not only the places of well-defined situa tion, but the other localities of historic interest mentioned throughout the Sacred Scriptures, according to the supposition of the best authors. With a Geographical Index. Bagster and Sons, London. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY. 99 5. BIBLigAL TOPOGRAPHY. 1. Besant, Walter, and Palmer, E. H. Jerusalem, the City of Herod and Saladin. London, 1871. 2. Conder, C. R. Tent work in Palestine. A record of discovery and adventure. Published for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Society. 2 vols. London and New York, 1878. 3. Tobler, T. Bethlehem in PalOstina. St. Gallen, 1849. 4 Nazareth in Paldstina. Berlin, 1868. 5 --.Topographic von Jerusalem und seinen Umgebun- gen. 2 Bde. Berlin, 1853—4. Accurate and scientiflc. 6. Tristram, H. B. The Topography of the Holy Land. A suc cinct account of all the places, ruins, and mountains of the land of Israel, mentioned in the Bible, etc. London and New York. 7. Warren, Charles. Underground Jerusalem. An account of some of the principal difliculties encountered in its exploration and the results obtained. London, 1876. 8. Williams, Geo. The Holy City. Historical, topographical, and antiquarian notices of Jerusalem. Second edition, with addi tions, etc. 2 vols. London, 1849. 9. Wilson, Charles W., and Warren, Charles. . The Recovery of Jerusalem. A narrative of Exploration and Discovery in the city and the Holy Land. Edited by W. Morrison. New York, 1871. 6. WORKS or TRAVEL AND EXPLORATION. 1. Baedeker K. Palestine and Syria. Handbook for Travelers, with 18 maps, 43 plans, one Panorama of Jerusalem, and 10 views. Leipsic and London, 1876. Second German edition, revised and enlarged. Leipsic, 1880. 2 Egypt and Sinai. Leipsic, 1878. 3. Bartlett, S. C. From Egypt to Palestine, through Sinai, the Wilderness, and the South Country; observations of a Journey made with special reference to the history of the Israelites, with maps and iUustrations. New York, 1879. 4. Ebers, G. Durch Gosen zwm Sinai. 2te Auflage. Leipsic, 1881. 5. Layard, A. H. Nineveh and its Remains. 2 vols. London, 1849. 6. Lynch, W. F. Narrative of the United States Expedition to the river Jordan and the Dead Sea. Philadelphia, 1849. 7. MacGregor, J. The Rob Roy on the Jordan, Nile, and Red Sea. London and New York, 1870. 8. MerriU, Selah. East of the .Jordan. A record of travel and observation in the countries of Moab, Gilead, and Bashan during the years 1875—77. New Edition. New York, 1883. 9. Porter, J. L. The Giant Cities of Bashan, and Syria's Holy Places. New York, 1873. 10. _.. Five years in Damascus; with travels to.Pal- myra, Lebanon, and other Scripture Sites. With Maps and Illustrations. London, 1870. 100 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPCEDIA. 11. Porter, J. L. Handbook for Travelers in Syria and Palestine. London, 1875. The works of Prof. Porter are especially valuable. He has also written quite extensively for the well known Bible Dictio naries of Smith and Kitto, already raentioned. 12. Rawlinson, George. The Five Great Monarchies of the An cient-Eastern world; or. The History, Geography, and Anti quities of ChaldiT?a, Assy rin, Babylon, Media fmd Persia. Collected and illustrated from ancient and modern sources. In three volumes. AMth maps and Illustrations. Dodd, Mead and Co. New York. 13 ..History of Ancient Egypt. In two volumes. The same. New York. These standard works, once so expensi\e, can now he bought at very cheap rates. 14. SchafE, Philip. Through Bible Land.s: Notes of travel in Egypt, the Desert, and Palestine. Xew York and London. 15. Tristram, H. B. 2'he Land of Moab. Travels and discoveries on the east side of the Dead Sea and the Jordan. London and New York, 1873. 7. N.VTURAL HISTORY AND PHYSICAL GEOGlt.VPHY. 1. Bochart, Samuel. Hierozoicon. London, 1663. In this work the author, with immense learning, treats of all the animals, quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, and insects men tioned in the Bible. 2. Robinson, Edward. Physical Geography of the Holy Land. Boston, 1865. 3. Tristram, H. B. The Natural History of the Bible. Being a review of the physicHl geography, geology, and meteorology of the Holy Land; with a description of every animal and plant mentioned in Holy Scripture. London arid New York. An exellent manual for popular use. 4 The Land of Israel. ,\ Journal of travels in Palestine, undertaken With special reference to its physical character. London andJNew York. 5. Wood, J. G. Bible Animals ; being a description of every living creature mentioned in the Scriptures, from the ape to the coral. With Illustrations. New York, 1872. 8. DOMESTIC .VNTIQUITIBS. 1. Delitzsch, Franz. Jewish Artisan Life in the time ofour Lord. London and New York. 2. Edersheim, A. Sketches of Jewish Social Life in the days of Christ. London. 3. Fish, Henry C. Bible Lands. Illustrated. A Pictorial Hand book of the Antiquities and Modern Life of all sacred Countries, etc. Hartford, 1876. 4. Thompson, W. M. The Land and the Book ; or Biblical Illustra tions drawn from the manners and customs, the scenes and scenery of the Holy Land. New edition, iUustrated. 2 vols. New York, 1880—83. BIBLICAL ISAGOGICS. 101 5. Van Lennep, H. J. Bible Lands; their modern customs and manners illustrative of Scripture. New York, 1875. ^ 9. POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. 1. Horne, Thomas Hartwell. An Introduction to the critical study and knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. 4 vols. Twelfth edition. London. The third volume contains a very full presentation ot the Political Antiquities of the Jews. 2. Michaelis, John D. Commentaries on the Laws of Moses. 4 vols. London, 1814. Valued for the perspicurity, wide views, and historical illustrations wherewith the author has so learnedly investigated the whole subject. 10. LITERATURE, SCIENCE ANIJ ART. 1. Herder, J. G. The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. Translated from the German by President James Marsh. 2 vols. Burlington, Vt., 1833. 2. Lowth, Robert. Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews. London and Andover. 3. Stainer, J. Music of the Bible. London, 1879. 4. Taylor, Isaac. T'he Spirit of Hebrew poetry. Philadelphia, 1863. 5. Wright, W. A. See his Articles on Hebrew Poetry, Music, etc., in Smith's Bible Dictionary (4 vols.'). SECTION XLVI. BIBLICAL ISAGOGICS. (INTRODUCTION AISID CANONICS). The Bible is a collection of writings of various periods fiom the hands of different authors, written under a wide range of circumstances, and gradually coming into being. To under stand this precious Book thoroughly, it is necessary to know accurately the facts connected with the origin and history of the collection as a whole, and of the separate parts. This is the object of the doctrine or history ofthe Canon, or the science of Biblical Introduction, — Isagogics in the stricter sense. Isagogics again is divided into Introduction to the Old Testament, and Introduction to the New Testament ; also into General Isagogics or Introduction, and Special Isagogics. The General Isagogics or Introduction treats of the rise of the Canon, and of the various facts connected with it ; the history of manuscripts, editions, translations, and various similar works connected with the Holy Scripture. Special Introduc- 102 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. tion, on the contrary (in partial connection with Criticism), has to do with the authenticity and integrity of the particular writings,— with the persons of their authors, with the aim, plan, form and style of their works, and with the time, place and circumstances of their composition.* Widely different opinions exist respecting the idea and treat ment of this branch of theological study. Some have mantained that Isagogics comprehends everything that is necessary for the Interpretation of the Scriptures, i. e., I. The nature and importance, of the Bible, together with the history of the canon, or Canonies, which is divided into a) Abstract Canonies (authenticity, credibiUty and genuineness); 6) Concrete Canonies, or what is usually termed Introduction or Isagogics in the more limited sense, which is again divided into 1) General and Special, and into 2) Old and New Testament Canonies; II. The Compass of the Bible, or the genuineness of its matter (Biblical Criticism); III. Its language and contents (Hermeneutics). Encyclopsedia is concerned with the material of Introduction only in so far as it is necessary to give preliminary information with regard to its general character. The best work of Introduction to the Old Testament is the ad mirable treatise of Keil.t This is a perfect thesaurus of all critical matters pertaining to the Old Testament, and being written from a conservative standpoint, it cannot be too highly recommended. As it is a good way to become acquianted with the scope of a sub ject by knowing how an author discusses it, we append here a brief synopsis of Keil. § 1—3. The Problem, Division and Literature of the Subject. PART FIRST. Origin and Genuineness of the Canonical Writings of the Old Testament. 1. Of the Old Testament Literature in general. § 4 — 8. Rise, growth, prime, and decay of the Hebrew Literature. § 9—18. The languages of the Old Testament. 2. Origin and Genuineness of the individual books. § 19—39. The Five Books of Moses. § 40—105. The Prophetical writings. a) The Prophetical Historical Books. (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings). 6) The Prophetical Predictive Books. aa) The Greater Prophets. (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel). 66) The Twelve Minor Prophets. (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, * See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth. t Keil, Karl Friedrich. Manual of Historico-CritiecU Introduction to the Cano nical Scriptures of the Old Testament. Translated from the second German edition. with supplementary note.« from Bleek and others, by George C. M. Douglas. D. D" 2 vols. Pp. 529, 435. T. & T. Clark. Edinburgh. 1869. BIBLICAL ISAGOGICS. 103 Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi). § 106—152. The Hagiographa, or Holy Writings. a) The Poetical writings. (Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Canticles, Lamentations, Ec clesiastes). 6) The Book of Daniel. c) The Historical Books of the Hagiographa. (Ruth, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther). Under each separate book of the Old Testament, Keil discusses most fully all critical questions arising in its study, e. g., name, division, contents and object; authenticity, genuineness, unity and composition; date, author and style; sources, historical character, etc. 3. How the Old Testament Canon originated. S 153. Collections of the Sacred writings at times earUer than the Exile. § 154, 155. Collection of the Books after the Exile. Close of the Canon.S156. Names, divisions, and enumerations of the Scriptures of Id Testament. PART SECOND. History of tTie Transmission of the Old Testament. 1. Preservation and Cultivation of Hebrew Philology. § 157 — 159. The PhUological cultivation of the Hebrew lang uage among the Jews. § 160, 161. The study of Hebrew among the Christians down to the present time. § 162. Aids to the Investigation of the Hebrew Language. 2. Propagation and Diffusion of the Canon of the Old Testament. a) Preservation and propagation of the Hebrew Canon by manuscripts. § 163—169. History of the External form of the text of the Old Testament. § 170—173. The Manuscripts of the Old Testament. b) Diffusion of the Old Testament by means of Ancient Versions. § 174^185. Greek Tranlations. § 186—196. Oriental Translations. (Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Samaritan, Persian, etc.). § 197—200. The Latin Vulgate, and the Versions derived from it. 3. The Critical Treatment of the Old Testament. § 201—208. History of the Criticism of the Unprinted text. § 209—211. History of the Printed Text. 4. The Ecclesiatical Authority and Treatment ol the Old a) The Doctrine of the Canon of the Old Testament. § 212 — 215. History of the Old Testament Canon among the Jews. § 216—218. History of the Old Testament Canon in the Chri stian Church. 6) The Hermeneutical Treatment of the Old Testament. § 219—223. Among the Jews. S 223—225. In the Christian Church. 104 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Of works of "Introduction to the New Testament" the well- known work of Reuss takes very high rank.* Though we cannot recommend it as a safe guide to the student, for the author cannot be regarded as orthodox, much less evangelical, stiU Reuss of Stras burg is one of the ablest BibUcal scholars of the age, and it would be diflScult to flnd another work which contains so much informa tion concerning aU questions arising in a critical study of the New Testament. To indicate the richness of this field of investigation we here append a condensed outline of this work. INTRODUCTION. § 1—23. Definition, division, method, history and literature of the science. BOOK FIRST. History of the Origin of the New Testament Writings. History of the Literature. § 24 — 72. PreUminary History. (The disciples and the early Church. The language of the New Testament. The Pauline Gospel. Opposing tendencies). § 73—236. Period of the Apostolic Literature. a) Didactic Literature. (Pauline Epistles. CathoUc Epistles. The Apocalypse. Early Christian Poetr3^). 6) Historical Literature. (Gospel tradition. Written records. The three Synoptists. Original documents. Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and Luke. Retrospect of the historical Uterature). c) Theological treatment of the Gospel History. (Character and doctrine of the Gospel of John. Plan and purpose. The three Epistles of John. Retrospect). d) Last literary remains of the ApostoUc Age. (Epistle of Jude. Of Barnabas. Of Clement). § 236—280. Period of the Pseudo- ApostoUc Literature. a) Transition. (Additions to the Gospels. Transmission and corruption of tradition). 6) Pseudepigrapha. (The Acts of Peter. Clementines. Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. Gospel of Nicodemus. Gnostic Gospels. Catholic Gospels of the Childhood. Epistles of Jesus. Apocalypses. The Apostolic Constitutions. Church ordinances, liturgies and laws. Retrospect). BOOK SECOND. History of the Collection of the New Testament Writings. History of the Canon. §281—294. PreUminary History. (Edification of the Church from the Old Testament. From tradition. Gradual Circulation of the Apostolic Writings. Begin ning of theological use of them). • Eeuss, Eduard W. E. History The Analogy of Faith, which has for its principle the general unity of biblical instruction. 3) The Parallels of Ideas, which ha^'e for their prin ciple the constant identity of instruction. 4) The Special Stud.y of each sacred book, which has for its principle the individuality of each author. 5) The Moral and Intellectual Character of the Bible, which has for its principle the sanctity and wisdom of the instruction. ( 95—102. Analogy of Faith. § 95. Its nature and principle. The method of interpretation called Analogy of Faith, appeals to the general character of scriptural truth for the explanation of a special passage. This method rests upon the principle of the inspired unity of the revelation depos ited in the sacred books. This unity is at once the result and a strong proof of the inspiration" of Bible. The Ana logy of Faith is therefore an inspired raeans of inter pretation. i 96—98. Conditions. § 96. Superior degrees of Analogy of Faith. In the Analogy of Faith there are, according as it is de duced raore or less immediatly from the -sacred books, many different degrees as to force and value. It is pos sible to distinguish four of these degrees, two of which are superior and worthy of confidence, and two of which are inferior. The former may be caUed Positive Analogy and General Analogy, and the latter, Deduced Analogy and Imposed Analogy. a) Positive Analogy. Thus we designate the analogy which is positively and immediatly founded upon scrip tural teachings. This superior degree is attainable only 144 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. by the collection of a large number of positive and unani mous passages, and is placed above all controversy. 6) General Analogy. This is the analogy which is de duced, not as the preceding degree, from the very letter of many unanimous passages, but from their object, their tendency, and the religious impression that they leave upon mankind. General Analogy, when it is supported upon the positive and constant tendencies of Scripture, has a real value as a hermeneutical instrument, never theless the evidence derived is inferior to that of Positive Analogy, because an element of reasoning must enter, and therefore error may creep in. § 97. Inferior degrees of Analogy of Faith. The Deduced and Imposed Analogies are not without value, but they are much less infiuential than Positive and General Analogy. a) Deduced Analogy. This method, having deduced, by a train of reasoning, the logical consequences of the uni versal and positive teaching of Scripture, demands for these consequences the same degree of authority as for the biblical instruction itself. But this takes for granted the infaUibility of the reasonings which connect the. conse quences with their sources. These reasonings may be just or false, but are always human, and, as such, at least debatable. They are theological systems, but by no means the Analogy of Faith. &) Imposed Analogy. This method has simply the value of a probability. It is probable that the antiquity, continuity and universality of an interpretation are sufficient gua rantees of its justness. This method has a certain value, but it differs from the Analogy of Faith. § 98. Number, unanimity, clearness, distribution. The Analogy of Faith, although immediate and scrip tural, will not always have the same degree of evidence and the same authority. This evidence and this authority vary according to the number, unanimity, clearness, and distribution of the passages upon which they are founded. We will illustrate this in the case of numher. There is no doubt that a divine certainty is attached to every positive and precise declaration of Scripture, but something more is necessary to form the Analogy of Faith. A frequent and even constant repetition is necessary. It is evident that the Analogy of Faith is stronger for the existence of God than for the personality of the Holy Spirit. This is, however, no sufflcient reason for doubting the latter truth, but the Analogy which supports it is not so strong. § 99—102. Real utility of the Analogy of Faith. § 99. General utiUty. In the superior degrees it renders two general services, which could not be expected from any other resource. 1) It proves the true interpretation of a passage, in a manner peculiarly satisfactory to the mind, by using the whole Bible as a commentary. BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 145 2) Analogy of Faith, moreover, enables the student to arrange the teachings of Scripture as to their relative im portance. While all the deliverances of the Bible are equally inspired there seeras to be a difference in the mind of the Spirit as to their relative value to the wants of raan. § 100. Special UtiUty. There are araong others, two particular advantages gained by the Analogy of Faith. 1) The raistakes which spring from biblical anthropo morphisms and expressions which are foreign to our present customs, are thus removed. 2) The Analogy of Faith enables us to subordinate cer tain historical facts, certain mysterious dispensations of providence, to the incontestable purity of the Divine attributes. § 101. Hermeneutical Consequences. 1) A doctrine clearly supported by the Analogy of Faith, can not be contradicted by a contrary and obscure passage. The seeming disagreement between the two can be recon ciled only by careful study; but the preference must al ways be given to the truth supported by the Analogy of Faith. See 1 John. 3: 6. The literal sense here is contrar dieted by the Analogy of Faith, as also by a passage in the same epistle (1 John 1: 8—10; 2: 1). 2) An isolated passage if it is neither supported nor con tradicted by the Analogy of Faith can, .according to the circumstances of clearness, precision, and the context, be understood as positively teaching a doctrine. 3) When a doctrine is supported only by an isolated pas sage, and meets with no countenance from the Analogy of Faith, it ought to be suspected, and very probably the passage should be otherwise interpreted. Thus the Roman Catholic Church has no right to found upon James 5: 14—16, two new sacraments, absolutely foreign to the rest of the New Testament. § 102. Doctrinal Consequences. The Analogy of Faith sometimes supports doctrines which are seemingly contradictory. What shall an interp reter do in such a case 'i* From the principles that have been laid down, the two following conclusions may be deduced. 1) The interpreter should recognise the existence of two opposite doctrines supported by exegesis and the Analogy of Faith. 2) It is proper to admit that there is but a seeming con tradiction, and the solution must be sought in exegesis, in the general spirit of Scriptural teaching, and in the study of the human heart. This solution may almost always be found with time, labor, and good faith. But if it is not found it is our duty to wait, meditate, and labor still. 103—111. Parallels of Ideas. There is noticeable in the Bible a progress of Revelation from the earlier books of the Old Testament, to the fully developed writings ol the apostles. But in spite of this 146 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. progress, there is a fundamental unity in the teaching of the Bible, which is thus proved divine. The parallels of ideas pertain strictly to the fundamental truths, which are woven into the whole texture of Reve lation. The value of this method of interpretation, there fore, is ma le up of two facts: a) the universal occurrence of certain great truths in Scripture, and 6) the greater and clearer development of these truths in some portions of the Bible than in others. The task to be attempted in this connection is threefold: 1) To classify and graduate the several categories ot parallels. 2) To appreciate the real utility to be derived therefrom, 3) To indicate the rules to be eraployed and the precau tions to be taken in studying parallels of ideas. A. Classification and graduation of the parallels of ideas. § 103. Necessity and principle of this classification. It is probable that two biblical passages, possessing a certain analogy as to form, language, and matter, express the same idea; it is right consequently to deduce from the clearer passage the sense of the more obscure. This is the essence of paraUels of Ideas. This probability must vary evidently, a) according to the number and nature of the passages, and 6) according to their distribution through out the Bible, § 104. Atterapt at graduation. . 1. The lowest degree of parallels will be composed of the passages taken at random from the Bible, without reference to the kinds of writings, their epochs, or authors. 2. A somewhat superior degree will be composed of the parallel texts which have been taken from the Old Testa ment alone; but still with no reference to the writings, epochs, and authors. 3. A superior category will include contemporaneous writers, similarily situated. 4, Still higher are the parallels taken from the dift'erent writings of the sarae author. 5. The higest degree of probability raay be attached to parallels taken from the same writings. B. Appreciation of the utility of parallels. § 105. Considered generally. The comparision of parallel passages is singularly attractive to the interpreter. To avoid the great danger of mistake in the usage of parallels, the interpreter must carefuUy examine each parallel with the aid of the several contexts. § 106. Particular cases of utilily. 1. Obscure passages may be explained. 2. Historical facts are frequently confirmed and com pleted, e. g., the three distinct accounts of the conversion of St. Paul (Acts 9. 22, and 26). 3. The teachings of the Bible are corapleted and de veloped. 4. Parallels of ideas, moreover, enable us to estimate the certainty of the teachings of the Bible. BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 147 C. Rules and cautions. § 107, 108. In the choice of parallels. § 107. Avoid the parallels of words. The parallels of words posess a certain utility, and even a great philological value. But their object, method, and use, differ entirely from those of the parallels of ideas. § 108. Avoid seeming but false parallels. The true interpreter should not be contented with slight appearance nor with vague relations. He should conscien tiously assure hiraself of the separate sense of each, study ing them analytically, carefully, and with reference to the context. § 109-111. In the use of paraUels. § 109. Logical use. The more obscure passage should be explarued by the more perspicuous. Although this principle seems self-evid ent, it has often been forgotten and even systematically opposed. § 110. True nature of doctrinal clearness. There are some necessary obscurities in religion, per taining to the unknown and mysterious nature of revealed truth. There are, however, certain obscurities, which arise frora the incomplete, confused, complex, and figurative character of the biblical language, and these may in a measure be explained. This explanation should be derived from other analogous passages which possess the desirable clearness by reason of the positive, exact, and uniform language in which they are couched. §111. Careful and judicious use. Special care must be taken not to be misled by the refer ences found in our Bibles. They must aU be verified criti cally and judiciously before they may form the basis of any interpretation. § 112, 113. Special study of each of the Sacred Books. § 112. Principle of this study. The individuality of the authors is the principle upon which this study is based. It is very easy to discover that the sacred writers have preserved their human character istics tc a certain degree, and these of necessity exert an influence a) upon the language, 6) the method, and c) the doctrihe of the Bible. § 113. The subject developed. 1. Method of each sacred author. An author's mode of reasoning and poetry, the outbreaks of his piety and the transports of his imagination, the nature of his deductions and polemics, are all influenced by his individuality. In the study of the Old Testaraent prophets, for example, the interpreter who knows how to analyze their diversities and resemblances can derive much light frora the coraparison. The same is true in regard to the New Testament authors. 