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CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES
EDITED BY
WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON

THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE
OLD TESTAMENT

BY
WILLIAM R. HARPER

THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN
THE OLD TESTAMENT
AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY

FOR USE IN ADVANCED BIBLE CLASSES

WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER
professor of SEMITIC LANGUAGES AND LITEEATUEES
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

Revised and Enlarged Edition

CONSTKUCTIVH BiBLE STUDIES
COLLEGE SBBIBS

CHICAGO
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
1909

CoPTEiGHT 1902, 1905 Bt
The University of Chicago

Published February 1902
ReTised Edition March 1905
Second Impression August 1909

H ^ w 6 o
3 o "L U c

Composed and Printed By
The University of Chicago Press
Chicago, Illinois. U. S. A.

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
This treatment of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament is
intended to serve as a guide for students who wish to take up the
questions relating to the subject from an historical point of view. The
materials for a preliminary study of the various topics are gathered
together, and arranged with suggestions as to order and method of
procedure. It is thought that the work proposed is within the reach of the more
mature pupils in the Sunday school, although the needs of college and
theological students have been kept especially in mind.
The general results of modern historical criticism have been taken
as a basis for the work, since it is only from the point of view of his
tory that these subjects may now be considered intelligently. Each
special topic connected with the general subject of the Priestly Ele
ment furnishes a beautiful illustration of the growth and development
of Israelitish and Jewish thought under the controlling influence of a
conception of God which became more and more pure with the
advancing centuries.
Four methods of treatment have been employed, each being
deemed best adapted to the case in hand, viz.: in Chapter I, a sys
tematic statement of the scope of the Priestly Element ; in Chapters
II-IV, an historical statement covering in barest outline the story
of the Priestly Element as a ¦whole, in its progress and development ;
in Chapters V-XI, a classified and comparative examination (indi
cated by questions and suggestions based upon the material presented)
of the more important special factors which, taken together, con
stitute the Priestly Element ; in Chapters XII-XIX, a critical exam
ination of the literature produced by the Priests, and of its
essential significance. The appendix on the vocabulary of wor
ship will be found serviceable to those who wish to enter somewhat
carefully into a consideration of the details. In Appendix B there
will be found a classified list of the most important books, while in
Appendix C the more valuable recent literature (since 1901) has been
indicated. Some experience in the use of this manual in the class-room seems
to indicate that it furnishes an opportunity whereby both instructor

VI PREFACE
and pupil may work with greatest freedom. It is not a text-book; nor
is it merely a syllabus. It may be adapted to almost every possible
method of teaching.
An effort has been made to indicate definitely and fully the
more accessible literature on each topic. I wish to express my appreci
ation of the assistance rendered me by my colleague. Dr. John M. P.
Smith, especially in the arrangement and verification of the scriptural
references, and the references to the literature on the various topics.
For obvious reasons the latter have been arranged chronologically, the
literature in languages other than English being placed by itself.
In this more complete form (Chapters XII-XIX and the Appen
dixes, constituting the new matter added to the first edition) it is
hoped that an outline has been prepared which will assist many
students in their desire to gain a reasonable familiarity with a really
large and complex subject.
William R. Harper.
February 22, igos.

CONTENTS.

Part I.
THE general scope OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
Chapter I. — The general scope of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament i
Part II.
THE HISTORT OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Chapter II. — The history of worship in the earlier Old Testament period . . 13
Chapter III. — The history of worship in the middle Old Testament period . . 27
Chapter IV. — The history of worship in the later Old Testament period ... 42
Part III.
A comparative STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES OF WORSHIP.
Chapter V. — The laws and usages concerning the priest, considered compara
tively  61
Chapter VI. — The laws and usages concerning the place of worship, con
sidered comparatively  74
Chapter VII. — The laws and usages concerning sacrifice, considered compara
tively  83
Chapter VIII. — The laws and usages concerning feasts, considered compara
tively  94
Chapter IX. — The laws and usages concerning the sabbath and kindred insti
tutions, considered comparatively  108
Chapter X. — The laws and usages concerning clean and unclean, considered
comparatively  119
Chapter XI. — The laws and usages concerning prayer and related forms of
worship, considered comparatively  131
Part IV.
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP— THE LEGAL LITERATURE.
Chapter XII. — The Deuteronomic code of laws  15S
Chapter XIII. — Ezekiel's contribution  170
Chapter XIV. — The priestly code of laws  180
vii

via CONTENTS Part V.'
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP— THE HISTORICAL LITERATURE.
Chapter XV. — The priestly narrative in the Hexateuch .... . . 195
Chapter XVI. — The books of Chronicles . . . . '  208
Chapter XVII. — The books of Ezra and Nehemiah  218
Part VI.
THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP— THE HYMNAL LITERATURE.
Chapter XVIII. — The priestly element in the Psalter  233
Part VII.
THE PERMANENT VALUE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
Chapter XIX. — The essential significance of the priestly element  257
Appendixes.
A. The vocabulary of worship; lists of the more important words  273
B. Classified lists of important books  280
C. New literature on the priestly element  282

CHAPTER I.
THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.
§ I. Three Elements Enter into Religion. — The reli
gion of an individual or nation depends upon the promi
nence given to one or another of these elements :
(i) ^(J^A^*, or, more technically, ^«//, a word which pss. 103:1; 150.
expresses the general attitude of the individual or group
of individuals toward an outside higher world of super
natural or divine existence, and includes the outward
acts that in various forms symbolize the inward thought.
(2) Belief, or, more technically, creed, a word which Deut. 6:4;
John 3 : 36.
expresses the peculiar intellectual position entertained
by an individual or group of individuals concerning cer
tain facts supposed to be essential, and their explana
tion. ( X) Conduct, or, moreJechnically, ethics, which includes Mic. 6:8;
all the acts and feelings of man in so far as they are James i \vi. '
related to his duties to himself and to his fellows, and
to the fundamental ideas of right and wrong.
§2. Three Great Channels of Revelation are found in
the Old Testament ; through these, separately and
together, there has come down to us a wonderful story
of the interworking of God and man. These are :
(i) The word of the prophet, including the utter- Jer. 18:18;
ances through centuries of that unique order established
to .give to the Hebrew nation and to the world the
"word " of God.
(2) The counsel of the sage, including the wise say- g^r. 18:18;
ings and philosophical teachings (in the form of proverbs, 30; 8:14.
riddles, essays, dialogues, etc.) found, for example, in the
books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes.
(3) The instruction (or law) of the priest, which forms Jer. 18:18;
the subject of consideration in this and the following
studies. §3. The Place of "Worship is First of All to be Noticed.
— In ancient times because it seemed to men that certain

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

I Kings 14:23;
I Chron. 21 :2g;
Ezod.ig:2,3, 12.
Gen. 12:6; 13:18.

Gen. 16:13, 14.

Gen. 31:44-54;
Gen. 28 : 18-22.

Exod. 20:34-26;
I Kings 7: 48;
2 Kingsi6;io-i5;
Exod. 27:1-8;
I Kings 2:28-30.

Josh. 4:11;
I Sam. 4:3-6;
2 Sam. 6:2-17;
Exod. 25:10-21;
Exod. 25:22.

2 Sam. 7:2-6;
Exod. , chap. 26;
Exod. 33: 7-9;
Numb.17: 4,12,13,

I Kings 6: 1, 2,11-
14. 37. 38;
Ezek. 43:1-12;
Hag. 1:4-14;
Ezra a: 12, 13;
6:13-18.

places were more favored by the gods than were others, in
modern times because men fancy that a certain environ
ment is especially conducive to the spirit of worship, the
place has always been a subject of greatest importance.
The place was in early days something connected with
nature :
(i) High places, or hills, were especially sought as
being the abode of God.
(2) Trees of a notable character are frequently referred
to as connected with worship.
(3) Springs, or wells, are places by the side of which
angels were thought to dwell.
(4) Sacred stones are mentioned as places to which
the god came to meet his worshiper, and on which food
was placed or libations of oil poured out.
In each of these places Jehovah had shown his pres
ence, and it was for this reason that the hill or tree or^
spring or stone was sacred. (From Numb. 22:41 it is to
be seen that this idea of sacred places was found among
other nations; cf. also Isa. 16: 12.)
The place was also often something of a more or less
artificial character, as is seen in the use of —
(s) The altar, which was sometimes only of loose
earth thrown up ; at others, of unhewn stone ; at still
others, of gold and precious stones. This altar was the
refuge and asylum of him who fled the hand of ven
geance, the witness of vows, the place on which the sac
rifice was laid.
(6) The ark, or chest, a sacred box in which certain
sacred things were deposited ; which was used in case ot
war, because it was thought to afford protection ; and
was designated as a place of communion with God.
(7) The tent, or tabernacle, a dwelling in which the
ark was preserved, and around which the holiest associa
tions clustered. Moses made most practical use of it, and
it came to occupy an important place in Hebrew thought
and tradition.
(8) The temple, which with the progress of civilization
(the establishment of courts and the building of palaces)
took the place of the tent, as being more dignified than

GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 3
a tent. There was («) Solomon's temple, erected at a
significant period of national development; (b') the tem
ple of Ezekiel's vision, which was destined to play an
important part in the history of Israel's religious
thought ; and (c) the second temple, erected with some
disappointment, after the return from exile.
It is to be noted, once more, that communion with Exod. 3:4-5;
God is sought and obtained in connection with natural ^' '^^'
places (hills, trees, springs, stones) and with places
constructed by man (altars, ark, tent, temple). It will
be at a later time, when temples are destroyed, men
are scattered, groups living here and there, when the
realistic conception gives place to the idealistic, and
the material to the spiritual, that synagogues and
churches will spring into existence, and, thus in still
another form, satisfy the inward craving of humanity
for a sacred place, in which to offer worship to the unseen
powers. § 4. The Priest, or Minister of worship, was the second
necessity of worship, the first being the place. It was the
priest who conducted the worship.
(i) His function was threefold: to carry the ark, to Deut. 10:8;
TiidfiT 19* ^"n*
minister to Jehovah, to bless in his name. In the earliest 18:3-6';
Lev. 8:x-xo.
times the need of having some such priest was felt, his
presence being thought to be attended with peculiar
blessing. (2) The priest-idea became so strong in Israel that seut. 14:2;
.r , ,, ¦ r ¦ Exod. 19:6;
the nation itself was understood to be a nation of priests, Ezra 7:21, 25, ae.
or a priestly nation, set apart to minister to the other
nations of the world. After the exile, kings ceased to sit
on Israel's throne ; and priests, under the form of a
hierarchy, controlled the affairs of the nation. This fact
shows how great a role the priest played in Israelitish
history. C^l Besides the priests and prophets who served and i Kings 18:19-22;
^ ' . . T ,1 2 Kings 23: 4, 5;
spoke for Jehovah, there were at many times in Israel s Ezek. 8:15,16.
history priests and prophets whose lives were devoted to
the service of other gods.
§ 5. Sacrifice was the most significant act of worship
in ancient times.

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Gen. i8: i-8;
I Sam. 1 : 3-8;
9:23-35;
I Chron. 16:1-3.

Ps. 51: 18, 19;
Isa. i: 11-17;
Lev., chaps. 1-7;
8-10; 11; 12-15;
etc.

(ren. 8:20;
Lev., chaps. 4,9.

Lev. 3:1-6;
Judg. 20:26.

Gen. 35:14;
Exod. 29: 40, 41;
Numb. 38: 7.
Exod. 30:1, 7-5,
Numb. 4: z6.

Lev., chaps, 5, 7,
14;
Numb. 6:u.

(i) At first this was a social meal, a banquet in which
the offerer and his friends participated and to which the
deity was invited. There are frequent references to such
sacrificial meals in which the members of a family, or of
a clan, .or, indeed, of a whole nation took part. This meal
was full of joy, sometimes boisterous. Those who par
ticipated were eating and drinking with the deity ; it was
a communion of the worshiper and his god.
(2) In later times sacrifice became more formal, and
gradually grew into an exclusively religious act. The
prophets strongly denounced sacrifice in which the true
spirit of worship was lacking, or which in itself, without a
proper life, was thought to gain Jehovah's favor. The
book of Leviticus is devoted to the subject of sacrifice,
viz., the method, the kinds, etc., etc. This more formal
and exclusively religious conception of sacrifice came to
prevail universally in the last centuries of Israel's history.
(3) Several different kinds of offerings or sacrifice
were distinguished, according as each expressed a par
ticular purpose, or was presented by a particular method ;
among these were :
{a) The burnt-offering, which consisted of the burning
of a whole animal of the proper kind upon an altar as an
offering to Jehovah. '
(S) The peace-offering, which was also an animal sacri
fice, but differed from the burnt-offering in ,that it
provided for the giving of only the blood and certain
specified parts of the animal to Jehovah, the rest being
eaten by the sacrificial guests.
{c) The drink-offering, which was a libation of wine,
or oil, usually made in connection with other offerings.
{d) The incense-offering, in which fragrant spices were
burned with the thought that the rising fragrance was
acceptable to Jehovah.
[e) The trespass-offering, which was made for the pur
pose of expiating offenses against Jehovah and man in
which the damage could be estimated and covered by
compensation ; the blood of the animal was pOured out
to Jehovah, the fat was burned on the altar, and the rest
was the perquisite of the priests.

, GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 5
, ' (/) ' The sin-offering, which occupied a very important Lev. 4: 24-34;
place in the cultus and of which the emphasis placed Nuini>., c^p.'7;
upon the shedding of blood is a conspicuous feature; '^'" '
the specifications -for this part of the ritual are very com
plete and detailed.
{g), Tke wave-offering, consisting of certain portions Deut. 12:6-17;
J. ^, ..».., ' , . , Numb. 15: 19-31;
Of the. sacrmceithat were given over to the priests and Numb. 18:8-29;
were . Waved; -by iKem before the altar as a token of the ' •29-27,2 .
factithat' tHe}rberdnged to Jehovah, but had been given
over by:him! to fhe priests.
(4) iGieat care was taken as to the materials which Exod. 20:24;
29: 40; 30: 1;
might enter; i'ntd a sacrifice. These were in general flesh, Lev. s: i, 4, 13;
fine i flour or- irieal, incense, oil, wine, cakes of dough, • • • •
salt; , Here again important conceptions were associated
with each of the materials, and regulations were enacted
prescribing the exact character and amount of materials
to be used.
8 6. The Times of Worship were an important item, for i sam. 9:1s, 13
22-24;
these were the feast occasions; these were often merely iSam. 1:3, 4.
the social meals of a clan ; or, in other cases, were con
nected with a pilgrimage. They had their origin in connec
tion with the times of the moon and the seasons, arising,
as they did, out of the pastoral or agricultural life. Men
whose hearts have the same tendencies are drawn
together, and in the act of association there is worship ;
tor the more closely they are united, the nearer they may
come to God. To know more of God is itself to worship
him, and the highest form of worship is, perhaps, that
which involves communion with others as well as with
God. (i) There were three great feasts, the first coming in Exod. 23:i4-i7-
the springtime, the second in the early summer, the
third in the autumd. These correspond roughly to
the more modern Easter, Pentecost, and Thanksgiving
seasons. (2) There were also special feasts and feast days, Hos. stu.
which in early tin,^s seem to have been of a joyous
character. (3) There were days, like the Day of Atonement, Lev. 16:29-34.
which were days of ifiliction rather than of joy.

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Zech. 7:3-5;
Esther 9: 38-31.

Gen. 24: 13 ff.;
I Sam.i:io; 8:6;
I Kings 8:23-53;
Isa. 38:3, 3;
Neh. I ; 4-n ; 3 : 4.

Judg. 11:30-39;
I Sam. i:ii;
Judg. 13:3-7;
Numb. 6: 1-13.

I Kings 6: 19;
Exod. 38 : 30;
Gen. 30:3; 38:10,
18.

Isa. 47:9;
Jer. 37 19;
MaL 3:5;
Dan. 3:3;
Deut. 18:9-13.

Gen. 4:21;
Amos 5:23;
Isa. 30:29, 32;
Jer. 48:36;
Numb. 10: 3;
31:6;
Josh. 6:4ff. ;
Pss. 137:2; 33:2;
2 Sam. 16:14;
Exod. 15:20;
Pas. 149:3; 150:4.

(4) There were also fast days, as well as feast days,
celebrating some great calamity.
§ 7. Other Acts of Worship. — In connection with and
forming a part of worship were several specific acts,
such as —
(i) Prayer; this was always implied in the act of
sacrifice, but very frequently it was independent of
sacrifice. If the deity is a person, and if he has real inter
est in his. clan or tribe or people, he will surely listen to
them, when in distress their heart appeals for succor ;
and also when in joy they express appreciation of some
great favor which he has shown them. Abraham's prayer
for the city in which his relatives dwelt is characteristic
of the earliest and the latest periods of civilization, and
is thoroughly typical of humanity.
(2) The vow was a kind of prayer, very common in
ancient times, and, when once made, regarded as invio
lable. It sometimes involved a simple gift; at other
times, perhaps, as in the case of Jephthah, the sacrifice
of a human life ; and again, as in the case of the Nazirite,
it signified setting apart to the service of God.
(3) The oracle and dream, as methods of ascertaining
the divine will, must be counted as acts of worship. In
these methods, as in all the others, the Israelites did not
differ from the other ancient nations in the midst of
whom they dwelt.
(4) Sorcery was employed in many forms, for there
were diviners, augurs, enchanters, charmers, consulters
with familiar spirits, wizards, and necromancers ; but acts
of this kind were always forbidden.
(5) Music a.nd dancing were accompaniments of wor
ship. If worship is the expression of the heart in com
munion with God, it must include melody and rhythm,
sound and movement. Music has always formed a part
of worship, and in many cases dancing has accompanied,
not only festival, but worship.
§ 8. Songs and Hymns of Worship. — These furnish us,
perhaps, the highest product of the priest- work; for,
although much of the Psalter is prophetic in its character,
by far the greater part is the high and holy expression

GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 7
of the soul of individual or nation in its deepest com
munion with God ; and nowhere in all literature may
religious songs of so tender and deep a character be
found as in the Hebrew Psalter, the hymn-book of the
Hebrew temple, the work of the Hebrew priest. These
have been variously and quite minutely classified; but
here reference may be limited to —
(i) Songs of thanksgiving, in which gratitude is Pss. 103; 134; 136.
expressed for great favors received from Jehovah and his
praises are gladly sung.
(2) Songs of petition and prayer, in which the poet Pss. 80; 88; 102.
pleads for the intervention of Jehovah in behalf of
himself or of Israel, bringing deliverance from difficulty
and danger, or restoration to divine favor.
(3) Songs of penitential confession, in which the sin- Pss. 51; 116; 130.
ner pours out his confession of sin and guilt.
§ 9. Laws Regulating Worship and Life were^ likewise,
largely formulated, promulgated, and executed by the
priests. Legislation, therefore, in its stricter sense, was
the function of the priests, rather than of the prophets or
sages. The priest's work included something more than
the various elements which enter into or are connected
with what we would today call worship. In those days
the religious life and the secular life were the same.
Religion and politics were the same. This means that
it was impossible to draw a line between religious life
and ordinary life. The priest's work dealt with both. It Deut. 22: 1-13;
, , , , . , , , Exod. 21:1-35;
had to do, consequently, with such matters as the treat- 22:1-27.
ment of one's neighbor's cattle, the treatment of birds,
the building of a house. There were laws, for example. Lev. 19 : 9-37;
, , , . r , , Exod. 33 : 1-9.
concernmg the harvest, the oppression of the poor, the
treatment of defectives, tale-bearing, etc., etc. These
are a few examples only, taken from the great law
books. Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. It is to be
understood, of course, that these laws, as they were from
time to time formulated, included the teachings of the
prophets and sages, as they appeared and did their work
and passed away. But in addition to these laws of soci
ological character there were the laws which regulated

PRIESTLY ELtMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

2 Chron. 5:2-
cf. I Kings,
chap. 8.

•7:2;

I Chron. , chaps.
cf. 2 Sam. 6 : 12-19.
2 Chron,, chaps.
29-32;
cf. 2 Kings , chaps.
18-30.

2 Chron. 35:1-19;
cf. 2 Kings
23:21-23.

Exod. 23:18, 19; the details of worship in all respects, e. g., the priest, his
Deut. 30: 15-20; 1 " X
Lev., chap. 21. dress, his maintenance, the offerings, their material, etc.,
etc. These more strictly come into consideration in
connection with topics already discussed {cf. §§3, 7).
§ 10. The History of Worship was naturally written or
compiled by priests, and thus constitutes a part of the
priest-work of the Old Testament. The history of Israel,
as we find it in the books of Samuel and Kings, had already
been written (about 550 B. C). This history was prepared
from a wholly prophetic point of view. It was intended
to teach prophetic lessons, especially those connected
with the idea of the enormity of sin and its disastrous
consequences. At a later date (about 300 B. C.) the
priests undertook to traverse the field of sacred history,
and in so doing used, to some extent,, the same original
sources. This priestly history is found in the books of
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. In these books the
thought always uppermost is that of the history of worship.
Its purpose was to assist in establishing regular service
in the second temple, and to kindle in the hearts of the
people a national life and spirit, and respect for the insti
tutions of the national religion. The differences in matter,
tone, and spirit between the prophetic and the priestly
histories is easily seen by a comparison of the treatment
which each gives to the same subject, e. g.;
. (i) The dedication of the temple (<r/. 2 Chron. 5:2 —
7 : 10). (2) The transfer of the ark to Jerusalem.
(3) The accession of Solomon.
(4) The account of the plague in David's reign.
(5) The sin of David with Bathsheba, which is not
mentioned in Chronicles.
(6) The organization of the priests and Levites and
temple officials, which is treated in full in Chronicles,
and not mentioned in Samuel and Kings.
It is proposed, after this general view of the work of the priests as a
whole, to undertake to do five things in the following series of studies :
(i) To trace the history of worship from the beginning to the end
of the Old Testament times, through the early, the middle, and the
late periods.

Kings, chap. 8.

I Chron., chaps.
28, 39;
cf. I Kings 1:32-
40.
I Chron., chap. 21
cf. 2 Sam., chap
24.
2 Sam. 11:2-37.

I Chron. , chaps.
23-26. .

GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 9
(2) To classify and note the elements of worship in the Hebrew
Psalter, the Christian's Book of Psalms.
(3) To analyze and present the essential points of interest in the
histories which the priests themselves prepared, and which are found
in the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah.
(4) To determine the great ideas which entered into and controlled
the priest-work.
(5) To explain as far as it may be possible (a) the purpose and
spirit of this priest- element a.s it appears in its various forms in Israel
itish history and literature ; {b) the permanent, as distinguished from
the transitory, elements which it contained ; (c) the contribution which
it made to Christianity, or, in other words, its relationship to Chris
tianity.

Paet Seooe^d

THE HISTORT OF WORSHIP
II. History of Worship in the Earlier Old Testament Period.
III. History of Worship in the Middle Old Testament Period.
IV. History of Worship in the Later Old Testament Period.

CHAPTER II.
HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD.
§11. Worship Alone Constituted Religion in the earliest times. It ,
was later that greater and greater emphasis came to be placed on con
duct ¦a.vtd belief (see § i). A ceremony or religious rite was associated
(in the various ancient religions) with some fact, or supposed fact, or
legend, or myth. But it was the rite which constituted the religious
-element, and not any belief concerning the origin of the rite. "It
made no difference what the worshiper believed concerning the cere
mony, if only he performed it regularly and accurately." "What was
obligatory or meritorious was the exact performance of sacred acts
prescribed by religious traditions." It was the prophets and sages
who introduced at the same time higher conceptions of God and
higher conceptions of life.
See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 17-22 ; Menzies, His
tory of Religion, fp. 6-13, 64 f.; WKl^hUAVSEN, Prolegomena to the History of Israel,
pp. 52-5. § 12. A Semitic Period in the Development of Worship preceded the
earliest Hebrew worship, and formed the basis of it. It will be
remembered that the Semitic family (i) gave to the world the two
earliest civilizations of which we have knowledge, the Egyptian and
the old Babylonian, and controlled the world's political history for
forty or fifty centuries ; (2) has been mediary, not only in the field of
commerce and between man and man, but also, in that higher field of
religion, between God and man, in that they have proved to be the
religious teachers of the world, since through them have come the
world's three highest faiths — Judaism, Christianity, and Moham
medanism. See G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 28 £E.; W. R.
Smith, op. cit., pp. 28-83 > C. G. Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient
Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 22-30; J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy
and the Monuments, Vol. I, pp. 5-1 1 ; Fritz Hommel, The Civilization of the East,
pp. 25-7. § 1 3. The Most Ancient Form of Semitic Religion, the parent of all
others, was that found in the old mother-home of Arabia. It was a
13

14 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
religion well adapted to the condition of the people, who, at that time,
were still in clans. The Hebrews, together with the Moabites, Ammon
ites, and Edomites, had " their root in a state of society when there
was no large and orderly community, but only a multitude of small
and restless tribes; when there was no written law, but only custom ;
and when there was no central authority to execute justice, but it
was left to a man's fellow-clansmen to avenge his murder." In this
time —
(i) There was a god for each clan, and this god was thought to be a
very remote ancestor. To leave the clan meant to leave the god. This
clan-god was closely connected with every undertaking of the clan,
whether of peace or war; and his name everywhere was "Lord,"
"King," "Mighty One."
See Menzies, History of Religion, pp. 74-6 ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the
Semites (2d ed.), pp. 35-g ; D'Alviella, Origin and Growth ofthe Conception of God
(Hibbert Lectures, 1891), pp. 204-7.
(2) The worship of the clan-god was important, because every
detail of life was dependent on his favor. His favor or anger was
shown at certain spots, which thenceforward became sacred places, and
here those who inquired of him would find him. The god could not,
of course, be worshiped anywhere 9utside of the land which belonged to
him ; and if one left that land and entered another, he must at once
transfer his worship to the god of the new land.
See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 160 f.; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp.
S3-S- (3) 7%^/ri?j(?«//z/^ played a larger part than the future life ; for,
while the early Semites believed in the continued existence of the
departed, they regarded them as destitute of energy, as " shades laid
in the ground." "After death, it was held, even religion came to an
end. A man must enjoy the society of his god in this life; after
death he could take part in no sacrifice, and could render to God no
thanks or service."
See Menzies, op. cit., p. 161 ; C. G. Montefiore, op. cit, pp. 454-7 ; R. H.
Charles, A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, pp. 51-4.
(4) This explains, in some measure, the rites of worship which
existed in these primitive times, viz.:
{a) The sacrifice; the man sought a sacred place («. e., a place
where the god was likely to be found), killed an animal, put the blood
of the animal on a stone ; the god touched the blood, the man touched

WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 5
it, and this act was a renewal of the declaration that the man and the
god were of the same blood, and that the covenant between them was
renewed. See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 65-8, 162; Schultz, "Tlie Significance of Sacri
fice in the Old Testament," American fournal of Theology, Vol. IV, pp. 257-61 ;
G. S. Goodspeed, "The Atonement of Communion," Biblical World, Vol. XVII,
pp. 96-106. {b) The feast or banquet ; at this the god was supposed to sit with
his people and to receive his share of the animal just slain. In late
times, when the god was thought to live above, his share was burned
and he received the savor or smell of the sacrifice. The feast included
dancing, and even gross kinds of indulgence. All was joyful. Happi
ness, reaching even to " orgiastic ecstasy," was universal.
See W. R. Smith, op. cit., pp. 253-8 ; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol.
I, pp. 188 f.
§14. Three Great Periods are seen in the develop- josh. 24:2,3.
ment of this primitive Semitic worship, as it appears in
the Old Testament history. Two opinions exist as to
whether the writing of the Pentateuch (or five books of
the law) was practically finished in the days of Moses, or
in the days of Ezra.
See Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch, pp. 31-58;
Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, 1897, pp. 156-62;
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.),
pp. 82-98, 123-6, 135-59; Carpenter AND Harford-Battersby,
The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 17-23.
This question does not concern us here ; for all stu
dents agree that, whatever may have been the date of
writing, the date of adoption of the laws and ceremonies
by the masses of the people is definitely announced in
Scripture, viz.:
(i) The Levitical law in all its fulness siad. t\i& Leviti- Neh., chap. 8.
cal ritual of worship were not adopted until the times of
Ezra (440 B. C).
(2) The Deuteronomic law, as laid down in Deuter- 3Kings33:8— 23 : 3.
onomy, did not come into force until Josiah's time (621
B. C). It is clear that there was
(3) An earlier legal code and an earlier form of wor- Exod. 20:23—
ship which served to connect the old Semitic worship
with the Deuteronomic. This earliest of the three

1 6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
periods is first to be considered and presents itself in
three different stages, viz.:
Gen. 47:1-10. (a) The primitive Hebrew stage — that which existed
during the days of the patriarchs, and while Israel was
still a nomadic people, wandering from place to place.
Judg. 1:1-4; iS) The Canaanitish stage — that in which the primi-
2:11-19. - . .11 11-
tive form came into contact with the corrupt, and licen
tious practices of the Canaanitish religion; it was at this
time that Israel was settling down to an agricultural life.
Hos. 11:1-4; {c) The prophetic stage — that in which the prophets

12:10, 11;

Amos2:io-'i3; made heroic struggle against the corruption. and idola
try of Israel, by pointing out a truer conception of God,
the adoption of which affected both the conduct and the
worship of the nation.
Josh. 34:3-7. § 15. In the Primitive Stage of the Early Period the
Worship was, of course, only slightly different from that
common Semitic worship described above. The people
were still wandering about. Leaders had been raised up
by God whose work would in time lead the people
higher and higher toward a proper conception of
God and of his worship. But, as the Old Testament
so clearly shows, the people hung back; refused to
follow the divinely appointed leaders ; and only after
fifteen hundred years of instruction finally acknowledged
Jehovah to be the only God. The facts concerning
worship are these :
Gen. i3:&-8; (i) The place s€ie.c\.e.A for worship by the patriarchs
36:34!;' ¦ was the place in which they pitched their tent; e. g.,
35:14*. ' Abraham worshiped at Shechem, and near Bethel; Jacob
at Beersheba, and at Peniel, and at Bethel. Trees,
springs, and stones are also mentioned.
Gen. 31:46. T\i& altar must have been something very simple,
consisting only of stones gathered together, or of earth
thrown up.
Gen. 31 : 19, 34 J. Teraphim, or household gods, were found in Jacob's
family. There. seems not to have been an ark or chest
in use.
Gen. 22:13; 27:25; (2) The priest was the leader, whoever he may have
Exod. 24:4-«. been, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, or Moses. There was no
class of priests.

WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 7
(3) The sacrifice was a family meal, or a clan meal, z. e,. Gen. 36:28-30;
a banquet. It consisted of flesh, specially prepared ; its Gen! isfJ-s"''
savor was smelled by Jehovah ; it was eaten by repre
sentatives of the deity.
(4) 7%^ /m« were irregular ; sacrifice was offered at c/. references
any time. There is no reference to the observance of '^*°* ''^*'
dates marked by the moon, or of the sabbath.
(5) Other acts of worship are seen in —
(a) Tht prayer of Abraham for the deliverance of Gen. 18:23-33;
Lot, of Abraham's servant for guidance in the pursuit of 12.'
his mission, and of Jacob for deliverance from Esau.
((5) The vow oi Abraham paid to Melchizedek ; and Gen. 14:18-24;
that of Jacob made on his journey to Laban, the Syrian.
(1:) Th& dreams oi the patriarchs, which as methods Gen, 15:12-21:
I- . . . . r 11. 1 28 : 10-18 ; 35 ; 9-
of receiving communications from the deity are to be 13:37:5-10.
classed with acts of worship.
((/) The ^«</ of divination of Joseph, and the /d'r«/;^z»2 Gen. 44:1-5.
(see p. 16).
(6) Songs and hymns, laws, and history -writing had Gen. 49:1-36;
, , , , ,, , , Exod. 15:1-18;
not yet taken formal shape ; or, at all events, they have Exod. 30:1-17.
not come down to us in the form which existed in these
early days. The present literary form of pieces like
the "Blessing of Jacob," the " Song of Moses at the Red
Sea," and the " Decalogue " comes from a time later
than the settlement in Canaan.
§16. In the Canaanitish Stage of the Early Period the judg. 2:1-5.
worship was greatly changed. This was due partly to the
change from nomadic to agricultural life, and partly to
contact with Canaanitish forms of worship, which were
peculiarly rich and fascinating. The name of the
Canaanitish divinity, Baal, meant "lord." It is easy to
see that the Israelite would feel that he was not doing
justice to his God, if he did not pay him every possible
honor, or at least the honors paid their gods by his
neighbors, the Canaanites. , Consequently much that
was Canaanitish was now appropriated.
(i) Places and representatives; here arise —
(«') The high places, all over the land, which soon judg. 6:35-33;
^ .... I Sam. 1:3.
became centers of corruption and licentiousness.

1 8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Judg. 3:7; 6:25, (b) The pillars and the tree trunks, or Asherim, which
30; 9:6; 10:6. were to be found at the high places and were taken over into
the Jehovah-worship which was carried on at these places.'
Judg. 2o:27f.; (c) The ark or chest, which was thought to represent
1 Sam. 4:3ff. , ,
the deity, and which the people carried with them when
they went to battle, as in Eli's days.
Cf. Exod. 33:8, ((/) The image of the serpent, or of the bull, which was
Numb. '21: St.; adopted, now and again, as the proper representation of
deity.
I Sam. 14:41; (^) The Urim and Thummim, which were carried in a
°^'^"^' pocket of the priestly ephod, were in use as a means of
discovering the divine will with reference to any course
of action.
Judg. 17:7; (2) Tht priest ^z.s sometimes a professional, bearing
20; ¦ ' ' the name Levite, and cultivated a certain professional
Judg.6:i9;i3:i9; , , . , , . , t •.. rr
17:5; 6:25-27; tone by which he was recognized as a Levite. He
11 : 31 39. seems to have been more acceptable than the patriarch
or oldest son, who in the past had performed priestly duties.
The priest went about wherever he could find employ
ment. But the old family priesthood still continued, and
sacrifice was not restricted to any class of priests.
Judg. 6:19-21,26- (3) Sacrifice vfa.s the same as before, an act of com-
38; 13:16-23; ^^' ¦'
I Sam. 1:3-5, 9, munion with the deity. The burnt-offering seems to
13-15- have occupied a more prominent place.
1 Sam. 20:5, 6, (4) Times and seasons.- — Now there arose feasts of
18, 24, 27, 29; ^ ^
Judg. 9: 37; 21: 19; the moon; the sabbath was also observed, probably as a
I Sam. 1:3, 13. ' X- J
time of rejoicing; there were also the Feasts of Harvest
and Vintage, because Israel had now become an agricul
tural people. These feasts furnished opportunity for
drunkenness and licentiousness. .
(5) Other acts. — We read of the —
(a) Prayers of Manoah, Samson, and Hannah.
(B) Vows oi Jephthah and of Hannah, and of the
tribes of Israel against Benjamin, because of its outrage
upon the Levite's concubine.
(c) Visions of Samson's parents, and of the child
Samuel, during his sojourn in the temple at Shiloh.
(d) Sorcery and witchcraft in connection with Saul's
attempt to learn the outcome of his contest with the
Philistines.

Judg. 13:8;
15:18; iSam.
1 : 10, 12-17.

Judg. II
35-40;
1 Sam. 1

:3o, 31,
21:1, 7,
; 11.

Judg. 13
9-21;
1 Sam. 3 :

:3-5, 1-18.

I Sam. 3E

1:7-14.

WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 9
(e) Music and dancing in connection with the yearly Judg. 21:19-21;
I Sam. 10 : 5 ;
feasts at Shiloh, with the sons of the prophets, and, a little 16:16-22; 18 ;6,,
7, 10; 19: g.
later, on the part of David. This was characteristic of
the joyous spirit that permeated the religion of these times.
(6) Songs and hymns are seen in the exodus song, Exod. 15:1-31;
Judg., chap. 5;
with its refrain; the song of Deborah; and the song of iSam 2:1-10.
Hannah. (7) Laws were unquestionably taking form, under
divine guidance, as the codification of custom. To what
extent this was true is a matter of dispute between (a)
those who believe that the Israelitish legislation, as it
has come down to us, was the work of one generation,
and of one man, Moses, and (b) those who believe that
this legislation is the product of seven or eight centuries
of history, although based upon and growing out of the
work of Moses {cf. references to literature on §14).
§ 1 7. In the Prophetic Stage of the Early Period great Amos, chap. 5;
influences were at work to purge and purify the corrup- isa!','chap^'i'!'
tion which had entered into Israel's worship, and to teach
a conception of God which, in itself, would lead to a
higher type of worship. This period begins roughly
with Samuel's work of reformation and closes just before
Josiah's reformation (621 B.C.). The great names of 2King833:i-3.
the period are Samuel and David; Elijah, Elisha, and
Jonah ; Amos and Hosea ; Isaiah and Micah ; and, last
of all, Zephaniah and Jeremiah, in whose days the refor
mation came. The details of this reformation belong to
the second or middle period; but the preparation for 3 Kings 23; 4-14.
the great changes wrought in 621 B. C. was made by the
prophets of the preceding centuries. The actual prac
tices of this sub-period were full of superstition. Let us
first note what they were and then the attitude of the
prophets toward them.
(i) Places of worship.
{a) The high places were still used in different parts 1 Sam. 9:12-14,
of the countrv, as is seen in the cases of Samuel, whom i Kings '3:3. 4;
eft II ! 7 '
Saul first met at the sacrifice on the high place; of Solo- 12:31 f.'; 14:23;
, 1 J ,_ 1. .1. CT 1, 2KingS2:3;i4:4;
mon, even when the temple had been built ; or Jeroboam ; 15:4; 17:9, ",
29, 32; 18: 4;
of the people of Judah in Rehoboam's time and under etc.
later kings ; and of Ahaz.

20 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
I Kings 14: 23; {b) The pillars and Asherim occupied even a larger
2 Kings 3: 2; \ / .1 r o
10:27; 17:10; place than before, continuing in general use until the
Hos.3:4; 10:1,2. . r t • 1.
reign of Josiah.
3 Sam., chap. 6; (c) The ark was transferred with great solemnity
£¦/. iChron., ;' , , , . , , ^^ . , ,
chaps. 13, 15, 16. to Jerusalem, when that city became under David the
nation's capital. This supreme act of worship was
accompanied by music and dancing.
I Kings, chaps. 5, {d) The temple was built by Solomon ; this act was
5 i-y ; 13 — 81 66 \
cf.T. Chron., full of significance for the future history of worship.
19; ' ' As the king had his palace, so Jehovah was to have his
3 Chron., chaps. , r^, . , , , , ,
2-7. temple. The ceremonial would now be better organ
ized ; a basis was furnished for future development ;
priests and singers must be provided for regular service.
While at this central place the worship would henceforth
be conducted in a purer form, but at the same time with
luxurious magnificence, the old routine continued in all
its corruption throughout the country at large.
I Sam. 38: 1-25. (^) The spirit of Samuel, called Elohim ,(/.<?., God),
was thought to have been called forth after death by the
witch of Endor, in order to speak with Saul at his request.
I Kings 12: 35-33; (/) The calves set up at Bethel and Gilgal were figures
2Chron. 11:14,15; ,^ , , . , , , ,.,,,_ ,. ,
Hos. 8:5, 6. of Jehovah; intended to be worshiped by the Israelites of
the north, in order that they might not be induced to go
to Jerusalem for worship.
I Kings 12:31-33; (2) 7%(?;)r«ifj-/ now became a more important person-
2 Sam. 6:13, 14;
iKings3:i5; age; the professional element increased. The bond
1 Kings 2:26, 27; , . , , , ,
2 Kings 11:4, 9, between those engaged in the same work was strengthened
2Kingsi6:'i2-i6.' by association. The Levite was gaining ground, as over
against the older patriarchal priest. The temple required
professional service. Samuel was a priest, and in his
time the monarchy took shape, which meant a separation
of the state and church. With the royal, sanction the
priestly order was greatly strengthened ; but the king
maintained supremacy and, according to the old patriar
chal idea, offered sacrifice as head. Since the priest was
judge, he formulated decisions, which in later times were
to become law.
I Kings 8 : 62-65 ; (3) Sacrifice was offered, sometimes upon a great
Hos. 2: II ; A o
Exod. 23 : i8f. ; scale ; the old idea of communion with God continued;
and a great feature of the sacrifice was the element of
2 Kings 17:17.

WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 21
joy. The sacrifice might not be offered with leavened
bread. The first-fruits of the ground were called for.
Sometimes human sacrifice was offered.
(4) 7i!'»2^.f were now more definitely fixed. ixod' 23-12 •
{a) The sabbath was an established institution, what- ^JS- "'"'
^ ' ' ^ 3 Kings 4 : 23 ;
ever may have been its origin. IV-^h''' ''
{b) The beginnings of a sabbatical year -were made, Exod. 23:10, n.
in the custom' of allowing the land to lie fallow every
seventh year.
{c) Three agricultural /^aj'/.f, with dates dependent Exod. 23:14-17;
upon the climate, were observed, viz.: the Feast of i Kings 8:2';
12 : 32 ;
Unleavened Bread (Easter time), in celebration of the Hos. 2:11.
departure from Egypt ; the Feast of Harvest, when the
first-fruits were gathered ; and the Feast of Ingathering,
in the autumn.
(5) Other acts.
(a) Prayers continued to be offered, as in the case of i sam. 7:5, 8, 9;
^ ' ¦' ' 8:6; 13:23;
Samuel at Mizpah, and on the occasion of the people's 3 sam. 7:18-28;
demand for a king ; of David, after Nathan had made i Kings 8:22-54;
°' 1 Kings 17:20-22;
known to him Jehovah's purpose to establish his house 18:36,37;
.' '^ r 2 Kings 19 : 15-19.
in Israel, and on the occasion of the death of Bathsheba's
child ; of Solomon, at the time of the dedication of the
temple at Jerusalem ; of Elijah, for the restoration of the
widow's son to life, and on Mount Carmel ; and of Heze-
kiah, for deliverance from Sennacherib. .
(b) Vows were still made, as, for example, in the case 3 sam. 15:7, 8;
V / ' ' r ' Amos 3:13.
of Absalom, and of the Nazirites.
{c) Oracles and dreams are seen in David's inquiry of 3Sam. 2:1; 5:23,
Jehovah after the death of Saul, and before the battle iff^g^'.''^ .
with the Philistines in the valley of Rephaim ; in Jehovah's jgln's'i^i
message to David through Nathan ; in Solomon's dream ^'!\^-}~^''
at Gibeon ; in Ahab's consultation of the prophets before isa., chap. 6.
advancing upon Ramoth-Gilead; and in the use made
of the brazen altar by King Ahaz. The visions of
Amos and Isaiah may also be mentioned in this con
nection. {d) Sorcery was practiced, for it was distinctly opposed Jgl^.'ig'.'f^"'.
by Saul and Samuel (although Samuel himself is said to Mic. 5:12.
have been called from the grave by a witch), and by later
prophets.

22

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

I Sam. io; 5;
Amos 5 : 23 ; 6:5;
2 Sam. 6:5, 14,
16;
Isa . 30 : 29 :
I Kings 1 : 40.

I Sam. 18.7;
2 Sam. i: 19-27;
2 Sam. 3:33f.;
18:33;
2 Sam., chap. 22
=Ps. 18.

Amos 7:9;
Hos. 10:8;
Mic. 1:5;
I Kings 14:22,23,

Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1;
6:9;
Mic. 3:11;
Zeph. 3:4.

Amos4:4; 5:22;
Hos. 4:13, 14;
12:11; 13:2;

AmosHos. 2
Isa. I

5:21 : 11 ;
:i3,

14.

Isa. I :
Mic. 3

15;
:4.

Isa. 8:

:i9;

19:

3.

(1?) Music and dancing ¦'if exe greatly developed in con
nection with the feasts and the worship on the high places,
and the regular services of the temple at Jerusalem which
contributed much to the enrichment of the worship of
Jehovah. (6) Songs were sung, sometimes of a secular character,
as when the women of Israel praised the warlike deeds of
Saul and David, and when David lamented the death of
Saul and Jonathan, or that of Abner, or of Absalom ; at
other times of a religious character, as perhaps when David
sang upon the occasion of his deliverance from Saul (but
see §19).
§ 18. The Prophets' Attitude toward the actual prac
tice of the people, as it was conducted by the priests,
was that of undisguised opposition. It is asserted many
times that —
(i) The high places were an occasion of sin, and
aroused Jehovah's anger, and must therefore be destroyed.
They were one of the most effective channels of corrup
tion to the worshipers of Jehovah.
(2) The priests were altogether corrupt and self-seek
ing; they were the leaders in sin, going to the farthest
extremes of debauchery and licentiousness, and carry
ing the people down to destruction along with them
selves. (3) Sacrifice was displeasing to Jehovah, since the
people were multiplying offerings with the thought that
this was all that was necessary to secure Jehovah's bless
ing; whereas justice and mercy were alone pleasing to
him. (4) Feast days and seasons had become occasions of
orgiastic revelry and must be brought to an end. These
were in large measure borrowed from the Baal-worship,
and were not yet wholly purified.
(5) Prayer was in vain, no matter how fervent and
frequent, since it came from people whose hearts were
evil, and their hands red with blood.
(6) Sorcery and witchcraft were condemned and
regarded as unworthy of a people whose worship should
be given to Jehovah.

WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 23
§ 19. The Songs and Hymns of the Early Period furnish one of the
most difficult questions within the entire realm of biblical study.
Modern scholars, for the most part, teach (i) that the law is the prod
uct of many centuries of history conducted by God in such a manner
as to produce that law, the basis being found in the work of Moses ;
and (2) that to ascribe the whole to Moses permits no opportunity for
gradual unfolding of the divine plan. So they teach (i) that most of
the seventy-three psalms ascribed by tradition to David belong to a
later age, when ideas of God were higher and purer than in David's
times, and when the worship of God by leaders and people had become
pure and spiritual ; and (2) that to ascribe these psalms, or most of
them, to David is to turn the history of Israel's religious thought wrong
side foremost, and to presuppose in David's times a condition of
spiritual life on the part of David and the people which could not have
existed until centuries later. This very serious and important ques
tion may not be taken up here. It is to be noted, however, that in the
case of the psalms, as in the case of the law, whatever may have been
the date of origin, the people never reached a position in which they
could use these psalms (with a few exceptions) as the expression of
their spiritual communion with God, until {d) the prophets had preached
long centuries, (b') the priests themselves had united to purge and
purify a corrupt worship, {c) the city of Jerusalem was destroyed and
the land laid waste, {ct) the inhabitants were carried away into a for
eign country, and (1?) the nation was taught, once for all, what had
many times been said, but never actually believed, viz., that there was
one God, and one only. The psalms as a distinct part of the priests'
work will receive further consideration in a later chapter.
See EwALD, Commentary on the Psalms, Vol. I, pp. 60-71 ; Perowne, Book of
Psalms (second edition), Vol.1, pp. 1-2 1 ; Murray, Origin and Growth ofthe Psalms,
pp. 127-43 ; Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents ofthe Psalter, pp. 190-225 ;
Kirkpatrick, The Psalms (Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. xxxi-xxxviii ; Driver,
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 373-80 ; Stanley,
lectures on the History of the fewish Church, Lecture XXV; articles on "David" in
Hastings' Dictionary ofthe Bible and Cheyne's Encyclopcedia Biblica.
The views of some of the most important commentators concerning the number
of psalms that may be assigned to David are :
(l) Binney, all, or nearly all, assigned by tradition.
(2) Olshausen, Lengerke, Cheyne, Baethgen, Duhm, Wellhausen, probably none.
(3) Hitzig, 3-19, except 5, 6, 14.
(4) Ewald, 3, 4, 7, 8, II, 18, 19, 24, 29, 32, loi, and some fragments.
(S) Delitzsch, 3-19, 22-24, 25, 28-30,32, 34, 36-39, 41, 51, 52, 54, 56-63, and some
others doubtful.

24

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Exod. 20:1-17;
Deut. 5:6-31;
Exod. 34: 10-38;
Bxod. 30:33—
33:33.

(6) Perowne grants that some of those ascribed to David cannot have been
written by him, but thinks that he " personally contributed more than any other indi
vidual " to the Psalter, and was the founder of a school of sacred poetry. Similarly
also Kirkpatrick. § 20. The Laws of the Early Period may be classified
under three heads : the decalogue, in two editions ; the
small book of the Covenant ; and the larger book of the
covenant. Before considering these separately, a few
points may be suggested concerning them as a whole :
' {a) However early or late they may have taken on
their present literary form, they themselves certainly go
back to the period of Israel's earliest history.
{b) They contain much material which, of course, had
an existence long before the days of Moses; e. g., there
had been prohibition of murder and of stealing centuries
before Moses.
{c) They reflect, in general, an early and, indeed,
primitive stage of society; but /this stage is the agricuN
tural, and therefore later than the nomadic.
{d) They are arranged in groups of ten, or of five.
(i) The decalogue.
{a) It is said to have had its origin in different ways ;
e.g., as having been (i) spoken by God, (2) given through
angels, (3) written by the finger of God.
{b) It is given different names ; ^.^., (i) the ten words,
(2) the words of the covenant, (3) tables of the cove
nant, (4) covenant, (5) testimony, (6) two tables of testi
mony. (c) It has two forms, viz., that in Exod. 20 : i-i 7, and
that in Deut. 5 : 6-2 1 ; and although both are said to have
been engraved on stone, there are many differences ; e.g.,
(i) the first word of the fourth commandment; (2) the
reason assigned for observance of the fourth command
ment, viz., the creation and rest of God in the one, the
bringing of Israel out of Egypt in the other ; (3) the two
additional clauses in the one form of the fifth command
ment ; (4) the different order of the first two clauses and
the addition of " his field " in the tenth commandment.
{d) It has been suggested that originally all the com
mandments consisted, like the sixth, seventh, and eighth.

Bxod. 30:1, 33;
Exod. 24: 13;
Deut. 5:4;
Acts 7: 53;
Gal. 3:19;
Heb. 3:2.
Exod. 34:28,39;
Deut. 4:13;
Deut. 5: 2; 9:5;
10:4.

Exod. 30:8;
c/. Deut. 5:13;
Exod. 30:12;
cf. Deut. 5: 16;
Exod. 30: 17;
c/. Deut. 5 : 31.

WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD

25

of one or two words, and that the remainder, e. g., in the
second, third, and fifth, was added at a later time.
(i?) It is divided {i) into ten words, but the division is
not clear, since the Lutheran and Romish churches com
bine the first and second as one and divide the tenth ;
(2) into two tables, but, here again, Jewish and Christian
scholars, ancient and modern, fail to agree, three methods
being advocated, according as the two tables contained,
the first, three commandments, and the second, seven ;
the first, four, and the second, six ; the first, five, and the
second, five.
(2) The small book of the covenant, the laws of which
may thus be grouped : {a) five on the duty of worship
ing only Jehovah; {b') one on imag^-worship ; {c) five on
the offering of firstlings; {d) five on feasts ; (if) four on
sacrifices and offerings. These laws seem to have been
written in groups of five or ten, groups (i5) and {i) hav
ing lost part of their number. They are all directly
concerned with worship.
(3) The large book of the covenant, which contains : (a)
five enactments on worship;^ {b) five on rights of slaves ;
{c) five on slave concubines; {d) five on acts of violence.
Then follows one (a fragment) on the reviling of father and
mother. After that {e) five on personal injuries ; (/) and
{g) ten on injuries in connection with property, slaves, and
cattle ; {h) five on theft and damage to property ; {i) and
(/) ten on breaches of trust. Then follow three frag
ments on sexual crimes, magic, sacrifice to other gods.
After that {ft) five on the dealings with the weak and
poor ; (/) five on reverence and offerings. Then follow
two on purity. After that {ni) five on testimony. Then
follow two on kindness. After that («) five on justice,
and {0) and (/) ten on feasts and offerings. In all there
are sixteen groups of five, and eight fragments of groups,
each of which probably consisted of five.
A study of the subjects given above, and a reading
of the enactments, will show the early character of these
laws as contrasted with those given in Deuteronomy and
Leviticus. It is to be noted (i) that the greater part of
¦ In this classification the laws relating to worship are italicized.

Exod. 34:12-14;
34:17:34:19,20;34:31, 18, 22,
23; 34:25, 26.

Exod, 20:23-26;
21 :3-6; 31: 7-
11; 21 : 12-16;
31: 17; 31: 18-
35; 21 :26 — 22:1
22 :3-6; 23: 7-
17; 22:18-20;
32:21-27;
22:28-30; 22:31; 23:1-3;
23:4-5; 23:6-9;
23:10-19.

26 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
this code is concerned with subjects which are not today
thought of as religious, but that in early times there was
no distinction between "religious" and "secular" — ¦
everything was religious; (2) that all the enactments
concerning religion, in the narrower sense of the word,
have to do with its objective features — ^ feasts, sacrifices,
offerings, ritual, etc. — all of which is incliided in wor
ship. It is these enactments that lie back of the teach
ing of the prophets down to about 650 B. C.
In the next study it will appear that great and fundamental changes
are to occur after 650 B. C. in all the regulations which concern the
subject of worship and its allied subjects.

CHAPTER III.
THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD
821. The Middle Old Testament Period (see 8 14 (2)) s Kings 33: 8—
33:3.
had for its most striking event the discovery and pub
lication of the book of the law, known in these
later times as Deuteronomy. It is impossible here, as
in the history of any period, to draw sharp lines of
separation. (i) Just when this middle period began cannot
be fixed definitely. But this much is clear, that the
work of the prophets {cf. § 18) in the years preced
ing 621 B. C. {a) pointed out the evils which had Amos 5:34; 9:7;
¦ crept into the worship of the people ; {b^ presented
such conceptions of God's justice, love, holiness, and isa. 1:13-17;
unity as would furnish a basis for higher and more spir
itual forms of worship than those which were already
in existence ; and this (c) prepared the way for some
thing which, up to this time, the people could not
appreciate. (2) Just when this middle period ended is likewise
indefinite, but it is evident that after and out of this
period there came a still higher form of worship, des
tined in God's providence {a) to endure through a period
of great political and religious upheaval, and {b) to
serve as the basis for a worship still higher in its ideals
and in its spiritual character.
§ 22. Three Distinct Stages May be Traced in the his
tory of the middle or Deuteronomic period. These may
be classified as :
(i) The pre-exilic stage, which ended with the removes. 3 Kings 35:8-^1.
of the people from their landT and with the destruction
of the temple around which the whole system of worship
centered. (2) The exilic stage, during which the people were in
Babylon, away from all the familiar scenes of worship
27

28 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
and under the influence of an entirely new religious
environment.
Ezra, chap. I ; (3) The post-exilic Stage, beginning with the return
from exile, including the building of the second temple,
and ending approximately with the visit of Ezra to
Jerusalem. § 23. The Deliverance of Jerusalem in Hezekiah's Day
(701 B. C.) had exerted a marked influence on worship.
To Hezekiah is ascribed an important work as reformer,
2 Kings 18: 4; in that he (i) removed the high places, (2) broke the pillars,
9^. Isa. 36:7. ^ ' r \ .^ '
(3) cut down the Asherim, (4) broke in pieces the brazen
serpent that Moses had made, which, in his day, was wor-
Amos 7:9; shiped as a representation of God in Jerusalem. In so far
Isa. 30:22; 31:7. as these things were accomplished, Hezekiah was acting
in accordance with the commands of the prophets (see
§ 18). But it seems that the work was not as thorough
going as it might have been, since in Josiah's times,.
3 Kings 33: 13. seventy or eighty years later, the high places erected by
Solomon near Jerusalem were still in existence. Heze
kiah's reformation, however transient, was closely con
nected with the deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennach
erib and the Assyrian army in 701 B. C. This invasion
3 Kings 18: 13; had two results : (i) The outlying villages with their high
places were destroyed and dishonored, and the country
people came to see that the worship as practiced in the
3 Kings 19:20-37. high places was of no avail in times of great distress. (2)
Jerusalem, the temple, and the God whose worship was
conducted in the temple (a worship beyond question
comparatively pure) were delivered, and thereby greatly
honored, for the whole nation had therein a posi-
Deut. 12:3-19. tive experience of Jehovah's power. This paved the
way for the exaltation of the temple-worship and the
destruction of the worship in the high places, changes
which together form the great characteristic of the mid
dle period.
See W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), pp. 353-64;
CORNILL, The Prophets of Israel, pp. 67 f.; Driver, Isaiah, His Life
and Times, pp. 66-83 ; the article " Hezekiah " in Hastings' Dic
tionary of the Bible, Vol. II, p. 377 ; and the corresponding article
(§ l) in Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II.

WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 29
§ 24. Manasseh's Reign Brought a Great Reaction. —
This came about because (i) the prophetic party (that is,
the party of reformers) .pushed forward more rapidly
than the people could follow, e. g., {a) in destroying the
objects and places of worship held in veneration by the
people for many centuries, and (3) in holding up con- 2 Kings 18: 4;
ceptions of God and of life which the people were still too
ignorant and debased to appreciate; (2) the people were
disappointed in the hope, raised by the prophets, that
. with Jerusalem's deliverance Assyria would perish, when,
as a matter of fact, Assyria still remained powerful, sub- 3 chron. 33 : n.
duing Egypt and taking tribute from Judah ; (3) the
people believed that this failure of their desires and the c/, jer. 44: 15-19.
consequent adversity had their origin in the proposed
reforms of the prophets, and that these very reforms
{e. g., the breaking down of the high places) were dis
pleasing to Jehovah.
The reaction exhibited itself in (i) the murder of the 3 Kings 31: 16;
^ ^ Jer. 3 : 30.
prophets and their partisans ; (2) setting up again the idols, 3 Kings 31 : 3-5.
and the Asherim; (3) giving permission to enchanters 3 Kings 21: 6.
and augurs and witches and wizards to practice their
arts; (4) encouraging human sacrifice; (5) introducing 2 Kings 21: 6;
the worship of other gods even within the temple itself, Mic. 6:6, 7.
e.g., the host of heaven — the chariots of the sun being 2 Kings 21: 3,4;
placed within the temple.
§ 25. The Discovery of the Deuteronomic Law followed
a generation or so of prophetic silence. This silence
was occasioned by persecution, and had for its result
the production of a work which, in itself, summed up
prophecy and furnished the text-book of worship for a
long time to come. While the mouth of the prophet
was closed, his pen worked. In this work the lessons Deut. 4 : 15-19 ;
of Manasseh's reaction were taken into account ; for the Deut.' 17 : 14^0!
new order of worship, while revolutionary in some
aspects, was, after all, an evolution from that which pre
ceded it. The new cult went as far as possible in retain- Deut. 15:19;
ing old usages and old ceremonies, thus avoiding the
difficulties occurring in connection with the earlier
attempts at reformation. Many other things were
learned anew from the experience of the reaction, e. g..

30 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Deut. 12:2-4. the demoralizing influence of the high places, and the
necessity of purging and purifying the ritual. These
were incorporated in the writtep document.
See Cn'EY'ei'S., Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 62-4 ; CoRNILL,
op. cit., pp. 80-82 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary
on Deuteronomy, pp. xlix.-lxii.
No opportunity, however, presented itself under
Manasseh or Amon for the promulgation of this book.
It was put away in the temple. In Josiah's reign, (i)
when the hearts of the people were being turned to
Jehovah by the terror aroused in connection with the
jer.i:i,2; Scythian invasion ;' (2) when Jeremiah and Zephaniah
°^ ¦'¦'¦ were preaching with all the vigor of the older prophets;
2 Kings 22: 1, 2. (3) when Josiah, a young man, was turning his face in the
2 Kings 33:3-8. direction of the true God ; (4) when the temple was being
cleansed and repaired, in order that Jehovah might be
thereby honored — then this book, the book of Deuter
onomy, was discovered, brought to the king, read to him,
and read again to the people. The immediate circum
stances of this discovery are described in some detail ; e. g. :
3 Kings 33 : 8-10. (i) The book was found by Hilhiah, the high-priest, and
given by him to Shaphan, the scribe, who read it, took it
2 Kings 22:11-14. to King Josiah, and read it to him. (2) The king was
greatly grieved as he listened and realized how far short
of the demands of this book the religious life of Israel
had fallen. He at once sent a delegation of leading men
to Huldah, a prophetess, to inquire Jehovah's will con-
2 Kings 22 : 15-20. cerning the book. (3) She declared that the judg
ments it contained would fall upon Israel because of
their desertion of Jehovah and their worship of other
gods, but that Josiah would reign in peace because of
2 Kings 23:1-3. his faithfulness to Jehovah. (4) Upon hearing this,
Josiah called a great meeting of all the people, read the
newly found book to them, and caused them to join him
in a covenant with Jehovah to conform to Jehovah's
requirements as laid down therein. Thereupon the work
of reform was begun throughout the land.
§ 26. The Results of the Finding of Deuteronomy are
very fully given us in the sacred narrative. These. results
constituted what is called Josiah's reformation, and
included :

WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 3 1
(i) The destruction of the high places and altars 2 Kings 23:8, 12,
throughout the land. '^' ''' '''
(2) The hxezkxng down oi the pillars and Asherim. 2 Kings 23:6, 14.
(3) The removal bf the teraphim and other idols. 2 Kings 23: 24.
(4) The destruction of the horses and chariots of the 3 Kings 23 : h.
sun. (5) The deposition and destruction of idolatrous 2 Kings 23:5,8,9,
priests and of the priests of the high places.
(6) The zhoYition oi human sacrifice. 2 Kings 33: 10.
(7) The observance of the Feast of the Passover. 2 Kings 23:21-33.
(8) The ¦'pxohShitxon oi sorcerers and wizards. s Kings 33:34.
(g) The purification of worship involved in doing 2Kings23:7.
away with the Sodomites.
Two things may be said : (a) There is nothing essen
tial commanded in Deuteronomy which Josiah did not
try to do ; {b^ every single act of the reforrnation will be
found commanded in Deuteronomy.
§ 27. The Teaching of Deuteronomy on the more
important points of worship may be briefly summarized
as follows : '
(i) Object of worship.. — Jehovah only is to be wor- Deut. 6:4; 10:20;
shiped; all idols and other objects of worship must be 16 ! 21 f.'; 7: 5, 25!
destroyed. (2) Place of worship. — Worship is permitted only at Deut. 12:2-7, 11,
one central sanctuary, viz., the temple at Jerusalem. All
local shrines are to be destroyed.
(3) Priests. — These now become a distinct class, the Deut. 10:8,9.
tribe of Levi being set apart to perform the priestly
function. There are, of course, more Levites than
are needed for priests; these are to be teachers and
judges. The duties of the Levites at the local sanctua- Deut. 18:1-8.
ries being abolished, many of them are naturally without
means of support, and special provision has to be made
for them in the law.
{i^ Sacrifice. — The continuance of sacrifice is taken Deut. 12:13!;
for granted, but every sacrifice is to be offered at the
central sanctuary. All firstlings are, as before^ especially
designated as sacrifices to Jehovah,
' For an examination of this book as a code of laws, see pp. 155-69.

32

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Deut. 5 : 13-15.
Deut 15 : 1-18.

Jer. 34 : 1-30.
Deut. 16 : 1-15.

Deut. 14 : 3-21.

Deut. '33 : 21-23.
Deut. 14: 28 L;
26: 12.
Deut. 18 : 10-12 ;
23: 17!.; 14: 1.
Deut. 9 : 20, 26-29.

Deut. 6:4; 4 : 28 :
10: 17.

Deut. 4 : 32-36 ;
cf. Exod. 19 : 6.

Deut. 13 : 3-7.

Deut. 10:8.

(5) Days and seasons. — Set times of worship are
appointed to be obseuved : {a) The sabbath is preserved
unchanged, {b^ The sabbatical year becomes established,
and is extended to the cancellation of all debts owed by
Hebrews to their fellow-countrymen and to the release
of all Hebrew slaves. ITiere was an unsuccessful attempt
to enforce this provision with reference to slaves in the
reign of Zedekiah. {c) Three annual feasts are fixed, as
before, in connection with the agricultural seasons ; but,
like all other acts of worship, they are to be celebrated at
Jerusalem. New elements appear in the fixing of the
duration of the Feast of Tabernacles at seven days, and
of Pentecost at one day, and in the connection of the
Passover with the exodus from Egypt. No reference is
made to feasts of the moon.
(6) Other acts of worship. — {a) A list of clean and
unclean animals is given ; this classification probably
had a religious basis ; ((5) faithfulness in the performance
of vows is enjoined ; {c) a triennial tithe is imposed which is
to be given to the Levite, the widow, and the poor; {d)
perverted acts of worship, such as human sacrifice, sorcery,
etc., are prohibited; {e^ prayers of Moses are recorded.
See Cheyne, 0/. «V., pp. 64-7 ; Driver, ^4 Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on Deuteronomy, ff.7iix-^7t.yiiy, article "Deuteronomy"
(§§ 27-32) in Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. I ; and corresponding article
(§ iv) in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I.
§ 28. The Full Significance of the Deuteronomic Prin
ciples, the Spirit with which These are Presented, and the
Great Changes Wrought by Their Adoption are difficult to
appreciate. Some of these points may be noted :
(i) The fundamental idea is that there is but one
god worthy to be called God; other gods are wood
and stone.
(2) With such a God dealing directly with the nation,
Israel's life must be high and holy; for otherwise it will
be unworthy. (3) There shall be only one place of worship, and
that the temple in Jerusalem; in this way the licentious
nature-worship can be done away with.
(4) The conduct of worship must be guarded, and

WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 33
consequently it is placed under the control of a special
tribe, the Levites.
(5) The method of presentation is a wonderful one,
being twofold, prophetic and priestly; viz., {a) exhorta- Deut. 4; 1-13;
tions of the most "sweetly impressive" character, full of ^'' '^^setc
spiritual strength; (^) laws, many of them dating from Deut. 5:6h!i.
the earliest times, others from a later period ; some of Deut., chaps.
them apparently arbitrary in their tone, others full of "'^^'
the reasons which should lead to their observance.
(6) The spirit throughout is the spirit of love, and is Deut. 7:7-10;
,.,,.,, '^ Deut. 10: 13-15.
akin to that exhibited in the book of Hosea. "The
primal love of Jehovah to Israel fills the foreground of
each writer's discourse, and all human relationships within
the Israelitish community are rooted in this." ° But this Eeut. 6:17-19;
¦^ Deut. 10 : 18.
love is no sentimental love; Israels God is a God of
justice as well as of love.
(7) The restriction of worship to one place is Deut. 14:32-27,
" tantamount to a suppression of religion in the whole
country outside of Jerusalem." ^ How can the country
people now consult Jehovah? The neighboring altar Deut. 19: 1-13.
to which the fugitive might flee and be safe is done away
with, and distant cities of refuge are only a partial sub
stitute ; while the function of the altar as a place to
which the people might come and receive judgment is
given to the gates of the cities and to the temple at Jeru- Deut. 16: 18;
salem. Israel in the country must now live without God,
with whom before he had lived so closely.
(8) The feasts are beginning to be denaturalized ; that
is, they are losing their agricultural significance, and are
to be more and more closely associated with historical
events — the Feast of Unleavened Bread., with the flight
from Egypt; the Feast of Weeks, with the giving of the law
on Sinai ; the Feast of Tabernacles, with the journey in
the desert. Religion is a matter of fixed days and sea
sons, rather than an everyday affair.
(9) The setting apart of priests, and the placing of
See article "Feasts" (§§9, 10) in Encyclopcedia Biblica, Vol. II;
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 91 f.; COR-
NILL, op. cit., p. 86.
"Cheyne, op. cit.,^. 66. sCornill, op. cit., p. 85.

34 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD. TESTAMENT
all worship ih their hands, thus compelling the people
to make use of them, while beforetime the use of a priest
was voluntary, draws the line sharply between laity and
Deut. 18:3; 21:5; clergy. The priest changes his function ; for he is now
Deut. 17:9, 12; preeminently a sacrificer, while before he consulted the

20:2-4; 24:8.

oracle and announced the divine will.

30: 10.

Deut, 14:241.; (10) The significance of the sacrifice is greatly
changed. Sacrifice being lawful only at the one central
sanctuary, it was offered for the most part only in con
nection with the three great yearly festivals when all
Israelites were required to be at Jerusalem. The popular,
joyous aspect of it as a banquet and as an offering of
joy and thanksgiving, made frequently and in connection
with any suitable occasion, now begins to disappear, and
a more and more solemn and expiatory character is given
to all sacrifice.
Deut.4:4o; 6:1- (ii) What is it henceforth to be religious ? To do
8':if'6, 1'l; '"' the thing laid down in a book. The day that saw Deut
eronomy accepted, its ritual of worship adopted, and its
teaching concerning priest and sacrifice recognized — that
day saw the beginning of the death of prophecy. It was,
of course, the prophets' own work; but they had estab
lished the agency by which, later, they themselves would
be strangled ; because from this time forward the voice
of the prophet is unnecessary.
See Cornill, op. cit., p. 89.
(12) The adoption of Deuteronomy signified the
separation of church and state. This was necessary, for
the state is soon to die — within thirty-five years. This
separation made it possible for the church to live, after
the death of the state.
See Cornill, op. cit., p. 88.
(13) The act of Josiah and his people in accepting
Deuteronomy was the first step toward the canonization
of Holy Scripture— the first step in a long line of similar
events which have given us the Bible with our modern
conceptions of inspiration.
(14) In a word, worship, whether viewed narrowly or
broadly, is henceforth almost a new thing. The Israelitish
religion seems to have been revolutionized. Of course

WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 3$
a closer study shows that all this was evolution, not
revolution ; the prophets had prepared the way; the
prophets and priests worked together. A priest found
the book and gave it to the king, and the priests
received through this book privileges they had neve^
before enjoyed.
See Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 17 1-9.
§ 29. A Second Reaction followed after thirteen, years
of successful work on the part of Jeremiah and Josiah.
(i) Jeremiah at the beginning of the reformation had Jer. n : i-6, 18-33.
preached' the contents of this book throughout the vil
lages of Judah, sometimes incurring the opposition and
persecution of his friends.
(2) The times that followed for thirteen years were
quiet and prosperous; the king and the people lived
before God and received his blessing.
(3) Perhaps during this time the work of the sages Cf. Prov., chaps.
began to flourish. jer. 18:18.
(4) Assyria was losing ground; Necho of Egypt 3 Kings 33: 39;
(608 B. C.) began to encroach upon the Assyrian terri
tory. Josiah met him at the battle of -Megiddo and was
slain. The reformation failed. The people believed
the king's death was a divine punishment for changing
the forms of worship in their religion. The opposing 2Kings23:36f.;
party gained control, and then followed the series of
events which resulted, in a few years, in the downfall of
the kingdom.
§ 30. The Significance of the Babylonian Exile in its
Relationship to Worship cannot easily be overestimated.
Its effect upon some of the principal ideas and institu
tions may be noted here :
(i) Object of worship. — The removal to Babylonia 2 Kings 25 : 13-17
involved the leaving behind of all idolatrous objects of
worship, or their confiscation or destruction by the con
queror. The leaders of Israel's religious life looked Ezek. 6 : 11-14 ;
upon idolatry as one of the chief causes of the exile.
The removal from the land with which Jehovah had
always been associated to a land which was the dominion
of another grod also involved either an acknowledgment isa. 40:13-31;
° , , , . ° 44: 9-20; 45:5-7;
of the power of this foreign god, or else the maintenance 46:5-7.

36 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
of a belief in Jehovah's supremacy and universality. That
this higher conception of Jehovah prevailed is clear from
the fact that we hear nothing of idolatry after the return
from the exile, and especially from the teachings of Isa.,
chaps. 40-66.
(2) Place of worship. — The temple being destroyed,
and all the familiar scenes of worship being left behind,
together with all material and external reminders of
Isa. 45 : 18-22 ; Jehovah's presence, the worshipers were necessarily led
Isa. 51: 12, 13. to a more spiritual conception of God. Moreover,
absence from the temple developed an ability to do with
out the temple services which was in part responsible for
the origin of synagogues.
Ezek., chaps, 40- (3) The occupation of the priests was gone, in so far
as it was dependent upon the temple. The book of
Ezekiel furnishes an illustration of one phase of priestly
Isa. 6i;6. activity during these days.' The thought of Israel as a
nation of priests appears.
Isa. 43:22-34; (4) Sacrifice could no longer be offered, but it did not
lose any of its importance in the thought of the people.
Isa. 56:3, 4, 6; (1;) Times and .seasons. — {a) The sabbath, being an
58:i3;66:33. ' o
institution which was independent of the temple, could still
be kept, and it received much emphasis during and after
this period. Sabbaths were also observed by the Baby
lonians. ((5) Feasts, which had always been occasions of
joy, could no longer be observed legally, and emphasis
Isa. 58:3-5. was laid on {c) fasts, which were of an exactly opposite
character and were not dependent upon the temple.
(6) Other acts of worship. — {a) In the absence of all
the regular public means of worship, those who wor
shiped "in spirit and in truth" naturally had frequent
Isa. 63: 15— 64:13; recourse to prayer. The future temple is thought of as
Isa. 52:1,11. a house of prayer, {b) The recognition of the captivity
as a punishment for sin led to an exalted conception of
Jehovah's holiness and to the laying of great emphasis
Isa. 65:1-7, 11; upon ceremonial cleanness, {c) It is probable, however,
that many became apostates from the Jehovah-worship
and took up the worship of their conquerors.
c/. Ezek. 10: 9-22. (7) The influence of the Babylonian worship on Israel's
ritual is evident in succeeding ritualistic legislation, as

WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 37
also in some of Ezekiel's imagery. Jehovah through the
exile again brought Israel into contact with a great
religion, as he had already done in the case of Baalisni.
Just as Israel had learned some truths through Baalism,
and to some extent had enriched the cultus of Jehovah
thereby, so was she to do through the agency of Baby
lon's worship.
§31. The Priest-Prophet of the Captivity, Ezekiel,
occupied an important place in the further development
of the ritual of worship. His place may only be
touched upon here. With prophetic idealism, legalist
though he was, his vision pictured a future temple, a
future service, and a future priesthood, as follows :
{a) The temple. — While the temple of Solomon had
been virtually a part of the royal palace, the new temple
is to be wholly separate from the royal dwellings and
from all other ordinary habitations ; for it is the earthly
habitation of the most holy God, who had abandoned Ezek. 45:1-8.
the former city and temple because of their profanation by
sin and uncleanness. To prevent any such profanation
of Jehovah in future
the sacred "oblation," the domain of the priests, Levites, Ezek. 48:7-23.
prince, and city, is placed in the center of the restored tribes,
Judah on one side of it and Benjamin on the other. In the
midst of this oblation is the portion of the priests, that of the
Levites lying on one side, and that of the city on the other.
In the middle of the priests' portion stands the temple. This
is a great complex of buildings, around which on all sides lies
a free space or suburbs. Then comes a great wall surround
ing the whole buildings, forming a square of five hundred
cubits. Within this wall is an outer court, and within this
an inner court  In this inner court stands the altar,
and to the back of it the temple house. The house has also
a graduated series of compartments increasing in sanctity
inwards — an outer apartment or porch, an inner or holy
place, and an innermost, where the presence of Jehovah
abides.'' ((5) The priests. — The sons of Zadok only are to be Ezek. 44:4-16.
priests ; all other Levites are to be subordinate ministers,
performing the more menial tasks of the sanctuary.
< Davidson, The Book of ^zij/^zV/ (Cambridge Bible), p. 290.

38

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Ezek. 44 : 17-28.

Ezek. 44 : 29, 30.

Ezek. 43 : 18-26 ;
43 : 13 ; 44 : 37.
Ezek. 43 : 27 ;
44:11.
Ezek. 43 : 13.
Ezek. 46 : 13-15.
Ezek. 46 : 19-24.

Ezek. 44 : 24.
Ezek. 45 : 17—
46:11.

Jer. 1:1.

Deut., chaps. 12-
26.

Deut. 18 : 5 ;
cf Judg. 17 : 7-13-

Foreigners are not to be permitted to enter the temple,
as heretofore, to perform any tasks. The distinction
between clergy and laity is clearly marked; none of the
latter — not even the prince — may enter the inner court
of the temple. The sanctity of the priests as the ones
ministering in the presence of Jehovah is strongly empha
sized and guarded in many ways, such as the requirement
that they wear special garments while discharging their
sacred functions. They live upon their share of the sac
rifices of the people.
(c) Sacrifice occupies an important place in the ritual.
The various kinds mentioned are : (i) the sin-offering,
which is much emphasized ; (2) burnt-offerings, which
are numerous ; ( 3) the trespass-offering, which was a
variety of the sin-offering ; (4) the meal-offering ; (5) the
peace-offering; (6) the continual burnt-offeringxnd.de e'^ery
morning. Special places are provided for the cooking
of the offerings that are to be eaten by priests and people.
{d) Times and seasons. — The old times are all to be
observed, viz., the sabbath, the new moons, and the three
feasts, the Passover receiving special notice.
, §32. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of
These Times appears most strongly. This means that the
priest-work was gaining ground, while the prophetic work
was losing ground. But it will be noted that(a)anewsitua-
tion was coming in which the priest-work would be more
greatly needed ; and {b) the priest-work had taken into
itself all that had been contributed by the prophets. It
is true, therefore, that not the priest-work pure and
simple, but the priest-work as strengthened by, and as
containing, the truth proclaimed through prophets, was
the power that now held the forefront.
This priestly element is seen —
(i) In the priestly birth and character of the prophet
Jeremiah, whose home was at Anathoth, one of the
headquarters of the priests.
(2) In the priestly character of a large portion of the
book of Deuteronomy.
(3) In the position now occupied by the priests as
compared with their former position.

WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 39
(4) In the priestly character and service of Ezekiel. Ezek. 1:3; chaps
§33. The Return of the People from the Babylo- Ezra 2: 64*.
nian Exile introduced an entirely new situation. It was
one, however, in which for eighty years (538-458 B. C.)
the book of Deuteronomy and its regulations were
supreme. It was a time of discouragement ; the high
hopes of the returning exiles were dashed to the ground
in. the presence of desolated homes, wasted lands, fail
ure of crops, loss of political independence, and the c/. Hag. 2 : 15-19.
destruction of Jerusalem. The struggle against these
adverse conditions seems to have absorbed most of their
energies during the first years after the return, the re
quirements of worship being largely neglected. We
may note the attitude toward some of the principal
institutions. ' («) The temple. — Partly because of opposition on the Ezra 5: 2;
part of certain enemies, but chiefly on account of dis- Ezrae-is.'
. couragement and indifference, the foundation of the
temple was not laid until December, 520 B. C, eighteen
years after the return, and the work was not finished
until CII 6 B. C. Because of the poverty of the people. Hag. 3:3;
A ./ A * Ezra 3 : 12.
this new temple fell far short of the splendor of the old.
The religious leaders were convinced that prosperity and Ezra 5:1,:..
glory could come to Israel only if the temple were first
restored. This shows how large a place it had come to Hag. i.: 9, 10.
occupy in religious thought and practice.
{I)) The priest wsLS gaining more and more importance
in the life and worship of the people. Of the returning Ezra 2: 36-39.
exiles a large proportion consisted of priests and other
temple servants.' There seems to have been develop
ing the distinction between priests and Levites which Ezra 6: 18, 30.
was to become fixed later. That the distinction was
not yet clearly made is evident from the fact that the Ezra8:3o; 10:5;
two titles appear to be synonymous in some passages,
just as they are in Deuteronomy. One priest had
already achieved prominence as the leader of his breth- ze^ch.^s^i^g;
ren, and he appeared side by side with the prince in all Hag. 1:1,12;
important concerns, and was superior to him in reli
gious affairs. A high standard was set up for the priests MaL 3: 5-9; 3:3.
by Malachi, and their corruption was severely denounced.

40 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Mal, 3:8, 9. Tithes for the support of the priests were still in force,
but were reluctantly paid.
Ezra3:3, 3. {c) Sacrifice wa.s a.t once renewed at Jerusalem upon
the return from exile, if, indeed, it had ever wholly ceased.
One of the earliest acts was the erection of an altar of
burnt-offering upon the site of the former temple, that
the regular sacrifices might be offered to Jehovah. These
sacrifices were probably those provided for in Deuter-
MaL 1 : 7, 8, 13-14 ; onomy {cf § 27 (4)) and earlier laws. Malachi denounces
those who bring maimed, imperfect, and polluted offer
ings, and insists upon the best of everything as an offer
ing to Jehovah.
{d) Times and seasons. — These probably continued
the same as they had been under the Deuteronomic law.
Ezra 3: 4. 5; Specific mention is made, in the literature that comes
zech.^7?i-7; from these days, only of the Feast of the New Moon, the
Zech. 8 : 18, 19. fgast of Tabemacles, the Passover, and of four fasts
which had been observed every year since the beginning
of the exile.
Ezras: 10, 11. (^) Other acts of worship. — (i) Music and singing are
mentioned in connection with the laying of the founda-
Mai. 1:14. tion stone of the temple. (2) Vows were still made.
ii^h.?:'4-ii;2:4; (s) Sorcery was not even yet wholly uprooted. (4) That
* "' the habit of prayer was not discontinued is clear from
Nehemiah's statements concerning himself at a little later
time. § 34. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of
these later years is seen in —
Hag. I ; 8-10; {a) The emphasis laid upon the necessity of build-
Zech, 1 : 16; 4:9; . ^, ^ ,
6:13-15. mg the temple as a prerequisite to the enjoyment of
Jehovah's favor. This is the main theme of Haggai's
prophecy.
Zech. 3:1-10; {b) The prominence given to priestly interests in the
7:1-7;' 8 -18,' 19. utterances of Zechariah, who speaks of the temple, the
high-priest, fasts, feasts, etc.
Mal, 1:6-14; W The large place given to matters pertaining to
m.i^r.i-4; worship in the book of Malachi, which probably comes
Mai, 4:4.' from the very end of this period. The main interest of
the author seems to be centered in an effort to reform
the ritual and those who have charge of it.

WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4 1
§ 35. The Songs and Hymns of the Middle Period are
very numerous. Their spirit may be gathered from the
following examples :
(i) Songs celebrating the deliverance of Jerusalem, Pss. 46; 48.
as in the days of Hezekiah.
(2) Songs describing the wickedness of the times, Pss. 36 ; 54 ; 64.
as in the days of Manasseh.
(3) Songs depicting the destruction of Jerusalem pss.8o;3i.
and the going into captivity.
(4) Songs expressing the sense of loneliness and Pss.137; 33; 69;
wretchedness experienced during the exile.
(5) Songs celebrating the joy and gladness of the Pss.i2e;ii5.
return from exile.
(6) Songs of the second temple, written particularly Pss. 106; 107.
for congregational worship.
It is to be noted concerning the songs thus classi
fied— {a) That those of earlier date were considerably
modified in the later days when the use of songs in
congregational worship was more thoroughly established.
{b) That it is exceedingly difficult to fix exactly the
date of many psalms because of the lack of historical
indications; i. e., references to historical events.
(c) That many psalms which seem to express indi
vidual experiences and aspirations are really congrega
tional in their character; i. <?., they were written to express
the feelings of a community.
{d) That a fuller treatment of this part of the ele
ment of worship will be presented later (see chap, xviii).

CHAPTER IV.
THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD.
§ 36. The Later Old Testament Period in the history of worship is
the story oi Judaism, that is, the Jewish religion, which was the daugh
ter of the Hebrew religion. The period, rightly considered, (i) begins
with the Babylonian exile (§ 30), for at that time were set in motion
the great ideas, and the modifications of old ideas, which finally made
up Judaism ; but (2) the time in which the distinct establishment and
substantial development of Judaism took place falls within the two
centuries of Persian supremacy (538-332 B. C.) ; while (3) the cen
tury and a half from 332 B. C. to 165 B. C, the period of Greek
infiuence, had for its great achievement the final testing and rounding-
out of Judaism.
See Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and
Greek Periods, pp. v-vii ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp.
SOOf. §37. Some of the Most Striking Characteristics of this
period are these :
(i) It is the last division of the Old Testament
period. Is it a climax or an anti-climax ? Is it a
step higher in the development of the true religious
conception, or is it a step lower than has hitherto been
taken ?
c/. Ezra 1:5. (2) It is prevailingly /r/«/^ in its character, for (a)
a king no longer sits on Judah's throne ; {b) the prophet's
voice and authority are now largely a thing of the past ;
Zech. 3: 1-7; while {c) it is the high-priest who occupies the place of
¦"¦ supremacy alike in church and state. In Israel's earli
est days the king acted as priest ; now the priest acts as
king. (3) It is distinctly an ecclesiastical situation which
presents itself to our view ; in fact, we are studying the
history of a church, not that of a state.
Neh., chap. 8. (4) In view of all this, it is natural enough to find
that the great event which characterized this period, the
42

WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 43
event which the sacred historians chronicled with especial
emphasis, was the promulgation of the Levitical law by
Ezra. With this we may compare the giving of the
Deuteronomic law, in its relationship to the middle
period (§28).
§ 38. The Situation Culminating with the Building of
the Temple, 516 B. C, presents the following, among
other, elements which may be taken as directly grow
ing out of the exile and leading up to this later
period :
(i) Jeremiah's teaching of individualism, which empha- Jer. 31 :29-34;
. J , r , , , , , Ezek., chap, 18;
Sized the fact that each individual sustained a distinct Deut. 24: 16.
personal relation to Jehovah in addition to his relation
to him as a part of the nation. Each man is responsible
for his own sins and for those only, and his acceptance
with God depends upon himself alone.
(2) Ezekiel's teaching of the new community, a new Ezek., chaps. 40-
city in which no government will be needed, for there ^ '
will be no crime and no injustice. God will be judge.
He will bestow upon the people all that they need.
The city will have no obligation to provide for the wel
fare of the people. God will fight Israel's battles, and Ezek, 39:1-16;
Israel's only work will be to bury the corpses of the Ezek. '7' 25-30.
slain. What, now, will prince and people do ? Engage
in worship, continual worship. The only object of care
will be the temple and its materials ; the only taxes will
be church taxes. This is Ezekiel's vision of the kingdom
of God on earth.
(3) There is general recognition of the idea that Ezek,, chap. 18 ;
Israel's religion, and, indeed, its national existence, was ' ''^°~
not dependent upon a monarchy, nor, indeed, upon any
particular form of government.
(4) There exists a more general readiness to accept zech, -1:1-6;
' 7 ' 1—7 '
the teachings of the prophets, which at the time of their r/, joei2:28,29,
utterance were unheeded or rejected.
(5) The necessity for meeting together in small groups Ezek, 8:1;
for worship, and the nature of the exercises possible f/. ps. 74': 8.
under the circumstances, viz,, public reading of scrip
ture and prayer, are leading to the organization of syna
gogues.

4 4 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 20:23-:- (6) With the book of the Covenant (8 2*0), and the book
23:33. of Deuteronomy (§25) which had become the adopted
code of religious life, and the more recent and more elabo-
Ezek., chaps. 40- rate program of worship suggested by Ezekiel (§31), all
c/. Isa. 51:17-30. in existence, and all xendexed impossible of observance hy
the, circumstances of the people, there is seen to be a
great indefiniteness and uncertainty in the situation,
which, while confusing, signified most clearly that the
"Law" was not yet finished, and prepared the minds of
the people for the more definite and final formulation
still to be made.
c/. Ezra 1:3-4; (?) "^^^ broad and generous policy of Cyrus and his
Ezra7!ii"6'; successors On the Persian throne, a policy of state and
e .3:1-9. religion very different from that of preceding history, as
well as from that of still later times, made possible in
the way of progress and growth what otherwise would
have been impossible.
Jer. 34:1-10. (8) The higher character of the Babylonian Jews,
and the special circumstances of their environment, as
distinguished from that of the Jews who remained in
Judah, forms an important factor in- the movement
toward national exclusiveness which is henceforth to . be
so prominent.
Hag. 3:6-9; (9) The expectations, publicly announced, of Haggai
and Zechariah that in the political upheavals of the day
(i. e., the revolts of the Babylonians in 519 and 515 B. C.
against the Persian rule) deliverance and glory would
come to Israel ; the embassy of four Jews from Babylon,
bringing gifts of silver and gold which are made into a
Zech. 6: 9-12. crown for Zerubbabel (not Joshua); and the fact that
Zech. 3:8. Zerubbabel had been given the name Branch or Sprout —
all this'poihts to the suggestion that there were many who
still expected a descendant of David to sit upon Israel's
throne ; but the hope was impossible of realization because
(3) the whole trend of events was toward the priestly rule,
and {b^ perhaps the Persian authorities may have interfered
to prevent an act which would certainly-have led to treason,
o?»eh., cSap- 6. just as they did in the case of the building of the walls.
See CnnvNK, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, p. 15 ; Kent,
op. cit., DD. 143 f.

WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 45
(10) The residence in Babylon brought the Jews into
close touch with an elaborate system of sacrifice, the
most important characteristic of which was the propitia
tory idea. This is significant in view of the fact that
henceforward the greatest possible emphasis will be
placed upon sacrifice as an atonement, and upon prayer Ley., chap. i6-
iox forgiveness. Neh. 1:4-11.
See Paul Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitical
Ritual," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81;
Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 668.
(11) Because in Babylon there was no chance to offer isa.58:3fl.;
sacrifice, such a thing being utterly inconceivable, /«j/?«^ Neh. 1:4;'
came into great prominence, since "by denying them- Zech. VYs-s.
selves 'their ordinary food they gave expression to the
intensity of their feelings, arid at the same time laid
before Jehovah a gift which could be presented at any
time and at any place."
See Kent, op. cit., p. 43 ; Benzin'ger, article "Fasting," § 6, in
Encyclopizdia Biblica; Stanton, article "Fasting," §§ \b and 3, in
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-11.
(12) It was, likewise, because in Babylon the great Ezek.ao:xa-a4.
feast days could not be properly or regularly observed,
that greater and greater attention was given to the
observance of the sabbath, for this could be done any
where. The nature of the observance was probably
much influenced by the customs in vogue in Babylon.
(13) The removal to another land, and residence in
that land, took away the narrow conception of a national
god which had always existed among the masses ; and
now the time has come when first the people as such
will accept the great and fundamental doctrine of one isa. 44:6.
god, i. e., monotheism. But Jehovah, in becoming the isa. 40:38.
creator of the world,, and the ruler of the universe, will
not seem to be in as close touch as iormerly with his
people. He will be holy, in the sense of being sepa
rated. He will be higher and more majestic ; less fami- isa. 40:13-17,
liar and more dignified, because greater.
See Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (= Hibbert
Lectures, 1892), pp. 228, 268 £.; Schultz, Old Testament Theology,
Vol. I, pp. 175 f.; Davidson, article " God," §IV, (4), in Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible.