2. Instruction and doctrine. The individuality of the 148 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. sacred author exerts an influence also upon the doctrines he expounds. The grand theme of Paul is faith, Peter dwells largely upon the grace of hope, while John, the loving and loved disciple, is the Apostle of love. This in fluence of individuality upon the doctrine is clearer and more positive in the New Testament than in the Old. § 114—123. Moral and Intellectual character of the Bible. § 114. Introduction. A revelation from God must participate of His wisdom and holiness. The attempt should be made to flnd in the Bible the moral and intellectual character which it displays. A. Nature of the principle. § 115. Its nature explained. The interpreter ought to be convinced of the sanctity and divinity of the Bible, and he dare not admit any inter pretation contrary to this character of sanctity and inspiration. B.. Application of the principle. § 116. General application. There are flve elements in this inteUectual and moral character of the Bible, and these form flve phases of the divine work. 1. The grandeur and beauty of the conceptions. This statement includes two distinct and important points : a) the interpreter must expect things worthy of God, by reason of their grandeur and beauty, and 6) things superior to the conceptions of man. 2. Harmony. We ought to expect the harmony of the Bible with itself, since, in spite of the variety of forms, all its portions proceed from the same source. We should expect, moreover, the harmony of the God of the Bible with the God of nature. This harraony is one of the most profound and undeniable evidences of the divine character of the Bible. The three following principles result from the harmony between the Bible and nature. 3. The progress of man toward his destination. Man is at once imperfect and perfectible, mortal and im mortal. Every interpretation, therefore, that would con flne man to the present and attach him too much to the earth, ought to be suspected by the interpreter. 4. The sanctity of morality. 5. The happiness of man by obedience to God. This is the result of divine goodness and of divine wisdom. The interpreter ought to mistrust every interpretation which would contradict, or be out of harmony with, these elements in the moral and intellectual character of the Bible. He should be willing to leave without solution, the rare and but slightly important, enigmas present here and there in the Bible. § 117. Modifled appUcation. The accommodation of the divine instruction to the in flrmities of men will detract somewhat from the iutel- BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 149 lectual character of the Bible. That is to say, we will observe that the whole truth was not delivered to the Jews, that certain questionable practices were permitted in the infancy of the race. StiU these results will not detract in the least degree frora the inspiration of the Bible. § 118. Special application to the New Testament. When the Saviour makes a change in his plans previ ously arranged, the interpreter will not transform this action into local and contracted views, or into an evidence of his mere humanity, as rationalists have done. The ap- parant indifference of the Master to the pleadings of the Canaanitish woman will not, from this point of view, be regarded as hardness of heart. In the writings of the Apostles individuality and occasion- ality are everywhere visible. § 119. Special application to the Old Testament. The student ought not to be shocked by beholding moral and intellectual imperfections in the Old Testament, which are not the result of any lack of inspiration on the part of the sacred writers, but have been permitted by God in order that his Word may be placed at the very door of those whom he desires to enlighten and save. Appreciation of the principle. § 120. Objections. The principles which have been stated are exposed to dangers, and may become disastrous if they are not care fully limited. But if employed judiciously they will prove productive of great good in the interpretation of the Bible. Three objections raay be raade: 1. TThat this principle is a priori, and the interpreter is no longer impartial. 2. That this principle is itself doubtfully and danger ously founded. In fact, we are told, this principle is ratio nalism pure and simple. 3. That this principle has the extreme inconvenience of being neither uniform nor coraparable. Each interpreter has a peculiar idea of moral and inteUectual excellence. § 121. Value of these objections. First objection answered. Impartiality should not be confounded with indifference. In order to be a good inter preter, there is necessary, at least, a certain degree of religi ous conviction and faith. In other words, he needs a conviction of the sanctity, the moral and intellectual excel lence of the Bible, and a belief in the divinity of Jesus Christ. This conviction is the key to the Bible; and with out it the hidden treasures of divine truth are never un locked. Second objection answered. There is danger of rational ism to one who adopts this principle; but there is no less danger in neglecting it. You must not desert the path be cause quicksands are upon every side. Third objection answered. We admit there is an incon venience in the application of this principle, but as a matter of fact, this principle must be used, and is used uniforraly 150 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. by all Christian interpreters. The objection is not true that there will be as many interpretations as consciences, since aU Christian minds and hearts coincide in one appreciation of this principle. The moral and intellectual character of the Bible is recognized in the sarae way, although with a difference of degree, by all. No Christian writer can be found who would seriously pretend that Jesus sanctioned a course of deception and unbelief in Luke 16: 8. § 122. Limits of the principle. By way of summation, let us determine the limits of the principle, and seek the means to which the interpreter should have resource. Three will be mentioned which have already been indicated. 1. The conviction of the weakness and fallibility of man. I'he interpreter must recognize this human fallibi lity, and learn to mistrust himself, to proceed with caution and diligence, and to esteem himself in fault before charg ing the Bible with inaccuracy. 2. The divine authority of revelation imposes strong re strictions upon the exercises of the huraan reason in apply ing this principle. 3. The Analogy of Faith, which is the purest and most certain expression of the authority of the Bible. Whenever the interpreter is in perplexity, whenever there is an appar ent want of harmony between his reason and the Bible, the Analogy of Faith, will cause the right decision to be made. § 123. Consequences of the principle. Two important consequences may be deduced from the preceeding discussion, 1. The moral and intellectual character of the Bible must be taken account of by every reader of that book, whether he is conscious of it or not. He has the right to study the Bible with the aid of his individual conscience. Therefore the diversity of religious views is a necessity of the very nature of our" intelligence. 2. One of the prominent and necessary characteristics of the Bible is its harmony with the laws, the plans, and the beneflts of the God of nature. The raoral and intellectual character of the Bible is simply a corollary of this harmony and causes its importance, beauty and reality to be known. PART FIFTH. DOCTRINAL HERMENEUTICS. § 124—127. Introduction. § 124. Exposition of the subject. In the thought of the human authors of the Bible we must endeavor, if pos rible, to discover the thought of God. Here the question of inspiration presents itself, and three topics naturally arise, a) the reality of inspiration, 6) its extent, and c) the raode of inspiration. The proper under standing of the flrst two is essential for the interpreter, but the consideration of the third eleraent, the mode of inspiration belongs more properly to Dogmatics. BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 151 § 125. Critical Question. The true way of stating the questions pertaining to the authority and inspiration of the Canon is this: 1) Were the authors of the sacred books inspired ? 2) Is each of these books actuaUy inspired '? As for ourselves we believe in the authenticity and inspi ration of all the books which the Protestant churches receive as canonical, and there are abundant opportunities of proving the authenticity and inspiration of each book of the Canon, but this is not the place for the evidence. It can be found in special works on the Canon. § 126. Different methods of answering the question. Are the sacred writings really inspired, and to what extent 'i* The true answer is: The sacred writings are inspired, and their inspiration is plenary. The infaUible thought of the infallible God is found entire in the infaUible words of our sacred books. Eationalists, flnding, as they suppose, errors of detail in the sacred writings, affirm that since their infallibility is not complete they are not inspired. Many theologians hold an intermediate view, equally untenable. They hold that the Scriptures contain the Word of God, but that they are not all equally inspired. § 127. The true method. That the sacred writings are inspired, and that their in spiration is plenary can be shown: 1) Frora the testimony of the sacred writers as to their own inspiration. 2) From the traces of inspiration which the Bible presents. 3) From the effects produced by the books which we hold to be inspired. § 128—136. Proofs of Inspiration. § 128. Definition and Exposition. We must distinguish between Revelation and Inspira tion, for they differ as to their objects, and as to their effects. The object of Revelation is the coramunication of knowledge; of inspiration, to secure infallibility in teach ing. The effect of Revelation is to render its recipient wiser; that of Inspiration is to preserve him from error in teaching, § 129—133. Proofs. § 139. Arguments a priori. A revelation once admitted, the necessity of authority seems to us to result from its very nature. 1) When we speak of a truth communicated by God, the notion of authority is inseparable from the notion of revelation. Suppose a revelation without authority: no more value, or certainty, can be attached to it than to a philosophy, and it would becorae, so far as it is a super natural communication, utterly worthless. 2) The acceptance of divine revelation on the part of man supposes an acknowledged authority, established by 152 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. evidence — an authority which can touch the heart and conscience, affect the imagination, and appeal to the in telligence of mankind. Without such an authority, revela tion cannot satisfy the three great wants of men: a) To give man a flrm and well grounded faith. 6) To strenghten and raise feeble, sinful, irresolute, and suffering man. c) To prescribe a rule to regulate his conduct and govern his passions. 3) There is a third consideration which seems to us to attach authority to revelation. It is its efficacy, not only upon men at the tirae when it was given, but also upon raen in the future ages of the world. We conclude, therefore, that he who admits a revelation, implicitly adraits an authority. "To recapitulate: the efficacy of the Bible is inseparably connected with its authority. Its authority is as insepa rably connected with its inspiration; and this inspired, efficacious, divine authority does not deprive reason of its legitimate use as an instrument. Reason is admissible as an instrument, but not as a rule and a judge. § 130. Biblical argument, or the argument drawn from the testimony of the Scriptures. The study of the testimony warrants us in affirming four facts fully attested. 1) The Old Testament represents its authors as men who professed to have received a mission from heaven, for the purpose of transmitting to men a revelation from God. No one can deny this of Moses and the prophets. 2) On the authority of the New Testament we can affirm the flve following propositions, which form five elementary facts: a) Jesus Christ promised to the apostles the aid of the Holy Spirit. See Matt. 10: 19, 20; Luke 21: 14, 15; John 14: 16-16: 13. b) He promised this aid as an extraordinary and special gift intended for the extraordinary and special times of the primitive Church. See especially John 15: 26—16: 4. c) This promise was fulfllled in an extraordinary and special manner on the day of Pentecost. d) The extraordinary and special gifts of the Holy Spirit, were either given directly to the fellow-laborers of the apostles. Or transmitted to them by the apostles themselves. See 1 Cor. 12: 4—11, 28; Rom. 12: 4—6; Eph. 4; 11, 12; 1 Tim. 4: 14; Eph. 3: 5. e) The Christians of all ages, since the time of the apostles, have never laid claim, when in the possession of sound reason, to divine inspiration, and to an authority like that of the apostles. They expect and receive aid from the Holy Spirit, but not revelation and the gift of inspired teaching. 3) The writers of the New Testament declare plainly and boldly that they were inspired. No one can ask proof more positive than is given in Gal. 1: 11, 12; Acts 15: 28; aind Eph. 3: 3-5. BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 153 4) The claim of the sacred writers of the Old and New Testaments to a real inspiration and to an authority which flows from it, was admitted by their contemporaries and successors, and .since the completion of the Canon of the Bible, the general admission of the doctrine of its inspira tion, by the Church, is incontestable. The argument from testimony furnished by these four facts, has great force. 