40 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(14) According to the manner in which the individual
Israelites meet these new and strange conditions they
Neh, 13 : 15-38. will divide themselves into two classes: (a) those who
break away from their old religion because of inability to
adopt a larger faith and a broader conception of God, or
because of personal advantage gained by giving up the
MaL3:i6-i8. old; and {b) those who, in spite of calamity and mis
apprehension, maintain themselves steadfast and true.
This means a purging of the people, the growing
stronger of those who are strong, and the weeding out of
those who are weak.
See Kent, op. cit.,.-pp. 221 f.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 291 ff.
Hag, 2:3; {I'C) When it was realized quite clearly that the
Ezra 3:13, 13, promises of the prophets were not to be fulfilled at the
time of the return from exile, there was disappointment
Mal. 2:17, 3-iid despair on every side. Some became indifferent to
Isa, 59:9-15, God, for they put on him the blame for their disappoint
ment. Others, the more devout, took the blame upon
themselves. With full faith in God's ability to do the
things which he had prornised, they reasoned in their
hearts that this glorious future must have failed of reali
zation because of Israel's sin ; yes, because of their own
unworthiness this glory was being postponed. They
Cf. the prophet reasoned further : We, who have sinned and have thus
Isa,°42l'i8^25,"' made it impossible for the great day of deliverance to be
ushered in — we must change our ways ; We must become
Cf Ps. 15. more holy ; we must increase our piety ; our lives must
be of such purity that God will be compelled to keep his
promises. It was this situation and this interpretation
of it that prepared the way for "the legalism and the
salvation by works of the later Judaism."
See Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 155-9.
§ 39. A Great Reaction Came after the Building of the
Temple in 516 B.C., which lasted nearly three-quarters of
a century. Concerning this it will be noted —
Neh, 5:1-12; (i)'That, in all probability, only a few of the Baby-
Mai. 3:10. Ionian Jews had yet returned;' the weak, narrow, and
• The question of dates, always a more or less difficult one, is in this case especially
difficult. Cf. Kent, op. cit., pp. 196 ff.; H. E. RyLe, Ezra and Nehemiah (Cambridge
Bible), pp. xxxviii-xlv; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 36-81; C. C. Torrey, The Composition

WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4^
selfish elements were in control ; the rulers were greedy
of gain, oppressing the poor.
(2) There was in the community a strong tendency
toward skepticism. The so-called "scorners" were in
the majority, and included in their number not only rulers
but priests, and these openly expressed doubts as to all
the religious practices and opinions of the times, e. g.,
(a) weariness of the routine of sacrifice; {b) what real MaL 1:13,
benefit comes from serving God? {c) why not just as Mai.3:i4,ii.
well worship the heathen gods ? {d) what difference does Mai. 2:17.
it make whether a man does right or -Wrong ?
(3) Under these circumstances the condition of wor
ship was greatly degraded. This was seen in —
{a) The complaint of the priests as to the weariness MaL 1:13.
of their occupation.
(^) The low character of the high-priests, who were Neh. 13 14-9, 28.
among the most guilty.
{c) The readiness of the people to cheat Jehovah in Mai. 1:6-14.
their sacrifices.
{d) The attitude of the priests in general toward the Mai. 1:8; 2:8,9.
entire service, including the sacrifice, so that the whole
ceremonial came into contempt.
(1?) The failure of the people to pay their tithes, Mai. 3:8-12.
so that the support of the entire system was about
to fail. (/) The marriage of the priests into families of outside Neh. 13:23-28;
nations who served other gods.
(a) But there still remained the company of " faithful MaL3:i6-i8;
^^' ^ . Pss. 69:32-36;
ones," who feared Jehovah, and were called "the just," 101:6; 113:7.
"the poor and needy" {cf. above, §38, (14), (15)).
§ 40. Nehemiah's Coming (44fB. C.) Was a Great Event
in the history of Judaism.
(1) His work as a reformer and upbuilder of Jerusa- Neh. 1:1— 7:5;
^ ' 12:27-43.
lem included —
{a) The rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem as a pro- Neh. 2: 12-6: 15.
tection against attack, and as a means of separating the
Jews from their heathen neighbors.
and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah, pp. 51-65; W. H. KosTERS AND T. K.
Cheyne, article "Ezra" in Encyclopcedia Biblica; L. W. Batten, article "Nehe
miah " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible.

48 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Neh., chap. ii. {b) The repopulating of Jerusalem by bringing in
Jews from the surrounding country to dwell there.
Neh pi j?"^*' (^) The prohibition of marriages with heathen peoples
and the driving out of all foreigners from the Jewish
community.
Neh., chap. 5. ^^) ^he restoration to its original owners of all
property that had been acquired by mortgages and usury,
and the remission of all interest.
Neh. 13:15-22. (^g^ The institution of a stricter observance of the
sabbath, which had heretofore been freely violated.
Neh. 13:10-13; (2) But in addition to all this he turned his attention
Neh. 10 : 33-39. ^ '
to the temple and its service. Finding that this was
being neglected because the Levites were under the
necessity of working in the fields for their support, he
took steps to secure the regular payment of the tithes,
and appointed faithful officials to distribute them to the
Levites. He also made regulations for the proper
observance of sacrifices, offerings, and feasts.
§41. The Work of Ezra, in all probability, followed
that of Nehemiah, the latter having by his masterful skill
prepared the way (^. §40). The steps in his eventful
career may be summarily classified as follows :
Ezra 7: 1-9; (i) The journey took place in the seventh year of
Artaxerxes, occupied a period of four months, and was
made without military escort, since Ezra refused to
manifest distrust in Jehovah's protection by asking the
aid of Artaxerxes.
Ezra 7: 15-33; (2) The gifts said to have been offered by Artaxerxes
8 : 34 -34. ¦ "^
and his princes for the temple at Jerusalem and its service,
together with the requisition made by the king upon the
governors of the western provinces and the free-will offer
ings of the Babylonian Jews themselves, were of great
value, and were faithfully guarded and handed over to
the temple officials.
Bzra?: 14-37. (3) The immediate purpose was to establish more
securely and develop more elaborately the facilities for
worship in the temple. Matters relating to the service
and to the temple seem to have occupied the entire
time and attention of the reformers for a cOuple of
months after their arrival.

WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 49
§42. The Formal Adoption of the Law took place at Neh., chaps.
a public assembly of all the people. The method of
procedure was in general the same as that used when the
Deuteronomic law was publicly adopted by the nation
(see § 25). The law was first read aloud in the hearing of
the people. This produced a sense of sin and short
coming on the part of all, and was followed by public con
fession. After this a solemn covenant was entered into
by all the people to observe the requirements of the new
law, and this covenant was signed by the representatives
of the people, viz., the princes, priests, and Levites.
§ 43. The Law as Thus Proclaimed and Accepted —
(i) Is described in Nehemiah as —
{a) Prohibiting marriages with the surrounding Neh. lo: 30.
heathen. {b) Providing for a strict observance of the sabbaths Neh. 10:31.
and holy days.
{c) Enforcing the observance of the sabbatical year, Neh. 10: 31.
with the accompanying remission of all debts.
{d) Imposing an annual tax of one-third of a shekel Neh. 10:33, 33.
per capita for the support of the services of the temple,
including the offerings.
(<f) Arranging for the wood to be furnished for the Neh. 10:34.
burnt-offerings at stated intervals.
(/) Enjoining the bringing of all first-fruits and first- Neh. 10: 35-37.
lings to the priests at the temple.
(^) Requiring that the people ,give tithes to the Neh. 10:38.
Levites in the various cities, and that the Levites bring a
titl^e of these tithes to the temple at Jerusalem.
(A) Calling for a hearty support of the temple and Neh. 10:39-
constant faithfulness to it.
(2) Contains regulations unknown to Deuteronomy, Neh^ 10: 31^/
e. g., the requirement that the land lie fallow every sab- 15;
batical year; the tax of one-third of a shekel for the tem- c/. Deut. 14':
•' ' . 33-39 ; 36 : 13-15.
pie services; the arrangement for the provision of
fire-wood ; and the law concerning tithes, which departs
widely from the Deuteronomic law.
(3) Was substantially the body of regulations found
in Exod., chaps. 25-31 ; 34 : 29 — 40 : 38 ; Leviticus, and
Numbers; in other words, the so-called Levitical code.

50 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See Kent, op. cit., p. 212; Cheyne, op. cit, pp. 72 f.; Monte
fiore, 0^. cit., pp. 315 ff.; J. Estlin Carpenter and G. Harford
Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 137-41 ". Wellhausen,
op. cit., pp. 404-10.
§44. The Significance of This Important Event lies in
the following points :
c/. Neh. 10:30,31 (i) The immediate connection of these new regula-
Ezrag:^. ' tions with the times. They grew out of the effort to
improve the existing moral and religious condition of
the people, and they contain the principles that formed
the basis of the work of reform.
(2) The fact that, although some additions remained
still to be made to this code, it was substantially complete.
(3) The adoption and incorporation into this code
of the important teachings of the prophets. It presented
in the concrete and tangible form of specific precepts
the great general truths that the prophets had long
endeavored to inculcate. It presented truth and duty
objectively, and thus met with a greater immediate suc
cess than the prophets' work had ever achieved.
c/.,e.,f.,Lev.i6:i (4) The Overwhelming preponderance of material in
24:9; '25:11— the code relating to service or worship.
Lev M- 10-32- (s) T'^^ place occupied in it by sacrifice, and the
ExSd.'29f3&-42. emphasis (see §38, (10)) placed upon the idea of pro
pitiation and forgiveness.
Neh. 10:37, 38. (6) Thegreat advance made by the priests and Levites;
their support is no longer a matter of fitful charity, as it
was under the Deuteronomic law, but is made a standing
obligation upon the people, over the discharge of which
the priests and Levites themselves are given control.
§45. Another Important Headquarters for Worship, the
Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim, grew out of this
3 Kings 17:6, 24- priestly reformation. The Samaritans were a mixed race,
41 ;c/. 25: II, 12. ^jjQgg ancestors were the poorer Israelites left behind
after the deportation of the more influential classes to
Assyria at the time of the fall of Samaria, and the Baby
lonian colonists who were brought to Israel in place of
the deported captives. Their religion was thus naturally
a corrupt mixture of Israelitish and Babylonian ideas and
practices. They seem to have been influenced by Josiah's
reformation, at least to the extent of regarding Jerusalem

WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 5 1
as the only lawful place of worship. Hence, when the Ezra, chap. 4.
effort to rebuild the temple was begun, the Samaritans
sought to have a part in the work ; but, being denied this
privilege by the stricter Jews, they seem to have used
their influence to obstruct the work. Nehemiah's atti- Neh. 2- 18-20.
tude toward them was one of uncompromising opposition.
They, for their part, opposed and hindered him greatly Neh. 4 : 1-23 ; 6 • i-
in his work of rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. The Neh. 13:28.
climax of Nehemiah's hostility to them was reached when
he expelled the grandson of the high-priest from Jerusa
lem because he had married the daughter of Sanballat,
one of the Samaritan princes. The new law, adopted
when feeling was at such a pitch, of course gave the
Samaritans no part in the worship at Jerusalem. Conse
quently they withdrew and built a temple for themselves
on Mount Gerizim. In all probability many Jews who
had contracted heathen marriages went over to the
Samaritan community, to which they were so closely
bound by family ties, and thus the community of the
faithful was freed from many troublesome elements.
See Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 351 f.; Cheyne, op. cit, pp. 25-35 ;
Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 498; Guthe, article "Israel," §65, in
Encyclopcedia Biblica.
§46. The Last Century of Persian Rule (425-332)
witnessed —
(i) The return of many Jews from the lands in which
they had been scattered ; for this return, like the first
entrance into Canaan, was very gradual.
(2) The growing influence of those who thus returned
as over against that of those who had remained.
(3) Great opportunity at first for free growth and expan
sion because of the weakness of the government of Persia.
(4) Serious calamity, later, because of the contest
between Egypt and Persia, a contest in which the Jews
were compelled to take part, and in which they suffered
as perhaps never before in their history. From psalms Pss.74;79.
of this period we learn that the enemy entered Jerusalem
and the temple itself, in which they set up their
heathen standards and committed ruthless acts of van
dalism, even setting the temple on fire. Not satisfied

52

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Ezod. 28 : 1-39 ;
Lev. 16:1-3, 17,

Numb. 18 : 1-7.

with this, they burned all the synagogues of the land
and slaughtered the people mercilessly, 50 that blood
ran like water in the streets of Jerusalem.
See Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. V, pp. 165-206; Cheyne,
Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, pp. 357-63 ; W. Emory Barnes,
article "History of Israel," § 10, in Hastings' Dictionary of the
Bible; Guthe, article "Israel," §66, in Encyclopcedia Biblica;
Kent, op. cit., pp. 224-8.
§ 47. The Religio-Political Organization of Judaism,
which had thus become crystallized, considered as to its
outer form, was s.hierarchy, a government by priests ; for —
(i) The chief ruler was the high-priest, who had
despotic authority over the people, was robed in the
royal purple, and alone represented the people before
Jehovah in the holy of holies.
(2) The ruling aristocracy was made up of priests,
many of them related to the high-priest.
(3) The servants of the priests and the sanctuary
were the Levites.
(4) The religious and civil functions are performed
by one class, the priests. There is now no nation ; it is a
church. (5) The scribes come forward in response to the
need of the times. Since the regulations concerning
life and worship were now fixed and written down, there
arose a demand for copies of the written law for the use
of synagogues and individuals. The scribes who pre
pared these copies, being naturally better educated than
the great majority of the people and spending most of
their time in the study of the law, soon came to be looked
to as peculiarly well-fitted to interpret the law to those
less conversant with it."
See Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 392-6.
§ 48. The Place and Acts of Worship are Adjusted to
the New Situation.
(i) The temple more and more came to be the center
of the whole religious system. The thought of it as the
place where Jehovah especially manifested his presence
gave it a peculiar sanctity, so that none but the holy
'The scope of the activity of the scribes is well set forth in a saying ascribed to
Simon the Just (300-290 B. C): "Our fathers have taught us three things, to be cau
tious in judging, to train many scholars, and to set a fence about the. Law."

Ezra 7:6, 10-12,
21;
Eccles. 12:11.

Pss. 76:1,2;
79:1.

WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 53
people might enter its precincts. The worst crime of
which an enemy could be capable was desecration of the
temple. But, while emphasis was thus laid upon the
temple, there was growing up alongside of it the synagogue Ps.74:8.
with a function of a different kind. These were organized
wherever there were a few Jews settled who wished to
study the law. They especially supplied the religious
needs of the many Jews scattered in many lands who
were unable to make frequent visits to Jerusalem in
order to participate in the splendid worship of the tem
ple. While the temple services centered about sacrifices
and offerings, the service of the synagogue centered in
the reading and interpretation of the law.
See Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 390 f.
(2) ^a^ri)?^!? now took on more and more a propitia- Lev.6:34— 7:9;
tory character, being looked upon chiefly as atonement Numb., chaps. 38;
for sin. The most minute regulations were made as to
the details of every sacrifice, the manner in which the
offering must be laid upon the altar, the disposition to
be made of the fat and the blood, the garments to be
worn by the officiating priest, etc. It seems as though
the temple services must have been a constant succession
of sacrifices. (3) Times and seasons received moire attention than Lev. 19:3;
ever before. The sabbath was particularly insisted upon
as a sign of the covenant between Jehovah and his
people. The penalty for performing any work on the
sabbath was death.
(4) The sabbatical year wa.s now xndidewidex in sco'^e. Lev. 25:1-7.
so as to include the land itself which was to be allowed
to lie fallow. Furthermore, every fifty years an addi
tional year of jubilee was to be celebrated, thus, making Lev. 25:8-55.
two sabbatical years in succession. At this time all
Hebrew slaves were to be released, and all land bought
during the preceding forty-nijie years was to revert to
its original owners.
(5) The feasts provided for were the Passover and Lev. 23:4-8,
Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Tabernacles, the Numb.'28:ii6., 36 ff.;
New Moon, the Feast of Weeks, the New Year'' s Feast, Lev. 33:15 ff.;
Numb, 39 : 1-6 ;
2Si.d the Day of Atonement. They were all definitely dated Lev., chap. 16.

54 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
by month and day, and thus were still farther removed
from their agricultural origin. The Feast of Taber
nacles was now celebrated in remembrance of the fact that
the Israelites dwelt in tents during their journey in the
wilderness. There was little difference in the manner of
celebrating the various feasts — the most characteristic
feature of them all is the endless sacrifices that accom
panied them. They were all to a large extent of an expia
tory nature ; nevertheless it was felt necessary to devote
one day per year to the special work of expiation, viz.,
the Day of Atonement.
(6) The public /aj-/j- which had been observed during
the exile in commemoration of the exile and of the
disasters connected with it were not incorporated into
the new law, but seem to have come to an end in Zecha-
riah's time. That fasting in general was highly esteemed
as a means of propitiating Jehovah, and frequently prac-
Lev. 33:32; ticed when occasion seemed to demand it, is clear in view
joeii:'i4;' ' of the place given to it in the regulations for the Day of
Neh."': 4' '9:1, Atonement, and the references to it in Joel and Nehemiah.
Ezra, chap. 9; (7) Other acts of worship. — Constant recourse was
3 :4V 5^19; had to prayer on the p^rt of pious Jews. The chie^
13^33.'''*'' ' objects of prayer seem to have been deliverance from
dangers, help in trouble, and forgiveness of sin with
resulting bestowal of blessings.
Neh.7:i; 11:23; That singing and music occupied a large place in
45-47- worship is clear from the allusions to the singers in con
nection with the dedicatory exercises held when the wall
of Jerusalem was completed, and from the large number
of psalms that come from this period (see § 50).
Lev, 19:26. 31; Soothsaying and magic seexa. to have been still prac
ticed, but were prohibited by the law, as was also necro
mancy.
^'^'¦i-s'^'^''^^' Vowswexe recognized and provided for by the law.
Ps. 84:1, 2. §49- The Full Significance of This New Regime is
hard to grasp. The comfort afforded by it to the people
cannot be questioned. This strange system, which seems
to us, in our love of freedom, so distasteful, was, after
all, the highest result yet achieved in the development
of Israel's religion. It was based upon the doctrines

WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 55
of the prophet-priests, viz., individualism and solidarity.
Its 'keynote wa.s monotheism. Its God was a God whose Lev.i9:i-4;
., , ,. , , , . 20:26; 22:15,
supreme attribute was holiness, and who expected in 16,31-33,
every individual of the sacred community a holiness like
his own. The underlying thought was the overwhelm
ing sense of sin. Now, for the first time, the preaching
of the prophets through all the centuries has found its
place in the hearts of the people. The prayers are pss. 106 : 6-47 ;
prayers of confession. God has grown greater, and man '^°'
more humble in the sight of God. God is the God of
the whole world. Israel is a company of individuals in
a sacred community. Every act of life must be holy.
The religious feeling is deeper than ever before and
more universal. Men are anxious. The people, bur
dened as they are with their anxiety, smitten as they
are in their consciousness of sin, humbled by their
ideal of God, take upon themselves the severest yoke
ever placed by religion upon the neck of man. A serv
ice worthy of this supreme God must be regulated in its
most minute details. The service everywhere presents
the thought of sin. Sacrifice is now the great act, and
is no longer accompanied by gladness and joy. It rep- Lev. 4:1— 6:7.
resents purification from sin. It is " the chief symbol,
and the ffreat mystery of their faith." To be holy one Lev., chap. 15 ;
, , , , . Lev., chap, 11 ;
must wash ; one must touch no unclean thing ; one must Exoa. 31 : 12-17.
not eat what is unclean ; one must observe the sabbath,
the day of God ; and all these acts of worship cultivated
the spirit of exclusiveness. Then followed that haughty
spirit. "Man who would go up to the hill of Jehovah Lev. 21: 1-34.
must now be the one who has not eaten shellfish or
pork, nor opened his shop on the sabbath, nor touched
a dead body, nor used a spoon handed him by a gentile
without washing it." We know the outcome of all this,
as it is shown us in the New Testament, but "it kept the
people separate from the world and constant to their
faith, and made them endure the greatest temptations'
and the severest persecutions, and so enabled them to
preserve the precious treasure committed to them until
the time should come when the world was to receive it
from their hands."

56 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 73-81; Kent, op. cit., pp. 213 f.,
249 ff.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 465-552; Wellhausen, op. cit.,
P- 497- § 50. The Psalms of the Second Temple are now Written,
and one fails to see the deeper meaning of all this if he
forgets that in this period the greatest number of the
Pss. 118; 121; 67. psalms were written. The old prophetic ideas, which the
people in the times of the prophet had refused to accept,
'z.xe now a part of the people's creed and are sung by
Pss. 95; 46. them with joyous hearts in the congregation. Sacred
Pss. 122; 138; 145; song becomes preeminently an act of worship. The
''^ ''°' worship of Jehovah in this act is as joyous and as delight
ful as it may be sad and grewsome in the act of sacrifice.
Pss. 143:10; 139; In these very days, when such emphasis is laid upon the
letter of the law, the service of song teaches that to obey
Jehovah and to trust in him, to surrender one's self
absolutely to him, is the end of all religion. Whatever
may be the experience of life, it finds expression in these
psalms ; whether it be " penitence, ihtellectual perplexity,
Pss. 102; 91; 130; domestic sorrow, feebleness, loneliness, the approach
Pss. 109; 116; 123. r 1 1 , r \ ,
of death, the excitement of great events,* the agony of
persecution, or the quiet contemplation of nature."
For each experience there is expression, and the heart-
utterances which formed a part of the worship of this
period, sung, to be sure, in the midst of the bleating of the
lambs which are being slaughtered for the sacrifice, have
proven to be the most satisfying utterances for the soul,
in its deepest communion with God, which have ever
reached the heart of man. The ritual may have been
narrow, but the heart of every Jew was free. He was
restrained outwardly, but no such restraint hindered him
in the working of his mind and heart. Here was con
tradiction, to be sure, but contradiction no greater than
is found in the tendency to substitute the synagogue for
the temple, which now exhibits itself in spite of the
exclusiveness that was the end and the result of the
Levitical system.
§51. The Greek Period of Influence, 332-165 B. C, added nothing
essential to the content or form of service. It furnished the test of
Judaism for which the work of Ezra and Nehemiah had been an uncon
scious preparation. In the crisis through which the true religion was

WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 57
to pass the form given to it by these men was of inestimable value.
In the words of Cornill :"
That the development of Judaism took this special direction was a neces
sity of the history of religion.
For the heaviest struggle of Judaism still awaited it ; the struggle against
Hellenism. One hundred and twenty-five years after Ezra, Alexander the
Great destroyed the Persian empire and made the Greeks the sovereign peo
ple of the eastern world. Through this a profound transformation was begun,
which spread with startling rapidity and irresistible might, and led finally to
the denationalizing of the East. That which the Assyrian had undertaken
by brute force the Hellenes surmounted by the superior power of mind and
culture. Greece destroyed the nationalities of the East by amalgamating
them with itself and conquering them inwardly. Only one eastern nation
withstood the process of dissolution, yea, more, absoibed into itself the good,
of Hellenism, and thus enriched and strengthened its own existence ; and that
was the Jewish. If it were able to do this, it was because Ezra and Nehe
miah had rendered it hard as steel and strong as iron. In this impenetrable
armor it was insured against all attacks, and thus saved religion against
Hellenism. And, therefore, it behooves us to bless the prickly rind to which
alone we owe it that the noble core remained preserved.
With this we may close our rapid survey of the history of the
development of Israel's worship. In the light of this survey we
shall next consider the more important special divisions included
in it, viz., the laws, the histories, and the psalms.
'Op. cit., pp. .162 f.

Paet Thied

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES
OF WORSHIP
V. Laws and Usages Concerning the Priest.
VI. Laws and Usages Concerning the Place of Worship.
VII. Laws and Usages Concerning Sacrifice.
VIII. Laws and Usages Concerning Feasts.
IX. Laws and Usages Concerning the Sabbath.
X. Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean.
XI. Laws and Usages Concerning Prayer and Related Forms
OF Worship.

CHAPTER V.
the laws and usages concerning the priest, considered compara
tively.
§ 52. To Speak of the History of Worship, as It is Presented in the
Old Testament, is to take for granted (1) that there were periods, (2)
that these periods differed from each other to a greater or less extent,
and (3) that there was either growth or decay, or perhaps both. The
brief survey, just finished, distinguished three such periods, each with
its peculiar characteristics, and presented what seemed to be a striking
case of development, i. e., growth from a lower and less complicated
form of worship to one higher and more complicated. These periods
were called early, middle, and later.
§ 53. Each Period Had a Lawbook or Code of Legislation Peculiar to
Itself, viz.: (i) the Covenant Code (§14, (3)) for the early period,
(2) the Deuteronomic Code (§27) for the middle period, and (3) the
Levitical Code (§43) for the later period. Injunctions concerning
nearly every topic relating to worship are found in each of these codes.
These injunctions are sometimes couched in language almost the same ;
in other cases there are to be noted differences (additions or varia
tions) of -an important character ; in still other cases they are quite
contradictory. These differences, it is clear, exist because through
succeeding centuries the people (a) changed their place of abode,
<?. g., from the desert to Canaan, from Canaan to Babylon, and back
again ; (i5) changed also their form of life, passing from the nomadic to
the agricultural, and from the agricultural to the more centralized or city
life ; {c) changed their form of government, passing from a tribal form
to the monarchical, and from that to a theocratic or hierarchical form;
((f) came into contact with different nations, froni whom much was
learned, e. g., the Canaanites, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the
Persians, and the Greeks ; {e) were given great leaders, lawgivers, kings,
and prophets, through whom, from time to time, new and better ideas
of God and worship were taught.
Now, the different codes named above, as they severally appear and
are adopted by the nation, reflect the onward and upward movement
of the people toward the great goal of the nation's history, the time
when Jesus Christ shall come and teach as men had never taught
61

62 priestly element in the old TESTAMENT
before. These codes, then, are different expressions of the usage and
law of successive epochs. To understand any special topic connected
with worship, one must examine systematically what each code con
tains on that topic. This is the comparative study of the laws relating
to worship. § 54. The Constructive Study of a Subject is Possible Only on the
Basis of the Comparative Study. — It is not the earliest usage in a par
ticular case, e. g., a distinction between the priest and the laity, nor the
latest, that gives us a true idea of Israelitish thought and custom ; it
is, rather, the latest as growing out of and including, not only the
earliest, but all the intervening steps between the two. At no one
time did growth or decay stop ; and it is only when we have the whole
process before us that we begin to understand its significance.
§ 55. Side by Side with the Codes We Pind in the Hexateuch Also His
tories which refer frequently to customs ot worship. It is interesting
to note that each code is imbedded in a separate history; e. g., {a) the
Covenant Code is a part of a great prophetic history beginning with the
creation and continuing down to the times of the Judges; {b^ the Deu
teronomic Code (Deut., chaps. 12-26) is a part of a history which is
found, not only in the earlier part of Deuteronomy, but also in some
places in Joshua, and elsewhere ; while (c) the Priest Code is also closely
connected with a history which begins with Gen. i : i and continues
through Numbers. In studying the subject of worship, it is of interest
to note what is said in these histories concerning each subject considered.
§56. The Later Histories contained in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Chronicles give especial attention to the subject of worship. Just
as the history in the books of Samuel and Kings is written from the
prophetic point of view, that in these later books is written from the
priestly point of view (see § 10), and hence gives much information con
cerning the institutions of worship as they existed at the time these
books were written. /
§57. The Prophets Were Always Deeply Interested in Matters of
Worship; sometimes, as opponents of the ideas and practices existing
in their day, they were trying to introduce new and better ideas ; at
other times, as allies of the priesthood, they were striving to awaken the
zeal of the nation in behalf of the worship of Jehovah. In either case
their writings contain much that is of value in a study of the develop
ment of Israel's ideas concerning worship.
§ 58. The Priest Code, Manifestly, Is the Great Source of Informa
tion upon the subject of worship, because {a) it contains the fullest

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 63
presentation of each subject; {b) it is from the hands of the priests
themselves, who were most deeply interested ; and {c) it presents the
latest stage of growth. But this Priest Code is itself a growth, and
contains at least four strata of material, each of which represents a
different age and stage of development. These are :
I. The Holiness Code, contained in Lev., chaps. 17-26, a body of
laws which, as the name implies, lays especial emphasis upon the
thought of the holiness of God and the necessity of corresponding
holiness on the part of his people.
2. A collection of priestly teachings in reference to various sacri
ficial and ritualistic matters.
3. A set of miscellaneous materials, such as genealogical lists,
elaborations of laws, and illustrative narratives.
4. A historical narrative from the creation up to the settlement in
Canaan, which' forms the basis of the P document, the three preceding
elements having been incorporated into it.
See Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 6th ed., pp.
126-59; Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 169-91 ; J. E. Caii-
penter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 121-57.
§ 59. The Priest of Early Times, that is, as described in (a) the
Covenant Code ; {b^ the historical material of J and E ; (^) the pre-
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and {d) the
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances.'
I. The only allusion in the Covenant Code.°
Exod. 20 : 26.
' On the date, character, contents, and limits of these various documents see
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament; also J. E. Carpenter
AND G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch; W. E. Addis, The Documents of the
Hexateuch; Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch ; II01.ZINGER, £inle.itung
in den Hexateuch; WELLHAUSEN AND Cheyne, article "Hexateuch" in Encyclopcedia
Biblica; F. H. Woods, article "Hexateuch" in 'H.A.sxiviGs' Dictionary of the Bible;
KUENEN, An Historico-Critical Inquiry into the Origin of the Hexateuch; '^'ELl.-
llA.Vse.fl, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 228-39 1;, Steuernagel, Allgemeine
Einleitung in den Hexateuch ( =Handkommentar zum Alt. Test., I. Abtheilung, 3. Band,
pp. 249-86) ; W. R. Harper and W. H. Green, "The Pentateuchal Question," in
Hebraica,\o\. V, pp. l8-73. 137-89. 243-gi ; Vol. VI, pp. 1-48, 109-38, 161-211
241-95 ; Vol. VII, pp. 1-38, 104-42; Vol. VIII, pp. 15-64, 174-243-
For a discussion of these questions from a different point of view see especially
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts; cf. also Bissell, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and
Structure; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch and Moses and the
Prophets. " The following references are from the J document : Gen. 8 : 20 f.; 12:8; 22 : 13
Exod. 33 : 7-1 1 ; 19 : 22 ; 32 : 25-29 ; 4 : 14-17 ; 32 : 1 ff.; and the following from the E
document : Exod. 20 : 26 ; 24 : 4-8 ; Deut. 33:8-11; 10:6; Josh. 24 : 33.

64 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
2. Non-priests frequently do priestly work.
Gen. 8: 20 f.; 12:8; 22: 13; Exod. 33:7-11 : 24:4-8; Judg. 13:19;
I Sam. 7:1 ; 13:8-14 ; 2 Sam. 6:14-18 ; i Kings 18:30-38.
3. The story of Micah's priest.
Judg., chaps. 17 and 18.
4. The consecration of the priest.
Exod. 19:22 ; Judg. 17:5, 12 ; I Sam. 7:1. ,
5. The service rendered by the priest.
I Sam. 4:4; 7:1; I Kings i : 34 ; i Sam. 21 : 1-9 ; Hos. 4:6; Mic.
3:11; Isa. 28 ¦."].
6. Priests were consulted as soothsayers.
Judg. 18:5,6; I Sam. 23:6-13 ; 30 : 7 fi.
7. The tribe of Levi.
Exod. 32 : 25-29 ; Deut. 33 : 8-1 1.
8. Aaron and his descendants.
Exod. 4 : 14-17; 32:1 ££.; Deut. 10:6; Josh. 24:33.
9. The sons of Eli and their behavior.
I Sam. 1:3; 2:22-25; 4:4; I Kings 2: 27.
10. Elijah and the priests of Baal.
I Kings 18: 19-40.
II. The prophets' estimate of the priest.
Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1; 6:g; Amos 7:10-17; Mic. 3:11; Isa. 28:7.
12. The priest's dress and equipment.
iSam.2:i8; Judg. 17:5; 18:14,20; i Sam. 23 : 6, 9-12 ; 30:7,8.
13. The priest's maintenance.
Judg. 17:10; 18:4; I Sam. 2 : 12-17 ; 2 Kings 12: 16.
14. The high-priest.
2 Kings 12 : 10 (?).
§ 60. Questions and Suggestions.
1. What is the significance of the lack of any reference to priest in
the Covenant Code (see § 15, (2))?
2. What connection is there between this lack of reference and the
fact that laymen in early times acted as their own priests ? Is there
evidence that in cases where non-priests offered sacrifice they were doing
so (ff) through regularly appointed priests, or ((5) by special divine
authority ?
3. Consider from the story of Micah's priest {a) the character of
the times, {b') the existence of idolatry, {c) the place of the priest
(<r/.§i6,(2)).

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 65
4. How early and in what way were priests set apart or consecrated ?
5. Formulate a list of the various functions performed by the priest
in those days.
6. To what extent did people consult the priest about the ordinary
affairs of life ? Cf. the case of Samuel (i Sam. 9 : 6 ff., 19 f.).
7. With what events and in what connection do the references to
the tribe of Levi in this period appear ?
8. Trace the line of Aaron as it is indicated down to later times.
What, according to the tradition, was Aaron's official relation to Moses ?
9. From the story of Eli's sons, point out («) the basis of their
right to be priests, (V) their functions as priests, {c) the various ways in
which they abused their office.
10. Consider, in the story of Elijah and the priest-prophets of
Baal, (ff) the significance of the large number of prophets of Baal, {b)
the non-priestly character of Elijah.
II. Enumerate, one by one, the shortcomings of the priests which
are criticised by the prophets, and consider whether this state of things
owed its existence (ff) to a growing formality and emptiness of the
Israelitish religion, or {b^ to the influence exerted on the Israelitish
religion by the neighboring religion, which was very sensual in its
character, or (<:) to the fact that now for the first time the prophets are
holding up these high ideals, the priest-practice in Israel, as aniong
other nations, having always been upon a low plane.
12, Consider the references to the priests' dress and equipment,
and explain particularly the ephod, the Urim, and Thummim.^
13. What evidence is there that the priest in this period had any
special perquisites or any regular maintenance ?
14. How much may fairly be inferred as to the functions and
authority of the hig'h-priest in this period ?
3 See the article " Ephod," by G. F. Moore, in Encyclopcedia Biblica; the article
" Ephod," by S. R. Driver, in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; van Hoonacker,
Le Sacerdoce Uvitique, pp. 370 ff.; KONIG, Religious History of Israel, pp. 107 ff.; G. F.
ytoo^e. Judges, p. 381; KoNIG, Hauptprobleme, pp. 59-63; FooTE, "The Biblical
Ephod," in Johns Hopkins University Circulars, 'M.a.y, 1900. On "Urim and Thum
mim'' see Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ligz); Kirkpatrick, The First Book of
Samuel (Ca.xahn6.ge Bible Series),, pp. 217!.; Kalisch, Exodus, -p. 544; Wellhau
sen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 394 f.; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament
in the Jewish Church, 2d ed., p. 292, note I; T. WiTTON 'DlCJxe.'i, Magic, Divina
tion and Demonology, p. 75 ; Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah (Cambridge Bible Series),
p. 33 ¦> Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 93 f.; Benzinger,
Hebrdische Archdologie, pp. 382, 407 f.; Baudissin, Die Gesehichte des alttestament-
lichen Priesterthums untersucht, pp. 26 f.; Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I,
pp. 156,471-3, 505 f-, 517 f-

66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§6i. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid
ered, write a paper on "The Priest in Early Israelitish History,"
observing the following suggestions: (i) include only what can be
corroborated by references to the literature of this period (see above);
(2) use great caution in making general statements upon the basis of
few facts ; (3) remember that much may be gained by ascertaining what
did not exist.
§62. The Priest of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described {a)
in the laws of Deuteronomy, {b) in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings, and (c) by the prophets of the Deuter
onomic period.*
I. The Levites, that is, the priests, become a distinct class.
Deut. 10:8; 18: 1 ; I Sam. 2 : 28 ; Jer. 1:18; 8:1; 13 : 13; 23 : 33f.;
26:7 f., II, 16; 28: I, S ; 33:21 ; 34: 19.
2. The service rendered by " the priests the Levites."
Deut. 10:8 ; 21 :5 ; 33:8-10; 26 : 3 ff. ; 27:14; 17:18; 31:9; 17:8,
9, 12 ; 19 : 17; 20 : 2 ; 24:8 ; Jer. 18 : 18.
3. The prophets' estimate of the priest.
Jer. 2:8; 5:31 ; 6:13 ; 14:18; 23:11 ; 32:32; Zeph. 3:4.
4. A later view of the wickedness of Eli's sons.
1 Sam. 2 : 27-36.
5. The relative authority of priest and prophet.
Jer. 29:25 f.; 5 ;3i ; 20:1 ff. ; II : 18-23; cf. i :i.
6. Differences of rank within the priestly order.
2 Kings 23 : 4, 8, 9 ; Jer. 52 : 24 ; 29 : 25 f .; 19:1; Deut. 18 : 6 f.
7. Maintenance of "the priests the Levites."
Deut. 10:9; 12:12; 18:1-8; 14:27,29.
8. Residence of priests.
Deut. 18:6, 7 ; Jer. i: i ; c/ 11 : 21, 22 ; 32 : 6 ff.; Jer. 29: i.
9. Priests consulted as soothsayers.
Deut. 33 : 8.
§63. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider the circumstances which, ordinarily, would encourage
the building up of a special priest class. What connection existed
between the centralization of worship in Jerusalem (§27, (2) ; cf. Deut.,
chap. 12) and the growth of a special class of priests? What is
implied in the constantly recurring phrase " the priests the Levites"
•• References printed in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in
Deuteronomy.

LAWS AND usages' CONCERNING THE PRIEST 6/
{cf. Deut. 17:18; 18 : I ; 21 : 5 ; 27 : 9 ; 31 : 9) ? Does it mean {cf. Deut.
10:8) that all priests were Levites and all Levites priests ?
2. Formulate the different functions which together made up the
service of " the priest the Levite," distinguishing between regular and
special functions. Consider the difference between the work of the
prophet, the wise, (man), and the priest (Deut. i8 : i8; Jer. i8 : i8).
3. What, according to the prophets, is the priest's attitude toward
Jehovah and the true religion ?
4. Compare the later view (i Sam. 2 : 27-36) of the wickedness of
Eli's sons with the former (i Sam. 2 : 12-17, 22-25), i^ote the points of
change, and consider to what extent this is in harmony with Deuter
onomic representations.
5. Recall the authority of the prophet (ff) in the days of Saul,
David, Solomon ; ((5) in the days of Elijah and Isaiah ; and {c) consider
to what extent, in the days of Jeremiah, the prophet had lost authority,
while the priest had gained it.
6. Indicate the extent to which differences of rank had come to
exist among the priests, and the significance of this fact.
7. Enumerate very accurately the sources of "income and main
tenance which were enjoyed by " the priests the Levites."
8. Were there special places of residence assigned to " the priests
the Levites"? Did priests own property?
9. Is there anything additional to be said about the use of Urim
and Thummim ?
§64. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of the material consid
ered, write a paper on " The Priest in the Middle Period of Israelitish
History" — that is, the so-called Deuteronomic period — discussing par
ticularly (ff) the class system, {S) the higher position now occupied,
'{c) the functions, {d) the maintenance provided by law,
§ 65. The Priest as Described by Ezekiel.
I. Ezekiel himself was a priest.
Ezek. 1:3; 4:14.
2. Priesthood was limited to the sons of Zadok.
Ezek. 44:15 f.; 40:46; 43:19. 24-27; 44:6-31; 48:11.
3. The priest's dress.
Ezek. 42: 14; 44: 17-19.
4. Special "holiness" was required of priests.
Ezek. 4:' 14; 44:20-22, 25-27, 31.
5. Service rendered by priests.
Ezek. 44 : II, I4. 15. 16, 23 f. ; 40:46; 43:21, 24, 27.