131. Historical arguraent. If the sacred writers were not inspired, there were cer tain circumstances attending their ministry which appear to us inexplicable. This argument though not much used in recent discussions of this subject seems of a nature to impress impartial and considerate minds. It results frora the four following elements: 1) The flrst is of great moral force. It is the change produced upon the minds of the apostles from and after the day of Pentecost. These men, whose slowness and stupidity sometiraes grieved the Saviour, and astonish us when reading the Gospels; became almost, in an instant, the authoritative teachers of the human race, not only of their own age, but of all ages. There is but one way to explain so strange and so complete an intellectual transformation — they were inspired of God. 3) The second element, is the union of enthusiasm with calm judgment and good sense, the complete absence of fanaticism in men who devoted themselves to suffering and death. It is sufficient to mention St. Paul. There is but one solution of the wonderful history of his life, — that he was under the special teaching and guidance of the Holy Spirit. 3) A third element ofthe historical proof is the success of the ministry of the divine ambassadors. Sometimes, men the most obscure, and, humanly speaking, the least capable, were God's chosen instruments. The establishment of Christianity, in the midst of persecutions and struggles, is a fact historically inexplicable without divine intervention. This divine intervention to which the sacred writers appeal was a gift of power and of knowledge, which was given to them from heaven. 4) The last element is the impossibility of admitting the general proofs of revelation, without concluding from them, at the same time, the inspiration of the men who were its organs. This is particularly evident in regard a) to mirac les, 6) prophecies, c) the marvelous establishment of Christianty, and d) the sublimity of revealed truths. 132. Critical , Argument. We thns designate the proofs derived from the nature of the Sacred Books. We will indicate four. 1) 'The holy grandeur, the profound truth of the thoughts and precepts, and the lofty aims of these books; also their eloquent, vehement, poetical, and pathetic sublimity. The fact, too, that a harmony subsists between the doctrines of 154 THEOLOGICAL eStCYCLOPEDIA. the sacred writers and the necessities of the heart, that the most mysterious and raost profound needs of the soul are satisfled in the Scriptures, is a proof of great weight. 3) In the Bible we perceive a harmony, wbich, notwith standing individual and temporary diversities, continued during centuries without any special institution designed to maintain it. This is not a proof logically or mathe matically rigorous, but it is a phenomenon without a parallel, especially on so vast a scale. 3) The numerous biblical prophecies, whose fulflUment has been, or is still visible and certain. It is unnecessary to refer to any exaraples, as the f ulflUraent of the prophe cies relating to the Jews, to Jerusalem, to Babylon, to As syria, and to Christ, is familiar to every reader of the Bible and of history. 4) We may raention, finally, not as a decisive proof, but as a striking and Interesting fact, the struggle which seems soraetimes to exist in the sacred writings, between the divine superiority of the thoughts and the relative incar pacity of the language. We find examples of this in cer tain prophecies. § 133. Argument from the testimony of the Holy Spirit. The proof that tne Sacred Scriptures are inspired, and consequently possess full authority in raatters of faith, is required only for those who are yet without the Church, or who, if within her pale, are not conflrmed in the faith. But it lies in the nature of the case, that no proof can be given to those, which they cannot, in an unbelieving frarae of mind, evade; for the only absolutely stringent proof lies in the fact, that th'e Holy Spirit bears witness in the heart of each individual, and thus convinces him of the divinity of the Word of God, by the mighty influence which it exerts upon him. For the grand reason by and through which we are led to believe with a divine and unshaken faith that God's Word is God's Word, is the intrinsic power and efficacy of that Word itself, and the testimony and seal of the Holy Spirit, speaking in and through Scripture. § 134 — 136. Consequences. § 134. General Indetermination. The proofs which have just been considered sufficiently attest inspiration, but they determine neither its nature nor its degree. To determine these is of great importance. § 135. Consequences from the proofs adduced. Three propositions seems to us to result from the proofs exhibited, inasmuch as they are logical and necessary corollaries of the very idea of inspiration. 1) The sacred books written by inspired men, possess an authority sufficient for everything that pertains to the object of revelation. 2) The Holy Scriptures, written by inspired men, and intended to teach men the way of salvation, their duty to God and to one another, cannot contain errors in regard to these matters. BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS. 155 3) The different parts of the Holy Scripture cannot have opposite aims. 'There must be harmony among them; and taken together they must constitute a regular plan. 136. Questions to be determined. Many questions relative to the raode of inspiration can probably not be solved. But this is not the case with those questions that pertain to the nature and degree of inspiration. The solution of these questions is very im portant to a system of Hermeneutics, but their discussion propeWy belongs to Dogmatics. We, however, hold the doctrine of plenary inspiration, and believe that all the facts of Scripture are consistent with it. The divine and the human, employed in its composition, are so combined as to produce one undivided and indivisible result. Not withstanding the exercise of human agency in writing the Bible, it is aU aUke divine and notwithstanding the divine agency eraployed in its composition, it is all alike human. The divine and human elements together constitue a thean- thropic book. However inexplicable the union of the two elements in Scripture may be it is not a fact that stands alone in the world. It has an analogue in the Person of Christ. The analogy between the written Word and the Incarnate Word is sufficiently indicated in Scripture by the appli- caition of the same term to both. They are both called the Word of God. (See also § XXXVL p. 66). SELECT LITERATURE OF HERMENEUTICS. Barrows, E. P. A new Introduction to the Study ofthe Bible. London and New York. Part fourth contains a compact presentation of the funda mental principles of Hermeneutics. Davidson, Samuel. Sacred Hermeneutics developed and ap plied, including a History of Biblical Interpretation. Edin burgh, 1843. Doedes, J. J. Manual of Hermeneutics tor the writings ofthe New Testament. Translated from the Dutch. Edinburgh. 1867. An excellent little work. Ernesti, J. A. Principles of Biblical Interpretation. Trans lated from the Latin by Charles H. Terrot. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1843. This work, though superseded is still useful. Fairbairn, Patrick. Hermeneutical Manual, or Introduction to the Exegetical study of the Scriptures of the New Testa ment. Edinburgh and Philadelphia. 1859. 156 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Dr. Fairbairn's works on Typology and on Prophecy, are also very valuable. 6. Francke, A. H. A Guide to the Reading and Study of the Holy Scriptures. Translated by William Jaques with life of Francke. London and Philadelphia, 1823. 7. Hofmann, J. Chr. K., von. Bihlische Hermeneutik. Nach Manuscripten und Vorlesungen herausgegeben von W. Volck. Nordlingen, 1880, A valuable contribution to the Science of Hermeneutics. 8. Horne, Thomas Hartwell. An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures. 4 vols. Four teenth edition, 1877. ' The second volume, revised by John Ayre, contains an excel lent discussion of this science. We would again call special attention to the value of this edition Of Home's Introduction. ' 9. Immer, A. Hermeneutics of the New Testament. Translated from the Gerraan by Albert H. Newraan. Andover, 1877. Valuable and suggestive, but too progressive. 10. Lange, J. P. Grundriss der biblischen Hermeneutik. Heidel berg, 1878. Systeraatic, compact and convenient for use. 11. Pareau, J. H. Principles of Interpretation of the Old Testa ment. Translated from the original Latin by Patrick Forbes. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1835, 1840. 12. Planck, G. J. Introduction to Sacred Philology and Interpre tation. Translated from the German by S. H. Turner. Edin burgh and New York, 1834. 13. Terry, Milton S. Biblical Hermeneutics. A treatise on the Interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. New York, 1883. This is the fullest work on this subject in the English lang uage, and very valuable. 14. Tholuck, Augustus. Hints on the Interpretation of the Old Testament. Translated by Patton. Edinburgh, 1833. SECTION XLIX. EXEGESIS. Exegesis is the actualizing of Hermeneutics, the art of which Hermeneutics is the science. The one gives the theory, the other reduces it to practice. In Exegesis we have the Exposition and explanation of Scripture. The work of exposition is to show Scripture in its living relation, and assists us in giving a full explanation of it. With the exposition and explanation is to be joined the Apphcation of Sciipture, which belongs to Practical Theology. EXEGESIS. 157 'This science originated among the Jewish Scribes, passed into the Christian Church, and is one of the most important studies in a Theological Course. Every theological school must, flrst of all, have a chair of Exegesis or Biblical Literature,- most of them have two, one for the Old, and one for the X^ew Testament. The German language distinguishes between the words ausle- gen and erkldi en in such a raanner that the forraer corresponds to interpretation, the latter to the explaining by arguments what has been indistinctly understood. The Erktdrer does not develope what is hidden and concealed, but explains what is not clear and what is obscure. Hence it follows that the Ausleger of the Bible occupies a position different from that of the Erkldrer, although these terms are frequently employed as if they were synonymous. The Auslegei- opens what is concealed under the words of the Bible, and the Church demands Ausleger, Interpreters of God's Word, not simply Erkldrer. One of the most important helps for a pastor's thorough prepa ration for the pulpit is the daily habit of a practical reading of Scripture. But on this we cannot here dwell. We here refer to practical AppUcation of Scripture in our public ministrations— and raore especiaUy our own public commenting upon the Scripture read during divine Service. We must not forget that preaching in the olden time consisted very much more of exposition than it does now. Spurgeon has an interesting lecture on this suject of Commenting,* an outUne of which is here given. 1) The PubUc reading of the abstruser parts of Scripture is of exceedingly little use to the majority of people listening. 2) Brief comments upon Scripture in our ordinary services are most acceptable and instructive to our people. 3) If you are in the habit of comraenting, it wiU give you an opportunity of saying many things which are not of, sufficient im portance to become the theme of a whole Sermon. 4) In order to execute it weU, the commenting minister will at flrst have to study twice as much as the mere preacher, because he must prepare both his sermons and Jiis expositions. 5) A man to comraent well should be able to read the Bible in the original. The Hebrew Old Testaraent and the Greek New Testa ment wiU give him a library at a smaU expense, an inexhaustable thesaurus, a mine of spiritual wealth. 6) Fail not to be expert in the use of your Concordance. 7) Be careful in the study of your Commentaries. 8) In your public commenting, point out very carefully where- ever a word bears a special sense. 9) Explain obscure and involved sentences. Seek to make God's Word plain. 10) The chief part of your commenting should consist in apply ing the truth to the hearts of your hearers. 11) Avoid prosiness. 12) Avoid pedantry. 13) Never strain passages when you are expounding. 14) Use your judgment more than your fancy. 15) Be not carried away with new meanings. 16) Do not needlessly amend our Authori ed Version. * See ;3purgeoii, C. H. Commenting and Oommentaricf. Lectures, etc., with a Ust ol the best Biblical Commentaries and Expositions, etc. New York, 1876. 158 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 17) Be careful in the reading of God's Word, to bring out the sense. See Neh. 8: 8. 18) Commentaries, expositions, interpretations, are all mere scaffolding; the Holy Ghcst himself must edify you and help you to build up the Church of the Living God. SECTION L METHOD OF EXEGESIS. As to its method. Exegesis may vary. The various com mentaries show the different modes in which it may be applied. To the aids of Exegesis belong pre-eminently : i) Translations and Paraphrase. It is usual here to dis tinguish the ancient translations from the modern ones. 2) Commentaries. 3) Other aids to the expositor, consisting largely of mis cellanies, periodicals, etc. How can the exegete best prosecute his labors ? 1) It is self-evident that it cannot be done without helps; but he must not be too dependent on them . The right method is to accus tom oneself to exaraine every thought of the author first without a Commentary, and by exerting one self to the utraost, to under stand these thoughts. Then exegetical help consulted, wiU really afford inforraation. 