68 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
6. Residence of priests.
Ezek. 48 : 10-14 ; 42 : 13 f.; 46 : 19-24.
7. Maintenance of priests.
Ezek. 42 : 13 f.; 44 : 28-30.
§66. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider the significance of the fact that Ezekiel, and also Jere
miah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi — all the later prophets — were
priests. Note that Ezekiel preached his visions of Israel's glorious
future after the fall of Jerusalem. Consider the circumstances which
led him to foresee and proclaim a system so exclusively ecclesiastical.
2. What limitation of the priesthood does he introduce, and why?
In what respect is this an advance upon the Deuteronomic usage ?
3. Consider the regulations made concerning the priest's dress ;
what was their purpose ?
4. Enumerate the particular requirements made of the priests which
were intended to mark their holiness, and show, in each case, how this
was to be secured. In what sense is the word " holy " to be understood ?
5. Indicate in what particulars the service required of the priest in
Ezekiel's code differs from that of the Deuteronomic Code (§62, (2) );
and show the principles underlying these changes.
6. What was to be the place of the priests' residence, and its
extent ? The meaning of the word " oblation " ?
7. Prepare in detail a list of the items mentioned which should
serve as the maintenance of the priest. Is there any variation from
those mentioned in Deuteronomy ?
§67. Constructive Work. — Prepare a paper showing how the priest,
as seen in Ezekiel's vision, differed from the priest of the Deutero
nomic times.
§ 68. The Priest of the Later Period, that is, as described (ff) in the '
laws of the Levitical Code, {b) by the priestly prophets, and (c) in the
priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.^
I. Distinction between priests and Levites everywhere presupposed.
Numb. 4:1-15, ig; 8:14-26; 18 : 1-7; 17: i-n; 25:10-13; i Chron.
6:49-53-
2. Special holiness required of priestly class.
Lev. 21 : 1-9, 17-23 ; 22 : 1-8 ; 10:6; Exod. 30 : ig.
3. Service rendered by priests.
Lev. 10:8-11; Numb. 4: 4-14, 16; Lev. 16:32; 6:20-22; Hag. 2 : 11-13;
Mal. 2:4-7; Numb. 18:1-7; 27:21; 2 Chron. 19 : 8, 1 1.
s References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 69
4. Service rendered by Levites.
Numb. 4:1-3. 15, 21-33; 2:17; 3:23-26, 2g-32, 35-38; 18:1-7;
3:5-10; Ezra6:2o; Neh. 1 1 : 15-18, 22 ; i Chron. 6 : 31-48; 15:2;
23 : 27-32 ; 26 : 20-32; 2 Chron. 5 : 4 f.; 19 : 8, 1 1.
5. Influence and numbers of prie.stly class.
Lev. 16:32; Numb. 4: ig, 27 f., 33; 3:1-4; 4:34-49; 35:25-34; Hag.
1:1,12,14; Zech. 3:1-10; 6:92. (?); Ezra i : 5 ; 2:61-63,70;
3:2, 8-13; 5:2; 6:16; T.-j, 13, 16; 8:15-20, 29 f.; Neh.
11:15-18,22; 12:1-26; 3:20,22,28; 5:12; I Chron. 6 : 1-47 ;
9:10-34 ; 23: 1-24.
6. Place and work of the high-priest.
Numb. 35 : 25-34 ; Lev. 16 : 4-32 ; 6 : 22 ; Exod. 29 : g ; Numb. 27 : 21 ;
Zech. 3 : i-io ; 6 : 9 ff. (?); Neh. 13 : 4, 28-30.
7. Consecration of high-priest.
Lev. 21 : 10-15 ; 6 : 20-22 ; 8 : 12, 14-36 ; Exod., chap. 2g ; Lev., chap.
g ; Numb. 20 : 23-29.
8. Dress of priests.
Neh. 7 : 70-73 ; Lev. 6 : 10 f.; 8 : i-g, 13, 30 ; Exod., chap. 28; 39 ; 1-31 ;
40 : 13 f .
9. Residence of priests.
I Chron. 6:54-81; Josh. 21:1-42; Numb. 35:2-8; Neh. 11:3;
Numb. 2:17; 3 : 23-26, 29-32, 35-38.
10. Maintenance of priests.
Lev. 27 : 30-33 ; chap. 7 ; Numb. 3 : 4648 ; Ezra 7 : 24 ; Neh. 12 : 44-47;
13:10-14; Numb. 18: 20 f., 24-31.
II. Courses of priests and Levites.
Ezra 6:18; I Chron. 24 : i — 26: 19:2 Chron. 5 : 11 f.; 8:12-15.
12. Prophets' estimate of the priests.
Hag. 2: 11-13 ; Zech. 3:1-10 ; 6:93.; Mal. i : 6-10 ; 2 : 4-9; 3:3;
Isa. 61 : 6 ; 66 : 21; Joel 1:9, 13 ; 2 :j7.
§ 69. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Is there anywhere {cf. Neh. 11 : 20) in the post-exilic literature a
passage in which the words "priest" and "Levite" are synonymous?
Cf. Deut. (§ 62, (i)), and consider (ff) the circumstances which have
led to this differentiation, (3) its significance, and (c) the great change
which has taken place since the time when everyone might be his own
priest (f/. §§58, (2); 15, (2)).
2. What special limitations were imposed upon the priests (Aaron's
sons) to secure their holiness ?
3. Enumerate carefully the kinds of service expected of the priests

70 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(Aaron's sons), and note how it differs from that required in Deuter
onomy of "the priests the Levites."
4. Enumerate the kinds of service required of the Levites, and note
the extent to which this service was in older times the work of "the
priest the Levite."
5. What are the facts concerning the numbers of the priestly classes
in this later period ? Are they larger or smaller ? Is their influence
. greater or less ? What is the full significance of these facts ?
6. What part has the high-priest played in the priestly work of
earlier times ? What is his place and work at this time ?
7i What are the details of the consecration of the high-priest, and
their interpretation ?
8. Is more care now given to the peculiar dress of the high-priest ?
If so, in what details, and for what reason ?
g. What special places are set apart for the residence of priests ?
Consider from various points of view the cities of refuge, noting espe
cially the absence of any reference to them as Levitical cities in Deu
teronomy (19 : 1-13).
10. What additions appear to the sources of income of the priests
and Levites ? Can the priests any longer be classed with the father
less and widow as in Deut. 14 : 28, 29 ?
II. What is to be understood by the classification of the priests
and Levites into courses and divisions ?
12. How did the prophet, although himself a priest, estimate the
priests of his times ?
§ 70. Constructive Work. — Upon the basis of material in §69 write
a paper on the priest in later Israeliti,sh history, noting especially
Such points as indicate changes in comparison with preceding periods.
§ 7 1. Literature to be Consulted.
Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXXVI (1865);
S. I. CuRTiss, The Levitical Priests (1877); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
of Israel (1878), pp. 121-51; Kuenen, yVa/zowa/ Religions and Universal Religions
(Hibbert Lectures, 1882), pp. 314-17; Green, Moses and the Prophets (1883), pp.
78-83, 127-31; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus, Part I, pp. 559-659; Schijrer,
History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ {\%%t). Second Division, Vol. I,
pp. 207-305; W. R. Smith, article "Priest" in Encyclopedia Britannica (1889);
Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp.
65-70, 1 16-18, etc.; Schultz, Old Testament Theology {i?ig2), set Index ; Kittel,
History of the Hebrews (1892), see Index; E. H. Plumptre, article "Priest" in
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 2d ed. (1892); Driver, Deuteronomy {InteTnationa.!
Critical Commentary, 1895), see Index; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), pp. 70,
183; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (1897), p. 104; Pick, "The Jewish

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 7 1
High Priests Subsequent to the Return from Babylon," in Lutheran Church Review,
1898, pp. 127-42, 370-75, 655-64; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria
(1898), see Index; Toy, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Polychrome Bible, 1899),
pp. 193 f.; W. R. Harper, "The Priestly Element in the Old Testament as Seen in
the Laws," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 258-66 ; Duff, Old Testament The
ology (1891-1900), see Index; G. A. Cooke, article "Levi" in Hastings' Dictionary
of the Bible (1900); McCuRDY, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901),
see Index; Walker, " The Levitical Priesthood," Journal of Biblical Literature,
1900, pp. 124-37 ; Berlin, "Notes on Genealogies of the Tribe of Levi in i Chron.
23-26," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. XII (1900), pp. 291-8 ; Laidlaw, "The Priest
and the Prophet," Expository Times, 1900 ; H. M. Chadwicke, "Ancient Teutonic
Priesthood," Folk-Lore, Vol. XI (1900), pp. 268-309 ; Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle:
Studies in the Priesthood and the Sanctuary of the Jews (1901).
Graf, " Zur Gesehichte des Stammes Levi," in Merx, Archiii fiir wissenschaft-
liche Erforschung desAlten Testamentes, Vol. I (1867), pp. 68-106, 208-36; Maybaum,
Die Entwicklung des altisraelitischen Priesterthums (1880); Smend, Der Prophet
Ezechiel {18S0), pp. 360-62; Kittel, " Die Priester und Leviten," in Theologische
Studien aus Wiirtemberg ,N o\. II (1881), pp. 147-69; Vol. Ill, pp. 278-314; Kuenen,
Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testaments {\'&%'-,),'^ o\. I, pp.
28i££.; Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel (1887), VoL I, pp. 152 £f., 468 ff.; Baudis
sin, Die Gesehichte' des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889); H. Vogelstein,
Der Kampf zwischen Priestern und Leviten seit den Tagen Ezechiels. Eine historisch-
kritische Untersuchung (1889); KuENEN, "Die Gesehichte des Jahwepriesterthums
und das Alter des Priestergesetzes " (1889), in Gesammelte Abhandlungen, pp, 465-
500; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d
ed. 1899), see Index; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 405-28;
NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 87-130; Marti,
Gesehichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), pp. 44 ff., 50, 72, etc.- H. BOURY, Les
Pretresd^ Israel {ligi); 'H.Vtim.^l.A.VY.^, Das vormosaische Priesterthum in Israel (iSgg);
VAN Hoonacker, Le Sacerdoce Uvitique (1899), and " Les PrStres et les Levites dans
le livre d'Ez^kiel," Revue biblique, 1899, pp. 177-205.
' See also the commentaries of Delitzsch, Dillmann, Holzinger, and Gunkel on
Genesis ; of Dillmann, Holzinger, and Baentzsch on Exodus ; of Dillmann and
Baentsch on Leviticus; of Steuernagel and Bertholet on Deuteronomy; and of
Davidson, Bertholet, and Kraetzschmar on Ezekiel.
§72. Supplementary Topics .
I. Consider that the Psalter was the songbook of the temple, and
from an examination of Pss. 78 : 64 ; 99 : 6 ; 105 : 26 ; 106 : 16, 30 f. ;
110:4; 115:10, 12; 118:3; 132:9.16; 133:2; 134:1-3; i35:i9f.
formulate the thought relating to the priest wh\ch is found in the Psalter.
2. Why do no direct references to the work and life of the priest
occur in the Wisdom Literature, i. e., in Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes,
and Song of Songs ?
3. Consider briefly the subject of the priest in New Testament
writings, ^. ,?-., Matt. 2: 4; 8:4; 12 : 4 f- ; 16 : 21 ; 20 : 18 ; 21 : 15 ; 26 : 3;
27 : i; Mark 2: 26; Luke i : 5, 8, 9 ; 10:31; 17: 14; John i : 19;

72 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Acts 4 : i, 36 ; 6:7; Heb. 2:17; 3:1; 4 : i4 f- J 5 = i> 5 f-> 10 ; 6 : 20 ;
chap. 7; 8:1, 3 f.; 9:6 f., 11,25; 10:11, 21; 13:11; I Peter 2 : 5, 9;
Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20:6; etc., and indicate such points of difference,
as compared with the position and work of the priest in the Old Testa
ment, as seem most important.
4. Compare roughly the place of the priest among the Egyptians,
the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points of similarity and differ
ence as compared with that of the priest among the Hebrews.
See W. R. Smith, article " Priest" in Encyclopedia Britannica ; the articles
" Pontifex" and " Sacerdos " in Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and
Antiquities; MARTHA, Les Sacerdoces atheniens.
5. Consider the original meaning and exact usage of the words
for priest, in Hebrew in3> Greek Upevs, 'La.tin sacerdos.
Cf. W. R. Smith, article "Priest" in Encyc. Brit., Vol. XIX, p. 746 ; NowACK,
Hebr. Arch., Vol. II, pp. 89 f. ; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill,
pp. 130 f-
6. Consider the place of the priest among the Assyrians, the Arabs,
and the Canaanites, who were closely related Semitic nations, and note
points of similarity and difference as compared with his place among
the Hebrews.
See especially Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (Index") ; W. R. Smith,
Religion of the Semites (Index") ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments
(Index) ; Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Biblical
Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Cus
toms, pp. 249 ff.; L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.
7. Consider the conception which existed among the Israelites that
their nation was a kingdom of priests {cf. Exod. 19 : 6), the basis of this
conception, the extent to which it was held, the influence which it
exerted, and its connection with other Israelitish ideas, e. g., with the
idea of God, with the idea of the Day of Jehovah, and with their con
ception of their relation to the world.
8. Consider, ih general, what may be called the outside functions of
the priest, /.tf., those functions which were not distinctly priestly; e.g.,
his place in war, Deut. 20:2; Numb. 10:1-9; i Sam. 4:4, 11; in
education. Lev. 10 : 11 ; Neh. 8 : 2, 9, 13 ; in administration of justice,
Deut. I7:8f.,i2;i9:i7;2i:s;in prophecy, Deut. 33:8; Jer. 1:1;
Ezek. 1:3; 4 : 14.
9. From a study of the books of Maccabees prepare a statement
showing what were the place, the function, the character, the influence,
the dress, the place of residence, and the maintenance of the priesthood
about 165 B. C.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PRIEST 73
See, ,?. ^., I Mace, chap . 2 ; 3 : 45-51 ; 4 : 38, 42 f.; 5 : 6 f.; 7 : 9, 14 ff._
20-25, 33-38; io:2of., 32; 11:23-27', 57 f.; 12:5-23; 13:36 ff., 42;
14: 20, 23, 27-49 ; 15 : I f., 6, 21, 24 ; 16: ii ff., 24; 2 Mace, i : I5ff., 19-36;
2:17 ; 3:1. 9. IS f-. 21, 32-36; 4:72.. 24, 29; 11:3; 14 : 3, 7, 13 ; 15 : 12.
10. Take up more seriously the general relation of the priest to
tbe prophet ; e. g., {a) Was there an early time and a later time when
the two offices were not clearly distinguished? {b) What were the
circumstances, in each case, which led to this lack of distinction?
{c) How far may the priest be said always to have been engaged in
struggle with the prophet ? {d) What was the relation of each to the
other (i) in order of time, (2) in order of thought ?
II. Consider the significance of the priest as a mediator between
God and the people. What influences led to the idea that this class
of men could obtain access to God more readily than other men ?
What was the relation between the growth of the idea of priestly medi
ation and the acceptance of larger ideas of God ?

CHAPTER VI.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP, CONSID
ERED COMPARATIVELY.
§ 73. The Place of Worship in the Early Period, that is, as described
in (ff) the Covenant Code, {b) the historical material of J and E, (c).
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and(^
the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note 1).
I. The only reference in the Covenant Code.'
Exod. 20 : 24 S.
2. The patriarchs had sanctuaries in various places, according to
convenience.
Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:24f.; 28:17, 22; 35:14; Judg.
20 : 18, 26 ff.; 21 : 4.
3. A tent of meeting was used as the place for seeking God.
Exod. 33 : 7-11 ; Numb. II : 16 f., 24 f.; 12:4-10; i Kings 2 : 28-30.
4. There was a chest or ark which contained articles emblematic
of the divine presence.
Numb. 10 : 33-36 ; Josh., chap. 3 ; Judg. 20 : 27.
5. There were local shrines, at which offerings were made.
Exod. 3 : 1; 20 : 24; Numb-. 23:1-6, 14-17; Judg. 6:18-26; 13:15-
23 ; 20 : 18, 26 ff.; 21:4; i Sam. 1:3, 21; 2:14; 3: 1-2 1 , 10:8;
14 : 35 ; I Kings 3:4; 18 : 30-38 ; Deut. 27 : 5-7.
6. In course of time a temple was built for the worship of Jehovah.
2 Sam. 7:1-7; 24:21-25; I Kings 6:1-38; 2 Kings 12:4-16;
15:3s*/ i8:i5f.
7. The altar was used as a place of refuge, and as such was sacred.
I Kings 2 : 28-30.
8. The prophets make reference to places of worship.
Amos 2:8;3:i4;4:4; 5:5; 7:9. 13; 8:14:9:1; Isa. 1:12 ;^6: 1, 4;
8:14; Hos. 4 :i3, 15; 8:1; 9:4, 8, 15; 10:8; 12: 11; Mic. 3:12.
§ 74. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider, in reference to Exod. 20: 24-26, {a) the meaning of
the emphasis laid on earth as the material for the altar ; {b) the reason
"The following are J-references: Gen. 8:20; 12:6-8; 13:18; 26:241.; 35:14;
Exod. 33:7-11 (?); Numb. 11: 16 f., 24 f,; Josh., chap. 3 (in the main); Numb. 23: 1-6,
14-17 (?). The following are E-references : Gen. 28 : 17, 24; Exod. 20:24 ff.; Numb.
12:4-10; 10:33-36; Exod.3:l; Deut. 27: 5-7.
74

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 75
for objection to stone as a material ; {c) the reason for objection to
steps ; and {d) the general primitive character of the whole regulation.
(C/§i5-) 2. What connection was there between this primitive form of the
altar and the custom of the patriarchs to build an altar wherever they
pitched their tents ? {Cf. § 15 (i) .)
3. Consider the occasions on which reference is made to the tent
of meeting, and note the uses made of it.
4. Was the use made of the ark or chest one which elevated Israel,
or one which, upon the whole, encouraged a low conception of God ?
5. Was there anything to indicate that this or that place should
be used as a shrine or place of worship ? Was there danger that in the
use of these widely scattered shrines corrupt practices might be intro
duced? (<y. §18(1).)
6. What were the political and social factors that were connected
with the building of the temple ? What immediate effects upon wor
ship might be expected to follow? {Cf. § 17 (i) {d) .)
7. On what principle did the use of the altar as an asylum or place
of refuge rest ? Was this a usage among other nations ?'
8. What impression does one gather from the references made by
the prophets to places of worship ?
§ 75. Place of Worship in the Middle Period, that is, as described in
(ff) the laws of Deuteronomy, {b) the utterances of the Deuteronomic
prophets, and {c) the Deuteronomic histories.
I. All local sanctuaries are prohibited.^
Deut. 12 : 2-4, 13, 17 ; 16 : 5 ; 2 Kings 23 : 1-20.
2. Jerusalem is the only authorized place for worship.
Deut. 12:5-8, II, 12, 14, 18, 26 f.; 14:23-26; i5:i9f.; 16:2, 5-7,
II, 15 f.; 26:2; I Kings 12:25—13: 6; 21 :7; 22 : 3-8.
3. The temple at Jerusalem becomes the supreme court of justice.
Deut. 17 : 8 ff.
4. The ark is the receptacle of the two ?tone tables of the law.
Deut. 10: 1-5, 8.
5. The prophets' teaching concerning the temple.
Jer. 7: 1-5, 10-15 ; 12 :7; 17: 12, 26; Zeph. 3:4; Hab. 2: 20.
= Cf. W. R. Smith, Religion ofthe Semites, 2d ed., pp. 148 f.; G. F. Moore, article
"Asylum "in Encyclopcedia Biblica;'']. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism and
Exogamy," Fortnightly Review, KpxW, 1899; Stengel, article "Asylon" in Realen-
cyclopddie der classischen Alterthumswissenschaft; Earth, De Asylis Graecis.
3 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron
omy.

76 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
6. The destruction of Solomon's temple.
2 Kings 25 :9, 13-16.
§ 76. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider the circumstances which, in the course of centuries, led
to the prohibition of local sanctuaries. What was to be gained by this
revolution in practice ? {Cf. § 28 (3).)
2. What must have been the sociological changes which followed
the centralization of worship in one place, e. g., its effect on commerce ;
on the general intelligence of the people ; on the relative position of
men and women ; on habits of life ? {Cf. § 28 (7).)
3. What would naturally follow such a change of practice in the
relative desirability of city and country life, and what would be the
effect upon Jerusalem as the center of political and judicial life ?
4. Consider the material of which the chest was made and the use
to which it was put.
5. Note how in this period the temple had fallen into disrepute in
the opinion of the prophets, and why this happened.
6. Consider the details and the significance of the destruction of
Solomon's temple.
§ 77. The Place of Worship in Ezekiel.
I. There is evidence of the existence of irregular altars.
Ezek. 6 ; 3, 4, 6, 13.
2. The temple at Jerusalem is represented as the only lawful
sanctuary. Ezek, 20 : 40.
3. The temple is desecrated^ by those who profane its use.
Ezek. 8:3-18; 23 : 38 f . ; 44 : 6-8.
4. Feeling toward those who took part in the destruction of the
temple. Ezek. 25 : 3.
5. The future temple.
Ezek. 37:26-28; 40:5—43:17; 44:9; 45 =3; 46 : 1-3; 46:19-24;
48:8 f., 21.
§ 78. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider the |act that at so late a time as that of Ezekiel there
still existed irregular altars, and what was involved in this fact.
2. Note Ezekiel's statement as to the proper place of worship in
the future {cf. § 31 (ff)).
3. What were the prophet's feelings as to the abuse of the temple
in his times ?

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP fj
4. Consider the relation, of Ezekiel's temple {i. e., the temple of
his vision) to that of Solomon, (ff) architecturally, {S) in the promi
nence it is to occupy in the routine of worship.
§ 79. The Place of Worship in the Later Period, that is, as described
(ff) in the laws of the Levitical Code, (^) by the priestly prophets, and
{c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles.
I. Worship may be conducted only at one central sanctuary.''
Lev. 17 : 1-9 ; Exod. 29 : 42-45 ; 2 Chron. 11 : 16 ; Neh. 8:16; cf.
Isa. 19 : 19.
2. Ancient sanctuaries are condemned.
Lev. 26 : 27-31 ; Josh. 22 : 9-34 ; Isa, 27 : 9; i Chron. 21 : 28 f.; 2
Chron. i : 1-5 ; 32 : 12 ; 33 : 17.
3. Description of the tabernacle and its furnishings.
Exod. 25:8 — 27:19; 35:4 — 40:38; Numb. 8:1-4; Exod. 27 : 20 f.;
Lev. 24 : 1-4 ; Numb. 7: 1-83.
4. Description of the ark.
Exod. 25 : 10-22 ; 37 : 1-9 ; 2 Chron. i : 1-5.
5. The building of Solomon's temple.
I Chron. 17:1 ff.; 21:152.; 2i:28f.; 22:6ff.; 23:iff.; 28:1-3
11-21; 2 Chron. 2 : 1 — 5 :i ; chaps. 6 and 7.
6. The building of the second temple.
Ezra I :2ff.; 2:68; 3:8-13: 5:2-5; 5:6 ff.; 6:3ff.,i4ff.; 7:19-23
7. A later view of the place of the tabernacle in religious life.
Numb. 9: 15-23.
8. Later views of the place of Solomon's temple in Israel's wor
ship. 2 Chron. 20 : 28 ; 24:4-15; 27:2f.; chap. 29.
9. The sanctuary as the place of God's self-manifestation.
Exod. 25 : 22 ; 29 : 43 ; Numb. 16 : 41 ff.; Mal. 3:1; Numb. 7 :89.
10. The altar of burnt-offering.
Lev.i:iofE. ; 6:9-13; Numb. 16 : 36-40; 7:84-88.
¦ II. The prophets' attitude toward the sanctuary.
Isa. 56:7; 60:7; Hag. I : 2-4, 7 f-; 2 : 3, 9 ; Zech. i ; 16 ; 4 :9 I
6:12-15; 8:9; I4:i6ff.; MaL 3 : i ; Mic. 4 : i-4 ; Joel 1:9, 131.
16; Dan. 8:11 ; 9:17; " :3i-
12. Holiness of the sanctuary.
Lev. 26:2; 19:30; 8:iof.; Numb. 3:31 f.; 4:4-iS; Neh. 6:10 f.;
13 :4 ff.; 2 Chron. 33:4. 7. IS ; 36:17; Dan. 8:11; 9:17; 11:31.
< References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type.

78 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 80. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Note that what was represented as a matter of reform in the
middle period, viz., the restriction of worship to a single central
sanctuary, now appears as a fundamental principle, everywhere taken for
granted. 2. Consider the attitude of writers of this period to the sanc
tuaries which had existed in earlier times. ,
3. Note (ff) the great detail with which the tabernacle is described;
{b) the elaborate character of the tabernacle from an artistic point of
view ; and consider whether this description is to be taken (i) literally,
a tent of this kind having actually existed in the earliest times, or (2) as a
piece of splendid idealization, similar in some respects to Ezekiel's
vision. What is involved in each of these propositions?
4. What, in general, was the ark, and what, in particular, was the
purpose it was intended to serve?
5. Compare the references in Chronicles to the building of Solo
mon's temple with those in Kings (§73 (6)), and classify the results of
the comparison.
6. Consider ix\ the case of the second temple (ff) the date of its
erection ; {b) its relative size and character in comparison with the
fiist ; {c) the special circumstances under which it was built.
7. What was the later view of the place of the tabernacle in Israel's
religious life, as seen in Numb. 9: 15-23?
8. Consider later views also as to the place of Solomon's temple in
Israel's worship.
9. To what extent was Israel's God believed to use the sanctuary
as a place for manifesting his presence?
10. What was the altar of burnt-offering and its peculiar function?
1 1. How did the later prophets regard the sanctuary and its service?
12. What is meant h'y the holiness oi the sanctuary, and in what
did this consist ?
§81. Literature to be Consulted.
James Fergusson, article "Temple " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible'(i&6s) ;
Ewald, The Antiquities of Israel (iA'ei. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. 117— 30; KuENEN,
The Religion of Israel (l86g i., transl. 1874 f,), Vol. I, pp. 96-100; 241 f., 256-60, 305
f,, 328 ff,, 334-9, 390-95 ; Oehler, 0/12' Testament Theology (1870, transL 1883), pp,
250-58; Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services as They Existed in the
.Time of Jesus Christ (.I'i'ji,); -Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, s. v.
"Sacred Springs, etc.;" Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (\%'j'i),
pp. 17-51; CONDER, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1882, pp. 75
ff.; W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (ist ed. 1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, j. v,

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 79
"Sanctuaries;" H. P. Smith, " The High Place," The Hebrew Student, 1883, pp.
225-34; CoNDER, Heth and Moab (1883), chaps, vii, viii; Perrot and Chipiez, /rw-
tory of Artin Phoenicia (l%8^) ; E. C. Robins, The Temple of Solomon (188"]); CONDER,.
Syrian Stone Zor« (1887), pp. 42 f., 70; Kittel, History of the Hebrews (iS8S-g2,
transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " Robertson, Early Religion
of Israel (i88g), see Index, j. v. "Sanctuaries," "Tabernacle," "Temple," etc.; W.
R. Smith, article "Temple" in Encyclopedia Britannica (1889); W. R. Smith,
Religion ofthe Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), PP- 140-212 ; H. Sully, The Tem
ple of Ezekiel's Prophecy (1889); Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Juda:a
(1890) ; J. Pollard, " On the Baal and Ashtoreth Altar Discovered .... in Syria,"
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, 1891, pp. 286 ff.; Di;ff, Old Testa
ment Theology (1891-1900), see Indexes, s. ©."Altar," "Place," "Sanctuary," etc.;
Schultz, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, o, v. " Sanctuary," " Tabernacle,"
."Temple," etc.; C. BKiAAiiG, Jerusalem's Temple (1892); Montefiore, y?«/zS-;o« of
the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index, s. v. " High Places," " Temple ; " J. Strong,
"The Tabernacle," Biblical World, Vol. I (1893), pp. 270-77; Menzies, History
of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " McCURDV, History, Prophecy and the
Monuments, Vols. I-III (1895-1901), see Index, j. v. " Temple ; " Drive;r, Deuteron
omy (1895), pp. xliii-li; W. G. Moorehead, Studies in the Mosaic Institutions (1S96),
pp. 31-90; Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (1896), pp. 1-164; Wiedemann,
Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), pp. 200-206; H. B. Greene, "Hebrew
Rock Altars," Biblical World, Vol. IX (1897), pp. 329-40 ; A. BuCHLER, " The Fore-
Court of Women and the Brass Gate in the Temple of Jerusalem," Jewish Quarterly
Review, 1898, pp. 678-718 ; J. A. Seiss, "The Great Temples at Baalbec," Lutheran
Church Review, 1898, pp. 271-93 ; IaS'XKO'W , Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (i8g8),
see Index, s. v. " Temples ; " G. C. M. Douglas, " Ezekiel's Temple," Expository
Times, 1898, pp. 365 ff., 420 ff., 468 ff., 515-19; A. S. Kennedy, article "Altar"
in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); C. Schick, "Remarks on the Taber
nacle Controversy," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1898, pp. 241-3 ;
Em. Schmidt, "Solomon's Temple," Biblical World, VoL XIV (1899), pp. 164-71;
A. H. Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs (i8gg), pp, 246 ff,; W. E.-
Addis, article "Altar" in Encyclopedia Biblica (1899) ; W. C. Allen, article " High
Place'! in KASTitiGs' Dictionary of the Bible (1899); Benson and Gourlay, The
Temple of Mut in Asher, etc. (1899) ; T. F. Wright, " Was the Tabernacle Oriental ? "
Journal of Biblical Literature, 1899, pp. 195-8; Th. G. Soares, "Ezekiel's Temple,"
Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 93-103 ; S. I. CuRTiss, "The High Place and
Altar at Petra," Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1900, pp. 351-5 ; L.
W. Batten, " The Sanctuary at Shiloh," Jqurnal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX
(igoo'), pp. 29"-33; G. Allen, " Sacred Stones," Fortnightly Review, January, igoo;
Stibitz, " The Centralization of Jehovah Worship in Israel," Reformed Church Review,
January, 1900; John Adams, The Mosaic Tabernacle: Studies in the Priesthood and
the Sanctuary of the fews (1901); G. F. MoORE, article "High Place" in Encyclo
pedia Biblica (1901).
Bahr, Der salomonische Tempel, mit Beriicksichtigung seines Verhaltnisses zur
hebrdischen Architektur Uberhaupt(l8s,8); Merz, article " Tempel " in Real-Encyklopddie
fiir protestantisehe Theologie und Kirche (ist ed. 1854-68, 2d ed. 1877 ff.) ; Balmer-
RiNCK, i5?J Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel (18 s8) ; Kamphausen, "Bemer-
kungen iiber die Stiftshiitte," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1858, pp. .97-121 ;

80 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1859, pp. 110-20; Fries, "Zu Kamphausen's Bemerkungen iiber die Stiftshiitte,"
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1859, pp. 103-10; Popper, Der biblische Bericht
iiber die Stiftshittte (i8(>2); Riggenbach, " Die mosaische Stiftshiitte: Selbstanzeige,"
Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1863, pp. 361-8 ; H. Pierson, De heilige steenen
in Israel (\8t^ ff.) ; H. OoRT, " De heiligdommen van Jehovah te Dan en te Bethel voor
lerobeam I.," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1867, pp. 285-306; DuHM, Z?« Theologie der
Propheten (1875), PP. 312-20 ; Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte,
Vol.11 (1878), pp. 143-269; KiJHN, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel der VoUen-
dungszeil," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1882, pp. 601-88; Kohlbrugge,
Die Stiftshiitte und ihre Gerdthe (1882); Stade, "Der Text des Berichtes iiber
Salomos Bauten, I K6. 5-7," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1883,
pp. 129-77; Smend, "Ueber die Bedeutung des jerusalemischen Tempels in der
alttestamentlichen Religion," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1884, pp. 689-740;
SCHURER, article " Tempel Salomo's " in Riehm's Handw'orterbuch des biblischen Alter- .
thums (1884); H. Pailloux, Monographic du temple de Salomon (1885); Stade,
Gesehichte des Volkes Israel (l88T i.). Vol. I, pp. 325-43, 446-67; Vol. II, pp. 45 ff.,
113-28, 245-51 ; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidenthums (1887), pp. 42-60,
98-105, 113, 171; Th. Friedrich, Tempel und Palast Salomos u. s. w. (1887); O.
Wolff, Der Tempel von Jerusalem und seine Maasse (1887); H. L. Schouten, De
tabernakel Gods heiligdom by Israel (1888); C. Chipiez et G. Perrot, Le temple de
Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Libanon, restitues d' apris Ezechiel et le livre des Rois
(1889); F. V. Andrian, Zf^?- Hohenkult asiatischer und europdischer T^Slker (1891);
PlEPENBRiNG, " Histoire des lieux de culte et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de I'his-
toire des religions. Vol. XXIV (1891), pp. 1-60, 133-86; E. DE Broglie, "La loi de
I'unit^ de sanctuaire en Israel," Compte rendu du congris scientifique international
des catholiques, 1892, 2d sect., pp. 69-89; Marti, Gesehichte der israelitischen Reli
gion (1897)1 PP- 27-31, 98-103; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions
geschichte (isted. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), pp. 128-38; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie
(1894), pp. 243-9, 364-404; NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894),
Vol.11, pp. 1-86; 'Dn.lM.Atm, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (l8g$), see
Index, s.v." Tempel;'' H. A. F0B.1.S, Le sanctuaire de Kirjath-Jearim {1895); S. A.
Fries, Den israelitiska kultens centralisation (1895) ; E. Schure, Sanctuaires d'Orient,
£gypte, Grice, Palestine (1898); Aug. Freiherr von Gall, Altisraelitische Kult-
stdtten (1898); B. A., "Die heiligen Statten in Palastina," Beilage zur Allgemeinen
Zeitung (1898), No. 221 ; F. Tournier, "Notp sur les temples paiens de furvifere a
I'^poque ronaaine," L' University catholique, 1899, pp. 361-92 ; Basset, "Les sanctu
aires du Djebel Nefdusa," Journal asiatique, 1900; Meinhold, Die Lade Jahves
(1900); Ernst Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde
nach dem babylonischen Exit, Vol. II (1901), pp. 44-56 ; B. Stade, " Die Kesselwagen
des salomonischen Tempels, l K6. 7 : 27-39," Zeitschrift .fiir die alttestamentliche Wis
senschaft, Vol, XXI (1901), pp. 145-90; K. Budde, "Die urspriingliche Bedeutung
der Lade Jahwe's," ibid. (1901).
§ 82. Supplementary Topics.
I. Consider the following citations from the book of Psalms : 5 : 7;
11:4; 20:2; 22:25; 24:3; 26 :6-8, 12 ; 27 : 4-6 ; 28 : 2 ; 29 :9;
36:8; 40 : 9; 42 : 4; 43:3 f-; 46:4; 48: I f., 8 f.; 51 : 18 f.; 52 :8 ;
55 : 14; 61 : 4; 63 :2 ; 65: I, 4; 66: 13; 68 : 15-17, 24, 29 ; 69:9;

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 8 1
73:17; 74:2 ff.; 76:2; 77:13; 78:54, 58, 60, 68 f.; 79:1-13;
84; 87; 92:13; 93:5; 96:6-8; 99:9; 100:4; I02:i3ff.; 114:2;
122; 125:1; 127:1 (?); 132; 134; 135: if.; 138:2; and formulate
a statement concerning the place of worship as it stands related to the
idea of worship as expressed in the Psalter.
2. Examine the allusions to the place of worship found in the apoc
ryphal books, e. g., I Mace. 4 : 36-59 ; 5 : i, 68 ; 6 : 7, 18, 26,. 51, 54 ;
7:33-38; 9:54-57; 10:41-44; II :37; 13: 3, 6; 14: 15, 48; 16:20;
2 Mace. I : 8, 15 ff., 18, 32-34 ; 2 : i ff., 17-19, 22 ; 3 : 2, 12, 14 ff.;
4:14; 5:15-21; 6:2-5; 8:17; 9:16; 10:1-8,26; 13:8,23;
14 : 4, 31-33, 36 ; and note any important modifications which seem
to have been made.
3. Consider the place of worship as it is referred to in the New
Testament, e. g., in Matt. 4:3; 6 : 2, 6 ; 9 : 35 ; 12 : 4-6, 9 ; 13 : 54 ;
21:12-14,23; 23 : 16-22, 35; 24 : I ff., 15 ; 26:61; 27:5; Mark
I : 21-29; 3:1; 5 : 22, 35 ff.; 6:2 ff.; 11 : 15 ff., 27; 12:41 ff.; 13:1
fi-. 9 ; 14 j^58 ; Luke i : 8-23 ; 2 : 22 ff., 41 ff.; 4 : 16, 20, 28, 33, 38,
44; 6:6; 8 : 41, 49 ; 13 : 10 ; 19 :4S ff-; 21 : 1-6, 37 f.; 22 : 52 f.
John 2 : 13-22 ; 4 : 19-24; 7:14, 28; 11:553.; 16:2; Acts i : 13 f.
2 : I ff., 46 ; 3 : I ff.; 4:1; 6 : 13 f.; 9 : i f., 20 ; 13 : 14 f., 43 ; 14:1
16:16; 17:1 ff., 10, 17; 18:4, 8, 19; i9:8f.; 2o:7ff.; 21:268.
22 : 19 ; 25 : 8 ; 28 : 30 f.; i Cor. 8:10; 16:19; Eph. 2 : 19-22 ; i
Tim. 3:15; Philem., vs. i ; Heb. 8 : i f.; 9 : 1-12, 2.4 f.; 10 : 19 f.;
12:18 ff.; 13:10 ff.; Rev.8:3; 9:13; ii:if.,i9; 14:15,18;
15 : 5-8; 21 : 3, 22; and formulate the points of difference which
appear. 4. Study the origin and development of the synagogue, noting (a)
its relation to the temple, (^) the different character of its services as
compared with those of the temple, {c) its origin in response to a great
religious need, and (^) its historical significance as the forerunner of
the church, the Christian place of worship. See, e. g., Ezek. 8:1;
20 : 1-3 ; Ps. 74 : 8 ; Matt. 9 : 35 ; 12:9; Mark 5 : 35 ; 6 : i ff.; Acts
9 : I ff.; i3:i3ff.; 14 : i ; 17: i, etc.^
5. Study the causes which led to the building of the Samaritan
s See article " Synagogue " in Encyclopedia Britannica; E. H. Plumptre, article
"Synagogue " in Smith's Dictionary ofthe Bible; Schultz, Old Testament Theology,
Vol. I, pp. 428 £f.; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (see Index, s. v.
" Synagogue ") ; Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Div.
II, Vol. I, pp. 52-83 ; Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, Vol. I, pp.
430-50 ; Ferguson, The Synagogue Service in the Time of Christ; Kent, A History
of the Jewish People (see Index).

82 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
temple on Mount Gerizim. Was this movement a source of strength
or of weakness to the Jewish community in Jerusalem ? What was the
attitude of Jesus toward the Samaritan temple ? See, e. g., Ezra, chap.
4; Neh. 2:18-20; 4:1-23; 6:1-19; 13:28; John 4:19-24 {cf- §45)-
6. Consider the causes which have led to the change of view as to
the function of the place of worship seen in the fact that originally a
temple was looked upon as the abode of the deity, while now it is
regarded primarily as a meeting-place for worshipers.
7. Make a special study of Hezekiah's reform (see 2 Kings 18 : 3-7,
22; cf. 2 Chron. 29:3 — 31:20; 32:12), considering (i) the question
concerning the age of the narratives; (2) the preparation for such a
reform prior to Hezekiah's time ; (3) the suggestion that the reform
followed, rather than preceded, Sennacherib's invasion ; (4) the prob
able relation of Isaiah to the reform movement; (5) the influence of
such an attempt in preparing the way for a later reform.
See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, p. 363 ; Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel,
Vol. I, pp. 607 f ,, 623; Renan, History ofthe People of Israel, Vol. II, p. 518 ; Cheyne,
Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, p. 365 ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
of Israel, p, 23; Stade, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill,
pp. 8 ff.; VI, pp. 170 ff.; Kittel, History ofthe Hebrews,Wo\. II, pp. 355 ff.; Cheyne,
article " Hezekiah," Hastings's Dictionary ofthe Bible; McClymont, article " Heze
kiah," Encyclopedia Biblica; aud the commentaries on Kings by Kittel, Benzinger,
and Skinner.

CHAPTER VII.
the laws AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE, CONSIDERED COMPARA
TIVELY.
• § 83. Sacrifice in the Early Period, that is, as described in {a) the
Covenant Code, {b) the historical material of J and E, (c) the pre-
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and {d) the pre-
Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).
I. Kinds of offerings.'
Gen. 28:18; 35 : 14; Exod. 8 : 20 f.; 10 : 24 ff.; 18 :I2 ; 20:24; 24 : 5-;
Judg. 6 : 26; I Sam. 10:8; 21:6; i Kings 3:4; 12 : 26-33 ; 2 Kings
16:12 f.; Isa. 1:11-13; Hos. 4 : 13 ; 9:4; 11:2.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Gen. 4:3; 15 :9 ff.; 8 : 20 ff.; 22 : 1-13 ; 28 :i8 ; 35 : 14; Exod. 20 : 24;
Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14; Judg. 13 : 16-19 ; 6:18-24,26; iSam. 7:9^;
21:6; I Kings 8 : 5.
3. Manner of sacrifice.
Exod. 34:25; 23:18; Numb. 23:1-4, 14,; I Sam. 2 : 13-17 ; 2 Sam.
6:13; I Kings 18:30-38; 2 Kings 16:12 f.
4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
Gen. 46:1*/ Exod. 23: 1517 ,- 34:20<:/ Numb. 23:1-4, 14; Judg.
6: 18-24; 13: 16-19; I Sam. i : 3 ff:; 6 : 15 ; 7 : 9 f.; 11 :i5; 20:29;
2 Sam. 6: 13, 17 f.; 24:22-25; i Kings 8 : 5 ; 18:30-38.
5. Sacrifice was often a social or family meal.
Gen. 18 : 1-8 ; 31:54; Exod. 18:12; Numb. 22 : 40 ; Deut. 27 : 6*, 7 ;
I Sam. i: 3ff.; 9: I2f.; 16:2, 5; 20:29.
6. Human sacrifice was not unknown.
Gen. 22:1-13; Hos. I3:2(?).
7. Sacrifice to idols was common.
Exod: 32:6; I Kings 12:26-33; 2 Kings 5:i7(?); 10:19, 24f.;
Hos. 4:13; 11:2.
8. The priest was given a share of the sacrifice.
I Sam. 2:13-17.
'The following are J-references : Gen. 4:3; 8:20 ff.; 18 : 1-8 ; 35:14; Exod.
8:20 f.; 34;20^,25; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14(?); Deut. 27 : 6*, 7 (?)¦ The following are
E-references: Gen. 15 :9 ff-; 22 : 1-13, 28:18; 31:54; 46:1*/ E-xod. 10 : 24 ff.;
18:12; 20:24; 23:15^, 18; 24:5; 32:6; Numb. 22:40.
•  ¦ ¦• - 83

84 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
9. The prophets' attitude toward sacrifice.
Amos 4:4f.; 5:22-25; Hos. 3:4; 4:13.19; 6:6; 8:13; 9:4;
11:2; 13:2; Isa. 1 : 11-13 ; 34 : 6.
§ 84. Questions and Suggestions.
I. What were the various kinds of offerings made in this period ?
What significance attached to each kind — for example, what was the
meaning of the burnt-offering ? of the peace-offering ? of the pass-
over offering ? Consider to what extent (a) sacrifice in this period
was equivalent to a social meal ; {b) the eating of meat was a sacrificial
act ; {c) the spirit of joy accompanied the act. '
2. Note the kinds of material used in sacrifice, for example, the
flesh of animals (what animals? animals of what age?), oil, wine,
meal. What was the reason underlying the use of each of these kinds
of material ?
3. Why was leavened bread not to be used in connection with a
sacrifice ? Why was no part of the sacrifice to be left over until the
morning of the following day ? What points concerning sacrifice
may be noted in connection with Balaam's sacrifice (Numb. 23 : 1-4,
14, 27-30)? Consider the custom of the priests in Samuel's time, and
what it involved. Study Elijah's sacrifice on Gilgal, and note the
bearing of the details on the subject.
4. Upon what occasion, and under what circumstances, were sacri
fices offered ? What purpose lay in the mind of the offerer ? What
was sought for in the act ?
5. When sacrifice was only a social or family meal, what was the
religious element ? Was the deity ever thought to partake of the
meal? nWas the deity ever supposed to be related to the family?
What was the connection between this social act and the spirit of joy
which, in early times, seems to have characterized the act of sacrifice ?
6. Consider the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac,
and what was involved in this willingness ? Explain to yourself the
custom of human sacrifice ; how could it have arisen ? what wrong
ideas did it rest upon ?
7. Note some of the instances in which sacrifice was offered to
idols. Since the idols were believed to represent deities, either that
of Israel or those of other nations, was this not something clearly to
have been expected ?
8. Note that in this period the priest, whatever other kind of
support he may have received, was given a share of the sacrifice.
9. Formulate a statement containing the substance of the prophet's

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 85
attitude toward sacrifice; and consider whether the prophet was
opposing {a) the act of sacrifice itself ; or {b) a cold, indifferent, hypo
critical spirit, with which men. in those days had become accustomed
to offer sacrifice ; or (,:) the feeling, which had become quite general,
that sacrifice was enough to gain Jehovah's pleasure, that this was all
that he expected, and that this, without reference to conduct, con
stituted religion.
§"85. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on sacrifice in the
early period, embodying the material presented above.
§ 86. Sacrifice in the Middle Period, that is, as described in the laws
of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuter
onomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings.
I. Kinds of offerings."
Deut. 12 : 4-7, 16 ; Mic. 6:6-8; Jer. 17 : 26 ; 33 : 1 1, 18,.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; Mic. 6:6-8; Jer. 6 : 20 ; Isa. 43 : 23 ff.; i Sam. 2 : 27.
3. Manner of offering.
Deut. 12 : 27; 16 : 7; Jer. 33 :'i8; I Sam. 2 : 27.
4. Occasion and purpose of offerings.
Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; i Sam. 3:14; Jer, 33 : 11.
5. Social element in sacrifice.
Deut. 12 : 4-14 ; i Kings 3:15.
6. Slaughter and sacrifice are no longer synonymous terms.
Deut. 12 : 15, 20-28.
7. Priest's portion of the sacrifice.
Deut. 18 : 3, 4 ; i Sam. 2 : 28, 36.
8. Human sacrifice still existed. '
Mic. 6 : 6-8.
9. Prophets' attitude toward sacrifice.
Zeph. I :7, 8; Mic. 6:6-8; Jer. 6:20; 7:21 f., 29; 17:26; 33 : 11,18 ;
46:10; Isa. 43:23 f.
§87. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Note in Deut. 12:4-7 {'^ the kinds "of offerings mentioned
(including tithe, heave-offering, free-will offering), and {b) the spirit
of rejoicing in which these offerings are to be made. Consider in
Mic. 6 : 6-8 {a) the possibilities of sacrifice (including that of one's own
child), {S) the purpose of sacrifice, and (<r) the requirement of Jehovah.
2. Consider the materials used in sacrifice, as mentioned in passages
' References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteronomy.