2) We are never to investigate the subject-matter, before the grammatical sense has been ascertained. Grammatical and lexical means are to be first applied, before it is attempted to approach the author frora another side. 3) The different kinds of investigations — the grammatical, the historical, the scriptural and the doctrinal, should not be mixed with each other. There raust be order in the investigation. 4) Not unfrequently one may be led away into more extended investigations of a critical, a linguistic, an historical or archaeo logical question. Such investigations are not to be avoided, and may be of great value at another time, but the principal matter is to be kept always in view. 5) All single investigations must labor towards the good of the most perfect possible understanding of the whole. All such exegetical study has for its principal object exegetical impartation to others. This is a skill to be attained only thrqugh practice. Before an exegete can comraunicate the result of his study to others: 1) He ought to have as clear and transparent an understanding of the meaning as possible. 2) He raust have all his exegetical knowledge arranged in his mind, at his disposal, in the right place. 3) He must know the nature of the public to whora he is to communicate the uuderstandiug of a writing. LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 159 4) He will therefore present the matter in one way to an illite rate public, where the great object is the practical one of edifica tion; in another way to young men just entering upon the science of exegesis, where the principal aim is to introduce the hearers into exegetical praxis and methods, and in another way to the learned who have had much experience in exegesis. 5) But be the audience what it may, the interpreter is only to impart that which rainisters to his main object. 6) Nor is it necessary that the exegete present all that the exegetical helps furnish. 7) The ideal of the explanation is this, that the hearer be led step by step to the understanding of the author, so that he may believe, as it were, that he has himself found out the meaning. It must be shown not only what the right sense is, but also why it is so. 8) The exegete can never dispense with, at least, what is essen tial to previous investigation of his own, i. e., textual criticism, verbal explanation, explanation of the subject-matter, together with religious comprehension of the thought. Of Commentaries we may distinguish again three kinds: 1) Philological or grammatico-historical exegesis brings out simply the meaning of the writer according to the laws of lang uage, and the usus loquendi at the time of composition, and accor ding to the historical situation of-the writer, irrespective of any doctrinal or sectarian bias. It implies a thorough knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, and familiarity with conteraporary Uterature. 2) Theological exegesis develops the doctrinal and ethical ideas of the writer in organic connection with the whole teaching of the Scriptures, and according to the analogy of Faith. 3) Homiletical or practical exegesis is the application of the well-ascertained results of grammatical and theological interpre tation to the wants of the Christian congregation, and belongs pro perly to the pulpit. SELECT LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 1. COMMENTARIES ON THE WHOLE BIBLE. Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. General editor, J. J. S. Perowne, Dean of Peterborough. Cambridge. 22 vol uraes have already appeared. These little works are of far greater value than many ot the larger and raore elaborate coraraentaries. Critical and ^Experimental Commentary. A Comraentary, critical, experimental, and practical, on the Old and New Testament. By Robert Jamieson, A. R. Fausset, and David Brown. 6 vols. Philadelphia, 1875. An exceUent commentary at a comparatively cheap price ^$15.00). 160 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 3. Dachsel, Aug. Die Bibel, etc., mit in den Text eingeschalteter Anslegung, ausfuehrl. Inhaltsangaben, etc. 7 vols. Leipsic, 1880. One of the best of modern popular Commentaries. 4. Ellicott,, Charles John. An Old Testament Commentary for English Readers. By various writers. 6 vols. American edition. New York. A New Testament Commentary, etc., 3 vols. New York. Conservative and scholarly, incorporating all the latest results of criticism and exploration. We have never con sulted it in vain. 5. Lange, John Peter. A Commentary on the Holy Scriptures : critical, doctrinal, and homiletical, with special reference to ministers and students. Translated from the Gerraan, and edited, with additions, original and selected, by Philip Schafl, in connection with American Scholars of various evangelical denominations. 25 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons. New York, 1867—82. The most complete commentary on the whole Bible ever published, presenting the united scholarship of the theological world. For reference, and even for close study, the scholar cannot do without it. All schools of theology are represented. 6. Poole, Matthew. Annotations upon the Holy Bible ; wherein the sacred text is inserted, and various readings annexed, to gether with the parallel scriptures; the more difflcult terms in each verse are explained, seeming contradictions reconciled, questions and doubts resolved, and th^ whole text opened. 3 vols. New York, 1856. (Cheap edition). First printed in 1683, a work that has not yet been superseded, a marvel of erudition and expository tact. 7. Pulpit Commentary, The. Edited by Canon Spence and Joseph S. Exell. With Introductions by Canon Farrar, Principal TuUoch, Canon Rawlinson, etc. London and New York. This promises to be one of the most comprehensive and suggestive of coramentaries. Fifteen volumes have already appeared. 8. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. The Old Testa ment accqrding to the Authorised Version. With a brief Com mentary. 5 voluraes including the Apocrypha. London, 1876. - The Neio Testamen.t, etc. 2 vols. 1876. Prepared by some of the best scholars of the Church of Eng land. A marvel of cheapness and strictly evangelical. 9. Speaker's Commentary. The Holy Bible according to the Authorised version, with an explanatory and critical Commen tary and a revision of the Translation by Bishops and other clergy of the Anglican Church. Edited by F. C. Cook, Canon of Exeter. 10 vols. London and New York, 1871—81. A work that cannot be recommended too highly. Prepared by some of the raost eminent exegetes of the Church ot Eng land, strictly evangelical and churchly presenting all the latest positive results ol best Continental scholarship. LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 161 10. Starke, Christoph. Synopsis, etc., das ist kurzgefasster Aus- zug der gruendlichsten und nutzbarsten Auslegungen ueher alle Buecher der heiligen Schrift. 11 vols. New edition. Berlin, 1865. A weU-known work, valuable especially for its full analysis of Scripture. It holds its own after the lapse of a century and a half. 11. Vilmar, Aug. F. Chr. Collegium Biblicum. Praktische Erk- larung der heiligen Schrift Alten und Neuen Testaments. Her ausgegeben von Christian Mueller. 6 vols. Guetersloh, 1879 — 1883. A work that cannot be too highly recommended to the theo logical student. 12. Weimarische Bihelwerk. Nach den letzten Ausgabe von 1768 unverandert abgedruckt. One large quarto volume. St. Louis, 1877. Especially valuable, as it incorporates the views of our older theologians, especiaUy those of John Gerhard. 2. COMMENTARIES ON THE OLD TESTAMENT, OR ON CONSIDE RABLE PORTIONS THEREOF. 1. Hengstenberg, E. W. Christology of the Old Testament, and a commentary on the Messianic Predictions. Second edition. 4 vols. Edinburgh, 1857. -..-- Commentary on the Psalms. 3 vols. Edin burgh, 1854. Ecclesiastes with treatises on the Song of So lomon, on Job, on Isaiah, etc. 1 vol. Edinburgh, The Prophecies of Ezekiel elucidated. 1vol. Edinburgh. All that Hengstenberg has written is worthy of careful study. 2. Keil, C. F. and Delitzsch, Franz. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. 25 vols. T. and T. Clark. Edinburgh. Taking all things into consideration this is the best critical comraentary on the Old Testament published. Keil treats the Historical 13ooks, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the Minor Prophets, and is at his best in his comraentary on Joshua, and the Minor prophets, — at his poorest on the Pentateuch. Delitzsch writes on the reraaining books, and for deep spiritual insight and richness of oriental learning takes the very highest rank as an exegete. 3. Kurzgefasztes exegetisches Handbuch zum A. Testament. 17 vols. Leipsic. Contains work of unequal raerit, and tinged with the spirit of the Newer Criticism. Ainong its contributors, however, are some of the best Hebrew scholars of our age, as, e.g., DiUmann, Knobel, Bertheau, Justus Olshausen, etc. 4. Reuss, Ed. La Bible. Traduction nouvelle avec introductions et commentaires. Ancien Testaraent. Seven volumes. Paris, 1875, etc. JRegarded as the best commentary on the Old Testament, prepared by a single scholar. Unfortunately, however, the author grants to much to rationalistic critics. 162 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 2. COMMENTARIES ON THE PENTATEUCH. a) On the whole or greater portion thereof. 1. Gerlach, Otto von. Commentary on the Pentateuch. 1 vol. T. and T. Clark. Edinburgh. 2. Kalisch, M, M. A Historical and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament, with a new Translation. Genesis (1 vol.). Exodus (1 vol.), Leviticus (2 vols.). The prophecies of Balaara (1 vol,). Longraans, Green and Co. London. There are two editions of each commentary, one, Hebrew and English, and the other, an abridged English edition. Though very valuable, these commentaries have a Jewish anti-Christian tone. 3. Murphy, James G. Critical and Exegetical Commentaries on Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus. With a new translation; 3 separate volumes. Warren F. Draper. Andover. These commentaries are conservative and take" the very highest rank. 6) Genesis. 1. Delitzsch, Franz. Commentar ueher die Genesis, etc. Fourth edition. Leipsic, 1872. The scholar cannot be without it, 2. Jacobus, Melanchthon W. Notes on the Book of Genesis. 2 vols, in one. New York. A valuable work. 3. Luther, Martin. Enarrationes in Genesin. In his collected works. This is the most comprehensive and richest of all his exege tical works, prepared towards the close of his life, 1536— 1545, The flrst five chapters have been translated intoEnglish by Henry Cole (Edinburgh, 1858). 4. Wright, C. H, H. Book of Genesis in Hebrew, with various readings, notes, etc. London, 1859. Of value to the student of Hebrew. e) Exodus. 1. Bush, George. Notes on Exodus. 2 vols. 1865. Still of considerable value, as also are his other coraraentaries on the different books of the Pentateuch. 2. Cook and Clark. In Speaker's Commentary. Remarkable for the great knowledge of Egyptian history and of the ancient Egyptian language which it displays. 3. DUlraann and Knobel. In Kurzgefasztes exegetisches Hand buch. Though rationalistic to a certain extent, a commentary of vast and varied learning. 4. Hengstenberg, E. W. Egypt and the Books of Moses. 1 vol. Edinburgh. In the main a comment on Exodus, and still valuable. d) Leviticus. 1. Bonar, Andrew A. A Commentary on the Book of Leviticus expository and practical. With critical notes. London, Takes the very highest rank. LITERATURE OF EXEGE.SIS. 163 2. Ginsburg, Christian D. Leviticus in EUicott's Commentary. Especially valuable. 6) Numbers and Deuteronomy. 1. Lange and Schaff. In their Commentary. One of the lie^t commentaries on these books. /) Mi-srellaneous Works on the Pmitateauc-h . 1. Birks, T. R. Tlie Exodus of Israel ; its difflcuities examined and its truths confirraed; with a reply to re'-^nt objections. 2. Bonar, HorHtius, Earth's Morning; or Thoughts on Genesis. London, IbT.j. An explanation of the first .six chapters only. 3. Candlish, Robert. Tht Book of Gtnf. sis, expounded in a series of discourses. X'ew edition. carefuUy revised. 2 vols. Edin burg. 18*58. A work that ought to be in every theological library. 4 Curtiss, Sarauel S. The LevitieaJ Priests. A contribution to the Criticism of the Pentateuch. Edinburgh, 18.7. 5. Dawson, .1. AY The Origin of the World, according to Eevel ation and .Science. New York, 1ST7. 6. FuUer, Andrew. Expository Dini-om ses on Genesis. London. Very valuable. 7, Geikie, Cunningham. Hw.brsvnth the Bible; or, the Scriptures in the light of raodern discovery, etc. Volumes one and two. X'ew York. 8. Gibson, J. ilonroe. The Ages before Mose.s. Twelve lectures on the Book of Genesis. X'ew York, 1879. 9. Godet, F. Biblical Stiidie.s on the Old Te.sta nent. X'ew York. 10. Green, WiUiam Henry. Mo.se.s and the Prophets. A review of W. Robertson Sraith's Old Te.stomeut of the Jeu-ish Church, Kuenen's Prophecy and Proph':ts in Israel, and '\^'. Eobertson Smith's Prophets of Israel. X ew York, 1883. A most able answer to the critical theories of Wellhausen, Kuenen and Robertson Smith. 11. Guyot, Arnold. Creation, or The BibUcal Cosmogony in the Ught of raodern science. X'ew York, 1884. 12. Hengstenberg, E. W. Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pentateuch. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1817. 13. Jukes, Andrews, The Types of Genesis briefly considered, etc. London, 18 1 5. The Laic of the Offerings in Leri.tims. 1—7, etc. London and Boston. These works are very suggestive. 