8b PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
cited above, and note any variations in comparison with those used in
the earlier age.
3. Consider {a) the use made of the blood ; its pouring on the altar ;
{b) the roasting of the flesh ; {c) the eating of the flesh; {d) the employ
ment of men "to burn meal-offerings and to do sacrifice."
4. Consider the connection of the Passover with the going-up of
Israel out of Egypt, {a) in relation to time (was there not a spring
feast celebrated by the ancient nations before the exodus ?) ; {b) in
relation to ceremony (why was unleavened bread to be used ?) ; {c) in
relation to the purpose of the act. Was the sacrifice intended to
purge or purify from sin? Was sacrifice intended also to 'be an
expression of gratitude for some favor already received ?
5. Is the social element still to be seen in this period, that is, does
the family or clan meal, with all its social accompaniments, constitute
a sacrifice ?
6. What new distinction has arisen as between the slaughter of ani
mals and the act of sacrifice ? Wherein does the distinction consist?
What led to the making of the distinction ? What, naturally, will
follow as a result of making this distinction ?
7. Note (a) the particular portions of each animal sacrificed, which
are assigned as the portion of the priest, that is, for his maintenance;
{b) the additional perquisites he receives in the way of grain, oil, wine,
and meal ; and (<:) the ground for these gifts.
8. What evidence is there that in this period human beings are still
used for sacrifice ?
9. Consider the attitude of the prophets of this period toward sac
rifice, and determine (see §84, 9) the real meaning of this attitude.
§88. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will contain,
in some detail, the differences between the usages of the middle period
in respect to sacrifice, and those of the early period.
§89. Sacrifice as Presented by Ezekiel.
I. Kinds of offerings.
Ezek. 40:39 ; 42 : 13 ; 46: 12 ; 45 : 13-17 ; 20 :4o.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Ezek. 44 : 15 ; 46 :4-7.
3. Manner of sacrifice.
Ezek. 40:38-43; 44:11, 15; 46:4-15, 24.
4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
Ezek. 46:4-15 ; 43:18-27; 45:13-25.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 8/
S. Sacrifice was still thought of as a banquet.
Ezek. 39 ; 1 7-20 ; 46 : 24.
6. Sacrifice was still offered to idols.
Ezek. 20 : 28-3 1.
7. Human sacrifice.
Ezek. 16:20 f.; 23 ;39.
8. Priests retained a share of the sacrifice.
Ezek. 42 : 13.
§90. Constructive Work. — -Consider the various allusions to sacri
fice in Ezekiel, under the topics suggested above, and prepare a
statement covering {a) the points of resemblance and difference in
comparison with the facts of the early and middle periods ; {b) the more
formal and official character with which sacrifice seems to be invested
by Ezekiel ; {c) the exceedingly elaborate system of sacrifice provided
for, e. g., in 46 : 4-15 ; {d) the fact that, notwithstanding all this, the
earlier idea of sacrifice as a banquet still exists (39 : 17-20 ; 46 : 24).
§91. Sacrifice in the Later Period, that is, as described in {a) the
laws of the Levitical Code, (b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the
priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles.
I. Kinds of offerings.'
Lev. 7:1,11; 6 : 9, 14, 25 ; 3 : 22 ; 23: 10^, 11, 13 ; Exod. 25 : 30; 30 : 7 ;
Numb. 15 : 19 ; 5 : 11-31.
2. Materials of sacrifice.
Lev. I : 1-3, 10, 14 ; 2 : i, 4 f., 7, 11, 13-15 ; 3 : i, 3 f., 61, gf., 12, 14 f,,
16 f.; 5:6 f., II ; 6 : 1-7, 15, igf.; 7 : 3-5, 11 fi.; 9 : 1-4 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 14: 10,
49; 24:5-9; Numb. 15:1-21; Exod. 29 : 1-3, 22 f., 38-42 ; Numb.,
chap. 28 ; Ezod. 30 : 34-38 ; Lev. 22 : 18-25, 27 f.; 23: 10^-14.
3. The fat and blood are regarded as especially sacred.
Lev. 7 : 22-27 ; 8 : 15, 23 f. ; 9 ; ig-21 ; 17 : 6 ; etc. >
4. Manner of sacrifice.
Lev. I : 3-9, 11-13, 15-17 I 2 : I 1, 4-16 ; 3 : 1-17 ; 4 : 1-35 ; 5 : 8 1, 12 ;
6 : 1-7, 8-13, 14-18, 19-23, 24-30 ; 7 : I fi., 11-21 ; 8 : 14-30 ; 9: 8-11,
12-14, 15-24; 14:10-32, 49-53; 16 : 3-28 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 5 : 11-31;
19T 1-22 ; Exod. 29 : 10-42 ; 30 : 7-10 ; Lev. 22 : 29 f.; 19 : 5-8.
5. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice.
Lev. 4 : 1-3, 13 f., 20, 22-28, 31, 35 ; 5: 1-6, 13-15, 17-19 I 6 ; 1-7, 30 ;
9:7; 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 20, 31, 53 ; 15 : 13-15, 28-30 ; 23 : xoi^-21 ; Numb.
5 : 11-31 ; 15 : 17-21, 22-28 ; 19 : 1-22 ; chap, 28 ; Exod. 30 ; 7-10.
3 References to the Levitical Code are in boldrface type.

88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
6. The priests' share of the sacrifice.
Lev. 2:3,10; 5:13; 6 : 16-18, 26, 29 ; 7 : 6-10, 14, 28-38 ; 8:31; 10 : la-
20; Numb. 5:5-10; Exod. 29:27-32; Numb. 18:8-20.
7. All slaughter is sacrificial.
Lev. 17: 1-9.
8. Few references to idolatrous sacrifices.
Lev. 17:7.
9. Attitude of the prophets toward sacrifice.
Isa. ig:2i; 56:7; 66 : 3 ; Mal. 1:7-9; 3:3-5 ; Joel 1:9. '3; 2: 14;
Dan. 9 : 27.
10. Sacrifice is given a large place in the later histories.
I Chron. 15 :26 ; 16: i ; 21 :26ff.; 29: 21 f.; 2 Chron. 1:5 ; 2:4 ; 5:6;
7 :4ff.; 8: I2f.; 11 : 16; 13 : 11; 15:11; 24:14; 29:20-36; 30; isff.;
3i:2ff.; 33:i6f.; Ezra3:2ff.; 6:17; 7:17; 8:35; 10:19;- Neh.
io:33f.; 12:43!
II. Prominence of the idea of sin in connection with sacrifice.
Lev.4:35; chap. 16; 9:3; io:i6ff.; Ntunb. 15:22-31; 19:1-9.
§92. Questions and Suggestions — How much in detail the various
topics concerning sacrifice in the later period shall be taken up will be
determined in some measure by one's archseological interests. In any
case, these topics deserve consideration because of their sociological, as
well as their religious, bearing :
I. Prepare a list of the kinds of offerings, viz., burnt-offering,
peace-offering, sin-offering, etc., including vows, the offering involved
in Naziritism, the offering of purification. From the passages describ
ing each, and from a study of the name (in English and, if possible,
in Hebrew), differentiate these various offerings from each other and
determine what was distinctly characteristic in each case. Consider,
now, whether any principle of classification exists ; e. g. : {a) Are they,
in each case, voluntary or obligatory? {b) Are they, in each case,
self -dedicatory, eucharistic, or expiatory? Suggest any other possible
bases for classification.
2. Take up, one by one, the materials which might be used in sac
rifice, noting, {a) in reference to animal offerings: (1) the particular
animals which were deemed acceptable ; (2) the possible explanations of
the selection of these animals with the rejection of others ; (3) whether
the distinction between clean and unclean animals* was in any way
connected with the choice for sacrifice ; {b) ia reference to vegetable
* Cf. Lev,, chap. 1 1 ; Deut. 14 : 3-21 ; and see G. A. SiMCOx, article " Clean and
Unclean," §8, in Encyclopedia Biblica, and chap. ji.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 89
offerings: (i) the particular vegetables authorized ; (2) the reason or
reasons for this selection ; {c) the character of offerings worthy of being
accepted ; {d) other possible gifts outside of animals and vegetables,
e. g., one's hair,^ one's virginity,^ one's blood;' {e) objects connected
more or less closely with sacrifice, e. g., wine, incense, salt, oil,' blood.
fat, leaven, honey; (/) the meaning or significance of each kind of
material as employed in sacrifice.
3. Note the particularly important emphasis placed upon the use of
the blood and fat, and consider what was involved in this, and the
principle underlying it.
4. Study, in detail, the method of sacrifice, viz., {a) the ceremonial
of the animal sacrifice which included (i) the circumstances connected
with the presentation of the victim, e. g., the laying on of hands, the
time, the place, (2) the slaughter, (3) the use made of the blood, (4)
the flaying of the animal and its dissection, (5) the burning, (6) the
washing, (7) the waving and heaving, (8) the sacrificial meal; {b) the
ceremonial, in similar fashion, of the vegetable offering ; (^) the cere
monial of the drink-offering; {d) the distinction involved between
burning the offering and eating it ; (if) the distinction involved
between consuming all and only a portion.
5. Study the occasion and purpose of sacrifice as it appears in the
later period, considering (a) how far it is national, i. e., offered for the
nation as a whole {cf. Exod. 29:38-42; Numb. 28:9 — 29:6); {S)
how far it is official, i. e., offered for certain officers of the state, the
priest, or the ruler {cf. Numb. 4: 22-26); (c) how far it is individual,
i. e., offered for the ordinary man as an individual ; (if) how far it
is festal, i. e., associated with feasts, e. g., the Passover, the Feast of
Harvest ; (1?) how far it is extraordinary , i. e., connected with special
rather than regularly recurring events; (/) how far it is local or
centralized, i. e., offered where one chanced to be, or at some place
selected from all other places, and authorized as the proper and only
proper place ; {g) how far it is, in this period, a gift or offering, rather
than the payment of a demand or of something due.
6. Put together the various elements which made up the priest's
sSee Lev. 19:27; 21:5; cf. Jer. 7:29, and W. R. Smith, Religion of the
Semites, 2d ed., pp. 323-35.
'. "Cf. I Kings 14:24; 15:12; 22:47; 2 Kings 23:7; kowACK, Hebrdische
Archdologie, Yo\. II, pp. 132 f.; W. R. SMITH, Religion of the Semites, pp. 454 ff.;
Frazeb, Golden Bough, Vol. II, pp. 225 ff.
' Cf. Ps. 50 : 13 ; W. R. SMITH, Religion ofthe Semites (see Index, s. v. "Blood");
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant.

go PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
due, and consider whether {a) upon the whole he was properly repaid
for his services, {b) he deserved any longer to be classed with the
widow and orphan, as in Deuteronomy.
7. Note that all slaughter of animals for purposes of eating is
sacrificial ; that every animal must be formally presented at the
appointed place; and that punishment is to be inflicted upon those
who do not recognize this fact.
8. Observe that offerings to idols have almost fallen into disuse.
9. Consider the attitude of the later prophets toward sacrifice ; are
they hostile ? or indifferent ?
10. Make a list of the events narrated in the later histories with
which sacrifice is connected, and note (a) -how large a place sacrifice is
given ; {b) how much more frequently the priest-writers recount the
act of sacrifice than do the prophetic writers of Samuel and Kings ; {c)
the significance of this in connection with the greater importance '
attached to sacrifice in this later period.
II. Consider {a) the intimate connection, whether expressed or
implied, between all this detail of ceremonial and the idea of sin; {b)
the intimate connection between the idea of sin thus expressed and the
conception of God which had come to exist in this period; {c) the
suggestive fact that, side by side with this objective expression of the
appreciation of sin and of longing for communion with God, there
should have been written so many of the psalms, which express sub
jectively and spiritually the same idea.
§93. Constructive WOrk.^ Prepare a statement which will present
in the form of a summary the essential differences between the later
and preceding periods in reference to sacrifice, including {a) the
chief points of practice, and {b) the essential principles involved.
§ 94. Literature to be Consulted.
J. H. Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament (1863); Alfred Barry,
articles "Sacrifice," " Sin-Offering," " Meat-Offering," "Burnt-Offering," etc., in
Smith's Dictionary ofthe Bible (1863); Ewald, The Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 1866,
transl. 1876), pp. 23-1 ii; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus (1867-72), Part I, pp.
1-416; Part II, pp, 9, 217 ff., 290 ff.; 'Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transL
1874 f.). Vol. I, pp. 236 f.; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (1870, transl. 1883), pp.
261-323; Tylor, Primitive Culture (1874), see Index, j. v. "Sacrifice;" Sayce,
"On Human Sacrifice among the Babylonians," Transactions ofthe Society of Biblical
^r<r/4««/»^j/. Vol. IV (1876), pp. 25-31; E. PARK, " On the Question of the Divine
Institution of Sacrifice," BibUotheca Sacra, 1876, pp. 102-32 ; A. Cave, The Scriptural
Doctrine of Sacrifice and Atonement (18'}'}) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
of Israel (i8-]8), pp. 52-82 ; R. Collins, " An Essay on Sacrifice," in The Pulpit Com
mentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xiv; Alfred Cave, "The Levitical Sacrifices

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE g
Literally Considered," in The Pulpit Commentary on Leviticus (1882), pp. i-xxx
H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (i88s),see Index, s. «/." Sacrifice ;" Leighto
The Jewish Altar (1886); A. HovEY, " Shekkar and Leaven in Mosaic Offerings
Old Testament Student, 1886, pp. 11-16; H. Crosby, "The Sacrifices," Old Testame
Student, 1886, pp. 249 f.; W. R. SMITH, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopedia Britanni
(1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), p
77-82; F. Gardiner, "On the Reason for the Selection of Certain Animals for Saci
fice," Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, 1888, pp. 146-51
W. H. Ward, "On Some Babylonian Cylinders, Supposed to Represent Hums
Sacrifices," Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, May, 1888, pp. xxviii-xx:
Kittel, History of the Hebrews (1888-92, transl. 1895), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice ;
W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 213-341
Robertson, Early Religion of Israel {i88g), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" P. j
Nordell, "Old Testament Word-Studies: 7. Sacrifice and Worship," Old Testame;
Student, Vol. VIII (1889), pp. 257 ff.; W. M. Rodwel'l, The Mosaic Sacrifices 1
Lev. I-III (i8go); ScHULTZ, Old Testament Theology (1892), see Index, s. v. "Saci
fice;" Duff, Old Testament Theology (i 891-1900), see Indices to Vols. I and V.
Th. E. SchmauCK, "The Paschal Lamb," Lutheran Church Review, 1891, p
127-63 ; C. J. Ball, "Glimpses of Babylonian Religion. X : Human Sacrifices
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol. XIV (1892), pp. 149-5;
Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), see Index; H. B. Tristrai
"Sacrifices in Babylonia and Phoenicia," Sunday School Times, 1894, No. i ; H. (
Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (i8gc!), see Index, s. v. "Sacrifice;" l
Harper, "The Prophets and Sacrifice," Expositor, 1894, pp. 241-53; T. K.Cheyn:
" The Date and Origin of the Ritual of the Scapegoat," Zeitschrift fiir die alttest
mentliche Wissenschaft, 1895, PP- IS3-6; Ph. J. Hoedemaker, "The Atonemei
Money," The Thinker, 1895 ; A. A. Berle, " The Real Meaning of Semitic Sacrifice
BibUotheca Sacra, 1895, pp. 342-6; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), see Inde.
J. V. "Sacrifice;" Trumbull, The Threshold Covenant (i8gt), see Index, s. v. "Saci
fice;" Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897I, see Index, j. -
"Offerings;" Iastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. ¦
" Sacrifices ; " A. Fairbanks, " The Significance of Sacrifice in the Homeric Poems
The New World, June, 1898, pp. 335-48; A. F. Scot, Offering and Sacrifice: A
Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development (1899); Trumbull, 7/
Covenant of Salt (1899), pp. 83-96; Boys-Smith, "Sacrifice in Ancient Religic
and in Christian Sacrament," Expository Times, December, 1899; January, 190c
S. R. Driver, article "Offer, Offering, etc.," in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bib
(1900); Gast, " Idea of Sacrifice as Developed in the Old Testament," ./?i?/or>«<
Church Review, January, 1900; Hermann Schultz, "The Significance of Sacrific
in the Old Testament,"- American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-31;
Davis, " The Sin-Offering," Bible Student, February, 1900 ; Edward Day, The Soci,
Life of the Hebrews (igoi), pp. 39-46; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Mom
ments (1895-190,1), §§738, 1006 f., 1014; 'D.'iAcKENZl'E,, Exposition of Old Testamei
Sacrifice (1901).
V. Thalhofer, ZlzV unblutigen Opfer des mosaischen Cultus (1848); Henc
STENBEKG, Die Opfer der heiligen Schrift (18^2); RiEHM, " Ueber das Schuldopfer,
Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1854, pp. 93-121; S. W. RlNCK, "Ueber das Schuldoj
fer," Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1855. pp, 369-81; A, Stoeckl, Das Opfer, nac

92 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
seinem Wesen und seiner Gesehichte (i860); Oehler, revised by voN Orelli, article
" Opferkultus des A. T.'s," Real-Encyklopddie fiir protestantisehe Theol. und Kirche
(2d ed., 1883); Menant, "Les sacrifices sur les cylindres chald^ens," Gazette
archMogique, 1883, Nos. 7-9; Franz Delitzsch, article "Opfer" in Riehm's
Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884) ; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen
Heide7ithums (1887), pp. 110-28; Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel (188"] f.). Vol. I,
pp. 492-8; Vol. II, pp. 253-64; L. Glahn, "Soningen i den gammeltestamentlige
Offerkultus," Festskrift Borcks Colleg., pp, 281-3 (1889); Fribdr, Nitzsch, Die Idee
und die Stufen des Opferkultus (1889) ; C, PlEPENBRiNG, " Histoire des lieux de culte
et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de Vhistoire des religions, 1891, pp. 1-60, 133-86;
Th. Naville, Les sacrifices levitiques et I'expiation (1891); A. Schmoller, "Das
Wesen der Stihne in der alttestl. Opferthora,'' Theol. Studien und Kritiken, 1891, pp.
205-88; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestl. Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899),
pp. 138-45; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp. 203-
75; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 431-64 ; P. ScHANZ,"Der Opfer-
begriff," Theol. Quartalschrift, l8g/\, pp. 179-222; O. A.SiEGliliT, L'idee du sacrifice
dansTA. 71(1894); 'Dll.\.UAliN,Handbuch der alttestl. Theologie (l8gs),s,ee Index, s. v.
"Opfer;" Stade, "Die 'E'lieiopierilxOTa.," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestl. Wissenschaft, i8g$,
pp. 166-78 ; Kamphausen, Das Verhdltnis des Menschenopfers zur israelitischen Reli
gion (i8g6) ; Marti, Gesehichte der israelii. Religion (1897), pp. 103-7, 225-31 ; Levi,
La doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahmdnas (1898); G. DE Alviella, "La thdorie du
sacrifice et les recherches de Robertson Smith," Revue de Vuniversite de Bruxelles,
April, 1898; M. Lambert, "Lemot 'S^'^," Journal asiatique, 'Vo\. XI (1898), pp.
326!.; C. Schmidt, Die Entwickelung der alttestamentlichen Opferidee (1899); A.
LoiSY, "Notes sur la Gen&se. VI': Le sacrifice d'Isaac : Gen. 22 : 1-19," Revue de
Vhistoire et de la litiirature religieuses, 1899, pp. 458-62; P. VoLZ, "Die Handauf-
legungheiiaOpier," Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 190 1 ; Lefebure,
" Le sacrifice humain d'aprfes les rites de Busiris et d'Abydos," Sphinx, Vol. Ill,
No. 2 ; Chwolson, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, (1856), Vol. II, pp. 142-55.
§95. Supplementary Topics.
I. Study the principal references to sacrifice found in the Psalter,
e. g., Pss. 4:5; 20:3; 40:6; 50:5, 8-14, 23; 51 : 16 f., 19; 54:6;
56 : 12; 66: 13, 15; 96 : 8 ; 106 : 28, 37 f.; 107 : 22 ; 116 : 17 ; 1 18 : 27 ;
and consider (a) the attitude in general of these song-writers; {b) how
far theyhave spiritualized the subject; {c) the relationship between
the Levitical ceremonial and the spirit of the Psalms.
2. What did the sage have to say about sacrifice ? Cf. Job 1:5;
22 : 27; 42 : 8f.; Prov. 7 : 14; 15:8; 21:27; Eccles. 9 : 2.
3. From an examination of the books of Maccabees ^tf. g., i Mace.
5 :54; 7 :33; " :34; 12: 11 ; 2 Mace. 1:8, 18, 23, 26, 31 ; 2 :gff.;
3 : 3> 6, 32 ; 4:14; 6:7; 9:16; 12 : 43 ; 13 : 23 ; 14 : 31 — determine
the spirit in which sacrifices were offered during the Maccabaean period,
and note any changes that present themselves.
4. Consider the subject of sacrifice as it appears in the epistle to

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE g
the Hebrews, e. g., Heb. 5:1-3; 7 :26f.; 9 :6; 10 : 18, 26; 11:17
13 : 10-16.
5. Consider the meaning and usage in the several documents of th<
various Hebrew words for sacrifice, viz., HIT ; f\m2 ; nbij; D''52bu3
um; -(^np; nston; min; nniD; T]D3T"nm;'n5a^nn; nsVsn
b^bs. '¦  ¦ ^ " ^ -
' T Cf. S. R. Driver, article " Offer, Offering, Oblation," in Hastings' Dictionar
ofthe Bible.
6. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Egyptians
Greeks, and Romans, and note points of similarity and difference ai
compared with the usages of the Hebrews.*
See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopedia Britannica.
7. Compare the usages relating to sacrifice among the Assyrians
the Arabs, and the Canaanites, and note points of similarity and dif
ference as compared with the usages of the Hebrews.
See especially Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual,'
fournal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-81 ; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonu
and Assyria (Index, s. v. " Sacrifice "); W. R. SMITH, Religion of the Semites; L, W
King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology, pp. 210 ff.; A. H. Sayce, Babylonians ani
Assyrians, pp. 245-9.
8. Consider the question of the origin of sacrifice.
See W. R. Smith, article " Sacrifice " in Encyclopedia Britannica; A. F. Scot
Offering and Sacrifice: An Essay in Comparative Customs and Religious Development
9. Prepare a definition of sacrifice which may be considered biblical
10. Consider the teachings inculcated by sacrifice, and whether thes(
teachings {a) constituted the purpose and end of the Jewish service
or {b~) pointed to something beyond and above.
II. (llonsider the relation of sacrifice, as it is represented in th(
Old Testament, to the Christ of the New Testament.

CHAPTER VIII.
THE LAWS. AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS, CONSIDERED COMPARA
TIVELY.
§96. The Feasts of Early Times, that is, as described in {a) the
Covenant Code ; {b) the historical material of J and E; {c) the pre-
Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and {d) the
pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see §59, note i).'
I. The Feast of Unleavened Bread."
Exod. 34 : 18 ; 23 : 15 ; 13:3-10.
2. The Feast of Weeks.
Exod. 34 : 22 ; 23 : 16a.
3. The Feast of Tabernacles.
Exod. 34:221?,- 23:16^,- I Kings 8:2, 65 f.; 12:32; Judg. 9:27;
21:198.
4. There were three feasts at which attendance was required by
law. Exod. 34 : 23 1; 23 : 14-17 ; i Kings 9:25; i Sam. i : 3.
5. The feasts were connected with agriculture.
Exod. 23: 15 f.; 34:22 ; Judg. 21 . 19 ff.
6. The feasts were always of a joyous and social character.
Exod. 32 : 5 f.; Judg. 21 : 19 ff.; i Sam. i : 3, 7; 13 ff.
7. A feast often involved a pilgrimage to some shrine.
Exod. 10:9; Judg. 1 1 : 40 (?) ; i Sam. i : 3, 7 ; 2:19.
8. The Passover.
Exod. 34:25; 12:21-27.
9. The Feast of the New Moon.
Hos. 5:7(?); iSam. 2o:5f.; 18 : 24 ff.; 2 Kings 4 : 23. '
10. Special feasts were held, e. g. : the Feast of Sheep-Shearing ;
the Feast of Jephthah's Daughter.
I Sam. 25 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 13 :23 ; Judg. 11 : 40.
II. Idolatrous feasts.-
Exod. 32 : 5 ; i Kings 12 : 32 f.; 2 Kings 10 :2b.
12. Attitude of the early prophets toward the feasts.
Amos 5:21; 8:10; Hos. 2:11 ; 5:7(?); 9:5; 12:9; Isa. i:i3f.
¦The following references are from J : Exod. 34: 18-25; 12:21-27; 13:3-10;
10 : 9 ; the following are from E : Exod. 23 : 10-17 ; 32 : 5-
= References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code.
94

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 9 5
§97. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Unleavened Bread,
{a) the duration ; {b) the date (to what part of our year did Abib cor
respond ?); {c) the nature and significance of " unleavened bread ; " {d)
the m'eaning of the phrase, "none shall appear before me empty;'' {e)
the association of this feast with the exodus from Egypt, and the point
of connection ; (/) the seeming identification of two entirely different
things; viz., the Passover (see below) and the Feast of Unleavened
Bread. 2. Consider, in connection with the"F«ast of Weeks, {a) other
names for the same feast, viz., Harvest, First-Fruits (Pentecost, cf. Acts
2:1; 20:16; I Cor. 16:8); {b) the duration (i^. Deut. 16:9-12); {c)
the'date ; {d) the connection of this feast with the close of the grain
harv'est; {e) the fact that there is no historical mention in the Old
Testament of its observance (but cf. 2 Mace. 12:32 and the New
Testament passages indicated above).
3. Consider, in connection with the Feast of Tabernacles, {a) other
names, viz., Booths (Deut. 16:13), Ingathering; {b) the duration {cf.
Deut. 16 : 13-15) ; {c) the date, late in the autumn ; {d) the connection
of this feast with the completion of the harvest of fruit, oil, and wine;
{e) the lack of any specific regulations in the earlier legislation ; (/)
the fact that historical mention is made of only this feast among the
three great feasts (i Sam. i : i ff.; i Kings 12:32; 6:38); {g) the
fact that this feast seems to have had its origin among the Canaan
ites (Judg. 9 : 27); {h) the important religious significance involved in
the idea that the deity was the lord of the land and the dispenser of
its fruits. 4. Consider, in reference to these meetings for festal purposes, {a)
the number ; {b) the distribution of these throughout the year ; {c) the
class of persons who were expected to be present; {d) the meaning of
the phrase "appear before the Lord; " {e) the guarantee given of safety
upon the journeys involved in attending the feasts; (/) the custom in
Solomon's times. Are any places mentioned as the seats of a festival ?
5. To what extent were these feasts of anagricultural character, that
is, connected with agricultural pursuits, (?. ^., harvest, ingathering of
fruit, etc.? or how far were they solar feasts, that is, connected with
certain seasons of the year ? What was the usual time for harvest in
Palestine ? When did the end of the Jewish year come, and with what
feast was it connected ? Consider the connection of the feast at
Shiloh with the vineyards near at hand. What particular characteristics

96 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
are associated with agricultural as distinguished from historical feasts?
Would the climate, for example, to some extent determine the date ?
Would the harvest feast take place at the same time in localities in
which there was a difference of two or three weeks in the period of the
ripening of grain ? What kind of feasts would be expected among
people leading a pastoral life, as distinguished from an agricultural
life? If these feasts are of agricultural origin, could Israel have
observed them before becoming an agricultural people, that is, before
settling in Canaan ?
6. Are not harvest and vintage feasts generally occasions for joy?
Are not eating and drinking and dancing the usual accompaniments
of a feast? How far, did the idea that the deity was sharing in the
festivities contribute to the joyousness of the occasion ? Did not the
eating, etc., contribute to this end? Was not the very purpose a
joyous one? Was there yet any conception of God or sin such as
would' interfere with this interpretation ? Was there, at this time, any
feeling of the need of an atonement ?
7. (i) Does a man ordinarily feast by himself ? (2) If the social
element is important, would it be necessary to have places at which
many might conveniently come together ? Would this not necessarily
involve a pilgrimage ? (3) Consider the use of sacred places, like
Shiloh, for such meetings. (4) What would be the social and politi
cal influence of such pilgrimages?
8. Consider (i) whether the Passover, although forming a part of
the Feast of Unleavened Bread, is not treated independently of that
feast; (2) whether, in its very nature, it is not pastoral (that is, of
nomadic origin), rather than agricultural ; (3) the meaning of the name
"Passover; "3 (4) the time of year in which it was observed; (5) the
evidence in Exod. 7 : 16 ; 10 : 24, that the Hebrews observed a spring
festival with offerings from their flocks before the days of Moses; (6)
the original significance of the Passover, viz., a sacrificial meal in
which those who partook united themselves more closely and came
into closer communion with their God — all this, for greater security;
(7) the connection of this very early festival at a later time {a) with the
historical event of the exodus, and {b) with the Feast of Mazzoth.
3Cy. article "Passover" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; J. Muller, Kri-
tischer Versuch iiber den Ursprung des Pesach-Mazzothfesles ; NowACK, Hebrdische
Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 147 ff., 172 ff,; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie, pp, 470 ff,;
RiEDEL, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XX, pp. 319-32 ;
Stade, ibid., pp. 333-7; C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of nOB," Journal of Biblical
Literature, Vol. XVI, pp. 178 f.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 97
9. Is the Feast of the New Moon agricultural, or rather astronomi
cal ? Is it recognized in the earlier legislation ? Consider (i) its wide
observance ainong Semitic peoples;* (2) its association with ancient
family sacrifices; (3) its connection with the sabbath; (4) its possible
use by prophets as a time for religious assembly; (5) its mention by
the prophets (see below); (6) its great antiquity.
10. Consider the Feast of Sheep-Shearing : (i) Was not this, like
the Feast of the New Moon, a pastoral rather than an agricultural
feast ? (2) Was it recognized in legislation ? (3) Could it be observed
elsewhere than in a cattle-producing portion of the country ? (4)
How late in Israel's history does it appear to have come down ? (5)
Did it ever take on any special religious significance? (6) What, in
general, did it celebrate ? Consider the mourning-feast in connec
tion with the devotion of Jephthah's daughter to a life of perpetual
virginity, and compare the similar cases in other history.^
II. Notice how special feasts are celebrated in addition to those
which became authorized, as in the case of (i) Aaron and the calf, (2)
Jeroboam at Bethel, (3) Jehu in honor of Baal.
12. Consider now the place occupied in the religious life by these
feasts, and their influence : (i) To what extent did the feasts consti
tute the religion of the people ? (2) How far would men postpone
religious observances until the time of a feast ? (3) How much store
did the ordinary Israelite set by the feasts ? Would the threat of
their extinction disturb him ? (4) In what way would such feasts
serve to develop national feeling ? to provide an education for the
people ? to encourage the spirit of unity ? (5) To what extent would
these assemblies serve to increase facilities for business transactions ?
(6) Is there any evidence that, in this period, the people as a whole
{cf. later times) engaged in a great feast or festival ? Or is it rather the
custom of families and households? (7) What did the prophet say
of the religious value of the feasts ? To what did he make objection ?
{a) the lack of heart manifested ? {b) or the fact that they were held
in honor of other gods ? or {c') the fact that the people thought the
holding of these feasts to constitute the whole of religion, and
neglected all that seemed pure and good in a religious life ?
* Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, see Index, s. v.
Moon," "Zag-muk," "Festivals," etc.; I. Abrahams, article "New Moon" in
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. See also Hommel, Aufsdtze und Abhandlungen
(1900), pp. 149-65.
^Cf. GoLDZlHER, Mythology among the Hebrews, pp. 96 ff., 104; Stade, Ge
sehichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, p. 68 ; G. F. MooRE, A Critical and Exegetical
Commentary on Judges, pp. 304 f.

98 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 98. Constructive Work. — Prepare a tabular statement which will
present in systematic form the facts concerning the feasts of the earlier
period, as follows: (i) name, (2) origin, (3) date, (4) duration, (5)
characteristic ritual, (6) meaning of name, (7) religious significance.
§ 99. Feasts of the Deuteronomic Period, that is, as described {a) in
the laws of Deuteronomy, {b) in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings, and {c) by the prophets of the Deutero
nomic period.'
I. Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread are now combined.
/ Deut. 16 : 1-8.
2. Feast of Weeks.
Deut. 16 : 9-12.
3. Feast of Tabernacles.
Deut. 16 : 13-15 ; 31 : 10 f.
4. All feasts must be held at the one central sanctuary.
Deut. 16:5-7, III 16 ; 31 : II.
5. The law still requires attendance at three feasts.
Deut. 16 : 16 f .
6. Feasts are still occasions of joy.
Deut. 12 : 8 ; 14 : 26 ; 16 : 11, 14 f.; 24 : 1 1 ; Isa. 9 : 3.
7. Feasts are still on an agricultural basis.
Deut. 16 : 9, 13 ; cf. 16: i.
8. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts.
Nah. 1:15; Jer. 51 ; 39 ; Lam. 1:4,15; 2 : 6 f., 22.
9. Josiah's Passover.
2 Kings 23 : 21-23. ^
§ 100. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Concerning the Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread,
consider (i) that the two feasts, distinct in origin, are now observed
together; (2) the association of the Passover with the exodus; (3) the
connection of this rite with that of the firstlings (Deut. 15 : 19 ff.); (4)
the duration ; (5) the lack of any designation of the day of the month ;
(6) the significance of the unleavened bread, and its historical connec
tion ; (7) the treatment of any remaining flesh; (8) the place at which
this feast shall be observed ; (9) the change in ritual and conception
which takes place in the case of the Passover feast, and the reason for
this; (10) the circumstances leading to the coalescence of the two
feasts. " References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book
of Deuteronomy.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 99
2. Concerning the Feast of Weeks, notice (i) that the time is fixed
in connection with that of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, viz., seven
weeks, the fiftieth day; (2) the duration ; (3) the persons who are to be
invited to the feast; (4) the place; (5) the joyous character; (6) the
historical reminiscence suggested.
3. Concerning the Feast of Tabernacles, consider (i) the name and
its origin {cf. i Sam. 1:8); (2) the time (no particular day designated);
(3) the persons who are to participate ; (4) the duration ; (5) the place ;
(6) the motive ; (7) the joyous character.
4. Consider the meaning of the constantly recurring phrase, " in the
place which Jehovah thy God shall choose to cause his name to dwell
there;" is it (i) a place, at one time in one locality, at another time in
another locality, and consequently, in the course of time, are several
places thus designated ? Or (2) is it one central place for all time,
viz., Jerusalem ? (3) Consider some of the consequences which would
follow such centralization ; e. g. .- {d) Would the fqast thus transferred
to Jerusalem continue its agricultural or pastoral character ? {b) If a
particular day is fixed, could the harvest feast any longer be connected
with the harvest, which, on account of difference of climate, occurred
at widely separated dates ? (<:) Would the historical be likely to sup
plant the natural interpretation of the feast ? (</) Would the original
ritual also lose its significance ? {e) Could the firstlings actually be
taken to Jerusalem to be sacrificed ? (/) Could the head of a family
take the entire family and dependents to Jerusalem ? (^) Would he
sell his own animal or grain, and then go to Jerusalem and buy (Deut.
14 :24-26)? Would this affect commerce ? {K) Could a man, in this
case, arrange a sacrificial meal in Jerusalem and have his family and
friends with him, as in the village or country? («) Would not this lead
to an entire change in the feeling connected with the observance of
the feast ? Would the observance become more general and less
individual, more formal and serious, and less joyous ?
5. Although the law still required attendance at these feasts, is it
possible to suppose that any considerable proportion of the people
could leave their homes and their work, and go to Jerusalem three
times in a year ? Would this have the effect of depriving these people
of religious privileges?
6. Although the feasts are represented as still continuing their
joyous character, could the old feeling actually have existed under the
new regime, cut off as the worshiper was from friends and family, lost
as he must have been in the great crowds gathering at Jerusalem ?

100 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
7. Although feasts are still nominally on an agricultural basis
{cf. the names, the method of determining the date, etc.), will it be
possible for the agricultural character to be long maintained in view
of (i) the detachment of the feasts from the exact season (one time
being fixed for the entire country, although the harvest took place at
different dates on account of climate); (2) their association with his
torical events and the emphasis thus placed on the idea of com
memoration ; (3) the necessary sale of one's own effects, and the
purchase of others for the purpose of the feast ?
8. Upon the supposition that the prophets themselves had to do
with the formulation of the policy presented in Deuteronomy, and in
view of the opinions expressed by Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, what may
we understand to have been their general position on the subject of
these feasts and festivals ? Did they represent the feasts as being an
essential element in the religious life ? Did they wish to see them
modified in their character ? Was it for this reason that they joined
with the priests in those reforms, recorded in Deuteronomy, which in
the end largely revolutionized the whole system ? Did they think that
the people were placing a false value upon these feasts in comparison
with a pure and simple life ?
9. Upon the acceptance of the book of Deuteronomy by Josiah and
his people in 621 B. C, (i) what attitude was taken by the king
toward the various corrupt forms of worship which existed at that time
{cf. Deut. 23 : 4-20) ? (2) What was the command issued as to the
observance of the Passover ? Does this mean that it had fallen into
disuse ? If so, how is such disuse to be explained ? (3) What was the
character of the Passover observed on this occasion ?
§101. Constructive Work. — Write a statement covering three points :
(1) the feasts which now no longer seem to be observed, and the rea-
, sons; (2) the modifications which have come to exist in the feasts
transmitted from the earlier period, and an explanation of these
modifications; (3) the progress, if any, which has been made in the
adaptation of the ceremonial of worship (so far as it concerned feasts)
to the religious life ; or, to use the form of a question, was Israel in a
better or worse position for the cultivation of the religious life, with
the changes which had now come about ?
§102. Constructive Work. — From Ezek. 36:38; 45:17, 18-21,
22-25 ; 46 : I, 3, 6 ff., 9, consider (i) whether, in general, Ezekiel has
much to say upon the subject. Is this because his development lies
along other lines, or because the development has already reached its

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS lOI
highest point ? (2) Is there evidence (if so, what ?) that the Deutero
nomic system of feasts is accepted ? (3) In what cases are definite
dates now given, in which, hitherto, the time has been left undesig
nated ? (4) What, now, is the relation of the Feast of the Passover to
that of Unleavened Bread ? (5) Present the evidence, if any is to be
found, that the feasts have now lost their joyous character. (6) Is the
centralization of worship involved in the arrangements which Ezekiel
proposes ?
§ 103. The Feasts in the Later Period, that is, as described {a) in the
laws of the Levitical code, {b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the
priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.'
I. Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread.
Lev. 23 : 4-8 ; Numb. 28 : 16-25 I 9 : r-r4 ! Exod. 12 : 1-20, 43-50 ; 2
Chron. 8:13; 30 : 13-27 ; 35 : 1-19 ; Ezra 6: 19-22.
2. Feast of Weeks.
Lev. 23 : 15-21 ; Numb. 28 : 26-31 ; 2 Chron. 8:13.
3. Feast of Tabernacles.
Lev. 23 : 34-36, 39-44 ; Numb. 29 : 12-38 ; 2 Chron. 5 : 3 ff.; 7 : 8-10;
8:13; Ezra 3: 4; Neh. 8:13-18.
4. Feast of the New Moon.
Numb. 28:11-15; I Chron. 23 :3i; 2 Chron. 8:13; 31 : 3; Ezra 3:5;
Neh. 10:33.
5. Feast of Trumpets.
Lev. 23 : 23-25 ; Numb. 29 : 1-6 ; 10 : 10.
6. Definite dates are fixed.
Lev. 23 : 5, 6, 23, 27, 34, 39 ; Numb., chaps. 28, 29; Esther 9:21.
7. Agricultural significance is wholly lost.
Lev. 23 : 42 f .
8. Celebration of feasts at Jerusalem is taken for granted.
Zech. 14: 16-19; I ChroD. 23:31 ; 2 Chron. 35 : 1-19.
9. Sacrifices are multiplied in connection with feasts.
Numb., chap. 29 ; 15 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 2:4; 30 : 24 ; 35 : 7-9.
10. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts.
Zech. 14: 16-19^; Joel 1:14; 2 : 15.
II. Thought of sin predominant in feasts.
Lev. 23: 19; chap. 16; Numb. 28 : 15, 22, 30; 29 :5, 11, 16, 19, 22, 25,
28, 31, 34, 38 ; Exod. 30 : 10.
12. Day of Atonement.
Lev. 23: 27-32 ; chap. 16 ; Numb. 29 : 7-11 ; Exod. 30: 10.
'References in bold-face type are from the Levitical code of laws.