14, Kurtz. John Henrv. The Bible and Astronomy; an exposition of the BibUcal C-smoLjgv, and its relations to N'atural Science. PhUadelphia, 1861. " . ,, x, 15. Lawson, George. Lecturts on Joseph. 2 voLs. Edinburgh. 16. Pratt, John H. Scripture and Science not at varianrx ; etc. Seventh edition. London, 1872. , . ^ ¦^¦ 17 Seiss Joseph A. ffoZr/ Tj/ajftS,- or. The Gospel m Leviticus. A series of lectures on the Hebrew Ritual. PhUadelphia. Very valuable. 164 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 18. Watts, Robert. TheNewer Criticism and the Analogy of Faith. A reply to Lectures by W. Eobertson Smith on the Old Testa ment in the Jewish Church. Third edition. Edinburgh, 1882. 19. WiUiams, Isaac. Beginning of Genesis, with notes. London, 1861. Worthy of careful reading. 4. COMMENTARIES ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. a) Joshua. 1. Bush, George. Notes on Joshua. New York, 1861. 2. Calvin, John. Commentary upon .Joshua. Tianslated from the Latin, Edinburgh, 1854. Calvin is a prince among expositors. 3. Crosby, Howard. Expo.sitory Notes on the Book of Joshua. New York, 1875. 4. Fay, F. R. The Book of Joshua. In Lange's Series. Excellent. 5. KeU, C. F. Commentary upon Joshua. Edinburgh, 1857. The best commentary on Joshua extant. b) Judges and Ruth. 1. Bush, George. Notes on Judges. New York, 1852. Of considerable value. 2. Cassel, Paulus. Judges anrl Rath. In Lange's Series. Very valuable and suggestive. 3. Lawson, George. Lectures on the Book of Ruth. Edinburgh, 1805. '4. Morison, James. On Ruth. In the Pulpit Commentary. Cannot be too highly recoraraended. 5. Tyng, Stephen. The Rich Kinsman; or, the History of Euth. New York. 6. Wright, C. H. H. Ruth in Hebrew ; with grammatical and critical commentary. London, 1864. c) 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. On these books the commentaries in Lange's Series (Sarauel by Erdmann, Kings by Bahr, Chronicles by Zockler, Ezra and Esther by Schultz, Nehemiah by Howard Crosby), and in the Pulpit Commentary, take the very highest rank. Wordsworth's Holy Bible with Notes is also very valuable, and con tains raany useful quotations from patristic writers. d) Miscellaneous works on the Historical Books. 1. Davidson, Alex. Lectures, expository and practical, on the Book of Esther, Edinburgh, 1859. 2. Edersheim, A. The Temple. Its rainistry and services. Lon don, 1874, Isi'ael under Samuel, Saul and David, etc, Lon don, 1878. 3. Geiliie, Cunningham. Hours with the Bible. Volumes two and three. New York. LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 165 ' 4. Hacket, H. B. Illustrations of Scriptu.re, etc. Boston, 1868. 5. Hall, Joseph. Contemplations of tlie Historical Passages of the Old and New Testaments. London, 1868. 6. Krummacher, F. W. Elijah the Tishbite. 7 Elisha. 8. Lawson, George. Discourses on the History of David. 1833. 9 Discourses on Esther. Edinburgh, 1804. 10. Macduff, J. E. The Prophet of Fire. New York, 1864. II. McCrie, Thomas. Lectures on Esther. 1838. 12. Eawlinson, George. Historical Illustrations of the Old Testament. 1873. 13 The Five Great Monarchies of the Aneient Eastem World, etc. Three vols. New York. 14. Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. 3 vols. New York, 1870. 15 Sinai and Palestine. New York, 1875. 15. Taylor, AViUiam. David, King of Israel ; his lite and its lessons. New York, i875. 19, Elijah the Prophet. New York, 1876. 5. COMMENTARIES ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. a) Job. 1. Cook, F. C. Job. In the Speaker's Commentary. Takes the veryhighest rank. 2. Cox, Samuel. ACommentary onthe Bookof Job, with a tiansliAion. London, 1880. 3. Davidson, A. B. The Book of Job. In the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Takes the very highest rank. We know of no commentaries superior to these works of Cook and Davidson, for a popular and yet scholarly exposition of this sublime poem. 4. Delitzsch, Franz. On Job. In Keil and Delitzsch's Commentary. This is the best critical commentary on the Book of Job ex tant. 5. Dillmann, A. In Exegetisches Handbuch. Gives the most satitactory summary of modern criticism on this book. 6. zackler. Otto. Job. In Lange's Comraentary. One of the best in the series. 6) The Psalms. 1 xllexander, Joseph Addison. The Psalms translated and explained. 2 vols. New York, 1873. Occupies a first place among expositions. 2. Barnes, Albert. Notes on the Psalms. 3 vols. New York, 1870. 3 Binnie, William. The Psalms : their history, teachings, and use. London, 1859. 4 Bonar. Andrew. Christ and His Church in the Book of Psalms. Lon don, 1858. ¦ 166 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 5. Delitzsch, Franz. Commentary on the Psalms. 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1871. One of the best of the critical coraraentaries. 6. Hengstenberg, E.A\'. Commentary on the Psalms. 3 vols. Edinburgh. 7. Hupfeld, II. Die Psalmen, etc. 4 vols. Second edition. Gotha- 1867—72. Valuable on account of its history of interpretation and phi lological notes. Of tho critical school however, mainly in op position to Hengstenberg. 8. Jennings, A. C, and Lowe, AV. H. The Psalms, with Introduc tions and critical notes. 3 vols. 1877. Valuable for the beginner in Hebrew. 9. Kay, AVilliam. The Psalms, etc. London, 1871. 10. Murphy, James. On the Psalms, etc. Andover, 1875. 11. Neale, John Mason, and Littledale, R. F. A Commentary on the Psalms, from primitive and mediasval writers. 2 vols. London 1860—74. A devotional commentary, containing a -wonderful collec tion of allegorical interpretations. 12. Perowne, J, J. S. The Book of Psalms, etc. 2 vols. Andover. 1879- A valuable work. 13. Phillips, George. The Psalms in Hebrew, etc. London, 1848. The Hebrew text is given, with a valuable critical, exegeti cal, and philological comraentary. 14. Spurgeon, Charles H. The Treasury of David, etc. 6 vols. 1870—. The most voluminous work on the Psalras extant in the Eng lish language. e) Proverbs. 1. Arnot, Williaras. Laws from Heavenfor life on Earth: Illustra tions of the Book of Proverbs. London, 1857. Practical and suggestive. 2. Bridges, Charles. Proverbs: an exposition. New York, 1865. The standard work. 3. Delitzsch, Franz. Comraentary on Proverbs. 2 vols. Edin burgh, 1875. For a critical commentary excels all others. 4. Plumptre, E. H. In the Speaker's Commentary. One of the best of modern commentaries. 5. Thomas, David. The Practical Philosopher, etc. London. This excellent work contains briet and suggestive moral rea dings on the Book of Proverbs, for every day in tho year. 6. Wardland, Ralph. Lectures on the Book of Proverbs. 3 vols. London, 1866. d) Ecclesiastes. 1. Bridges, Charles. Exposition of Ecclesiastes. New York, 1860. 2. Buchanan, Robert. Eeelesiastes; its ineaning and its lessons, etc. London, 1859. 3. Cox, Samuel. The Quest of the Chief Good. Expository lectures on the Book of Ecclesiastes. London, 1808. LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 167 4, Delitzsch, Franz. Ecclesiastes. Edinburgh. The best critical commentary on this book. 5. Ginsburg, Christian D. Koheleth, or Ecclesiastes, etc. London, 1857. Valuable especially for its full literature. 6. Harailton, Jaraes. The Royal Preacher. Lectures on Ecclesias tes. New York, 1870. 7. Hengstenberg, E. W. Commentary on Eeelesiastes. To which are appended: Treatises onthe Song of Solomon; on the Book of Job; on the Prophet Isaiah, etc. Edinburgh, 1860. 8. Macdonald, James. Eeelesiastes. New York, 1856. 9. Plumptre, E. H. Eeelesiastes; or the Preacher. In the Cam bridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. A most valuable popular commentary. 10. .Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on Ecclesiastes. New York, 1851. 11. AVardlaw, Ralph. Lectures on Eeelesiastes. Philadelphia, 1868. 12. AVright, Charles H. H. The Book of Koheleth, considered in rela tion to modern criticism and to the doctrines of raodern Pess- iraism, with a critical and grammatical commentary. London, 1882. Takes the very highest rank. 13. ZOckler, Otto. In Lange's Commentary. Very valuable. e) Song of Solomon. 1. Burrowes, George. A Commentary on the Song of Solomon. Second edition, revised. Philadelphia, 1867. 2. Delitzsch, Franz. Song of Soiomon. In his Commentary on the Books of Solomon, 3. Gill, John. An Exposition on the Book of Solomon's Song. Reprinted./ London, 1854. This is a different work from the author's Exposition of the Old and New Testaraent, a work which deserves to be better known than it is. Gill excelled in Rabbinical learning, and was one of the raost learned scholars of his day. 4. Ginsburg, Christian D A Translation, with a Commentary, histori cal and critical. London, 1857. 5. Stuart, A. Moody. Song of Solomon. Exposition, with critical notes. London, 1860. 6. Thrupp, J. F. Song of Solomon. New translation, with coraraen- tary. London, 1862. 7. Withington, Leonard. SoZomon's Sons' translated and explained. Boston, 1861. /) Miscellaneous Works on the Poetical Books. 1. Kitto, John. Daily Bible Illustrations, etc. 8 vols in 4. New York, 1870. The best edition is that revised and enlarged by J. L. Porter, but it is more expensive and is published in 8 vols. 2. Ewald, IT. Die Diehter des alten Bundes. Third edition. Gottin gen 1866—67. 168 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 3. Luther, Martin. Psalmen- Auslegung. .Ein Coraraentar zu den poet. od. Lehrbuechem d. Alten Testaments. Aus seinen werken gesammelt und bearb. von Chr. G. Eberle. 3 vols. Stuttgart, 1874—79. 6. COMMENTARIES ON THE PROPHETICAL BOOKS. A. The Major Prophets, a) Isaiah. 1. Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Prophecies of Isaiah, e?ir- lier and later. (Unabridged edition). 2 vols. New York, 1878. Probably the most valuable commentary on the book extant in any language. 2. Birks, T. R. A Commentary on the Book of Isaiah, etc. Second edition. London, 1878. 3. Cheyne, T. K. The Prophecies of Isaiah. A new translation with commentary and appendices. Third edition, revised. 2 vols, in one. New York, 1884. Written in the spirit of the newer criticism, but worthy of careful study. 4. Cowles, Henry. Isaiah with notes. New York, 1869. Cowles has written a commentary on the whole Bible, and his notes are suggestive, and on the whole, very satisfactory. 5. Delitzsch, Franz. Biblical Commentary on Isaiah. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1862. Of the highest exegetical value, as is everything which Delitzsch has written on the Bible. 6. Strachey, Edward. Jewish History and Politics in the times of Sargon, etc. Second edition. London, 1874. 7. Nagelsbach, C. W. E. The Prophet Isaiah. In Lange's series. A most valuable contribution to the series. b) Jeremiah and Lamentations. 1. Keil, C. F. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Jeremiah and Lamentations. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1874. 2. Nagelsbach, C. W. E. Jeremiah and Lamentations. In Lange's series. Very valuable. 3. Sraith, R. Payne. Jeremiah and Lamentations. In Speaker's Commentary. One of the best of modem expositions. 4. Streane, A. W. The Book of the Prophet Jeremiah together with Lamentations. In the Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. An excellent work. c) Ezekiel. 1. Cowles, Henry. Ezekiel and Daniel, with notes, critical, ex planatory, and practical. New York, 1867. Very instructive. 2. Fairbairn, Patrick. Ezekiel, etc. Edinburgh, 1851. One of the best coraraentaries on this book, which has been called the "raost neglected of the Prophets." 3. Guthrie, Thomas. The Gospel in Ezekiel. New York, 1870. 4. Henderson, Ebenezer. Ezekiel with a Commentary, critical philological, and exegetical. Andover. 1870. LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 169 5. Hengstenberg, E, W. The Prophecies of the Prophet Ezekiel elucidated. Edinburgh, 1869. (d) Daniel. 1. Auberlen. Carl August. The Prophecies of Daniel and the Revelation. Edinburgh, 1857. 2. Barnas, Albert. Notes on, Daniel. New York. One of the best of the many commentaries written by this Araerican scholar. . ' 3. FuUer J. M. Daniel. In Speaker's Comraentary. Takes the very highest rank. 4. Keil, C. F. Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Edinburgh, 5. Pusey, E. B. Daniel the Prophet. Nine Lectures. New York, 1885. The standard work on Daniel. 6. Rule, William Harris. Historical Exposition of Daniel. Lon don, 1869. 7. Stuart, Moses. A Commentary on the J?ook of Daniel. Boston, 1850. Valuable on accoimt of grammatical notes for the beginner in Hebrew. 8. Zockler Otto. On Daniel. In Lange's Series. Very valuable. B. The Minor Prophets. a) On ihe Minor Prophets as a whole. i. Cowles, Henry. The Minor Prophets, with notes. New York, 1876. 2. Henderson, Ebenezer. The Twelve Minor Prophets, etc. An dover, 1868. 3. Keil, C; F. Commentary on'the Minor Prophets. Edinburgh, 1871. Keil is here at his best. 4. Lange, J. P. and Schaff, Philip. Commentary on the Minor Prophets. This volume is probably the best in the Lange series, and is a noble product of the combined scholarship of Europe and America, valuable especially on account of its elaborate intro ductions and full citations ol literature, 5. Pusey, E. B. The Minor Prophets. 2 vols. Reprinted by Funk and Wagnalls. New York, 1885. This is the standard work, and no scholar can do without it. Valuable especially for its citations of patristic interpretation and its practical remarks. b) Separate Books. I) Hosea. 1. Cheyne, T. K. The Book of Hosea. Cambridge, 1884. An excellent little work. ( 2. Drake, William. Notes critical and explanatory on the Prophecies of Jonah and Hosea. Cambridge, 1853. 170 theological enCyolopj^dia. 3. Nowack, W. Der Prophet Hosea erkUrt. BerUn, 1880. Contains a list of aU recent Continental commentaries and monographs. 4. Wuensche, August. Der Prophet Hosea, uebersetzt und erkiart rait Benutzung der Targumim, etc. Leipsic, 1868. This is the most important work on Hosea, published for many years. 2) Joel. 1. Credner, K. A. Der Prophet Joel, uebersetzt und erkiart. HaUe, 1831. Especially valuable on account of philological and historical illustration. 2. Diedrich, J. Der Prophet Joel kurz erkiart. Leipsic, 1861. 3. Merx, Adalbert. Die Pi ophetie des Joel und ihre Ausleger von den altesten Zeiten bis zu den Eeformatoren. Halle, 1879. Contains an elaborate history of interpretation, and in an appendix we have the Ethiopic text, edited by Dillmann. 4. SchmoUer, Otto. The Book of Joel. In Lange's Series. 5. Wuensche, August. Die Weissagungen des Prophet Joel, etc. Lepsic, 1872. 3) Amos. This is the most neglected of the Minor Prophets. No special monograph of great value has as yet been written. 1. Pusey, E. B. On Hosea. In his commentary on the Minor Prophets. One of the very best works on this Prophet. We cannot com mend too highly Pusey's Commentary on the Minor Prophets. 2. SchmoUer, Otto. The Book of Amos expoukded. In Lange's Series. 4) Obadiah. 1. Caspari, C. P. Der Prophet Obadjah ausgelegt. Leipsic, 1842. An important work. 2. Kleinert, Paul. The Book of Obadiah. In Lange's series. Takes the very highest rank. 3. Eandolph, W. Analytiedl Notes on Obadiah and Habakkuk. London, 1878. 5) Jonah. 1. ExeU, Joseph. Practical Readings on the Book of Jonah. London, 1874. 2. Fairbairn, Patrick. Jonah; his life, character, and mission. Edinburgh, 1849. Takes the very highest rank. 3. Kalisch, M. M. Bible Studies. Part II. The Book of Jonah. Lon don, 1878. From a Jewish standpoint, but very valuable. 4. Martin, Hugh. The Prophet Jonah. London, 1866. A standard work. 5. Perowne, T. T. Obadiah and Jonah. With notes. Cambridge, 1883. An exceUent little work, in Cambridge Bible for Schools and CoUeges. All these works are published separately. 6. Ealeigh, Alexander. The Story of Jonah. Edinburgh, 1875. LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 171 7. Wright, W. The Book of Jonah in Four Semitic Versions. Chaldee, Syriac, Aethiopic, and Arabic. AVith corresponding glossaries. Williams and Norgate. London, 1857. 6. Micah. 1. Caspari, C. P. Ueber Micah, etc. Christiania, 1852. 2. Cheyne, T.K. The Book of Micah. Cambridge, 1882. An excellent little work. 3. Kleinert, Paul. The Book of Micah. In Lange's series. The standard work. 7. Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. On these books we can recommend nothing better than Keil, Kleinert in Lange's Series, and Pusey. 8. Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. 1. Chambers, Talbot W. The Book of Zechariah. In Lange's Series. Takes the very highest rank as a commentary. 2. KShler, August. Die nachexilischen Propheten. Erlangen. Haggai, 1860. Zechariah, 1861, Malachi, 1880. 3. Lowe, W. II. The Hebrew Student's Commentary on Zechariah. London, 1882. 4. Moore, T. V. Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. A new translation with notes. New York, 1856. 5. Pressel, Wilh. Commentar zu den Schriften der Propheten Haggai, ete. Gotha, 1870. 6. Wright, C. H. H. Zechariah and his Prophecies. New York, 1879. 7. COMMENTARIES ON THE WHOLE OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 1. Alford, Henry. The Greek Testament; with a critical revised text a digest of various readings, marginal references to verbal and idiomatic usage, prolegomena, and a critical and exegetical coramentary. For the use of theological students and ministers. 4 vols. Seventh edition. Boston, 1880. A voluminous and valuable work, in which the author has used with skill the labors of German scholars (De Wette, Meyer, Olshausen, Stier, Tisehendorf). His digest of German New 'Testaraent exegesis has perraanent value. 2. Bengel, John Albert. Gnomon of the New Testament. There are three editions in English, all of which are good. It is not necessary, to describe this well-known work. Its equal cannot be found in exegetical literature. 3. Meyer, H. A. W. Critical and Exegetical Handbook. 2 vols. T. & T. Clark. Edinburgh. An American edition has been republished by Funk and AVagnalls. This is one of the most voluminous grararaatical and exege tical commentaries pubUshed. 4. Olshausen, Hermann. Biblical Commentary on the New Testament. 6 vols. NewYork, 1863. There are two editions in English. Of a phUosophical and allegorizing tendency, without, however opposing the gram- 172 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. matical and historical sense. The author often shows a pro found preeeption of the meaning of Scripture. 5. Schafl, PhUip. A popular Commentary on the New Testame,%t. By English and American Scholars of various evangelical denomi nations. With Illustrations and maps. 4 vols. New York, 1879. A royal work, valuable especially on account of its illustrated cuts of Bible lands, made from recent photographs. The sub stance of these notes, partly rewritten, appear in the Internatio nal Commentary on the Eevised Version, now appearing, also edited by Dr. Schafl. 6. Webster, WiUiam and Wilkinson, William F. The Greek Testa ment with notes grammatical aiid exegetical. 2 vols. London, 1855. 7. Wordsworth, Christopher. The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, in the Original Greek. With introductions and notes. 2 vols, Lcrdon, 1877. A work valuable for its patristic quotations. Wordsworth is always suggestive, and it is very seldom that he misses the true exegesis of a passage. 8. COMMENTARIES ON THE GOSPELS. The aim ot the writer is not to give siraply a list of the good Commentaries on each book, but to designate the best, limiting the number to four or five. We will not refer to works already mentioned in our list of Commentaries on the whole Bible, and in the list on the whole of the New Testament, unless the work so designated takes the very highest rank. a) Matthew, 1, Carr, A. Cambridge Greek Testament for Schools. The Gospel ac cording to St. Matthew. With rnaps, notes and introduction. Cambridge, 1881. 2. • Keil, C. F. Commentar ueber das Evangelium d. Matthdus. Leipsic, 1877. One of the most valuable contributions, strictly evangelical and churchly and rich in philological and historical matter. This criticism applies also to his bther Coraraentaries on the the New Testara_ent. 3. Morison, James. A Practical Commentary on the Gospel according to St. Matthew. A new edition, revised. London and Boston, 1884. One of the most voluminous, and at the same time, one ol the best commentaries on this Gospel. 4. Nast, William. A Commentary on the Gospels of Matthew and Mark : critical, doctrinal, and homiletical, embodying for popular use and edification the resu] t ^ bf German and English exegetical literature, and designed to meet the difliculties of modern skep ticism. Cincinnati, 1864. 5. Weiss, Bernhard. Das Matthdus evangelium, etc. Halle, 1876. b) Mark. 1. Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Gospel according to St. Mark explained. New York, 1868. 2. Keil, C. F. Commentar ueber das Evangelium Markus ujid Lukas^ Leipsic, 1879. lit:er.\ture of exegesis. 173 3. Maclear, G. F. The CamJiridge Greek Testament. The Gospel ac cording to St. Mark. Cambridge, 1868. 4. Morison, Jam^. A Prastieal Commentary on the Gospel aecording to St. Mark. Third edition, revised. L,:nd.in, "1885. 5. Weiss, Bernhard. Das Markus evangelium, etc. Berlin, 1872. e) Luke. L Farrar, F.W. The Camhriiae Greek Testament The Gospel ac cording- tspel, etc. Edinburgh, 1875. 14. Luther, Martin. Evangelien- Auslegung. Ein Komraentar zu den vier Evangelien. Aus seinen Werken gesammelt und bearbeitet von Eberle. Stuttgart, 1877. 15. Eobinson, Edward. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Gh'cck. New and revised edition by M. B. Eiddle, New York, 1885. Also in English. 16. Stier, Eudolph. The Wfii-ds of our Lord Jesus. 8 vols, in four. Edinburgh, 1869. 17. Tholuck, August. Commentary on the Sermon on the Mount, etc. Edinburgh, 1869. 18. Thomas, David. The Genius of the Gospel. A Ilomiletic Com mentary on the Gospel of St. Matthew. London, 1864. 19. Tisehendorf, Constantine, Origin of the Four Gospels, etc, Boston, 1866. 20. Trench, E. C. Notes on the Parables. New York, 1871. Also Notes on the Miracles. New York. 1871. 21. Westcott, Brooke Foss. An Introduction to the Study of the Gospels. Fifth edition. London, 1876. 9. COMMENTARIES ON THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. a) Commentaries. 1. Alexander, Joseph Addison. The Acts of the Apostles explained. 2 vols. New York, 1875, 2. Baumgarten, Michael. Apostolic History being an account of the developraent of the Early Church in the form of a Com mentary on the Acts of the Apostles. 3 vols. Edinburgh, 1854. A most valuable work. 3. Denton, W. A Commentary on the Acts ofthe Apostles. 2 vols. London, 1876. 4. Gloag, Paton J. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1870. Nothing superior to this work. 5. Hackett, Horatio B. A Commentary on the Original Text ofthe Acts of the Apostles. Andover, 1877. Takes the very highest rank. 6. Humphrey, AV. G. Commentary on the Acts. London, 1854. Exegetical remarks upon the Greek text. h) Miscellaneous Works. 1. Arnot, William. The Church in the Hou.se. A series of Les sons in the Acts of the Apostles. New York, 1873. LITERATURE OF EXEGESI.S. 175 2. Conybeare, W. J. and Howson, J. S. Life and Epistles of St. Paul. 2 vols. New York, 1872. Stress laid on the geographical relations of the Book of Acts. 3. Green, Sarauel G. The Apostle Peter. His life and letters. London, 1873. 4. Lewin, Thomas. Life and Epistles of St. Paul. Fourth edi tion, revised. 2 vols. London, 1878. Stress laid on the historical relations of the Book of Acts. 5. Neander, J. A. W. History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church by the Apostles. New York, 1865. Cannot be recoraraended too highly. 6. Parker, Joseph. Apostolic Life, as revealed in the Acts ol the Apostles. 3 vols. Funk and AVagnalls. New York, 1885. , 7. Stier, Eudolph. The Words of the Apostles. Edinburgh, 1869. 8. Thomas, David. Homiletic Commentary on the Acts. London, 1870. 9. Vaughan, Charles J. Lectures on the Acts. 3 vols. London, 1864. 10. COMMENTARIES ON THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL. a) The Epistles to the Thessalonians. 1. Eadie, John. A Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistles of Paul to the Thessalonians. London, 1877. Takes the very highest rank. 2. EUicott, Charles J. A Critical aud Grammatical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistles to the Thessalonians. With a revised translation. Andover, 1865. 'The Greek text is given at the head of each page. For one who wishes to study the Greek Testament thoroughly, no bet ter guide can be found than Ellicott. 3. Lillie John. Lectures on the Epistles of Paid to the Thessalo nians. New York, 1860. 6) Galatians. 1. Eadie, John. A Commentary on the Greek Text of Galatians. Edin burgh, 1869. A very valuable work. 2. ElUcott, Charles J. On Galatians. Andover, 1867. See on Thessalonians. 3. Lightfoot, J. B. St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. A revised text, with introduction, notes, and dissertations. Andover, 1870. Sixth edition. London, 1880. The works of Bishop Lightfoot take the highest rank. 4. Luther, Martin. A Commentary on Galatians. Philadelphia, 1860. "I do prefer this book of Martin Luther upon the Galatians, excepting the Holy Bible, before all books that I have ever seen, as most flt for a wounded conscience" (Bunyan). 5 Meyer, H. A. W. Critical and Exegetical Hand-book to the Epistle to the Galatians, Araerican edition, with supplementary notes by Henry E. Jacobs. Funk and Wagnalls. New York, 1884. 176 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 6. Philippi, F. A. Erklarung des Brief es Pauli an die Gclater. Gueters loh, 1884. c) The Epistles to the Corinthians. 1. Beet, Joseph Agar, A Commentary on the Epistles to the Corinthians. New York and London, 1883. The work of one of the best scholars of England, represent ing theological tendenci es, however, ofthe Wesleyan Methodist Church. 2. Hodge, Charles. An Exposition of 1 Corinthians. New York, 1869. An Exposition of 2 Corinthians. New York, 1870. 3. Meyer, H. A. W. Critical and Exegetical Hand-book to the Epistles to the Corinthians. American edition, with supplementary notes by Talbot W, Chambers. New York, 1884. Meyer is here at his best. 4. Stanley, Arthur P. The Epistles of St. Paul to the Corinthians. With critical notes and dissertations. Fourth edition, London, 1876. d) Romans. 1. Beet, Joseph Agar. A Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, Third revised edition, with new Appendix. New York, 1883. See on Corinthians. 2. Godet, F. Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle tothe Romans. Ameri can edition, revised by Talbot W. Chambers. New York, 1883. Takes tha very highest rank. 3. Hodge, Cb axles. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. New edition. Philadelphia, 1870. 4. Luther Martin, Der Brief an die Romer. Aus seinen Schriften herausgegeben von Eberle. Sluttgart, 1878. 5. Meyer, H. A. W. Criticil and Exegetical Hand-look to the Epistle to the Romans. Supplementary notes to the American edition by Timothy Dwight. New York ,1884. 6. Philippi, F. A. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1878. Takes the very highest rank. 7. Robinson, Thomas. A Suggestive Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, with critical and homiletical notes. 2 vols. New York, 1873. 8. Vaughan, C. J. St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. With notes. Fifth ed:.tion. London, 1880. For the first reading of the Greek text, there is no commen tary superior to this, as it is entirely Biblical, illustrating the usage ol the Greek, by citing parallel passages frora the Septua- gjut and the Greek New Testaraent. e) Ephesians. 1. Eadie, JohT],. Commentary on the Greek Text of the Epistle to the Ephesians. London, 1861. See on Thessalonians. 2. EUicott, Charles J. On the Epistle to the Ephesians. Andover, 1875. See on Thessalonians. LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 177 3. Harless, G. C. A. Commentar ueber den Brief Pauli an die Ephesier. Second edition, Stuttgart, 1858. This is simply a reprint of the flrst edition of 1834. "For accurate scholarship, leaming, candor and ability, one of the best, if not the very best commentary that has ever yet appeared on any single portion of Holy Scriptures" {Ellicott). 4. Hodge, Charles. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians. New York, 1870. 5. Luther, Martin. Die Epistle an die Epheser ausgelegt. Aus seinen Schriften herausgegeben von Eberle. Stuttgart, 1878. 6. Meyer, H. A. W. Critical and Exegetical Hand-book to the Epistle to the Ephesians. American edition, with supplementary notes by Henry E. Jacobs. Funk and Wagnalls. New York, 1884. /) Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. 1. Cox, Samuel. The Private Letters of St. Paul and St. John. London, 1867. 2. Eadie, John. Commentary on the Greek Text of tke Epistle to the Philippians. London, 1859. On Colossians. London, 1885. Standard works. 3. EUicott, Charles J. Commentary on Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. Andover, 1865. Seeon Thessalonians. 4. Hackett, H. B. Notes onthe Greek text of Philemon. New York, 1860. 5. Lightfoot, J. B. St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians. A revised text, with introduction, notes, and dissertations. Second edition. London and Cambridge, 1869. Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon, etc. Third edition. London, 1879. Nothing superior. 6. Thomasius, D. G. Praktische Auslegung des Briefes Pauli and die Kolosser. Erlangen, 1869. 7. Vaughan, C. J. Lectures on St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians. Fourth Edition. London, 1882. g) Pastoral Epistles. 1. ElUcott, Charles J. A Critical and Grammatical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles. With a revised translation. Andover, 1875. This work should be in the handsof every theological student. 2. Fairbairn, Patrick. The Pastoral Epistles. The Greek Text and Translation. With introduction, expository notes and dissertar tions. Edinburgh, 1874. Takes the very highest rank. h) Hebrews. 1. Bleek, F. Der Hebraerbrief erkiart. Edited by Windrath. Elber- feld, 1868. An exceUent work. 2. Davidson, A. B. The Epistle to the Hebrews, with introduction and notes. Edinburgh, 1882. 178 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 3. Delitzsch, Franz. Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1880. 4. Kay, William. On Hebrews. In Speaker's Commentary. A most exceUent work. 5. Luenemann, G. Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Hebrews. Edinburgh, 1882. Worthy to form a continuation of Meyer's Commentary. 11. COMMENTARIES ON THE SEVEN GENERAL EPISTLES. a) James. 1. Neander, A. Scriptural Exposition of 1 John, Philippians, and the Epistle of James. New York, 1859. 2. ' Stier, Eudolph. The Words of the Risen Saviour, and Commen tary on James. Edinburgh, 1869. 3. Van Oosterzee, J. J. The Epistle General of James. In Lange's Series. b) The Epistles of St. John. 1, Candlish, Robert. Thefirst Epistle of John expounded in a series of Lectures. Third edition. Edinburgh, 1877. 2. Cox, Samuel. The Private Letters of St. Paul and St. John. London, 1867. 3. Ebrard, J. H. A. Commentary onthe Epistles of St. John. Edinburgh, 1860. 4. Haupt, Erich. Thefirst Epistle of St. John. A Contribution to BibUcal Theology. Edinburgh, 1879. 5. Westcott, Brooke.Foss. The Epistles of St. John. The Greek Text, with notes and essays. London, 1883. e) The Epistles of Peter and Jude. 1. Fronmueller, G.F. C. The Epistles General of Peter and Jude. In Lange's series. 2. Gardiner, Frederic. A Commentary upon the Epistle of St Jude, etc. Boston, 1856. 3, Keil, Carl Friedrich. Commentar ueber die Briefe des Petrus und Judas. Leipsic, 1883. 4. Lillie, John. Lectures on the First and Second Epistles of Peter. New York, 1869. 5. Luther, Martin. A Commentary upon the two Epistles of Peter and Jude. New York. 6. Plumptre, E. H. The General Epistles of Peter and Jude. With notes and introduction. Cambridge, 1879. In the Cambridge Bible for Schools. 12. COMMENTARIES ON THE BOOK OF REVELATION. Auberlen, Carl A. The Prophecies of Daniel and the Revelation of St. John, viewed in their mutual relation, etc. Edinburgh, 1856. EUiott, C. B. HorcB Apoealyptiea, or a commentary on the Apo calypse. 1 vols. London, 1862. LITERATURE OF EXEGESIS. 179 3. Gebhardt, Hermann. The Doctrine of the Apocalypse, and its relar tions to the doctrine of the Gospel and the Epistles of John. Edinburgh, 1883. 4. Godet, F, Biblical Studies on the New Testament. New York, 1877. 5. Hengstenberg, E. W. The Revelation of St. John expounded. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1857. 6. Kliefoth, H. Die Offenbarung des Johannes. Leipsic, 1874. 7. Lee, William. The Revelation of St. John. In Speaker's Com mentary. 8. Seiss, Joseph A. The Apocalypse. A series of special Lectures on the Revelation of Jesus Christ. With a text. 3 vols. Phila delphia, 1872—80. 9. Trench, Richard C. Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches in Asia. New York, 1872. 10. Williams, Isaac. The Apocalypse, with notes and Reflections. Lon don, 1852. INDEX. Aljelard. .58, 59 Activity and reUgion, 20 A&sthetics, value of study of, 40, 58; books on, 55 Analogy of Faith, 143-145 Anselm', 59 -VntUegomena, the. 111, 112 Antiquities, BibUcal, 69, 9L 95; Uterature of, 97 Apocryphal books, of Old Testa ment, 63 Apologetics, 11, 39 Arabic, 79; Uterature of, 81 Archseology, BibUcal, 7, 69, 91- ^; Uterature of , 96-101 Archseology, Christian, 10 Assyrian Uterature, 82 Bacon, phUosophy of, 42 Bible. See Holy Scriptures BibUcal Archseology, Geogra phy, Topography, etc. See Archseology, etc. Biographies, 34, 35 Caliinism, 18 Canonies 8, 9, 69, 101, 102; Utera ture of, 109 Catechetics, 12 Chaldee language, 70, 79; Utera ture of, 80 Character, formation of, 27-31; books on, 34, 35 Christianity compared with Ju daism and Heathenism, 18 Church, the relation of minister to, 21; theology related to, 21 Church History," divisions of, 9, 10 Chiu-ch PoUty, 18 Classics, importance of the study of the, 89 CoU^ate Studies, 28, 24 Commentaries, select list of, 159- 180 Commenting, rules for, 157 Concordances, 90 Criticism, BibUcal, 69, 110-115; Uterature ot, 116-122 Criticism, higher, 69, 113, 115 textual, 69, 113-115; rides of, 115; Uterature of, 118, 119 Deism, 51 Descartes, phUasophy of, 43 Devotional books, 35, 36 Diaconics, 13 Dictionaries of the Bible, 96, 97 Doctrinal Hermeneutics, 150-155 Doctrines, history of, 10 Dogmatics, 11 Domestic Antiquities of the Jews. 94; literature of, 100 Education, how to use the ad vantages of, 24-26 Egyptian Uterature, 82 Emotion and reUgion, 20 Encyclopaedia, deflnition .of, 1. See Theological Encyclopsedia Ethics, 11; books on, 55 Ethiopic, 79; Uterature of, 82 Ethnography, BibUcal, 12 EvangeUsties, 12 Exegesis, 65, 66; sciences auxU iary to, 6; definition of, 156; methods of, 156; Uterature of, 159-180 Ex^etical Theologj', 5, 7-9, 65; deflnition of, 66 Exercise, 13 Exposition of Scriptures, 157 Foreign missions, 12 Geography, BibUcal, 69, 92, 93; Uterature of, 93, 97, 98 German, knowledge of, impor tant, 78 Grammars, Greek, 87, 88 Grammatical school of interpre tation, 125, 126 Grammatical hermeneutics, i3i- 137 Greek of the X'ew Testament, 70,83-86; helps to the study of, 87-9 1 Greek Testament, editions of, 11&-117 182 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. Greek, text-books in, 87, 88 Gybernetics, 13 Hagenbach, system of, 2, 4-6 Health, importance of to stu dent, 3 1 Heathenism, 18 Hebrew Correspondence school, 75 Hebrew Bible, editions of, 1 16 Hebrew language, 70-74; know ledge of indispensable to theo logian, 70, 71; characteristics of, 72; literature of, 73; history of study of, 73, 74; helps to the study of, 75-78 Hermeneutics, 9, 68, 123-156; psychological, 129, 130; grammatical, 131-136; historical, l37-,42; scriptural, 43-149; doctrinal, 50-155; literature of , i55, 156 Historical school of interpreta tion, 125, 126 Historical Hermeneutics, 1 37- 143. Historical Theology, 5, 9, lO, 65 History, importance of the study of, 39 History of Old Testament; 7 of New Testament, 8 History of Philosophy, 54, 57 Hobbes, philosophy of, 42, 43 Holy Scriptures, as the object of Exegesis, 66 inspiration of, 66, 151-155; original languages of, 70; moral and intellectual character of, 148-150; Homiletics, 12 Home missions, 13 Inspiration of Bible, 66, 151-155 Internal vocation to ministry, 13-15 Interpretation, science of, 123- 156 Interpreter, dispositions neces sary to the, 130 Introduction to Old Testament, 7, 102, 103; to New Testament, 8, 104-106; Biblical, 69, 101-109; literature of, 107-109 Isagogics, 69, 101-109 Judaism, 18 Knowledge and Religion,' 19 Latin, knowledge of necessary, 78 Leibnitz, philosophy of, 44 Lexicons, Greek, 89 Literature ot Jews, 95 Liturgies, 12 Logic, study of, 53; books on, 55 Logical school of interpretation, 125 Luther, 59 Lutheranism, 61 ; contrasted with Calvinism, 18 Materialism, 51 Mathematics, value of the study of, 39 Metaphysics, study of, 53; books on, 56 Methodology, deflnition of, 4 Minister, description of a true, 16; three-fold task of the, 20; as related to the Church, 21 Ministerial education, books on, 33 Ministerial office, character of, 16, 17, 19 Ministry, choice of, 13, 14 motives for entering, 14, 15; internal vocation to, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17; external vocation to, 16; what it teaches, 17, 18 Missions, 12, 13 Moral and intellectual character of the Bible, 148-150 Moral philosophy, books on, 55 Motives for entering ministry, 14, 15 Music, value of study of, 40 Mysticism, 59, 60; books on, 63; Natural History of the Bible, 93, 94; Uterature of, 100 Natural Theology, books on, 56,57 Naturalistic school of interpre tation, 125 New Testament, introduction to, 8; biblical history of, 8; character of, 69; language of, 70, 71; biblical theology of, 8; relation to Old, 67; literature of textual criticism of, 118 Old Testament, doctrine of, 7, 8; relation to the New, 67 ; char acter of, 68; division of, 67; in troduction to, 7; archaeology THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA. 183 of, 7; history of, 7; theology of, 8; literature of textual criti cism of, 118 Original composition, 26 Pantheism, 51, 52 Parallels of ideas, 145—147 Pastoralics, 13 Philology, importance of the study of, 38, 39; definition of Sacred, 69, 70 Philosophy as related to theo logy, 41—54. importance of the study of, 45 — 49, method of the study of, 46 — 49; study of history of, 54; books on the history of, 57 Pietism, 60; books on, 68 Pietistic school of interpreta tion, 125 I'olitical Antiquities of the Jews, 94; literature of, 101 Polyglots, 119, 120 Practical Theology, 6, 11—13, 65 Protestantism and Romanism contrasted, 18 Psychology, study of, 53; books on, 54 Rationalism, 58; books on, 63 history of, 64 Eeading, proper method of 25, 26, 31; literature on subject of, 32 Eeligion, nature of, 17 — 20; de finition of, 19, 20; historical forms of, 18 ;books onthe phi losophy of, 56 Revelation and inspiration, con trasted, 151 Eomanism, 18 Sacred Antiquities of the Jews, 94, 95 Samaritan, 79; literature of, 82 Sanscrit, 79; literature of, 83 Schleiermacher, philosophy of, 45 Scholasticism, 41 Science, physical, 69, 93, 94 Scriptures. See Holy Scriptures Semitic dialects, 78—83 Semitic faraily of languages, 71 Sense of Scripture, not double, 126—129 Septuagint, editions of, 121 Spinoza, philosophy of, 44 Students, forraation of character of, 27 — 31 ; relation to his pro fessors, 28; spirit in which he should prosecute his studies, 28, 29; raust understand the tendencies in theology, 61, 62 Supranaturalisra, 59; books on, 63 Syrabolics, 10 Syriac, 79; literature of, 80, 81 Systeraatic Theology, 6, 11, 65, Testaraent, meaning of, 67. See Old and New Testament Theological Encyclopaedia, defi nition of, 1 ; division of Hagen bach,, 4— 6; of Zockler, 7— 13; errors to be avoided in study of, 4; Uterature of, 2, 3, 32; im portance of study of, 24; place of, in study of theology, 3 Theological School, 22, 23 Theology study of, 22; related to the Church, 21; a positive science, 37 ; relation to prepa ratory culture, 38; to the fine arts, 40; to philosophy, 41—49; tendencies in, 57 — 61 ; divisions of, 65, Tobacco, use of, 29, 30 Topography, Biblical, 93; litera ture of, 99; Travel, books of, 99, ,00 Unionism, 6i Unity of sense ot Scripture, 126 ,29 University Studies, 23, 24 Various readings, 114 Vocation, internal, 13—15 external, i6 Vulgate, editions of, 121 "Writing, rules for, 26 Zockler, system of, 4, 5, 7 — 13 Zwingli, 59 ERRATA. Page 47, Une 24, read any one for one any. " 115, omit lines 2 and 3. All other typographical mistakes are of such a character that they can easily be corrected. 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