102 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
13. Feast of Purim.
Esther 8:17; 9: 15-32. ,
§ 104. Questions and Suggestions.
I. In the later regulations and references relating to the Feast of
the Passover and Unleavened Bread, note (i) the new phrases, "set
feasts," "holy convocations," "appointed seasons;" (2) the exactness
with which the date is fixed; (3) the absence of "servile work;" (4)
the burnt-offering, and the meal-offering prescribed, the sin-offering
which accompanies, and all this beside the continual burnt-offering;
(5) that in time {cf. Exod. 12 : 1—20) the opinion comes to prevail that
the Passover had been established before the exodus "in order that
Jehovah might spare the firstborn of Israel, not because he had spared
them;" (6) the restrictions placed upon participation in the Passover
(Exod. 12:43-50); (7) the observance according to Chronicles (2
'Chron. 30:13-27) of the Feast of Unleavened Bread in Hezekiah's
times; (8) Josiah's Passover (2 Chron. 35: 1-19); (9) Ezra's Passover;
(10) the place of all these observances; (11) their general character;
(12) that the offerings have the nature of fixed dues, rather than of
voluntary gifts.
2. In the references to the Feast of Weeks, note (i) that the same
general characteristics appear as in the case of the Feast of Unleavened
Bread (see above) ; (2) that after the fall of Jerusalem it becomes a
feast commemorating the giving of the law on Sinai, and is no longer
considered a nature feast.
3. In tiie references to the Feast of Tabernacles, note (i) the same
points as were considered above in the case of the preceding feasts,
viz., fixing of date, multiplication of various kinds of offerings for each
day, no servile work, etc.; (2) the chronicler's account of Solomon's
observance of this feast in connection with the bringing up of the ark
(2 Chron. 5:3ff.); (3) Solomon's dedication of the temple in con
nection with this same feast (2 Chron. 7 : 8-10); (4) the observance in
connection with the beginning of the second temple (Ezra 3 : 4); (5)
the dwelling in booths in Ezra's time (Neh. 8: 13-18).
4. The system of feasts now includes more definitely the Feast of
the New Moon, concerning which it may be noted, (i) that a regular
ceremonial is instituted ; (2) that frequent mention is made of it in
connection with the sabbath. Consider (3) what has led to this larger
emphasis. 5. Consider, in the case of the Feast of Trumpets, (i) its connec
tion with the sabbatical system;* (2) the provisions given for its
^See chap. ix.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS IO3
observance ; (3) the general provision for the blowing of trumpets
with various feasts.
6. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that now the
exact day of the month is prescribed ; (2) the significance of this fact,
as compared with the looser designations of earlier regulations.
7. In all the cases presented consider (i) the fact that the agri
cultural significance has been lost ; (2) the fact that, even in the case
of the Feast of Tabernacles (the last of all to receive this treatment),
a historical meaning has been suggested and adopted ; (3) the signifi
cance of these facts as seen in the routine of the ceremonial and the
general character of the feasts.
8. Consider (i) whether, although no explicit statement occurs in
the legislative material covering the point, it is not everywhere t^ken
for granted that all feasts shall be celebrated at one place, viz., Jerusa
lem ; and (2) whether this is not the understanding of the prophets
and historians of the period.
9. Consider, in the case of all the feasts, (i) whether the largest
emphasis is not now placed upon the sacrifice; (2) whether, in fact,
with the great multiplication of sacrifices, everything else is not prac
tically ignored ; (3) the influence of this upon the people ; (4) the
explanation of it.
10. What appears to have been the attitude of the later prophets
toward these feasts? Is there any longer indifference, lack of appre
ciation, or hostility ? Why has this change of attitude come about ?
Does Judaism (Israel's religion after the exile) adopt an entirely new
policy in reference to feasts, as compared with prophetism (Israel's
religion before the exile)? Were the prophets of this period really
priests, and, in consequence, in sympathy with everything priestly ?
Had prophecy now died ?
II, Is it a fact that the idea of sin is now everywhere promi
nent ? that, indeed, this idea is the controlling idea ? that, therefore,
confession instead of rejoicing is the order of the day ? If this is the
fact, how is it to be explained ?
12. Concerning the Day of Atonement, one may undertake to
answer the following questions : (i) Was it observed in the early or
middle period, or did its observance arise only in the later period ?
(2) Is there any connection between it and Ezekiel's days of atonement
(45:18-20)? (3) Or with the days of fasting held in commemoration
of national calamities mentioned in Zech. 7 : 35 ; 8 : 19 ? (4) Or with
the day of fasting (the twenty-fourth day of the month) mentioned in

104 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Neh. 9:1? (s) What was the fundamental idea in this observance?
Was propitiation thotight of as being made inbehalf of theindividual orof
the nation? Were the sanctuary and the land also included ? (6) What
evidence does the ritual furnish as to the fundamental idea ? (7) What
^is the meaning of the phrases "sabbath of solemn rest," "afflict your
souls" (Lev. 16: 31)? (8) What conception of God gave rise to the
idea of sin involved in this institution ?
13. In the case of the Feast of Purim consider (i) its origin and
occasion ; (2) its date ; (3) the question of its connection {a) with a
Persian feast, {S) with a Babylonian feast ; (4) the meaning of the
name ; (5) the method of observance.'
§ 105. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show
the more important differences in the observance of the feasts between
the usage of the middle period and that of the later period.
§ 106. Literature to Be Consulted.
A, P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Vol. I, Appendix
'in^The Samaritan Passover (1862); S. Clark, article "Passover," Smith's Dic
tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893) ; Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed.
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 348-80; SCHU-LTZ, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869,
5th ed. 1896, transl. 1892), Vol. I, pp. 359-69; II, 87-100, 402 ff.; Kuenen, Religion
of Israel (i8(>g f., transL 1874), Vol. I. PP- 242-5, 262-7 ; H, pp. 28-30, 89-94, 253 f.,
271-3; III, pp. 148-53; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1873, transl. 1883),
§§140, 141, 144-6, 150, 153-6; Edersheim, The Temple: Its Ministry and Services
(1874), pp. 144-300; W.R. Smith, article "Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread,"
Encyclopedia Britannica (1875) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel
(1878, transl. 1885), pp. 83-120; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish
Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp, 240, 269; Idem, Prophets of Israel (ist ed.
1882, 2d ed. 1895), see Index, s. u. "Feasts;" Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus
the Messiah (ist ed, 1883), see Index, s. v. "Dedication," "Feasts," "Passover," etc.;
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses
Concerning the Pentateuch (1885); E. ScHURER, History of the Jewish People in the
Time of Christ (l88s, transl. 1890), passim; Piepenering, Theology of the Old Tes
tament (1886, transl. 1893), see Index, s. v. "Feast," " Passover," etc.; Sayce, Reli
gion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), pp. 64-9; Doughty,
Travels in Arabia Deserta,\o\. I (1888), pp. 50-84, 190-214; W. R. StlvxH, Reli
gion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), pp. 252-8 ; Robertson, Early Religion
of Israel (i88g), pp. 363, 372, 378, 385, 397, 401; W. St. Chad Boscawen, "The
9 Cf. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 686 ff.;
ZlTAUEKN, Zeitschrift fUr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI, pp. 157-69; De
Lagarde, Purim— Ein Beitrag zur Gesehichte der Religion; Sayce, Proceedings of
the Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol. XIX, pp. 280; Jensen, Wiener Zeitschrift fiir
die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vol. VI, p. 70 ; C. H. Toy, " Esther as a Babylonian
Goddess,"yVm World, Vol. VI, pp. 130-45 ; Alexander Kohut, American Journal
of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIV, pp. 192 f.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS I05
Babylonian and Jewish Festivals," Babylonian and Oriental Record, Vol. IV (1890), pp,
34-8 ; C. J. Ball, article "Festivals," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893);
H, C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (i8gi), see Index, s. v. "Feasting;" idem.
Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), see Index, s. v. "Feast;" idem. The Threshold
Covenant (1896), pp. 203-12, 266 ; H. B. Tristram, Eastern Customs in Bible Lands,
(1894), pp. 69-86 ; Sayce, Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol.
XIX (1897), pp. 280 f.; E. E. Harding, article "Feasts and Fasts," Hastings'
DicHonary of the Bible (1898); S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article "Day of
Atonement," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible (1898); A. Kohut, "The Talmudic
Records of the Persian and Babylonian Festivals Cri'tically Illustrated," American
Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XlV (1898), pp. 182-94 (cf Revue
des Itudes juives.Yol.'KK.l'V , pp. 256-71); Morris 'iASi'SiOW,'iK., Religion of Babylonia
and Assyria (1898), see Index, s. v. "Festivals;" C. H. Toy, "The Meaning of
T\0^," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVI (1898), pp. 178 f.; I. Benzinger
and T. K. Cheyne, article " Day of Atonement," .£'«0"^&i^«rf;a Biblica (i8gg); W.
W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (i8gg); Warren,
"Dates on Which Paschal Full Moons Occur," Palestine Exploration'Fund Quarterly
Statement, October, 1900; Fairbanks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical
Review, November, 1900 ; Frazer, " The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," Fort
nightly Review, October and November, 1900; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol.
II (1900), see Index, i. v. "Feasts;" I. Abrahams, article "New Moon," Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible (1900); I. Benzinger, article "Feasts," Encyclopedia Biblica
(1901); Willis, The Worship of the Old Covenant, pp. 190-214; Watson, Cambridge
Companion to the Bible, pp. 411-17; Farnell, The Cults ofthe Greek States, Vol. II,
pp. 648 f. ; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), see Index,
s. V. " Feasts."
J. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (2d ed. 1686), III, Diss, viii; J.
Meyer, De festis Hebraeorum (1724); F. C. Baur, "Ueber die urspriingliche Bedeu
tung des Passahfestes und des Beschneidungsritus," Tiibinger Zeitschrift, 1832, I,
40-124; Idem, "Der hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des mosaischen Cultus,"
ibid., 1832, III, 123-92 ; Vatke, Die Religion des Alten Testamentes (1835), Vol I, pp.
492-8 ; J. F. L. George, Die alteren jiidischen Feste(\8T,^); H. Ewald, in Gottingischer
Gelehrter Anzeiger, 1835, pp. 2025 f.; 1836, pp. 678 f.; H. EwALD, in fahrbucher
der biblischen Wissenschaft, Vol. IV, pp. 131 f.; VIII, p; 223; IK, pp. 257 f.; F. Hitzig,
Ostern und Pfingsten (183'j); Bahs., Symbolik des mosaischen C«/i'«J (1839), Vol. II,
pp. 664 ff.; H. EwALD, " De feriarum hebraearum origine et ratione," Zeitschrift fiir
die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vol. Ill (1840), pp. 410-41; H. HuPFELD, De primi-
tiva et vera festorum apud Hebraeos ratione ex legum Mosaicarum eruenda (1851-65);
Redslob, Die biblischen Angaben iiber Stiftung und Grund der Passahfeier (l8c,t);
W. Schultz, " Die innere Bedeutung der alttestamentlichen Feste," Deutsche Zeit
schrift fiir christliche Wissenschaft und christliches Leben, 1857, pp. 23-30; JOH.
Bachmann, Die Festgesetze des Pentateuch auf's neue kritisch untersucht (1858);
Dillmann, article "Feste," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexicon (1869); H. Oort, "De groote
Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift,Vo\.'^ (1816), pp. 142-65; D. Hoffmann, in
Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. i ff. ; Idem, Abhandlungen iiber die Pentateuch-
Gesetze,'Vol.I (i8'j8) ¦,lDEM,in Magazin fiir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1879, pp.
99 ff. ; Franz Delitzsch, in Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches
Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83,621 ff,; KuENEN, in Theologisch Tijdschrift,Vo\,

I06 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
XVII (1883), pp. 207-12; MiJLLER, Kritischer Versuch iiber den Ursprung des Pesach-
Mazzothfestes (1883); Adler, "Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel, sein Ursprung und
seine Bedeutung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (4883)
pp. 178-85; Orelli, articles "Passah," " Vfingstiest," Realencyklopddie fiir protestan-
tische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Franz Delitzsch, article "Passah,"
Riehm's Handw'orterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); RiEHM, article "Feste,'
Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Oreli.i, article "Ver
sohnungstag," Realencyklopddie fi'ir protestantisehe Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1885);
De Lagarde, "Purim; ein Beitrag zur Religionsgeschichte," Mittheilungen, Vol. II
(1887), pp. 378 ff.; IV, p. 147, note 1; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums
(^^ Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 1887), pp. 75-98; B. Stade, Gesehichte des
Volkes Israel (1887 f.), Vol. I, pp. 497-503; II, pp. 182, 258-60; I. Benzinger, "Das
Gesetz iiber den grossen Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestament
liche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX (1889), pp. 65-88; Riehm, Alttestamentliche Theologie
(1889), pp. 121-3; H. ZiMMERN, "Zur Frage nach dem Ursprunge des Purimfestes,"
Zeitschrift fUr die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1891, pp. 157-69; Smend, Lehrbuch
der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v.
"Feste;'' W. NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. II, pp.
138-203; I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 464-78; Eerdmans,
" Der Ursprung der Ceremonien des Hosein-Festes," Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,
Vol. IX (1894), pp. 290 f. ; S. Karppe, "Melanges de critique biblique et d'assyiio-
logie," Revue s^mitique. Vol. II (1894), pp. 146-51 ; Dillmann, Alttestamentliche
Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Feste," "Passah;'' K, Marti, Gesehichte der
israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v."Yes\.e," "Pesach," " Laubhiittenfest,"
etc.; F. Buhl, " Gottesdienstliche Zeiten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie fiir
protestantisehe Theologie und Kirche (1899); Schaefer, Das Passah- Mazzoth Fest
(1900); Erbt, Purimsage in der Bibel (1900); MOSSA, " Bedeutung des Passahfestes,"
Saat auf Hoffnung, 1900, No, 2; Riedel, "Miscellen 5, 6,: DOS, HDlDn nS23,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, VoL XX (1900), pp. 319-32; B.
Stade, "Nachwort zu Lie. W. Riedel's 5. Miscelle: HOS," ibid., pp. 333-7; C.
Brockelmann, "Das Neujahrsfest der Jezidls," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgen-
Idndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. LV (1901), pp. 388 ff.
§107. Supplementary Topics.
I. Consider the few references to the celebration of feasts and feast
days in the Psalter, viz., Pss. 4:7; 81:3; and note especially the
so-called Psalms of Ascents, viz., 120-134, and their use in worship."
2. Put together the references to feasts in the books of Maccabees,
viz.: I Mace, i : 39, 45; 4:52-59; 7 : 49 ; 10:34; 13:50-52; 2 Mace
I : 9, 18; 2:9, 16; 6: 6f.; 7:42; 8 :33; 10 : 5-8 ; 12 : 31 f.; 15 : 36
and make such a statement as the material thus examined will warrant
3. Consider the principal references to feasts in the New Testa
ment, viz.: Matt. 26:2, 5, 17 ff.; 27:15; Mark 14: if., 12, 14, 16
'"Cf. Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms— A New English Translation, p,
210; Kirkpatrick, The Psalms, Books II, III (" Cambridge Bible"), p. xxv ; Mur
ray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, pp. 292-5 ; Perowne, Book of Psalms,V ol. I
pp.86f.; Smith, "The Songs of the Ascent," Expository Times, November, 1900.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 10/
15:6; Luke 2:4if.; 22:1-15; 23:17; John 2:13, 23; 4:4s;
5:1; 6:4; 7:2-14,37; 10:22; ii:55f.i 12:1,12,20; 13:1,29;
18 : 28, 39 ; 19 : 14 ; i Cor. 5:7; Heb. 11:28.
4. Take up for critical study the principal Hebrew words used to
designate the feasts, viz,: HCD , jH, mi5'2T23 jtt , TSpfl jTl ; jM
-fci^n ; niDcn jm ; "lain ; nirj ; n''1l2 ; etc,
5. Compare, in a very general way, the usage concerning feasts
among the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and note points
of similarity and difference."
6. Consider the place of feasts among the Assyrians, noticing
especially the great number of them and the many points of similarity
existing between the usages of Assyrian feasts and those of Hebrew
feasts, e. g., the pervading spirit of joyousness, the agricultural con
nection of some of them, the similarity between the feast of Zag-
muk and the Jewish New Year's festival, and the Babylonian origin of
the Feast of Purim."
7. Study the Hebrew feasts in their relation to {a) the Arabic feasts
or pilgrimages, {b) the Canaanite agricultural feasts."'
8. Consider comparatively the three great factors entering into
and controlling the origin and development of feasts, viz., the element
involved in a nomadic or pastoral life, that in an agricultural life, and
that in a city life.
9. Consider (i) the conception of God which had come" to be
supreme in Israel after the exile, viz., hoHness ; (2) the relation of
this conception to the teaching concerning sin prevalent in the same
period ; and (3) the influences of these conceptions upon the devel
opment of the feast system.
" See W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals ofthe Period of the Republic: Fair
banks, "Festival Epidauria at Athens," Classical Review, tioyemtieT, igoo ; Frazer,
" The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals," Fortnightly Review, October and Novem
ber, 1900; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v.
"Festivals." " (^ especially Morris ]KSTViOW,]ti., Religion cf Babylonia and Assyria, see
Index, s.v. "Festivals."
'3 See Snouck Hurgro'NJE, Het Mekkaansche Fest; Doughty, Travels in Arabia
Deserta; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidentums; and other literature cited
in §106.

CHAPTER IX.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH AND KINDRED
INSTITUTIONS, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY!
§ 1 08. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Early Period,
i. e., as described in {a) the Covenant Code, {b) the historical material
of J and E, {c) the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and
Kings, and {d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59,
note i).'
I. The law of the sabbath.^
Exod. 34 : 21 ; 20 : 8-1 1 ; 23 : 12.
2. Customs connected with the sabbath.
2 Kings 4:23; II : 5. 7. 9-
3. Attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath.
Amos 8:5; Hos. 2:11; Isa. i : 1 3.
4. The law of the sabbatical year.
Exod. 23 : 10 f.; 21 : 2-11.
§ 109. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider, in examining the statements made concerning the
sabbath, (i) why the sabbath is the only religious institution men
tioned in the decalogue ; (2) the first word, remember, and compare
the first word in Deut. 5:12, observe. (3) Was either of these in any
sense a warning equivalent to "take care," "be on the lookout for" ?
(4) What is the logical relation of the fourth commandment to the
third, second, and first ? Does this consist in its having originally
had to do with the deity, as do the preceding? (5) Are there other
variations between the two forms of the commandment given in Exod.,
chap. 20, and Deut., chap. 5 ? What are the variations ? How shall
we explain the existence of any variations at all ? Is it possible that
Exod. 20:9-11 and Deut. 5 : 13-15 are later additions made at differ
ent times to an earlier form, which, as in the case of the sixth, seventh,
and eighth commandments, consisted of only two or three words,
' The following references are from E : Exod. 20 : 8-10 ; 23:10-12; 21:2-11;
the only reference in J is Exod. 34 : 21.
'References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code.
108

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH IO9
"Observe (or remember) the sabbath day to keep it holy"?' (6) What
was involved in the command to keep it holy ? (7) What may be said
of the antiquity of the sabbath ? Was it probably observed by the
Hebrews in Egypt? (8) Was it originally connected with the new
moon ? (9) What are the chief considerations offered to show that it
was originally a day for securing the good-will of the deity, i. e., a day
on which Jehovah rested from his anger, and was, therefore, more
easy to propitiate ; a day, however, which might prove to be unfavor
able, but which might be changed to a favorable day by doing or not
doing certain things?'' (10) What, if this view is adopted, would be
understood in particular to be the meaning of the word rest? of the
word observe i (i i) How did such strong emphasis come to be placed
upon the idea of cessation from labor ?
2. In respect to the usages which connected themselves with the
sabbath, consider («) the custom of visiting the man of God on the sab
bath ; (2) the custom of dividing the temple guard according as it came
in or went out on the sabbath; (3) other early (?) customs, codified
in later times, ^. ^g'., remaining inside the house (Exod. 16 : 29), kindling
no fire (Exod. 35 : 3), no gathering of wood for the fire (Numb. 15 : 32-
36), no baking or cooking (Exod. 16:23). (4)80 far dcs the early
records are concerned, are there any other ideas than those of cessa
tion from labor and of humanitarian motive ?
3. What is to be gathered from the few allusions to the sabbath
made by the prophets ? (i) What are the people desiring to make of
the sabbath, according to Amos ? What restraint is evidently upon
them? (2) Does Hosea's statement seem to place the sabbath in the
same category with days of rejoicing and mirth ? (3) What is the
significance of the frequent association (as in Isa. i : 13)01 the sabbath
with the new moon ?
4. Consider (i) regulations relating to the release of Hebrew
servants after six years of labor ; did this imply a regularly recurring
seventh year in which all servants were released ? Had this any
thing to do with a sabbatical year ? (2) The regulations prescribing
that the crop of every seventh year shall be given to the poor and
the beasts ; does the regula'tion say that all land was to lie fallow in the
3 This is the view held, for example, by Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. II, p. 159 ;
TUlAJAKNN, Exodus, p. 201; Speaker's Commentary, p. 336; Driver, Introduction,
etc., p. 34 ; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, pp. 181-7 ; Marti, Ge
sehichte der israelitischen Religion; et al. ,
< Jastrow, American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52.

I 10 PRIESTLY -ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
same year ? Was this the recognition of a sabbatical year ? (3) The
motives underlying these regulations.
§ no. Constructive Work.— Prepare a statement which will indicate
the most important factors entering into the significance of the sab
bath, and its characteristics as it appears in the earliest period.
§ III. The Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Middle Period,
/. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic
prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel
and Kings,5
I. The law of the sabbath in the Deuteronomic decalogue.
Deut. 5 : 12-15.
2. The attitude of the prophets toward the sabbath.
Jer. 17:19-27; Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 6 ; 58 : 13, 14 ; 66:23; Lam. 1:7; 2:6,
3. The law of the sabbatical year.
Deut. 15 : 1-18 ; 31 : 10.
4. Release of slaves in Jeremiah.
Jer. 34:8-17.
§ 1 12. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider now in detail the Deuteronomic version of the sabbath
law, including (i) the word observe, (2) the reference to Jehovah's
former command (vs. 12), (3) the provision for the rest of the servants,
(4) the reason given for the observance of the sabbath, viz., the deliv
erance from the bondage of Egypt; is this an implication that the
sabbath was not observed by the Israelites in Egypt ? How is it to
be reconciled with the reason given in Exod. 20 : 11 ? (5) the effect
upon the observance of the sabbath of the centralization of worship at
Jerusalem ; would this not take away the ritualistic observance and
emphasize the humanitarian idea ? •
2. In an examination of the prophetic and historical allusions to
the observance of the sabbath, consider (i) the small number of such
references; is there any satisfactory reason ? (2) the several items said
by Jeremiah to have been commanded by Jehovah, viz., {a) as to bur
dens, {b) as to work, {c) as to hallowing the day; (3) the attitude of
the people (Jer. 17:23); (4) the promises and threats in reference to
its observance (Jer. 17 : 24-27) ; (5) the position assigned to the sabbath
in connection with the observance of the covenant (Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 6);
(6) the meaning of the phrases from doing thy pleasure, and call the
sabbath a delight {Isa.. 58: 13), and the rewards offered ; (7) the sabbath
5 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteron
omy,

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH I I I
as a time, like the new moon, for worship (Isa. 66 : 23); (8) the forget
ting of the sabbath in the exile.
3. Consider, in comparison with the regulations cited above
(§§108, 4 ; 109,4), the Deuteronomic regulations concerning (i) the
year of release of debts : {a) to whom it shall and shall not apply; {b)
does it mean that the debt, if not paid, will be forgiven or become
outlawed ; or that no interest will be exacted during this seventh year ;
or that no proceedings will be taken against the debtor during that
year ? {c) the reward promised ; {d) the motive for this law ; {e) does
it imply an advanced commercial development ? (/) is the year a
fixed seventh year ? {g) would it encourage or discourage business ?
(2) the regulations for the release of the Hebrew servant, noting the
slight variations from the law given in Exodus; (3) whether Deuteron
omy has any regulation concerning the rest of the land {cf. Exod.
23 : 10 f.); (4) the reading of the law prescribed for the Feast of Tab
ernacles during the year of release at the end of every seven years.
4. Consider the points involved in the story of the release of slaves
in Jeremiah's time.
§113. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement showing the
nature of the changes which are being made, and the general trend.
§ 1 1 4. The Sabbath as Described by Ezekiel.
I. The purpose of the sabbath.
Ezek. 20 : 12, 20.
2. The sabbath a holy day.
Ezek. 44 : 24.
3. General profanation of the sabbath.
Ezek. 20 : 13-24 ; 22 : 8, 26 ; 23 : 38.
4. Special worship and sacrifices for the sabbath.
Ezek. 45 :i7; 46: 1-5, 12.
5. The year of liberty.
Ezek. 46 : 17.
§115. Questions and Suggestions.
I. What, according to Ezekiel, was the original purpose which the
sabbath was to subserve ? Compare the purpose also of the statutes
(Ezek. 20: £i), and the way in which both statutes and sabbaths had
been treated by Israel.
2. What, in Ezekiel's time, was meant by hallowing or keeping holy
the sabbath ?

112 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
3. What was meant by profaning and hiding the eyes from the
sabbath ? Did the Israelites simply ignore it, or did they intentionally
do that which brought it into disrepute ?
4. Note the special character of the offerings indicated in Ezekiel's
scheme for the sabbath day. What was the significance of this ? Con
sider how the sabbath is still associated with the new moon.
5. Note the contents of the single reference in Ezekiel to the year
of release or liberty.
§ 116. Constructive Work. — Summarize the position of Ezekiel, and
indicate the relation of Ezekiel's attitude on this question to his gen
eral place in prophecy.
§ 117. Sabbath and Kindred Institutions in the Later Period, i. e., as
described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code, {b") by the priestly
prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, viz., Ezra, Nehemiah,
Chronicles. I. The law of the sabbath.*
Lev. 23 : 3 ; Exod. 31 : 12-17 ; 35 : 1-3.
2. Special days observed as sabbaths.
Lev. 23 : 7 f., 24-32, 39 ; 16 : 29-31 ; Numb. 28 : 11-15, 18, 25 f. ; 29 ; i, 7,
12. 35-
3. Reasons assigned for the observance of the sabbath.
Gen. 2 : 2 f. ; Exod. 20 : 1 1 ; 31 : 12 f ., 17.
4. Special offerings made on the sabbath.
Lev. 23 : 38 ; Numb. 28 : g 1; i Chron. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chron, 2:4:8:13; 31:3;
Neh. 10 : 33.
5. Emphasis laid on observance of the sabbath.
Lev. 19 : ¦ib, 30a; 26 : 2a; Ezod. 16 : 22-30 ; 31 : 14-16 ; 35 : 2 ; Numb.
15 : 32-36 ; Neh. 10 : 31 ; 13 : 15-22.
6. Use of the sabbath as a fixed point of time.
Lev. 23 : isf.; 24 : 8 ; i Chron. 9 132 ; 2 Chron. 23 : 4, 8.
7. Sabbath made known on Sinai.
Neh. 9:14.
8. Law of the sabbatical year.
Lev. 25:1-7; 26:34,35.
9. Exile conceived of as a sabbath for the land.
Lev. 26 : 34 f . ; 2 Chron. 36 : 2 1 .
10. Law of year of jubilee.
Lev., chap. 25 ; 27 : 17-24 ; Numb. 36 : 4.
'References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II3
§118. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider (i) the form of the sabbath observance which must
have existed during the exile, viz., the humanitarian and not the ritu
alistic ; the adaptation of this to the possibilities of worship in this
period, arid the distinctive character which it must have given the
Jewish community. (2) What is the meaning of the new phrases sol-
emri rest, holy convocation, sabbath unto Jehovah? (3) What is the
purpose of the sabbath {cf. Ezekiel) ? the penalty for its non-obser
vance ? the connection between sign and perpetual covenant ? (4) The
reason assigned for its establishment {cf. Exod. 20 : 1 1) ? (5) Why
should the kindling of fire have been prohibited in particular ?
2. Note how the idea of rest now attaches itself to other days, viz.,
first day of the Passover, first day of the Feast of Trumpets, first and
eighth days of the Feast of Booths, the Day of Atonement.
3. Consider the reasons assigned for the sabbath's observance : (i)
because God rested on the seventh day; was there any connection
between this reason and the fact that the teaching concerning God as
Creator is greatly emphasized in the exilic and post-exilic periods ?
(2) because it is to serve as a sign between God and Israel ; did this
mean that it distinguished Israel from other nations which did not
observe it ?
4. Note the details and significance of the special offering made on
the sabbath.
5. Consider the rigidity with which the sabbath law was now to be
enforced : (i) on the same plane with the honoring of father and mother,
and the reverencing of a sanctuary; (2) penalty of death imposed
for non-observance ; (3) the story of the man who gathered sticks on
the sabbath day and suffered death by stoning ; (4) the gathering of a
double amount of manna on the sixth day and the absence of manna
on the sabbath ; (5) the agreement to refrain from commercial deal
ings on the sabbath ; (6) Nehemiah's judicial procedure in the case of
those violating the law.
6. Note how the sabbath, having become a fixed date, every seventh
day, is used as a point from which to calculate other feasts.
7. Note the tradition preserved by Nehemiah that the sabbaith was
(first ?) made known on Sinai.
8. Study the details of the law of the sabbatical year : (i) Is all
agriculture to be remitted ? (2) What is to be the disposition of the
fruit and grain that grows of itself ? (3) Was Palestine a land subject
to severe famines ? If so, could such a law have been observed ?

114 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(4) Could it have been observed while the people were mainly agri
culturists, I. e., before trade and commerce had come in ? How would
the people living in rural districts spend their time ? (5) Is there any
evidence that it was observed before the exile ? or that it was not {cf.
Lev. 26:34, 35)? (6) Did not its observance in later times cause
great distress (i Mace. 6:49, 53)? (7) What connection was there
between this sabbatical year, with its fixed time of recurrence, and the
year of release for slaves and debt in Deuteronomy (§§ iii, 3; 112, 3)?
g. Consider the idea suggested that the entire period of exile is a
period of sabbaths, now enforced because formerly unobserved.
10. Concerning the Year of Jubilee, consider (i) the meaning of the
name ; (2) the time fixed ; was it the fiftieth year following the seventh
sabbatical year, that is, was it the second of two successive years of
rest? or did it coincide with the forty-ninth year ? (3) the procedure;
was it, in general, like the sabbatical year ? (4) what was the regulation
concerning sowing, reaping, gathering ? (5) concerning the restoration
of real property ? (6) the special provision concerning dwelling-houses
in walled cities ; the houses of the Levites ; (7) the regulation concern
ing Hebrew and non-Hebrew slaves ; (8) concerning land dedicated to
Jehovah and its redemption ; (9) concerning the inheritance of daugh
ters as affected by these laws. (10) How were the people to live dur
ing this period of abstinence from work? (11) Is it possible that the
law of the jubilee year is an outgrowth of the law of the sabbath ? (12)
What led to the choice of the fiftieth year? (13) Is there any evidence
that this law existed before the time of the exile ? (14) Was the Year
of Jubilee ever observed ? (15) Was it a practical law, or an ideal law?
(16) What, in general, is meant by ideal legislation ?
§119. Constructive Work.
Prepare a statement including (a) an explanation of the fact that
such an exceedingly large place is occupied by the sabbatical system
in the legislation and thought of this period; (<J) an enumeration of
the various points of difference between the laws and usages of this
period and those of the Deuteronomic period ; and (c) a brief study of
the development of the sabbatical idea in the course of Israel's history.
§ 120. Literature to be Consulted.
Jennings, /^OTW/4 Antiquities (1808), pp. 320 f.; Ewald, History of Israel (isi ed.
1843-59. transl. 1883), Vol. I, pp. 88 f.; II, pp. 209 f,; V, pp, 166 f., 343, 400, 416;
Idem, Antiquities of Israel (i8S'i, transl. 1876), pp. 97-107; Kalisch, Commentary on
Exodus (1855), in loc. 20:8-11; Hessey, On the Sabbath ("Bampton Lecture,"
i860, 3d ed. 1866); Gilfillan, On the Sabbath (1862); Kurtz, Sacrificial Worship
of the Old Testament (1862, transl. 1863), pp, 342 ff.; JOHNSTONE, Sunday and the

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH IIJ
Sabbath (1863); R. S. PoOLE, article "Chronology," see section on "Sabbatical and
Jubilee Years," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Cox,
Literature of the Sabbath Question (1865); Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed.
1869, transl. 1892), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath," "Sabbatical Year," "Jubilee;"
Kuenen, The Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1894), Vol. I, pp. 286!,; II, pp,
278-84 ; Sayce, Records of the Past, Vol. I (1873), PP- 1^4 f-; Oehler, Theology of
the Old Testament (ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), pp. 328-45 ; Sayce,
Records of the Past, Vol. VII (1876), p. 157; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the
History of Israel (i8']8), pp. 112-20 ; J. Fenton, Early Hebrew Life (1880), pp. 24-6,
29-32, 64-70; W. D. Love, "The Sabbath, etc," BibUotheca Sacra, 1880, pp, 153-78,
355-89,419-39. 661-S5; 1881, pp. 254-85,524-52, Schrader, C«K«7or?« Inscrip
tions and the Old Testament (2d ed. 1882, transl. 1885), Vol. I, pp. 18 ff,; W, R,
Smith, Prophets of Israel (isi ed, 1882, 2d ed. 1895), pp. 385 f.; Francis Brown,
"The Sabbath in the Cuneiform 'Records," Presbyterian Review, 1882, pp. 688-700;
HxLX.MA.NN, Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1886, transl. 1897 f.), on Gen,, chap, i;
Schurer, History ofthe fewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ(i88b, transl, 1891),
Div, II, Vol, II, pp, 96-105 ; W, R, Smith, articles "Jubilee," " Sabbath," Encyclopedia
Britannica (1887); Sayce, Religion of the Ancient Babylonians ("Hibbert Lectures,"
1887), pp, 70-77; Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta (1888), Vol. I, pp. 151, 366;
II, pp. 225, 306 ; McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and
Ecclesiastical Literature (1891), articles "Jubilee," "Sabbath," and "Sabbatical
Year;" Jensen, "The Supposed Babylonian Origin of the Week and the Sabbath,"
Sunday School Times, January 16, 1892; Alice M, Earle, The Sabbath in Puritan
New England (•j\h. ed, 1893); F. Garden, article "Sabbatical Year," ^uvxix'i, Dic
tionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); S. Clark (revised by J. M. Fuller), article
"Jubilee," Smith's Dictionary ofthe Bible (2d ed. 1893); W. E. Addis, Documents of
the Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1893-98), see Index, s. v. "Jubilee," " Sabbath," etc.; Sayce,
Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1893), PP- 74-7; Montefiore,
The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures," 1893), see Index, s. v.
"Sabbath;" Davis, Genesis and Semitic Tradition (1894), pp. 23-35; Driver, A
Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), pp. 174-81 ; Hirschfeld,
"Remarks on the Etymology of ^a'oba'Ca.," fournal of the Royal Asiatic Society , 1896, pp.
354 f,; Abrahams, yi?j£»z>/4 Life in the Middle Ages (i8g']), see Index, s. v. " Sabbath; "
Morris Jastrow, Jr., " The Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American
Journal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp. 312-52 ; QmEYNE, Jewish Religious Life after
the Exile (i8g8), pp. 66 f.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, The Book of Leviticus —
a New English Translation (Polychrome Bible, 1898), pp. 97-100 ; E. A. W. Budge,
Egyptian Magic (1899), pp. 224-8; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and
Customs (1899), p. 245 ; Kent, A History of the Jewish People During the Babylonian,
Persian, and Greek Periods (1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath;" Sinker, Essays and
Studies (1900); J. Estlin-Carpenter and G. Harford Battersby, The Hexa
teuch (1900), VoL II, p. 112 ; T. F. Wright, " Sabbath," New Church Review, Janu
ary, i9(Jb; W. R. Smith and I. Benzinger,, article "Jubilee," Encyclopedia Biblica
(1901); McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill (1901), pp. 376 f.;
Morris Jastrow, Jr., " Hebrew and Babylonian Accounts of Creation," Jewish
Quarterly Review, Yo\. XIII (1901), pp, 648-50; H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the
Sabbath (Golden Lectures for 1900-1901); C. F. Kent, Biblical World, Vol. XVIII
(1901), pp. 344-8.

Il6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1.^VENCEY.,De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (zd ed. lb86); "W AGENSElh, De anno
iubilaeo Hebraeorum (1700); J. H, Mai, Maimonidis tract, de juribus anni septimi et
jubilaei(ilo8); Van der KA^XiT, De jubilaeo Mosis (i"} 28); Reineccivs, De origine
jubilaeorum (1730); Carpzov, De anno jubilaeo (1730); Hebenstreit, De sabbato
ante leges Mosis existente (iT ^8); M.EYE^, De temporibus et diebus Hebraeorum (l']SS),
pp, 341-60; Michaelis, Comm. in leg. Mosis (1775-80), Vol. I, pp. 76-419; Franke,
Novum systema chronologiae fundamentalis (1778); Hug, "Ueber das mosaische
Gesetz vom Jubeljahr," Zeitschrift fiir das Erzbisthum, I, i; De Wette, Lehrbuch der
hebrdisch-jiidischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1814, 4th ed. 1864), pp. 211 f.; Baur, "Der
hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des Mosaischen Kultus," Tiibinger Zeit
schrift, 1832, pp. 125 f.; Vatke, Die Religion des Alten Testamentes (1835), Vol. I,
pp. 198 f.; Kranold, De anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1835); G. WoLDE, De anno
Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. I, pp.
572 f.; II, pp. 569 f., 601 f.; Winer's Biblisches Realw'orterbuch (3d ed. 1847), articles
"Sabbath," etc.; Ewald, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft,
Vol. I (1847), pp. 410 ff.; Brugsch, ibid.,No\.\\\ (1849), pp. 271 ff.; ProudhoNj
De la celebration du Dimanche (1850); Oschwald, Die christliche Sonntagsfeier (1850);
LlEBETRUT, Die Sonntagsfeier das Wochenfest des Volkes Gottes (1851); Herzfeld,
Gesehichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1855), pp. 458-65 ; Saalschutz, Archdologie der
Hebrder, Vol. II (1856), pp. 224 ff., 308 ff.; Zuckermann, Sabbathjahrcyclus und
fubelperiode (1857); HuPFELD, Commentatio de Hebraeorum festis. Part III (1858);
Keil, Handbuch der biblischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1858 f., 2d ed. 1875), VoL I, §§ 77
ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka (transl. from Dutch 1864), pp. 34 f.; Kubel,
" Die sociale und volkswirtschaftliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testamentes," Theo
logische Studien und Kritiken, 1871, pp. 760 ff.; Steiner, article "Jubeljahr" in
Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Schrader, "Derbabylonische Ursprung
der siebentagigen Woche," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343 ff.;
Mangold, articles "Sabbat" and " Sabbatsjahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,
Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Gesehichte, Vol.1 (1875), PP- 43' ff-".
Klostermann, "iiber die kalendarische Bedeutung des Jobeljahres," Theologische
Studien und Kritiken, 1880, pp. 720-48; Dillmann, Die Biicher Exodus und
Leviticus (2d ed. 1880), pp. 602 ff.; Budde, Die biblische Urgeschichte (1883), pp. 493
ff.; Lotz, Quaestiones de historia sabbathi (i88t,); Hoffmann, "Versuche zu Amos,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 120 f.; Oehler,
articles "Sabbath" and "Sabbath- und Jobeljahr," revised by VON Orelli, in .ff^a/-
encyklopddie fiir protestantisehe Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1884); Riehm, articles
"Jobeljahr," "Sabbath," " Sabbathjahr " in RlEnu's Handworterbuch des biblischen
Alterthums (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. 1893 f.); Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I
(1887), pp. 498 f.; Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuchs (2d ed. 1889), pp. 187 f.;
]ENiEN, Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,\o\. IV (1889), pp. 274 ff.; H. L. Strack, Z>^r
Mischnatraktat "Sabbath " herausgegeben und erkldrt (1890); Baentsch, Das Bundes-
buch — Ex. XX. 32 — XXIII. 33 (1892), pp. 115 f.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestament
lichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath"
and "Jubeljahr;" NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I,
pp.217, 333; II, pp. 138-44. 159-72; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie {\8g^, pp.
201 f., 464 ff., 473 f.; Gunkel, Sch'opfung und Chaos (1895), pp. I3f., 1 14-17 ; \)iiA.-
'Hl ANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie {l8g$), see Index, i. v. "Jobeljahr"
and "Sabbat;" Marti, Gesehichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II7
"Sabbat" and "Jobeljahr;" Holzinger, Exodus (Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum
Alten Testament), see Index, j. v. "Sabbath" (1900); Bertholet, Leviticus (Kurzer
Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr," "Sabbat,"
(1901). See also the Mishnah tracts on "The Sabbath" and "The Book of Jubilees,"
chap. 50.
§ 121. Supplementary Topics.
I. Study the meaning of the word "sabbath," its derivation, its
usage. 2. Examine the following texts in which the root fl3T25 occurs, with
a view to determining the meaning of the root, viz.: Gen. 2 : 2 f.; 8:22;
Exod. 16:30; 12: 15; 23: 12; 34:21; Josh. 5 : 12; Isa. 13: 11; 14:5;
30 : 7 ; Ps. 8:3; Prov. 20 : 3.
3. Study the passages in which the word "llflQlB (ordinarily trans
lated "solemn rest") occurs, viz.: Lev. 23:3, 24, 32, 39; 16:31;
25:4; Exod. 16:23; 35-2; 3i:i5> with a view to determining its
meaning. 4. Examine the words bl"' ("jubilee"), nni ("liberty").
5. From an examination of i Mace, i : 39, 43, 45 ; 2 : 32-41 ;
6:49; 9:43^-; 10:34; 2 Mace. 5:24-26; 6:6, 11; 12:38; 15: 1-5,
prepare a statement concerning the sabbath in Maccabean times.
'6. Is the sabbath referred to in the Wisdom books, or in the
Psalms (f/. the title of Ps. 92)? Why not?
7. From a study of the following refei-ences from the New Testa
ment discuss the attitude of Jesus and the several New Testament
writers toward the sabbath : Matt. 12 : i f., 5, 8, 10 ff.; 24 : 20 ; 28 : i ;
Mark 1:21; 2 : 23f., 27f.; 3: 2, 4; 6:2; 15 :42; 16 : i ; Luke 4: 16,
31 ; 6 : I ff., 5 ff., 9 ; 13 : 10, 14 ff-; i4 : i, 3. 5 ; 23 : 54, 56 ; John 5 : 9 f.,
16, 18; 7 : 22 f.; 9 : 14, 16 ; 19 : 31 ; Acts i : 12 ; 13 : 14, 27, 42, 44;
15 : 21 ; 18 : 4; 21 : 27 ; 28 : 14 ; Col. 2 : 16 ; Heb. 4:4; Rev. i : 10.
8. Compare, in general, the observance of special rest-days among
the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and determine whether there is
any possible connection between these days and the sabbath.'
9. Compare, in general, the observance, on the part of the Assyrians,
' Cf. Maspero, Romans et Palsies au Papyrus Harris, No. soo, pp. 38 f. 41;
Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et nefastes de Vannle Igyptienne; Wiedemann,
Religion ofthe Egyptians, pp. 263 f. ; Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew
Sabbath," American Journal of Theology,Vo\.ll, p. ¦iSO,not.e 116; BuvGE, Egyptian
Magic, pp. 224-8; Ihering, Vorgeschichte der Indo- Europder, pp. 145, 309-58 ff.
(in English translation = 7%« Evolution of the Aryan, New York, 1897); H. Cohen,
"Der Sabbath in seiner culturgeschichtlichen Bedeutung," ^fzVg^m/ (Milwaukee, Wis.),
1881, pp. 4ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka, pp. 34 f.; Kuenen, Religion of Israel,

Ila PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Arabs, and Canaanites, of special rest-days, -and determine whether
there is any connection between these days and the sabbath.^
10. Consider, in general, the whole sabbatical system, and show
{a) its origin, {b) its various stages of development, (ir) its social bear
ings, {d) its religious significance, {e) its idealism, (/) its practical
character. II. Consider the relation of the sabbath to the moon, the new-
moon feast, etc. Was the sabbath originally a lunar festival ? Cf.
§§97 (9). i°4 (4)-
12. Consider the origin and significance of the use of the number
seven in the Old Testament, as seen, e. g., in the sabbatical system, in
the proceedings connected with the capture of Jericho, in the Hebrew
verb "to swe^r, tak6 oath" (literally^ "to seven oneself" or "be sev-
ened"), in the seven kine of Pharaoh's dream, etc.
13. What is the relation of the Old Testament sabbath to the
"Lord's day" of the New Testament, {a) as to the day observed, {b) as
to the spirit characteristic of the Observance ?
Vol. I, pp. 262 f.; Lepsius, Chronologic der Aegypter, Vol. I, pp. 22, 132 ff.;
Brugsch, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. Ill, p. 271;
Nowack, Hebrdische Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 141 f.
* Cf. Morris Jastrow, "Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American
Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life
and Customs, p. 245 ; Schrader, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343-53;
Francis JJrown, " The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review,
1882, pp, 688-700; C. H. W, Johns, Assyrian Deeds and Documents, Vol, II, pp. 40 f.
.(See also §120.)

CHAPTER X.
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, CONSIDERED
COMPARATIVELY.
§ 122. The Clean and Unclean in the Early Period, i. e., as described
in {a) the Covenant Code; {b) the historical material of J and E ; (,:)
the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and
{d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i)."
I. Traces of totemism.
Gen. 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 8 : 26.
2. Distinction between clean and unclean is ancient.
Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Gen. 35:2; 2 Sam. 11:4; 2 Kings 5 : 10-14 ; Isa. 30 : 22.
4. Non-Israelitish lands are unclean.
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9 : 3.
5. Forbidden food.
Exod. 23 : 1 9^,- 34:26i5/ 22:31.=
6. Cleanness is necessary to participation in religious exercises.
Gen. 35:2; Exod. 3:5; 19:10; i Sam. 20 : 26 ; Judg. 13:4, 7, 14;
Isa. 6 : 5 ; 2 Kings 10 : 22 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 14.
7. Attitude of prophets toward clean and unclean.
Amos 7:17; Hos. 9:3; Isa. I : 16 ; 6:5; 30: 22.
§ 123. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Consider (i) the meaning of "every shepherd is an abomination
unto the Egyptians," and what is involved in the statement; (2) the
meaning of " sacrifice the abomination ot the Egyptians ; " (3) whether
that which is called an " abomination " may have been something sacred
or holy, /. e., something worshiped, for example, an animal ; (4) whether,
as a matter of fact, there existed in Israel cases of special association
between certain kinds of animals and certain tribes or certain towns;'
' The following references are from J : Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20 ; 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod.
8 : 26 ; 34 : 2iib. The following are from E : Gen. 35 : 2 ; Exod. 22 : 31*,- 23 : 19*.
" These references are from the Covenant Code.
3 Cf. Nun (Fish), Exod. 33 : 11 ; Terah (Ibex), Gen. 1 1 : 27 ; Leah (Wild Cow),
Gen. 29 : 16 ; and see R. G. Murison, "Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical
World, Vol. XVIII, pp. 170 ff. 119

120 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(5) whether therfe are not cases in which animals are regarded as
having superhuman power;* (6) whether the second commandment
does not imply that the Israelites were addicted to animal-worship;
(7) whether actual historical proof of this is not found in the story of
the worship of the calf (Exod. 32 : 7-24) and of the brazen serpent
(Numb. 21 : 8 f.; 2 Kings 18:4); (8) the meaning and significance of
totemism.^ 2. Note (i) the distinction between clean and unclean animals made
in the narrative of the deluge, and consider (2) whether the words
unclean and sacred may not be used synonymously; that is, was not
the unclean thing (whether animal or person or object) something in
connection with which " a superhuman agency of a dangerous kind "
was supposed to be acting, and which, therefore, was, from one point
of view, sacred, from another, unclean ? (3) whether this is not to be
closely associated with the usage existing among many nations and
called taboo.^
3. Consider the source of iincleanness in the case of (i) Jacob's
household, (2) Bathsheba, (3) Naaman the Syrian, (4) the graven
images (Isa. 30 : 22) ; and formulate a statement which will (a) classify
these sources and {b) explain the idea of uncleanness in each case.
4. Consider the idea that for an Israelite any other land than his
own was unclean, and explain the basis on which this idea rests.
5. Note the prohibition of eating (i) a kid boiled in its mother's
milk,' (2) the flesh torn of beasts ; and explain the significance of the
usage in each case. Are there in the Covenant Code other prohibi
tions concerning the eating of food ?
6. Explain (i)the "washing of garments" in Exod. 19:10; (2) the
reason assigned by Saul for Jonathan's absence (i Sam. 20:26); (3)
the connection of "eating no unclean thing" with the Nazirite (Judg.
13:4); (4) Isaiah's confession of unclean lips (Isa. 6:5); (5) the
putting off of shoes (Exod. 3:5); (6) the use of the vestments (2
Kings 10: 22); (7) the use of the linen ephod (2 Sam. 6: 14).
7. How far were the current ideas concerning clean and unclean
4 Cf. Gen. 3 : l ff.; Numb. 21 : 8 f.; Ezek. 8 : 10 f.
SSee especially J. G. Frazer, Totemism; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites
(2d ed.), pp. 125 ff. ; and other literature cited in § 134.
* See especially J. G. Frazer, article " Taboo," Encyclopedia Britannica ; W. R.
Smith, Religion ofthe Semites (2d ed.), pp. 152 ff., 446 ff.
?See Kalisch, Commentary on Exod. 23:19^, and W. R. Smith, Religion of
the Semites (id ed.), p. 221.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLE-i^N 121
accepted by the prophets? Consider, for example, (i) the view held
concerning foreign lands ; (2) the exhortation to wash and become
clean (Isa. 1:6); (3) Isaiah's feeling concerning himself (6 : 5); (4)
the treatment of graven images (Isa. 30: 22).
§ 124. Constructive Work. — From the material furnished prepare a
general statement upon the idea of the clean and unclean in the
earliest period.
§125. The Usages and Laws Conceming Clean and Unclean in the
Middle Period, i. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the
Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the
books of Samuel and Kings.*
I. Traces of totemism.
Deut. 32:17; 2 Kings 22:12; Jer. 36:10; cf. 2 Kings 18:4 and
Ezek. 8 : 7-12.
2. Forbidden food.
Deut. 12 : 16, 23 ff.; 14 : 3-21 ; 15 : 23.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Deut. 21 : 22 1; 23 : 10 f.; 23 : 12-14 1.7 : 25 f.; Jer. 16: 18 ; Lam. 4: 14 f.
4. Cleanness necessary to participation in religious exercises.
Deut. 12: 15 ; 15 : 21 f.; 26 :i3f.; Isa. 52 : i, 11.
5. Prophetic attitude toward clean and unclean.
Jer. 2 : 7, 23 ; 13 : 27 ; 16 : 18 ; 33 : 8 ; Lam. 4 : 14 f.; Isa. 52 : i, 11.
§ 126. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Note that individuals and heads of clans still bear the names of
animals, e. g., Shaphan (= Rock Badger), Achbor (= Mouse). What is
the significance of this in view of the fact that as recently as the days
of Hezekiah the image of a serpent was still being worshiped, and
that Ezekiel testifies to the existence of similar worship just prior to
the exile ?
2. Consider (i) the regulation concerning the eating of blood, and
the ground on which it rests ; (2) whether in this case the principle of
taboo is not clearly found ; (3) the general command concerning eat
ing anything "abominable:" (4) the animals which might be eaten,
and their general characteristics ; (5) the animals which might not be
eaten, and their general characteristics; (6) the general principles
which seem to underlie the selection; (7) the character of a selection
arising in this way ; (8) the fact that the number of clean quadrupeds
is ten; (9) whether this distinction was something objective imposed
^ References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter
onomy.

122 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
upon the people for a purpose (if so, was this purpose {a) to train the
people in obedience, or {b) to provide hygienic dietary laws, or {c) to
teach important religious- truth by an allegorical method, or {d) to
separate the Israelites from other nations, or {e) to prevent the wor
ship of certain animals ?); or, rather, something subjective, of gradual
growth, and expressive of certain instinctive feelings (for example, {a)
that of aversion, or {b) appreciation of utility or beauty, or {c) expe
rience of the use of this or that kind of flesh) ; or whether the origin
is to be connected with some form or other of totemism; (lo) the
absence of any list of clean and unclean animals in the Covenant Code,
and the significance of so fully developed a list in the Deuteronomic
Code. 3. Consider (i) some of the sources of uncleanness as cited, e. g.,
the body of a man who has been hanged; issues of the body ; graven
images; "carcasses of detestable things;" contagion; and (2) the
method suggested for purification.
4. Note the necessity of cleanness on the part of one who is to
engage in a religious exercise, and in this connection (i) the fact that
the flesh of certain animals may be eaten alike by those who are clean
and by those who are unclean; (2) the prohibition of the lame, the
blind, or the blemished in sacrifice; (3) the synonymous use of the
words " uncircumcised " and "unclean."'
5. Study the prophetic attitude toward infringement of the regu
lations concerning "clean and unclean," and the punishment which
is to follow this infringement. How far do the prophets of this period
seem to have shared the ideas of their times on this subject ? Does
their attitude relate to the minute particulars of the system, or to the
general question Of loyalty or obedience ?
§ 127. Constructive Work. — Compare, in general, the minuteness
of the regulations of this period in contrast with those of the earlier
period ; characterize these regulations as a whole ; and consider whether
they are (i) really new usages which had their origin after the formu
lation of the book of the covenant, or (2) old usages, for the most
part, which are now codified for the first time ; (3) in the former case,
whence may they be supposed to have come ? (4) in the latter case,
to what influence are we to ascribe their codification ?
§ 128. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in Ezekiel.
I. Traces of totemism.
Ezek. 8 :7-i2.
'For a further study of the subject of circumcision see §§ 164 f.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 123
2. Forbidden foods.
Ezek. 4:14.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Ezek. 4:14; 22:24; 36:17.25,29,33; 37:23; 39:12,14,16,24;
4.3:7-9; 44:25.
4. Instruction concerning clean and unclean is an important part
of the priestly function.
Ezek. 22:26 ; 44 : 23.
5. Everything connected with religion must be clean.
Ezek. 22:26; 43:20-26; 44:25; 46:19-24.
6. Methods of purification.
Ezek. 36: 25 ; 43 : 18-26 ; 44 : 26 f,
§129. Questions and Suggestions. — Ezekiel's intermediate position
and the peculiar situation to which his work is addressed make the
material of his sermons especially interesting.
I. Consider the significance of the fact (i) that seventy elders are
present, and that the idols (/. e., likenesses of reptiles and abominable
beasts) are being worshiped ; (2) that the presiding priest was the head
of one of the animal clans (viz., the Cony). Does this indicate that
even in this late period animal-worship prevails ?
2. Note Ezekiel's contention concerning his own cleanness, and
the formulation of his idea of uncleanness.
3. Consider the representations made by Ezekiel of uncleanness,
including that of the land, and note the various occasions which give
rise to uncleanness.
4. Observe the part which the priest is to play in giving instruc
tion upon the subject of cleanness and uncleanness.
5. (i) Note that "clean" now means "holy," "unclean" means
"common;" to fail to make the proper distinction is to "profane"
Jehovah ; and (2) consider how this later and more developed idea has
arisen out of the earlier. (3) Observe, also, that every act connected
with a religious observance must be ceremonially clean. (4) Consider
the bearing on this idea of the establishment of boiling-houses.
6. Consider the methods by which purification from uncleanness
might be secured.
§130. Constructive Work. — Formulate the new phases and details
of the idea of "clean and unclean" which appear in Ezekiel, and dis
cuss the relation of all this to Ezekiel's idea of God.
§131. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in the
Later Period, that is, as described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code,

124 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
{b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra,
Nehemiah, Chronicles.'"
I. Traces of totemism.
Isa. 65 : 4 f.; 66 : 17 ; Lev. 19 : 28.
2. Forbidden food.
Lev. 17 : io-i6 ; 19 : 26 ; 11 : 1-23, 29 f., 41-47 ; 7 : 16-19 ; 19 : 7 ;
7 : 22-27 ; 3 : 14-17 ; Gen. 9:3!; Isa. 65 : 4 f.; Dan. i : 8.
3. Sources of uncleanness.
Lev., chaps. 13 and 15 ; 20 : 20 f.; chap. 12 ; 18 : 19 ; 19 : 11-13 ; Numb.
5 : 19, 28 ; 31 : 13 £E.; 35 : 33 f.; 5:1-4; 2 Chron. 34 : 5 ; Ezra 9:11;
Neh. 13 : 9, 30 ; Josh. 22 : 17 ; Isa. 65 : 4 f.; Dan. i : 8.
4. Uncleanness is contagious.
Lev. 13:45!; i4:4ef,; 15:4-12, 19-23, 26 f,; 11:8, 24-28, 31-40;
22 :4-6 ; 5 : 2 f.; 7 : 19 ; 6 : 10 f,, 27-30 ; ig :7-i6, 22 ; Hag. 2 : 10-14.
5. Methods of purification.
Lev., chaps. 14, 15 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 6 : 27 f.; 16 :ig ; Numb., chap. 19 ; 6 : 10-21 ;
35 : 33 f.; 8 : 1-21 ; 31 : 13-24.
6. Everything connected with religious acts must be clean.
Lev. 10 : 14 ; 27 : 11, 27 ; chap. 21 ; 22 : 1-25 ; 7 : ig5-2i ; 4:11 f.;
6:iof.; 16 : ig ; Numb. 6 : 6-g ; 18:11, 15; 8 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 36 ;
2 Chron. 23 : 19 ; 30:17-20; 29:i5f., 18 f.; Neh. 13:9, 22; Isa.
66 : 20.
7. Exemption from the requirement of cleanness is made in the
case of the Passover.
2 Chron. 30 : 17-20 ; Numb. 9 : 6-14.
8. Non-Israelitish land is unclean, and Israel's land also is unclean.
Josh. 22 : 19 ; Ezra 9:11; Numb. 35 : 33 f.; Zech. 13:1 f.
9. All foreigners are unclean.
Isa. 35:8; Ezra 9:11; Neh. 13 : 30.
10. Instruction as to clean and unclean is an important part of
priestly functions.
Lev. 10 : 10 f.; 20 : 25 f.
II. Traces of ancestor- worship.
Lev. 19 : 28, 32.
§ 132. Questions and Suggestions.
I. Observe (i) that the old totem-sacrifice still survives in the
sacrifipial eating of swine, mice, and other abominable animals ; did
they eat these because they thought that in so doing they were eating
the flesh of the deity, and that this meant participation in the virtues
'"References in bold-face type are from the Leyitical Code of laws.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 25
of the deity, as well as in the mystic life of the tribe ? (2) that the
old customs of cutting the flesh and of tattooing exist ; were these
associated with the old idea of ancestor-worship, and was ancestor-
worship connected with totemism ?
2. (i) Classify according to the later usage, the various kinds of
food forbidden ; and (2) compare closely the lists of clean and unclean
animals given in Leviticus with that of Deuteronomy (see §§125, 2,
and 126, 2); (3) note what is implied in the case of Daniel and his
companions. 3. Note and classify the sources of uncleanness as they are indi
cated in the writings of this period.
4. Consider (i) the various cases of uncleanness {e. g., leprosy,
plague, bodily issue, unclean food, etc.), and the fact that a person or
object, when brought into contact with an unclean thing, itself became
unclean. (2) What was the underlying thought of this usage, and its
practical working? (3) In what way did a holy thing, when brought
into contact with persons or objects, convey its holiness to them ?
5. Arrangq and classify the various ways adopted in this period for
securing purification from uncleanness, and compare them in general
with the methods of the middle period.
6. Consider now the extreme emphasis laid upon ceremonial clean
ness : , (i ) the injunctions to this end ; (2) the historical facts cited ; (3)
the practical working out of these commands ; (4) the rigidity of the
ceremonial as now maintained, in comparison with that of earlier days
and other peoples ; (5) the explanation of the origin of this rigid cere
monial, viz., the desire to secure the favor of God and the fulfilment of
the prophetic promises (which, for the most part, still remained unful
filled) by bringing the individual Israelite into such a state of piety
and obedience as would literally compel God to fulfil his promises ;
(6) the relation to all this ceremonial of the highly spiritual element
found in the Psalter, whieh was largely the product of this period ; (7)
the conception of God which was implied in this ceremonial, which,
indeed, permeated the ceremonial.
7. Consider (i) the exemption from ceremonial cleanness made in
the case of the Passover feast, and (2) the explanation of it ; (3) the
historical case cited in 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20.
8. Observe that (i) the idea of the uncleanness of non-Israelitish
land still prevails; and also that (2) the land of Israel itself has
become unclean ; but (3) for what reason ?
9. Note that the spirit of exclusivism has become so strong that

126 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
all foreigners are regarded as unclean. Consider the part played by
this idea in the conflict which later arose between Judaism and Hel
lenism. IO. Observe (i) that it is now a most important function of the
priest to give instruction concerning the clean and unclean, and con
sider (2) how difficult it must have been to educate all the people in
this regard, in view of the great multitude of details involved ; and
(3) the general effect upon the priesthood of such an occupation of
their time aiid attention.
II. Is there still a survival of the old tendency toward ancestor-
worship in (i ) the custom of cutting themselves for the dead, which is
prohibited, and in (2) the special command to revere the old men ?
§133. Constructive Work. — -Prepare a statement which will show
the new points which characterize the later period in the development
of fhe idea of the clean and unclean.
§ 1 34. Literature to be Consulted.
Henry Hayman, articles "Unclean Meats" and "Uncleanness," Smith's Dic
tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed.
1866, transl. 1876), pp. 144-60 ; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869,
transl. 1892), Vol. II, pp. 65-78; J. F. McLennan, Fortnightly Review, 18691.;
Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. II, pp. 94-7; Kalisch,
Commentary on Leviticus, Part II (1871), pp. 1-163 ; Oehler, Old Testament Theology
(isted. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§1421.; Y-.'&.T^i.ov., Primitive Culture
(1871, 2d ed. 1873), see Index, s. v. "Totem Ancestors;" Idem, Early History of
Mankind (3d ed. 1878), pp. 2841.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology (1879), VoL I,
p. 367; W. Robertson Smith, "Animal Worship and Animal Tribes among the
Arabs and in the Old Testament," Journal of Philology, 'Vol. I'X. (1880), pp. 75 ff.;
Idem, Old Testament in the fewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), p. 366; Idem,
Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885), chap, vii ; Schijrer, A History ofthe
Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (1885, transl. 1890), see Index, s. v. "Clean
and Unclean ; " Joseph Jacobs, " Are there Totem-Clans in the Old Testament ? "
Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology ,'W o\. VIII (1885), pp. 39-41; Andrew
Lang, Custom and Myth (2d ed. 1885), pp. 260 ff.; PlEPENBRiNG, The Theology ofthe
Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), pp. 73-9; ANDREW Lang, Myth, Ritual and
Religion (ist ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Tabu," "Totem," etc.; Sayce
Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the
Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), see Index, s. v. "Clean and Unclean,''
"Totemism;'' Bennett, Diseases of the Bible (ist ed. 1887, 3d ed. 1896); J. G.
Frazer, Totemism (with numerous references to literature; 1887); Idem, articles
"Taboo" and "Totemism," Encyclopedia Britannica (1887); W. R. Smith, article
"Sacrifice," ibid. (1887), VoL XXI, p. 135; Idem, Religion of the Semites (ist ed.
1889, 2d ed. 1894), additional notes A, B, C, and I; J. G. Frazer, Golden
Bough (1890), see Index, s. v. "Taboo," "Totem," etc.; F. W. Davies, "Bible
Leprosy," Old and New Testament Student, Vol. XI (1890), pp. 142-25;

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 12/
McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesias
tical Literature, articles on "Unclean" and "Uncleanness" (1891); J. Lubbock,
Origin of Civilization (1892), p. 260 ; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews
(Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 473 ff.; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), pp.
55. 71. 131, 275; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy
(1895), pp. 70, 164, 291 f.; J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (1896),
pp. 492-569; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. I (1896) pp. 88-101;
Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. "Animals,"
etc.; J. Hastings, article " Clean," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898);
Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), pp. 397 f., 662 f,;
J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism,'' Fortnightly Review, April and May, 1899 ;
BvxiGE, Egyptian Magic (i8gg), pp. 232 ff.; Paul Haupt, "Medical and Hygienic
Features of the Bible," The Independent, New York, July 13, 1899, pp. 1906 f.; G. A,
Simcox, article "Clean and Unclean," Encyclopedia Biblica (1899); F, J, Schamberg.
"The Nature of the Leprosy of the Bible," Biblical World, VoL XIII (1899), pp,
162-9 ; Paul Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Bib
lical Literature, Vol. XIX (1901), p. 60, and note 113 ; McCurdy, article " k.nixa2l-
'V^ors'riip," Jewish Encyclopedia (1901); Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901),
pp, 257-69 ; R. G. Murison, " Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical World, Vol.
XVIII (1901), pp. 176-84 ; E. Clodd, Myths and Dredms, pp. 99 f.
Spencer, De legibus'Hebraeorum ritualibus (1727); Hebenstreit, De cura sanit.
publ. (1783), Vol. II, pp. 15 f,; Beyer, De haemorrh. ex lege Mosis impuris (1792);
Bleek, " Beitrage zu den Forschungen iiber den Pentateuch," Theologische Studien
und Kritiken, 1831, pp. 498 f.; Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus (1839), Vol. II,
pp. 159 ff.,462 ff.; SouuEK, Biblische Abhandlungen (1846), pp. 183-367; Saalschutz,
Das mosaische Recht mit Beriicksichtigung des spdtern jiidischen (ist ed, 1846, 1848;
2d ed. 1853), chaps. 22-32 ; KuRTZ, "Ueber die symbolische Dignitat des in Num. 19
zur Tilgung der Todesunreinigkeit verordneten Ritus,'' Theologische Studien und
Kritiken, 1846, pp. 629 ff.; Danielssen et Boeck, Traiti de la Spedalskhed [Nor
wegian = leprosy] ou Elephantiasis des Grecs (transl. from the Norwegian, 1847);
Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (1856), Vol. I, pp. 146 ff.; C. Wolff,
" Die Lepra Arabum," in ViRCHOW's Archiv fiir path. Anatomic und Physiologic,
VoL XXVI (1861); S. FiNALY, "Ueber die wahre Bedeutung des Aussatzes in der
Bibel," Archiv fiir Dermatologie und Syphilidologie (1870); Schenkel, article
" Reinigkeit," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der
biblischen Gesehichte, Vol. I (1875), pp. 409-19 ; L. Kotelmann, Die Geburtshilfe bei
den alten Hebrdern (1876); Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte,
Vol. II (1878), pp. 100 ff.; Franz Delitzsch, "Die Aussatztora des Leviticus,"
Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 3-10 ;
E. KoNlG, article " Reinigungen," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantisehe Theologie und
Kirche (2d ed. 1883); Kamphausen, article "Reinigkeit und Reinigungen,"
Riehm's Handw'orterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Franz Delitzsch,
article " Reinigungsopfer," ibid.; Noldeke, "Robertson Smith's Kinship and Marriage
in Early Arabia," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XL
(1886), pp. 157-69; Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel,Wo\. I (1887), pp. 481 ff.;
Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums ( = Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, III, 1st
ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 52, 106, 156, 176 ff.; M. Sandreczky, "Studien uber
Lepra," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), pp. 34-40

128 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(from the English in The Lancet, London, August 31, 1889); Riehm, Alttestamentliche
Theologie (1889), pp. 124 ff.; SCHWALLY, Das Leben nach devi Tode (l8g2), see Index,
s. V. " Taboo " and " Unrein ; " Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch (1892), pp. 105 f.; G. N.
Munch, Die Zara'ath der hebrdischen Bibel. Einleitung in der Gesehichte des Aussatz,
'in Dermatologische Studien, by G. Unna(i893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen
Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Tabu,"
" Totemismus ;" H. SCHURTZ, Die Speiseverbote (1893); A. Einsler, " Beobachtungen
Uber d. Aussatz im heiligen Lande," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol.
XVI (1893), Heft 4 ; NowACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I,
pp. 116 ff.; II, pp. 275-99 ; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 152, 297,
478-89; 'DilAM. ANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie(l8g^), see Index, s. v.
"Reinheit," "Unrein," etc.; Zinsser, "Bemerkungen iiber den jetzigen Stand der
y.epraiorsrihiin^en,'' Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895),
pp. 41-4; A. 'V^iENEii, Die jiidischen Speisegesetze (l8gs); A, Sack, Was ist die Zaraath
der hebrdischen Bibel? (ViRCHOw's Archiv fiir path. Anatomic und Physiologic, Band
144, Supplementheft, 1896); Stade, Theologische Litteratur-Zeitung, 1896, No, i, col.
10; 'SiEV.'Xl^OX.E'X , Die Stellung der Israeliten undderjuden zu den Fremden (l8g(>),
see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Reinigung ;" Marti, Gesehichte der israelitischen
Religion (1897), pp, 24 f,, 30, 42, 104, 193, 221 f.; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und
Seelenkult im alten Israel (1898), pp. 173-87; N. CoHN, Die Vorschrift betreffs
die Zar'ath nach dem Kitab al Kafi (1898); D. H. MuLLER, Siidarabische Altertiimer im
kuristhistorischen Museum zu Wien (1899); J- PiKLER AND F. S0ML&, Der Ursprung
des Totemismus (1899); J. C. Matthes, "De begrippen rein en onrein in het Oude
Testament," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIII (1899), pp. 293-318; J. Halevy,
Revue simitique. Vol. VII (1899), pp. 267 ff.; Gruneisen, Ahnenkultus und Urre-
ligion Israels (1900); Ebstein, Die Medizin im Alten Testament (1901).
See also the treatises in the Mishnah entitled Niddah, Parah, Tehoroth, Zabbim,
Celim, Miscath Arlah; and the commentaries on Lev., chaps. 11-15, especially those
of Dillmann (1880), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1900), and Driver and
White (Polychrome Bible, 1898).
§135. Supplementary Topics.
I. Consider the following references to clean and unclean in the
Psalter: 73:1,13; 19:9,12; 51:2,7,10; 24:4; 18:20; 119:9;
and summarize their teachings.
2. Examine the following references in the books of Job and
Proverbs; Job il:4; 33 : 9 ; 17:9; 15:14 ff-; 25:4; 9:30; 37 :2i;
36 : 14 ; Prov. 14:4; 16:2; 20:9; and also Eccl. 9:2; and summarize
their teachings.
3. Study the allusions to clean and unclean in the books of the
Maccabees and formulate a statement covering them : i Mace, i : 37,
46 ff., 54, 62 f.; 2 : 12; 3: 51 ; 4:38, 43 f., 48 f., 54; 13:47 f-; 2 Mace.
I : 18, 33, 36; 2:8, 16, 19; 3: 12; 4: 14; 5 : 27; 6:2, 5, 7 f., 18 ff.;
7 : I ff.; 10:3, 5; II : 24; 12:40; 13:8; 14:36.
4. What, in general, is the attitude of New Testament writers
toward the idea of clean and unclean as gathered from a study

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 29
ofthe principal allusions: Matt. 8:2f.; 10:1,8; 11:5; 12:43;
23 : 25-27 ; Mark i : 23, 26 f., 40-44 ; 3 : 1 1, 30 ; 5 : 2, 8, 13 ; 6:7;
7:25; Luke 4:27; 5:12 ff.; 6:i8;-7:22; 8:29; 4:33, 36;
9 :42; II : 24, 39, 41 ; 17 : 14, 17 ; John 15:3; Acts 5:16; 8:7 ;
10:14 f., 28; ii:8f.; Rom. 1:24; 6:19; 14:14; i Cor. 7:14;
2 Cor. 6:17; 7:1; 12:21; Gal. 5:19; Eph. 4 : 19 ; 5:3,5,26;
Col. 3 :5; I Thess. 2:3 ; 4:7; Heb. 9 : 13; James 4 : 8; 2 Pet. 2 : 10;
I John I : 7, 9?
5. Make a study of the Hebrew words for "clean," viz., Tflilp,
lina, "in, '^T, and "unclean," viz., it?J^; </. n3?in , yplfl, -ppTB,
etc.; trace their usage in the cognate languages (especially Assyrian
and Arabic), and endeavor to determine their primary meaning and
their exact significance in Hebrew literature.
See especially Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II,
pp. 1-40; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopedia Biblica; ZiM
MERN, Beitrage zur Assyriologie, Vol. I, p. 105 ; Whitehouse, Thinker, 1892, p. 52;
and the various lexicons.
6. Compare the similarities between the usages connected with
clean and unclean and those connected with the ^a« = D"iri. How
may these be most satisfactorily explained ?
See § 146, and cf. W. H. Bennett, article " Ban,'' Encyclopedia Biblica.
7. Study the phenomena similar to the Hebrew "clean and unclean "
found in other Semitic nations, e. g., the prohibition among the Syrians
against eating swine; the putting off of ordinary everyday garments
while engaged in sacred acts at Mecca and other ancient Arabic sanc
tuaries ; the Arabian custom and method of removing the impurity of
widowhood; the impurity of menstruation, which is recognized by all
Semites; and the many parallels found in Egyptian customs and wor
ship. What is the common basis of all these customs ?
See especially W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed,, pp. 441-56; W. Max
MlJLLER, article "Egypt," §19, Encyclopedia Biblica; Frazer, articles "Taboo"
and "Totemism," Encyclopedia Britannica.
8. Consider the possible bases of classification of the clean and
unclean animals, birds, fish, etc. Is the hygienic motive satisfactory ?
Is the idea that certain things are prohibited because of an instinctive
feeling of abhorrence for them applicable to all cases ? Does the pro
hibition of certain things have any connection with their sacrificial or
non-sacrificial character? Can certain cases be explained as due to a
belief that the animals in question were inhabited by demons ? Can

130 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
any clearly marked line of demarcation be drawn between clean and
unclean beasts, etc.? Is a combination of motives probable ?
See especially Driver, Deuteronomy, p. 164 ; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the
Jewish Church, pp. 365 f . and note ; G. A. SiMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean,"
Encyclopedia Biblica; NoWACK, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie, Vol. I, pp.
116-19. 9. Study the idea of "holiness " carefully in the light of the teach
ing concerning "clean and unclean." Was it thought of originally
as a relation sustained to the deity, or as an inherent quality ? What
is the history of the conception from this point of view ?
10. Consider the close relationship of the idea of "clean and
unclean " to the idea of God, and the mutual influence of the two
ideas. Note that in the earliest times everything thought to be asso
ciated with the deity was regarded as unclean, and that in the later
period the exalted idea of God's holiness was expressed concretely by
a wide extension of the circle of " uncleanness." Trace the parallel
development of these two conceptions through the course of Israel's
history.

CHAPTER XL ^
THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER AND RELATED FORMS OF
WORSHIP, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY.
§ 136. With prayer, offered at times to secure deliverance from
trouble or danger, at other times to obtain the presence of the deity
and his guidance, there may be associated, for purposes of classifica
tion, (i) the vow, which was a promise made to the deity in case of the
granting of a request; (2) blessings and curses, which were prayers for
good or evil to one's friends or enemies; (3) the ban or sentence to
destruction, which was a formal curse or anathema; (4) the oath,
which was an invocation of the deity, or a solemn statement in the
name of the deity. The following may also be regarded as indirectly
connected with praypr, viz.: (5) fasting, a means of making impression
upon the deity, and thus securing favor ; (6) consultation through
oracles, Urim and Thummim, the ephod, and the lot, which were
various means of ascertaining the divine will; (7) practice in connec
tion with sorcery, or witchcraft, or magic, or divination, all of which
was, likewise, effort to communicate with the spirit or deity and to
secure knowledge of the divine will ; (8) mourning' customs, many of
which had their origin in the superstition that the departed spirit had
power for evil or good over those who were living, a power to be pro
pitiated or averted by certain acts ; (9) circumcision, which was an act
of dedication to the deity.
It might be said that every act of worship was xe^Udy prayer ; that
is, approach to the deity. Sacrifice, for example, was acted prayer.
§137. Prayer.
I. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'
(«) Divine mercy and aid are sought through prayer.
Gen. 18:22-33; 19:18-22; 20:7, 17(E); 25:21; 30:6, 17(E), 22;
32:9-12; 35: 3(E); Exod. 3:7. 9; 5:22 f.; 8:8, 12, 29 ff.; 9:28 ff.;
lo:i7ff.; 14:10, IS(E); 15:25; 17 : 4, 8-is(E); 32 : 11-14 ; 32 : 30-32
(E); Numb. 1 1 : 1-3 (E), 10-15,18; i2:i3(E); I4:i3-I9(E); 21:7
(E); 23: 10(E); Josh. 7:6-9; 10:12-14; 24: 7(E); Judg. 10:10, 14 f.;
15:18; 16:28; I Sam. 7:8 f.; 15:11; 2 Sara. 15:31 ; 24 : 10, 17; 2 Kings
4:33; 6:17-20; 19:1,4.14-20.
> All the references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E).
131

132 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Study different typical cases of prayer for mercy and aid, and con
sider (i) the persons who are represented as praying; (2) the nature
of the petitions offered, e. g., requests for healing, for children, for
relief from frogs, hail, etc., for rescue from Pharaoh, for deliverance
of Israel from immediate destruction after sin has been committed;
(3) the character of the prayers — simple, informal, naive; (4) the
basis on which request is made; (5) the elements of prayer which
seem to be lacking in these cases ; (6) the indications of a primitive
stage of religious development; (7) the typical and fundamental ele
ments of prayer which are involved.
((J) Divine presence and guidance are sought through prayer.
Gen. 24 : 12-14 ; Exod. 33 :7-i i(E); 34:9; Numb. 10 : 35 f.; i Sam.
8 : 6, 1 8, 2 1 ; 1 2 : 1 7 f. ; 2 Sam. 7 : 1 8-29 ; i Kings 3 : 6-9 ; 1 8 : 24-40 ;
2 Kings 19:2-7, 15-ig.
Study, from the same points of view, another class of prayers, in
which request is made for the presence of the divine spirit and for its
guidance. 2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.*
Deut. 9:18-20,25-29; 10:10; 26:15; 2 Kings 22:19; Jer. 3:21;
10 : 23-25 ; 14 : 7-9, 19-22 ; 15:15-18; 18 : 19-23 ; 20 : 12 ; 42 : 1-6;
Judg. 3:9, IS ; 4:3; 6:6; 2 Kings 20:3; i Kings 8:22-61.
Consider (i) the circumstances attending Moses' prayers for the
people, his fear of Jehovah, the ground of intercession, the element of
confession, the naive appeal to the estimate which strangers may make
of Jehovah's ability, or of his purpose ; (2) the reasons given by the
prophetess Huldah for Jehovah's favorable answer to Josiah, viz.,
humility, supplication ; (3) the spirit of dependence seen in Jeremiah's
prayer (10:23-25), and its request; (4) Jeremiah's confession and
passionate appeal (14 : 7-9, 19-22); (5) Jeremiah's personal complaints
(15:15-18; 18 : 19-23; 20:12); (6) the request of the people that Jere
miah would pray for them, and his consent (Jer. 42 : 1-6); (7) the
crying of Israel to Jehovah in their distress; (8) the basis of Heze
kiah's appeal for preservation from death (2 Kings 20 : 3); (9) Solomon's
prayer (i Kings 8 : 20-53) ^t the dedication of the temple (as expanded
and presented by the Deuteronomic editor) — its form, its contents, its
spirit, its presuppositions.
'References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter
onomy.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 33
3. The later period : readings, questions, and suggestions.^
Gen. 17: 18 ; Exod. 2 : 23 f.; 6:5; Numb. 16 : 20-24 ; Judg. 20 : 18,
23 ; 21:2 f. ; Ezra 8 : 21 ff.; 9 :5 — 10 : i ; Neh. i : 4-1 1 ; 2:4; 4 : 4 f .
4:9; 5:19; 6:9, 14; 9:5-38 ; 13: 14, 22, 30; Isa. 63: 7—64:12.
Consider (i) that an ejaculation (Gen. 17:18), the cry under
oppression, is really prayer ; (2) the form and thought- of the prayer
ascribed to the congregation (Numb. 16 : 20-24) ; (3) the various prayers
recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, noting the form, the content, the
spirit, the entirely different tone as compared with those of preceding
periods ; (4) the exact particulars in which this difference of tone
consists. §138. Constructive Work. — Prepare a brief statement, covering (i)
the general content of scriptural prayers ; (2) the peculiarities of form ;
(3) the essential elements which make up such prayers ; (4) any differ
ences which appear as characterizing the prayers of different periods ;
(5) the place of prayer in worship ; (6) the usage of prayer {a) in the
Psalms,* {b) in the wisdom literature,' {c) in the apocryphal books,' {d)
in the New Testament,' {e) among Assyro-Babylonians, Egyptians, etc.°
§139. Literature to be Consulted.
Alfred Barry, article " Prayer," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863,
2d ed. 1893) ; Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 1866, transl. 1876), see Index, s.v.
"Prayer," etc.; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, 5th ed. 1896, transl.
1892), VoL I, pp. 371 f.; H. Fox Talbot, "A Prayer and a Vision," Transac
tions ofthe Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol. I (1872), pp. 346 ff., and Records of the
Past,'Vol. VII (1876), pp. 65 ff.; E.B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (18'] 4), see Index,
s. V. " Prayer," "Oracles ; " H. Fox Talbot, "Assyrian Sacred Poetry," Records ofthe
Past,Vol. Ill (1874), pp. 131-8 ; A. H. Sayce, "Fragment of an Assyrian Prayer after
a Bad Dream," Records of the Past, Vol. IX (1877), pp. 149-52; B. T. A. EvETTS,
"An Assyrian Religious Text," Proceedings ofthe Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol.
X(l888), pp. 478 f.; D. G. Lyon, "Assyrian and Babylonian Royal Prayers," Pro
ceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1888, pp. xciii, xciv ; S. A. Strong, "A
Prayer of Assurbanipal," Records of the Past, new series. Vol. VI (1892), pp. 102-6 ;
Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (1892), pp. 505 f.; J. A, Craig,
"Prayer of the Assyrian King Ashurbanipal," Hebraica, Vol. X (1893), pp. 75-87 ;
Menzies. History of Religion (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer ; " J. L. Nevius, Demon
Possession and Allied Themes (1895), see Index, s. v. " Prayer," etc.; Jastrow, Religion
3 All the references to the Hexateuch are from the P document.
*See, e. g., Pss. 5 ; 12 ; 51 ; 55 ; 69.
SSee, ^, g.,]oh 22 :27; 33:26; 41 = 3 ; 42:8, 10; Prov. 15 : 8; 28:9.
«See, <:. g., I Mace. 3 : 44-54 ; 4 = 'o. 30-34. 38-40 ; 5 = 31-34 ; 2 Mace, i: 5 f., 8.
23-30; 13:10-12; 14:33-36; 15:21-24; Ecclus. 18:23; chap. 51.
7 Matt. 6 : 9 ff.; 17:21; 21 : 13, 22 ; 23 : 14 ; John, chap. 17.
'See literature cited in § 139.

134 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), see Index, j. v. " Prayers," etc.; T. K. Cheyne,
Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (l8g8), p. 25 1; DuFF, Old Testament Theology,
Vol, II (1900), see Index, s. u. " Prayer, etc.; " Day, The Social Life of the Hebrews
(1901), pp. 215 f.
Gass, article " Gebet," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Stade,
Gesehichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 487 ff.; Riehm's Handw'orterbuch des
biblischen Alterthums (2d ed. 1893 f.), Vol. I, pp. 484 ff.; J. A. Knudtzon, Assyrische
Gebete an den Sonnengott fUr Staat und konigliches Haus aus der Zeit Asarhaddons
und Assurbanipals, 2 vols. (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions
geschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Gebet ; " Benzinger, Hebrd
ische Archdologie (i8g4), pp. 462 ft.; 'Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie,
Vol. II (1894), PP- 259 ff.; Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie
(1895), pp. 184,481; Marti, Gesehichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index,
s. V. " Gebet," etc.; F. Buhl, article " Gebet im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie
fiir prot. Theologie und Kirche, Vol. VI (1899).
§ 140. The Vow.
I. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions.
Gen. 14 :2i ff.; 28:2off. (E); 31 : 13(E); Judg. 11 :29ff., 39; I3:4f.,
7,14; I Sam. 1:11,21; 2 Sam. 15 : 7 f.; Numb. 21 : 1-3 (J); Isa.
19: 21.
Examine the narratives which record the vows of Abraham, Jacob,
Jephthah, the Nazirite, Hannah, Absalom, Israel in connection with
Arad, as typical cases of vows, and note in each case ( i ) the implica
tion of dependence upon and recognition of the power of the deity;
(2) the motive actuating the individual to make the vow ; (3) the form
of expression employed.
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.
Deut, 12 : 6, II, 17, a6; 23: 18, 22 f.; Nah. 1:15; Jer. 44 : 25.
Examine the references to vows and note (i) the characteristics of
each case presented ; (2) the close association of the vow with the free
will offering; (3) the prohibition of the use of the harlot's hire; (4)
the obligation to pay a vow once made ; (5) the making of a vow,
wholly voluntary ; (6) the prophetic point of view.
3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'
Numb. 6:1-21; 15:3,8; 29:39; 30:1-16; Mal. 1:14; Jon. 1:16;
2:9; Lev. 7: 16; 27:2, 8; 22 :i8, 21, 23; 23 : 38.
Examine the references cited and note (i) the special cases cited;
(2) the increase in complexity of arrangement; (3) the details of the
law of the Nazirite ; (4) the circumstances under which the vow of a
' References in bold-face type are from the P document.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 35
woman is obligatory or otherwise ; (5) the distinction made between
the VOW and-the free-will offering.
§ 141. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the vow, which
will take up (i) the religious and psychological basis of the usage; (2)
the various kinds of motives which are seen to -have exerted influence ;
(3) the words employed and their significance ; (4) the relationship of
the vow to the free-will offering ; (5) the relation to the oath ; (6) the
modifications in usage which come in later times; (7) the difference
in principle between vows of devotion and vows of abstinence ; (8) the
place of the Nazirite order'" in Old Testament history; (9) the making
of vows among other ancient peoples;" (10) the attitude of the
prophets; (11) the representations in the Psalms ;" (12) the representa
tions in wisdom literature;'' (13) the representations in apocryphal
literature;'* (14) the representations in the New Testament ; 's (15) the
relation to prayer and sacrifice.
§ 142. Literature to be Consulted.
H. W. Phillott, article " Vows," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz,
op. cit., VoL I, pp. 191 f., 371 f.; W. R. Smith, articles "Nazarite" and "Vow,"
Encyclopedia Britannica (1875) ; IdSm, Rel. of Sem., see Index, s. v. "Vows," "Naza
rite," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., p. 74 ; G. F. Moore, Judges (" International Criti
cal Commentary," 1895), pp. 232, 279, 380 ff.; Driver, The Books of Joel and
Amos (Camb. Bible, 1897), pp. 152 f.; CheyNE, op. cit., pp. 189, 254; G. B. Gray,
"The Nazirite," Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. I (1900), pp. 201 ff.; D. Eaton,
article "Nazirite," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. III.
Vilmar, "Die symbolische Bedeutung des Ns^ziraergelUbdes," Theologische
Studien und Kritiken, 1864, pp. 438 ff.; Schrader, article "Geliibde," Schenkel's
Bibel-Lexikon; Dillmann, article "Nasiraer," ibid.; Oehler and Orelli, article
" Nasiraat," Realencyklopddie (2d ed.) ; Grill, " Ueber Bedeutung und Ursprung des
Nasiraergeliibdes," Jahrbiicher fiir prot. Theologie, 1880, pp. 645 ff,; Maybaum, Die
Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums (1883) pp. 147-53; RXEnyi, Hand
worterbuch, articles "Geliibde" and "Nasiraer;" GOLDZIHER, Muhammedanische
Studien, Vol. I (1888), pp. 231.; Smenb, op. cit, see Index, s. v. "Geliibde;"
NoWACK, op. cit., VoL II, pp. 263 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Bann,"
"Geliibde," etc.; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 141 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 87, 107; Buhl,
article " Geliibde im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed.. Vol. VI.
'•"See article " Nazirite " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. III.
"See article "Vow," Encyc. Brit.; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol.
Ill, p. 117; Jastrow, op. cit., pp. 668 f.
"See, e. g., Pss. 22:25; 50:14; 56:12; 61:5,8; 65:1; 66:13; 76:11;
116:14, i^i 132 : 2.
'3See, e. g., Eccl. 5:4!.; Job 22 : 27 ; Prov. 7:14; 20 : 25 ; 31:2.
'¦•See, e. g., 2 Mace. 3 : 35 ; 9 : 13 ff.; Ecclus. 18 :22.
'SSee, e. g.. Acts 18 : 18; 21 : 23 f.

136 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 143. Blessings and Cursings.
I. The early period: readings, questions, and suggestions. '*
Gen. 3 : 14, 17; 4:11; 9:25 f.; 12 : 3; 27 : 27-29, 35 (E), 39 f. (E)
48: 15 f.; 49: 1-27 ; Exod. 12 :32; 21 : 17(E);'' 23 : 21 (E), 25-31 (E)
Numb. 22 :6; 24 : 9 ; i Sam. 2 : 20 ; 14 : 24, 28 ; 17 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 28 f.
19: 39; Deut. 33 ; 1-29 (E); Judg. 9 : 57 ; 21 : 18.
Study and classify the material on blessings and cursings as fol
lows : (i) words used in blessing and cursing; (2) forms of expres
sion used, e.g., Judg. 21:18; i Sam. 2:20; Deut., chap. 33; (3)
important cases of blessings or cursings, e. g., {a) Jacob's last words
(Gen., chap. 49), {b) Moses' last words (Deut., chap. 33), {c) David's curse
on Joab (2 Sam. 3 : 28, 29) ; (4) the peculiar lack of the moral element
in the case of Esau (Gen. 27 : 35) ; (5) the cursing of a hostile nation,
e. g., by Balak (Numb. 22:6), by Goliath (i Sam. 17 : 43) ; (6) the con
nection with the oath ; (7) the blessing and curse pronounced in
connection with the Covenant Code (Exod. 23 : 21, 25-31).
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'^
Gen. 49 : 25 f., 28 ; Deut. 11:26-30; 27:11-26; 28:1-68; 29:19-21;
30:1, 7, 19 ; Josh. 8 : 34 ; Jer. 29:18; Ezek. 34:26; i Kings 8:i4f.,
55 f.; cf. Ps. 68:1-3.
Make a similar classification of the material coming from the
middle period, noting as cases of special interest (i) the arrangement
for blessings and curses to be announced from Mounts Gerizim and
Ebal (Deut. 27:11-26); (2) Joshua's reading of the blessings and the
curses (Josh. 8 :34); (3) the old xoya.1 form oi blessing (i Kings 8 : 14 f,,
55 f.); (4) 3i form of national blessing (^/. Ps. 68:1-3); (5) prophetic
use of curse (Jer. 29 : 18) and blessing (Ezek. 34 :26); (6) the blessings
and curses announced in connection with the Deuteronomic Code
(Deut. 28:3-14, 15-68).
3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions."
Gen. 28:3 f.; Lev. 9:22; 25:21; cliap.2e; Numb. 5 :i2-3i; 6 :22-26;
Neh. 10:29; 13:2 ; 2 Chron. 34:24; Isa. 24:6; Zech. 5:3; Mal. 2:2;
3:9; Pss. 1 09 ; Prov. 26:2; Dan . 9:11.
Classify likewise the material of the late period, noting as cases of
'*A11 references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E).
¦' This reference is from the Covenant Code.
'8 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter
onomy. ''References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 37
special interest (i) Isaac's blessing of Jacob (P) (Gen. 28 :3 f.); (2) the
priestly form of blessing (Numb. 6 : 22-26); (3) the forms of doxology
used in later worship {cf. Pss. 134; 150); (4) the blessings and curses
announced in connection with the Levitical Code (Lev. 26:3-12,
16-45); (s) the thought even in later times that "it was worth while to
curse a bad man" {cf. Ps. 109); but (6) the feeling also that only the
good might be blessed {cf. Ps. 37 : 26), and that causeless curses were
of no avail {cf. Prov. 26 : 2).
§144. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on blessings and
cursings, including the following points: (i) the words translated
blessing and curse; (2) the forms of expression used ; (3) stereotyped
formulas of benediction ; (4) the religious idea or superstition under
lying the usage — was it really a "spell, pronounced by a holy per
son " ? (5) how was this usage related to magic and sorcery {cf. the
curse-producing water)? (6) the more important patriarchal blessings
— were they cursings as well as blessings ? (7) the threefold classifica
tion : ((z) one nation by another, {b^ one individual by another, (<r) as
attached to laws to secure their better observance ; (8) a comparison
of.the three sets of blessings and cursings connected respectively with
the Covenant Code, the Deuteronomic Code, and the Levitical Code ;
(9) a comparison of the usage as it is found in the three periods, the
modifications which are made; (to) a comparison of the New Testa
ment representations on this subject °° — are blessings and curses found
in the speeches of Jesus ? if so, how are they to be understood? (11)
this usage among the Arabians ; " (12) this usage among the Assyri
ans;" (13) the relation of this usage to prayer.
§ 145. Literature to be Consulted.
Ewald, op. cit., pp. 76-9 ; Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 335 ff., 346 ff.; Briggs,
Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 115-20 ; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in
Early Arabia (1887), pp. 53, 263; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 164; L. W. King,
Babylonian Magic and Sorcery (l8g6); J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' iJaV-
tionary, Vol.1 (1898); W. F. Adeney, article "Blessing," ibid.; T. K. Cheyne,
article "Blessings and Cursings," .£«<ry<:. Bib., Vol.1 (1899); Henry Hayman, "The
Blessing of Moses : Its Genesis and Structure," American Journal of Semitic Lan
guages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106.
"See, e. g.. Matt. 5 : 44 ; 14 : 19 ; 26 : 26 ; Mark 10 : 16 ; Luke 2-: 28, 34 ; 9 : 16 ;
24:501.; ActS3:26; 23:12,14; Rom. 12 : 14 ; Gal. 3 : 13 ; Mark7:lo; 11:21;
MatL 15:4; 25:41.
" Cf. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien.
" Cf. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, passim.

138 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Merx, articles " Fluch " and " Fluchwasser," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II
(1869); Schenkel, article " Segen," Bibel-Lexikon, VoL V (1875); Burger, article
"Segen, Segnung," Realencyklopddie, ^d ed.. Vol. XIV (1884); RiEHM, article
"Fluch," Handw'orterbuch des bibl. Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 126;
Schwally, " Miscellen," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI
(1891), pp. 170 ff.; Nowack, op: cit., VoL II, pp. 251 f., 261 f.; Benzinger, op. cit.,
p. 146; Marti, op. cit., pp. 91, 116.
§146. The Ban.
I. The early period*
Exod. 22:19; (E);« Numb. 21: 2 (J); Josh. 8: 26(E); Judg. 1:17;
21:11; I Sam. 15 : 3, 8, 15, 18, 20.
2. The middle period.'*
Josh. 2:10; 6:18; 10:28, 35, 40; ii:ii f., 21; Mic. 4:13; Isa.
43:28; Deut. 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 26; i3:i7f.; 20:17; Jer. 25:9;
50 :2i, 26 ; 51:3.
3. The late period.°s
Isa. 34 :2, 5 ; Mal. 4:6; Lev. 27 :2i, 28 f.; Numb. 18 : 14 ; Isa. 11:15 ;
Zech. 14:11; I Chron. 2:7; 4:41; 2 Chron. 32:14; Ezra 10:8; Dan.
11:44.
Examine the passages cited in the various periods, and classify the
material thus gathered as follows : (i) words used to mean ban or
destruction, and their significance; (2) classes of persons or objects sub
ject to ban, e. g., {a^ idols, {b) individuals regarded as enemies of the
nation, {c) cities or nations regarded as hostile (the Canaanites), {d)
individuals personally objectionable, (<?) metals ; (3) the regulations at
various times relating to the ban ; (4) the modifications which are made
from period to period, e. g.. Josh. 6:24; Numb. 18:14; Ezek. 44 : 29.
§ 147. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the ban, taking
up (i) the sociological basis; (2) its relationship {a) to the vow, (^) to
the idea of clean and unclean, (c) to taboo; (3) a classification of per
sons or things liable to the ban; (4) the changes which came in later
times ; (5) the attitude of the prophets ; (6) the non-appearance of the
term in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature ; (7) the New Testa
ment development of the idea {cf. i Cor. 16:22); (8) the place of the
idea in other Semitic nations {cf. Moab, Arabia, and Assyria).''
*3 This reference is from the Covenant Code.
»< References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book of
Deuteronomy. 'S References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.
'^Cf. Mesha Inscription, line 17 ; von Tornauw, Zeitsch. d. Deutschen Morgen
ldndischen Gesellschaft,'^ ol. XXXVI, pp. 297 ff.; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., Index, s. v.
" Ban; " Stade, Gesch., Vol. I, pp. 490 f.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 39
§ 148. Literature to be Consulted.
EwALD, Antiquities, pp. 75-8 ; Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 390 ; II, p. 87 ; W. R.
Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 150, 371, 453 ; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text ofthe
Books of Samuel (1890), pp. 100 ff,; McCURDY, History, Prophecy find the Monuments
(1895-1901), § 550; J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dictionary, No\.\; W,
-H, Bennett, article "Ban," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I; T)ay, op. cit., pp. 180, 212 f.
Merx, article "Bann," Schenkel's Bibel- Lexikon,Nol. I (1869); Weber, Die
Lehren des Talmud (1880), pp. 138 ff,; voN ToRNAUW, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Mor
genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXXVI (1882), pp. 297 ff.; Stade, Gesehichte, Vol. I
(1887), p. 490 ; Smend, op. cit, pp. 21, 39, 147 f., 288 ; Nowack, op. cit., VoL I, pp.
371 f.; II, pp. 266-9; Benzinger, <;;>. £-2/., p. 363 ; Dillmann, 0/. rzV., pp. 45, 126,
149 ; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zuden Fremden (1896),
pp. 10, 89; Marti, op. cit., pp. 31, 39, 47 f.; S. Mandl, Der Bann (1898).
§ 149. Oaths.
I. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.''
Gen. 14:22 ; 15 :8-ii, 17 f.; 21:22-24 (E); 22 : 15 (JE); 24 : 1-3, 27;
25:33(E); 26:3 (JE), 26-31; 31 : 53 (E); 42: 15(E); 47:29; 50:25
(E); Exod. 13 : 19(E); Josh. 2 : 12-14, 20 ; 6 : 26 ; Judg. 21:1; i Sam.
14:24-30, 39, 44 f.; 19:6; 24:21; 30:15; 2 Sam. 3:gf.; 19:23;
21 : I f., 7 ; I Kings i : 13, 17, 30, 51 f.; 2 :23f., 36-46.
Examine and classify the cases of oaths cited, determining, in each
case, (i) whether it is an oath sworn by man to man, by God to man,
or by man to God ; (2) the ritual of the oath, whether, for example,
accompanied by sacrifice of certain victims, by taking hold of the
thigh, by stretching upward the- hand ; (3) the penalty expected or
prescribed in case of the violation of the oath ; (4) any specially inter
esting uses of or usages in connection with the oath, e. g., Abraham's
oath to Melchizedek, the dividing of the animals (Gen. 15: 10), the
treaty between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31 : 44-54), Rahab and the spies
(Josh. 2 : 12-14), Saul's adjuration (i Sam. 14 : 24-30, 39, 44 f.), David's
oath concerning Solomon (i Kings 1:13), Shimei and Solomon
(i Kings 2 : 42); (5) what is prohibited in Exod. 20: 7, thou shalt not
take the name of Jehovah thy God in vain (blasphemy, perjury, pro
fanity, or sorcery and witchcraft)?
2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.
Jer. 4:2; 22 : 5 ; 31 :33 ; 34: i8f.; 38 : 16 ; Ezek. 17 : 16-19; Deut.
I9:i9ff."
Examine and classify as above, noting particularly points of special
interest in connection with (i) false swearing (Deut. I9:i9ff.); (2)
»' All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those marked otherwise, and
Gen. 14 :22, which is from an independent source.
»' This reference is from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy.

140 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
the cutting of the calf (Jer. 34 : 18 f.); (3) the new covenant (Jer.
31-3.3); (4) Zedekiah's oath (Jer. 38 : 16); (5) breaking the covenant
(Ezek. 17 : 16-19).
3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions."
Numb. 5:11-28; chap. 30; Josh. 9:15, igi.; Judg. 21 : 5, 7; Zech.
5:1 ff.; Ezra 10:5; Neh. 10 : 29 ; Dan. 12:7.
Examine and classify as above, noting points of special interest
in connection with (i) the water of bitterness that causeth the curse
(Numb. 5:iiff.); (2) vows (Numb., chap. 30); (3) the oath to the
Gibeonites (as described in Josh. 9 : 15 f., 19 f.); (4) the oath concern
ing strange wives (Ezra 10 : 2-5); (5) the flying-roll and false swearing
(Zech. 5 : 1-4); (6) the man clothed in linen (Dan. 12:7).
§150. Constructive Work.-^ Prepare a statement, upon the use of
the oath among the Hebrews, taking up the following points : (i) the
significance of the usual word translated swear, viz., " to come under
the influence of seven things ; " (2) the ritual ; (3) the various forms of
the oath ; (4) its irrevocable character and the penalty of its violation ;
(5) its sociological basis ; (6) the significance of an oath made by the
deity; (7) the meaning of the third commandment ; (8) the changes
in usage which may be noted between the three periods ; (9) the atti
tude of the prophets;'" (10) the representations concerning swearing
in the wisdom literature ; 3" (11) the representations in the apocryphal
literature ; 3" (12) the attitude of the New Testament ;33 (13) the use
ofthe oath among the Arabs ; ^^ (14) its use among the Assyrians and
Babylonians; (15) its relation to prayer.'^
§ 151. Literature to be Consulted.
H. W. Phillott, article "Oath," Smith's Diet, of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d
ed. 1893); Ewald, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Oath," etc.; Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. II,
p. 70 ; E. B. Tylor, article "Oath," Encyc. Brit. (1875); W. R. Smith, Re/, of Sem., pp.
i8o ff., 480 ; F. J. Coffin, " The Third Commandment,"/oKrKa/ of Biblical Literature.
=9 References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws.
3° See, f. g-., Hos. 4:2, 15; 10:4; Amos 4:2; 6:8; 8 :7, 14; Isa. 14:24; 19:18;
45:23; 48: l; 54:9; 62:8; 65: 16; Ezek. 21 ; 23.
3' See, e. g., Eccl. 8:2; 9:2.
3= See, e. g., I Mace. 6 : 61 f.; 7 : 18, 35 ; 2 Mace. 14 : 33-36 ; Ecclus. 44 : 21.
33 See, e. g., MatL 5:33 ff.; 14:7-9; 23:i6ff.; Mark 6:23,26; Luke 1:73;
Acts 2 : 30 ; 23 : 21 ; Jas. 5 : 12.
3* Cf. Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthums, p. 122 ; W. R. Smith, Religion
ofthe Semites, see Index, s. v. " Oath."
35 Cf. Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. 94 f.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I4I
Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 166-88 ; Duff, op. cit., VoL II (1900), see Index, s. v. " Oath ; "
G. Ferries, article "Oath," Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, Vol. Ill (1900); Day, op.
cit., p. 184.
Saalschijtz, Das mosaische Recht (i8s,t), pp. 615 ff.; Bruch, article "Eid,"
^CYLENYXL'% Bibel-Lexikon,'Vol.\\(i8tg); Riehm, article "Eid," Handw'orterbuch;
Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 122 ; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Schwur ; " Nowack,
op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 262 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Eid ; " Frey, Tod,
Seelenglaube und Seelenkult (i8g8), pp. 108 f.; Benzinger, article "Eid bei den
Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. Y (1898).
§ 152. Supplementary Study on Fasting as a Means for Securing the
Divine Mercy and Help.
I. The early period.
Exod. 34:28(J), <:/ 24: 18(E); i Sam. 7:5 f.; 31:13; 2 Sam.
I : 12 ; 3 : 35 ; 12 : 16-23 ; i Kings 21 : 9, 12, 27.
2. The middle period.
Deut. 8:3; 9:9, 18-20, 25-29 ; 10': 10 ; Jer. 14:12; 36 : 6, 9.
3. The late period;
Judg. l8:i7(?); 20:26 ff.; Ezra 8:21-23; 10:6; Neh. 1:4-11;
9:1,31; Esther 4 : 1-3, 16 ; Zech, 7 : 1-7, 18-23 ; 8 : 19 ; Isa. 58 : 3 ff.;
I Chron. 10:12; 2 Chron. 20 : 3 ; Joel 1:14; 2 : 12, 15 ; Jon. 3:5;
Dan. 9:3; Lev. 16:29, 31.3*
§ 153. Questions and Suggestions.
Consider (i) the reason assigned by David in 2 Sam. 12:22 for
fasting, viz., to secure Jehovah's pity; (2) the fasting of Moses on
Sinai (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 9 : 9) as a preparation for an important act,
the receiving of the law; (3) the fasting of Elijah (i Kings 19 : 8 ff.) as a
preparation for communion with God ; (4) the fasting of the men of
Jabesh for Saul (i Sam. 31 : 13), and of David for Saul (2 Sam. 1:12),
that is, in mourning for the dead {cf. 2 Sam. 3:35); and determine
the original meaning of the act, /. e., an explanation with which these
various cases may be connected; is it to raise the pity of the deity? or
in preparation for a sacrificial meal ? ^^
Consider the various cases of fasting cited and note (i) the motive
or -purpose in each case, e. g., David, Ahab, Nehemiah, Ezra; (2)
whether they were private or public {cf., in earlier and middle periods, i
Kings 21 : 9 ff.; Isa. i : 13^ (Sept.); Jer. 36 : 6 ff.; and, in later period,
Joel 1 : 13 f.; 2 Chron. 20 : 3); (3) the change by which the act becomes
spiritualized {cf. Ahab's case, i Kings 21:29); (4) the connection
between fasting and penitence {cf. i Sam. 7:6; Neh. 9:1); (5) the
3* This reference is from the Priestly Code.
37 W. R. Smith, Religion ofthe Semites, p. 434.

142 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
circumstances which led to greater importance being given to fasting,
and the changes in frequency of the act and in meaning which came
in the later period; (6) the conception which makes it a "meritorious
work," and the prophets' attitude toward this (Isa. 5 8 : 3 ff . ; Zech. 7 : 5 f .).
Consider the various occasions on which, in the later period, public
fasting was observed and the events thereby commemorated : (i) in the
fourth month, the capture of Jerusalem (Jer. 52 : 6, 7); (2) in the fifth
month, the destruction of the temple and city (Jer. 52:i2f.); (3) in
the seventh month, the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 41:1 ff.); (4) in the
tenth month, the beginning of the siege (Jer. 52 : 4) {cf. Zech. 7 : 1-7,
18-23); (5) the Day of Atonement (Lev., chap. 16), noting (a) that this
is the only fast required by the laws, {b) that there is no allusion to its
observance in any of the historical literature of the Old Testament, {c)
the purpose of the day, {d) its relation to the religious thought and spirit
of the later times ; (6) the thirteenth of Adar, the case of Haman.
Consider the usage of fasting as referred to (i) in the Psalms : 3'
(2) in the apocryphal literature;^ (3) in the New Testament;"" (4)
among other Semitic nations."
§ 154. Literature to be Consulted.
Samuel Clark, article "Atonement, Day of," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible
(ist ed, 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. ri/.. Vol. I, pp. 367 ff., 372, 402 ff., 431 ;
Oehler, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§140!.;
Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services (1874), pp. 263-88; Wellhau
sen, /"ro/^g-ozn^Ka, pp. 1 10-12; J. S. Black, article "Fasting," Encyclopedia Bri
tannica, Vol. IX (1879); Kuenen, The Hexateuch (2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886), pp. 86,
312 ; W. R. Smith, Rel of Sem., pp. 303, 388 ff., 433 f.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 509 f.;
C. J. Ball, article " Fasting and Fasts," Smith's Dictionary ofthe Bible (2d ed. 1893) ;
H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), pp. 186, 286 ff., 383;
McCuRDY, op. cit., §§ 1116, 1118, 1346"-; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article
"Atonement, Day of," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898) ; E. E. Harding, article
¦ "Feasts and Fasts," ibid.. Vol. I (1898), pp. S62 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-11 ; M.
Jastrow,. 0/, ri/., p, 688; Benzinger and Cheyne, article "Atonement, Day of,"
Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); Benzinger, article "Fasting, Fasts," Ency
clopedia Biblica,Vol. II (1901); O-x-XLEY, A Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman
Period (igoi), pp. 305 f.
33 See, e. g., Pss. 35:13; 69 : 10 ; 109 : 24.
39 See, tr. g., I Mace. 3 : 44-54 ; Ecclus. 34 : 26.
^''See, e.g.. Matt. 4:2; 6:i6ff.; 9:l4f.; 17:21; Mark 2: 18 ff.; 9:29; Luke
2:37; 5:33ff-; 18:12; Acts 10:30; I3:2f.; 14:23; 27:9,33; i Cor. 7:5; 2 Cor.
6:5; 11:27.
<' See, e. g., the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, Jastrow,
and Black cited in § 154.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 43
Holtzmann, article "Fasten," Schenkel's BibelLexikon, Vol, II (1869);
Orelli, article " Versohnungsfest," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1875); H. Oort,
"De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. X (1876), pp. 142-65; D.
Hoffmann, Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. I ff.; DELiTZSCH, Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche
Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83; J. Derenbourg,
"Essai de restitution de I'ancienne redaction de Mass^chet '¥Jipponr'\m," Revue des
Itudes juives. No. 11 (1883), pp. 41-80 ; Adler, " Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel,
sein Ursprung und seine Bedeutung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,
Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 178-84; Kuenen, Theologisch Tijdschrift, VoL XVII (1883), pp.
207-12; Riehm, article "Fasten," Handw'orterbuch, Vol. I (1884); Delitzsch,
article "Versohnungstag," Riehm's Handw'orterbuch, Vol. II (1884); Stade, Ge
sehichte,^ ol.Vi. (1888), pp. 182,2583.; Benzinger, " Das Gesetz Uber den grossen
Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol, IX
(1889), pp. 65-88; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode (1892), pp. 26 ff.; Smend,
op. cit., pp. 142, 319, 330 ff., 396; Nowack, op. cit.. Vol. II, pp. 270 ff.; Benzinger,
op. cit., pp. 165, 464, 477 ; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 184 ; Marti, op. cit., pp, 234, 2S3 f,;
Buhl, " Fasten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed.. Vol. V (1898) ; Frey,
Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult im alten Israel (i8g8), pp. 37, 81-5, 117.
§155. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity through
Oracles, Urim and Thummim, the Ephod, the Lot.
I. The early period.
{a) Oracles. — Gen. 24 : 12-14 (J); 25:22f.(J); Judg. i : i ; i8:5f.; i Sam.
10: 22; 14: 19, 37; 23 : 2,4, loff.; 28 : 6; 30 : 7f.; 2 Sam. 2:1; 5: 19,
23f.; 16:23; 2i:if.; 2Kings8:7ff.; Numb. 24 : 3, 15 ; Isa. 15:1;
Amos 2:11, 16.
{b) Urim and Thummim. — i Sam. 14 : 4if.; 28 : 4-6 ; 22 : 10, 13 ; 23 : 2, 4,
6, 9-12; 30:7; 2 Sam. 2:1 ; 5 : 19, 23f.; 21:1 ; Deut. 33 : 8 (E).
{c)Theephod.—']Vidg.Z:'7.']a; 17:5; 18:14,20; i Sam. 14:18; 2i:9f.;
23 :6, 9ff.; 3o:7f.; Hos. 3 : 4.
{d) The lot.— ]osh. 16:1 (S); 17 : 14, 17 (J); Judg. i :3 ; 20:9; Isa.i7:i4;
Mic. 2 : 5.
2. The middle period.
{a) Oracles.— ^ic. 4:6; 5:9; Nah. 2:13; Zeph. 1:2; Ezek. 5 : 1 1 ; 1 1 : 8,
21 ; Jer. 1:8; 2:3.
{b) The ephod.— 'Deut. 2 : 28 ; Judg. 8 : 27,^.
(f) The /o^.— Josh. 18 : 6, 8, 10 (R-^); Isa. 34 : 17 ; Jer. 13:25; Ezek. 24 : 6 ;
Obad. 11; Nah. 3:10; Deut. 32:9.
3. The late period.'*"
{a) Oracles.— ]oe\ 2:12; Hag. 1:9; 2:4; Zech. 1:3; 3:9; 10:12;
12:1; MaL 1:2; Pss. 36:1; 110:1.
{b) Urim and Thummim. — Exod. 28:30; Lev. 8:8; Numb. 27:21;
Ezra 2 :63; Neh. 7:65.
'"» References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code.

144 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
{c) The lot. — Lev. i6 : 8-IO ; Numb. 26 : 55 f.; 33:54; 34:13; 36:2f.;
Josh. 14 :2 ; 15:1; 17:1 ; 19 :i, 10, 17, 24, 32, 40, 51 ; 21 :4, 5 f., 8,
10, 40 ; I Chron. 6 : 54, 61, 63, 65 ; 16:18; 24 : 5, 7, 31 ; 25 : 8 f.;
26:i3f.; Neh. 10: 34'; 11 : i ; Esther 3 : 7 ; 9 : 24 ; Isa. 57 :6 ; Joel
3:3; Jon. 1:7; Dan. 12 : 13.
§156. Questions and Suggestions.
Examine the various means of consultation with the deity which
seem to have been recognized as legitimate and proper, viz., oracles,
Urim and Thummim, ephod, and lot ; note the instances cited of
each, and consider (i) the various circumstances under which such
consultation is held; (2) the underlying motive in each case; (3) the
relative frequency in the different periods ; (4) the differences (if any)
between the usages named ; (5) the various senses in which the word
oracle is used ; (6) the different views as. to the method of employing
the Urim and Thummim ; (7) the meaning of the ephod and its use;
(8) the place of the lot in connection with religious acts.
Consider whether, with the growth of religious conceptions and
the higher ideas entertained of God in later times, the use of these
external helps increases or diminishes.
Consider the use of these or similar external helps in consulting
the deity, as they may be referred to in (i) the Psalms,'" (2) the
wisdom literature,'''* (3) the apocryphal literature,''^ (4) the New Testa
ment ;¦" and likewise as they were employed among (5) the Egyptians,'"
(6) the Assyrians and Babylonians,''^ (7) the ancient Arabs,'" (8) the
Greeks and Romans.^"
§ 157. Literature to be Consulted.
Kalisch, Exodus (1855), pp. 540-45; E. H. Plumptre, article "Urim and
Thummim," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); W. L.
Bevan, article "Ephod," ibid, (ist ed. 1863), revised by J. M. Fuller (2d ed. 1893);
Kuenen, Religion of Israel, VoL I (1869 f., transl. 1874), PP- 96-100 ; W. M. Ramsay,
«See, e. g., Pss, 16:5 ; 22 : 18 ; 36 : l; no : I; 125 : 3.
¦•?See, e.g., Prov. I : 14; 16:33; 18 :l8; 30 : I; 31 : 1.
« Cf. Wisdom of Solomon 8 : 8.
?'See, c. g., Matt. 27:35; Mark 15:24; Luke 1:9; 23:34; John 19:24; Acts
1 :26; 7 :38; 8 : 21; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5 : 12 ; i Pet. 4:11.
?7 See, c. g; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, see Index, s, v.
"Oracle, etc."
?' See references to Pinches, Strong, and Jastrow cited in § 157.
?' See references to W. R. Smith and Wellhausen cited in § 157.
5° See, e. g-., Warre Cornish, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,
s. V. " Sortes."

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 45
article "Oracle," Encyclopedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p.
130; T. G. Pinches, "The Oracle of Ishtar of Arbela," Records of the Past, Vol.
XI (1878), pp. 59-72; see also ibid.. Vol. V, new series (1891), pp. 129-40; S. F.
Hancock, "The Urim and Thummim," Old Testament Student, Vol. Ill (1884), pp.
252-56; Konig, Religious History of Israel (i88s), pp. 107 ff.; W. R Smith, Rel. of
Sem., seelndex, s. v. "Oracles, etc.;" Kirkpatrick, The First Book of Samuel (Carah.
Bible, 1891), pp. 217 f,; H. E. DOSKER, "The Urim and Thummim," Presbyterian
and Reformed Review, 1892, pp. 717-30; S. A. Strong, "On Some Oracles to Esar-
haddon and Assurbanipal," .ff«Vra£-i; zur Assyriologie, Band II (1894), pp. 627-45 ;
J. F. McCurdy, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" G.Y.yioo-RE, Judges (Inter
national Critical Commentary, 1895), p. 381; Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition
(1897), pp. 280 ff.; S. R. Driver, article "Ephod," Hastings' Dictionary, 'Vol, I
(1898); Jastrow, 0^. cit, see Index, s.v. "Oracles;" T. C. Foote, " The Biblical
Ephod," Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XIX, No. 145 (1900), p. 40; O. C.
Whitehouse, article "Lots," Hastings' Dictionary, VoL III (1900); W. Muss-
Arnolt, " The Urim and Thummim," American Journal of Semitic Languages and
Literatures, Vol. XVI (1900), pp. 193-224; C. H. Prichard, article "Oracle,"
Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; G. F. Moore, article " Ephod," Encyclopedia
Biblica, Vol. II (1901).
Braun, De vestitu sacerdotum (1698), pp. 462 ff.; Bellermann, Die Urim und
Thummim (1824); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus, Vol. II (1839), pp. 131-41;
G. Klaiber, Das priesterliche Orakel der Israeliten (1865); 'K.b'O.x.ER, Lehrbuch der
biblischen Gesehichte des Alten Testamentes, Vol. I (1875), pp. 349 f.; Steiner, article
"Urim und Thummim," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, VoL Y (1875); Riehu, Hand-
worterbitch (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. -by Baethgen 1893 f-). articles " Ephod " and " Licht
und Recht;" Kautzsch, article "Urim," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1885); Stade,
Gesehichte, Vol. I (1887), pp. 466, 4V1 ; Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthums, pp.
126 f., 133, 167, etc.; Baudissin, Gesehichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (l88g),
pp. 70 f., 205 ff.; Lagarde, Mittheilungen, Vol. IV (1891), p. 17; Sellin, Beitrdge
zur israelitischen und jiidischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II (1897), p. 119; Wil
helm Lotz, article "Ephod," Realencyklopddie, 'Vol. Y (3d ed., 1898); Van Hoo
nacker, Le sacerdoce Uvitique (1899), pp. 370 ff.
§ 158. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity or Super
natural Powers through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, Witchcraft.
I. The early period.^'
{a) Magic and divination. — Gen. 44:5, IS (J); Exod. 22:17; Numb.
22 : 7 (J); 23 : 23; i Sam. 6:2; 28 : 8 ; Mic. 3 : 6 f., 1 1 ; Isa. 2:6.
(fj) Sorcery and witchcraft.— 'KxoQ.. 22 : 18 ; i Sam. 15:23; 2 Kings 9:22.
2. The middle period.^"
{a) Magic and divination. — Deut. 18:9-14; Jer. 8:17; 14:14; 27:9;
29:8; Ezek. 12:24; 13:7-9, 23; 2l:2iff., 29; 22:28; 2 Kings
17:17; Isa. 44:25; Mic. 5:12.
5' References jn bold-face type are from the Covenant Code.
5= References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter
onomy.

146 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
{b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Deut. 18:10; Mic. 5:12; Nah. 3:4; Jer.
27:9; Isa. 47:9, 12; 57:3.
3. The late period."
(a) Magic and divination. — Josh. 13 : 22 ; Lev. 19 :26, 31 ; 20 : 6, 27; Zech.
10 : 2.
{b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 7: 11 ; Mal. 3:5; 2 Chron. 33 :6 ;
Dan. 2 :2.
§159. Questions and Suggestions.
Examine the various means of consultation with higher powers
which seem always to have been regarded as improper and illegitimate,
viz., magic, divination, sorcery, and witchcraft, noting (i) the various
circumstances under which such consultation is held ; (2) the under
lying motive in each case; (3) the relative frequency in, different
periods ; (4) the various methods thus employed ; (5) the external
sources of these influences ; (6) any internal source from which they
may have sprung; (7) the prophetic attitude in the different periods;
(8) the explanation of this attitude; (9) the relation of all this to
idolatry; (10) the essential element of injury which it contributed;
(i i) the gradual disappearance, and the occasion of this disappearance.
Consider (i) the significance of references in the Psalms ;='• (2)
in the wisdom literature ;=^ (3) in the apocryphal literature ; ^^ (4) in
the New Testament.^'
Consider the use of these methods among (i) the Egyptians ;5° (2)
the ancient Arabs ;'' (3) the Assyrians and Babylonians;* (4) the
Greeks and Romans.''
§ 160. Literature to be Consulted.
F. W. Farrar, article "Divination," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed.
1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 250 ff., 281 ff., 283 ff.; E.B. Tylor,
article "Divination," Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. YII (1878); Idem, article
53 References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code.
54 See, c. g., Ps. 58 : 5. 55 See, e. g., Prov. 16:10.
5'' See, c. g., Ecclus. 34 :2-7.
57 See, «.g^.. Acts 8:9, 11; 13:6,8; 16:16; Gal. 5 : 20 ; Rev.9:2l; 18:23;
21 : 8 ; 22 : 15.
5' See, e. g.. Budge, Egyptian Magic.
59 See, e. g., W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., Index, s. v. " Omens," etc.; Wellhausen,
Reste arab. Heid., pp, 135-64.
*See, e. g., Lenormant, Chaldean Magic; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and
Sorcery. *¦ See, e. g., E. B. Tylor, article " Magic," Encyc. Brit.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 47
"Magic," «¦«(/., VoL XV (1883); W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., see Index, s. v. "Charms,"
" Omens," " Magic," " Witches ; " Schurer, A History of the Jewish People in the Time
of Jesus Christ, Div. II, Vol. Ill, pp. 151-5; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl.
1894), see Index, s. v. " Magic Art," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., pp. 72, 91, 153 ; McCurdy,
op. cit. (1895-1901), §§ 644,-851 n., 858; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery,
Being " The Prayers of the Lifting of the Hand" (1896); T. W. Davies, Magic,
Divination and Demonology (1898); Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Magical
Texts," "Sorcer, etc," "Witchcraft;'" F.B.Jevons, article "Divination," Hastings'
Dictionary, Vol. I (1898); O. C. Whitehouse, article "Exorcism," ibid.; T, W.
Davies, article " Divination," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); E. A. W. Budge, Egyptian
Magic (i8gg); Ramsay, The Expositor, July, 1899, p, 22; O. C. Whitehouse, arti
cle "Magic," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff, op. cit., Yol. II, see
Index, i. V. "Divination;" Cheyne, article "Exorcists," Encyc. Bib. ,Yo\. II (1901);
Day, op. cit., pp. 185 f., 220, 222 ; Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901). '
Brecher,v Das Transcendentale, Magie, und magische Heilatten im Talmud
(1850); P. SCHOLZ, Gbtzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alten Hebrdern und den
benachbarten Volkern (1877); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Prq-
phetenthums (1883), pp. 7-29; Stade, Gesehichte, Vol. I, pp. 503 ff.; Wellhausen,
Reste arabischen Heidenthums ("Skizzen und Vorarbeiten," III), pp, 126, 135-64,
215; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Wahrsagung," "Zauberei;" Tallqvist,
Assyrische Beschworungsserie Maqlu (1894); Dillmann, op. cit., see Index, s. v.
"Wahrsager;" Zimmern, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis der babylonischen Religion (1896,
1899); Marti, op. cit., p. 45 ; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult (i8g8), pp! 180,
202 ; Lehmann, Aberglaube und Zauberei; Blau, Das alt-jiidische Zauberwesen.
§161. Supplementary Study on Mourning Customs.
I. The early period.
Amos 5:16; 8:10; Mic. 1:8,16; Isa. 3:24; 15:2; 22:12;
2 Sam. 3:31; 21:10; I Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 19:11.; Gen.
37: 34(E), 35 (J); f/ I Kings 20:31 f.
2. The middle period.
Deut. 14:1!; Jer. 16:6-8; 41 : 5 ; 47:5; .49:3; 48:37; 4:8;
6 : 26 ; Ezek. 24 : 16-17; 29 : 18 ; 27 : 31 ; 7 : 18.
3. The late period.
Lev.19 : 27f.; 21:5; Joel 1:8; Jon. 3 : 5 ff.; Ezra 9:3; Dan. 9 : 3.
§ 162. Questions and Suggestions.
Study the references given to mourning customs, and note (i) the
custom of weeping and its significance, in contrast with the modern
conception ; (2) the more intense expression of grief, termed wailing;
(3) the beating of the breast, tearing of the hair, rending of clothes,
putting on sackcloth, and mutilation of the body, as expressions of
mourning ; (4) the putting away of food to (or for) the dead (Deut.
26 : 14); (5) fasting {cf. i Sam. 31 : 13).
Consider, in connection with these customs, (i) to what extent they

148 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
are survivals from the age in which ancestor-worship prevailed ; (2) to
what extent, therefore, they had their origin in the effort to propitiate
the spirit of the dead, which was supposed to have power for good or
evil, rather than in the desire to express grief for the loss that had been
incurred ; (3) the reasons for forbidding certain of these customs {cf.
Deut. 14:1; 26:14; Lev. 19:28); (4) changes which seem to have
come about in the progress of history.
Consider the representations made concerning mourning customs
in the Psalms,^" (2) in the wisdom literature,*' (3) in the apocryphal
literature,''' (4) in the New Testament,'5 (j^ among other ancient
nations." § 163. Literature to be Consulted.
Thomson, The Land and the Book (1859), see Index, s. v. "Manners and
Customs;" H. W. Phillott, article "Mourning," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible,
(ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893) ; Maspero, Egyptian Archeology (transl. 1887), pp. 108-
63 ; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., pp. 322 f ., 336, 370, 430 ; A. P. Bender, " Beliefs,
Rites, and Custbms of the Jews, Connected with Death, Burial, and Resurrection,"
Jewish Quarterly Review, VoL VI (1893-94), pp. 317-47, 664-71 ; Vol. VII (1894-95),
101-18, 259-69; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transl. 1894), PP- 306-27; E. A.
Wallis Budge, The Mummy (2d. ed. 1894); H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental
Social Life (i8ge,), pp. 143-208; Menzies, op. cit. (1895), see Index, s. v. "Funeral
Practices;" Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, i. v. "Dead," etc.; Peritz, "Woman in
the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1898), pp
137 f.; T. Nicol, article " Mourning," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); Duff
op. cit.. Vol. IIj see Index, s. v. " Mourning and Bewailing ; " Day, op. cit., pp. 204 ff.;
Wiedemann, The Realm ofthe Egyptian Dead.
Perles, " Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten des nachbiblischen Judenthums," Monats-
schrift fiir Gesehichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Vol. X (1861), pp. 345-55,
376-94 ; M. Geier, De Ebraeorum luctu lugentiumque ritibus (3d ed. 1868) ; Ros-
koff, article "Klage," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon,'Vol. Ill (1871); Oort, "De
doodenvereering bij de Israeliten," Theologisch Tijdschrift,V ol. XV (1881), pp. 35off.;
Kamphausen, article "Trauer," Riehm's Handworterbuch, 'Vol.11 (1884) ; Lehrer,
article "Trauer bei den Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, Vol. XV (2d ed. 1885) ; Stade,
Gesehichte, Vol. I, pp. 387 ff.; G. A. Wilken, Ueber das Haaropfer (1886 f.); Well--
n.A\s%EN, Reste arab. Heidenthums (188"]), pp. 159 ff., l7Sf.; GoLVZlHER, Muhamme
danische Studien(l888),Vol. I, pp. 229-63; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode(i8g2);
Smend, op. cit., pp. 153 f.; Wellhausen, Israelitische undjudische Gesehichte (ist ed.
''See, «.£-., Pss. 35:14; 38:6; 42:9; 43:2; 88:9.
'3 See, <r. g., Prov. 29 : 2 ; Job 2:11; 5:11; 30:28; Eccles. 3 : 4.
«? See, f. £•., Ecclus. 7:34; 22:iif.; 38:l6ff.; 41 : I ff.
«5See, eg-., Matt. 2 : 18; 5:4; 9: 15; 11:17; 24:30; Mark 16: 10 ; Luke 6: 25;
7:32; I Cor. 5:2; 2 Cor. 7:7; Jais. 4:9; Rev. 18:8, 11.
"See especially the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen,
Menzies, Jastrow, and Trumbull cited in § 163.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FI^AYER 1 49
1894), p. 143 ; Nowack, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 187-98 ; Benzinger, op. cit., pp. 102,
165 ff., 428 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 37, 40 ff., 116 ; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelen
kult im alten Israel (i8g8) ; Bertholet, Die israelitischen Vorstellungen vom Zustand
nach dem Tode (1899); Krehl, Religion der Araber; F. J. Grundt, Die Trauerge-
brduche der Hebrder.
§ 164. Supplementary Study on Circumcision.
I. ''The early period.
Exod. 4 : 24 ff. (J); Josh. 5 :2 f., 9 (J); Judg. 14:3; 15:18; i Sam.
14:6; 17:26, 36; 18:25 ff.; 31:4; 2 Sam. 1:20; 3:14.
2. The middle period.
Deut. 10: 16; 30:6; Hab. 2:16; Jer. 4:6; 6:10; 9:24 f.; Josh. 5 :4-8;
Ezek. 28 : 10; 31 : 18; 32:19, 21, 24-32; 44 : 7, 9; Isa. 52: 1.
3. The late period.'' '
Lev. 12 :3; ig : 23 fi.; 26 :4i ; Gen. 17 : 10-14, 23-27 ; 21:4; 34:14 f.,
17, 22, 24 ; Exod. 6 : 12, 30 ; 12 : 44, 48 ; i Chron. 10:4.
§ 165. Questions and Suggestions.
Study the references to circumcision, considering (i) the more
interesting narratives concerning instances of circumcision, e. g., {a)
Moses' son and Zipporah, {b) the circumcision at Gilgal, {c) the cir
cumcision of Abraham's family, of Shechem and his family; (2) the
characterization of other nations as uncircumcised; (3) the early
origin, how shown.
Consider (i) the explanation of the origin which makes it sanitary,
i. e., instituted as a preventive of certain diseases ; (2) the explanation
which connects it with marriage, as thereby promoting fruitfulness;
(3) the explanation that makes it a tribal badge, /. e., a mark of initia
tion into ifull membership in the tribe (which included religious
privileges), and therefore an act of sacramental communion, an act of
sacrifice, a dedication.
Consider (i) the place of circumcision in the early period, viz., of
young men (<?.,§¦., Gen., chap. 34; Josh. 5:2f.; Exod. 4 :2s), and as a tribal
distinction {cf. Gen., chap. 34; Ezek. 31: 8); (2) its place in the middle
period : {a) not mentioned in history or in the older laws, not regarded
as important ; (3) circumcision of heart called for (Jer. 9 : 24, 25), while
the circumcision of Israelites is placed on the same plane with that of
Edomites, Ammonites, and other nations; (^)the spiritualization by the
prophets furnishing the basis for more extended use in the next period ;
^ References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code.

150 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(3) its place in the later period : {a) the representations of its origin;
{b) the regulations for the performance of the rite; {c) its position as
one of the two distinctive ordinances of Judaism, the other being the
sabbath ; {d) its significance as a rite of purification.
Consider representations concerning circumcision (i) in the apoc
ryphal literature ;'* (2) in the New Testament,'* and the lack of allusion
to it in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature. (3) Consider the prac
tice of circumcision among the Egyptians, Arabs, and other nations.'"
§ 166. Literature to be Consulted.
T. T. Perowne, article " Circumcision," Smith's Diet, ofthe Bible (ist ed. 1863,
2d ed. 1893); Ewald, op. cit., pp. 89-97; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 192 ff.; II, pp.
7-70 ; Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transL 1874), Vol. I, pp. 238, 290;
Asher, The Jewish Rite of Circumcision (1873); E.B. Tylor, Primitive Culture,
Vol. II (1874), pp. 363 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, article "Circumcision,'' Encyclopedia
Britannica, Vol. Y (1877); E. B. Tylor, Early History of Mankind (3d ed. 1878),
pp. 214-19; Kalisch, Bible Studies, Part II (1878), pp. 4-11 ; Wellhausen, Prole
gomena, p, 340; Renan, History of the People of Israel, 'Vol. I (1887, transl. 1894),
pp. 104-9 ; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 328; Bancroft, Native Races (1890), Vol.
Ill, see Index; P. C. Remondino, History of Circumcision from the Earliest Times to
the Present (1891); H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (1893), pp. 79,215-24,
351 f.; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (transL 1894), pp. 32 f., 539; Schechter,
Studies in Judaism (1896), p. 343; A. H. Sayce, Expository Times, November, 1897;
I. J. Peritz, "Woman in the Ancient Hebrew Cult," Journal of Biblical Literature,
Vol. XVII (1898), p. 136; Macalister, article "Circumcision," )^a%-x\ng'S,' Dictionary,
Vol, I (1898); Benzinger, article "Circumcision," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899).
BoRHECK, Ist die Beschneidung urspriinglich hebrdisch ? (1793); Cohen, Dis
sertation sur la circoncision (1816); Autenrieth, Ueber den Ursprung der Beschnei
dung (1829); Lubkert, "Der jiidische ^Trio-Trao-^iis," Theologische Studien und
Kritiken, 1835, pp. 657-64; CoLLiN, Die Beschneidung (1842); S. HOLDHEIM,
Ueber die Beschneidung in religios. Beziehungen; Bergson, Die Beschneidung
(1844); Salomon, Die Beschneidung histor. und medizin. dargestellt (1844); Brecher,
Die Beschneidung (1845); Steinschneider, Ueber die Beschneidung der Araber
(1845); G.Ebers, Aegypten und die Biicher Moses,'Vol. I (1868), pp. 278-84 ; Steiner,
article "Beschneidung," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. I (1869); Auerbach,
Berith Abraham, oder, der Beschneidungsfeier (2d ed. 1880); Weber, Die Lehren
des lalmud (1880), p. 373; Ploss, Das Kind in Brauch und Sitte der Volker (2d
ed. 1882), pp. 360 ff.; Riehm, article "Beschneidung," Handw'orterbuch (1884);
Staxie, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. VI (1886), pp. 132-43;
Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthums .(ist ed. 1887), pp. 154, 168, 215 ; Holzinger,
''See, e. g., I Mace. 1: 14, 48, 60 f.; 2 Mace'. 6 : 10.
''See, ^. g-., Luke 1:59; John 7:22 f.; Acts 15:5 ; 16:3; 21:21; Rom.2:25ff.;
I Cor. 7 : 18 f.; Gal. 5 : 2 f.; 6 : 13 ; CoL 3:11; Phil. 3 : 5,
'"See especially the references to the works of Tylor, Bancroft, W. R. Smith,
Wellhausen, Ploss, Ebers, Erman, and Reitzenstein, cited in § 166.

LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 15!
Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 133, 365, 437; Smend, op. cit., pp. 37 f., 116;
Nowack, op. cit., pp. idT-"]! ; Benzinger, op. cit., pp. 153 ff.; Budde, Zeitschrift fiir
die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIV (1894), p. 250 ; Glassberg, Die Beschnei
dung (1896); Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im Alten Testament (1896),
pp. 165, 174; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Frem
den (1896), see Index, s. v. "Beschneidung;" Marti, op. cit., pp. 43, 163 f.; J.
Jaeger, " Ueber die Beschneidung," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, July, 1898, pp, 479-91;
Zeydner, " Kainszeichen, Keniter und Beschneidung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta
mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVIII (1^98), pp. 120-25; 'R.EVXZE.NS-X'S.lN,Zwei religions-
geschichtliche Fragen (1901).

Paet Foueth

THE LITERATURE OE WORSHIP -THE LEGAL
LITERATURE
XII. The Deuteronomic Code.
XIII. Ezekiel's Contribution.
XIV. The Priestly Code.

CHAPTER XII.
the LEGAL LITERATURE — THE DEUTERONOMIC CODE OF LAWS.
§ 167. The Literature of Worship includes that portion of the Old
Testament literature which concerns itself with the subject of worship
in any of its forms, or was written by men imbued with the priestly
spirit. Here belong :
I. The legal literature {cf. §9), or codes of laws and regula
tions dealing with the various elements in worship ; these codes
include more than can properly be classified under the head of
worship, but everything in them may be said to be priestly in its
character. 2. The historical literature (§10), viz., Chronicles, Ezra, Nehe
miah, and the priestly history in the Hexateuch (=P).
3. The hymnal literature (§ 8), as found in the book of Psalms.
A marked spirit of unity characterizes all this literature, and dis
tinguishes it from the prophetic and the wisdom literature (§ 2).
§ 168. The Legal Literature of the Old Testament
is found in four groups or codes of legislation, viz.:
I. The covenant code (§20), the earliest form of Ezod. 20:33—
legislation, ordinarily called the prophetic code, because • • ¦
it is incorporated in literature of a prophetic charac
ter. 2. The Deuteronomic code (§§ 25-28), so called Deut. 12:1— 26:19;
because it forms the principal part of the book of
Deuteronomy. 3. Ezekiel's system of worship (§ 31), which is, Ezek., chaps.
strictly speaking, priestly and legalistic, although the
work of a prophet.
4. The Levitical code (§§ 41-44), so called because
it is found in the book of Leviticus (with portions of
Exodus and Numbers).
§ 169. The Covenant Code (§ 20), or prophetic code,
is the codification of law and usage in Israel down to
about 650 B. C. Concerning this code there may be
noted: 155

156

priestly ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Judg. 17:7 fl.

Ezod. 20:24 ff.
Ezod. 23:14-17.
Ezod. 22:18,

2 Kings 22 : 3—
23:25.
2 Kings 21 : i-a6.

I. Its prevalence is synchronous with the period in
which the order of priests does not occupy the place of
power in Israelitish thought. When the priests take a
more influential} , place in the affairs of the nation, an
other code appears (the Deuteronomic), in which this
higher position is recognized.
2. Its form, contents, and character are rather pro
phetic than priestly, since, although (i) the act of wor^
ship is recognized (§ 73-, i), (2) provision is made for
feasts and offerings (§ 96), (3) reference -is made to magic
and sacrifice to other gods (§158, i), all this is of the
simplest character, and no tendency exists toward the
development of a priestly system, there being no men
tion even of a priest or a priestly order (§ 59, i).
3. It furnishes a formulation under prophetic influ
ence of the old Semitic usage, and, at the same time,
the basis on which the later codes are developed.
4. Its relation to these later codes has been shown in
the comparative examination of various usages (§§59-
166). §170. The Story of the Discovery of Deuteronomy
(§ 25)-' I. Consider the conditions of the times in which this
event occurred, viz., the preceding reigns of Manasseh
and Amon, their character, the forms of worship
encouraged, the prophetic attitude (2 Kings 21 : 10-
15), the particular royal acts regarded with disfavor
(§24)- ,
See Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 370-79 ;
Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 161-9 ; Kent, A History
of the Hebrew People, Vol. II, pp. 159-64; Wellhausen, Prolego
mena to the History of Israel, pp. 485 ff.

' It is generally acknowledged by interpreters that the original story of the dis
covery of Deuteronomy has been edited from the point of view of later times. The
account, as it now stands, comes from three sources: (i) the early narrative, (2) the
pre-exilic redaction, (3) the post-exilic redaction. The parts that show the clearest
evidence of the work of the post-exilic editor are 2 Kings 22 : 14-20 ; 23 : 8 ff., 16-18,
21-23, 251^-27 ; the work of the earlier editor appears in 23 : 3, 13, 24 f.; while 22 : 5^,
6, 8 ("the high-priest"); 23:4^, 5, lb, 14, 16-20, seem to be minor glosses. The pur
pose of these additions and modifications was to furnish an explanation, from the later
point of view, of the disaster that fell upon Judah so soon after this reform.

LEGAL LITERATURE  DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 57
2. Study the principal details of the discovery, e. g.,
(i) the chief agent, the priest; (2) the phrase "the book = ^ings 22:4, 8,
14 J 23 ; 4.
of the law;" (3) the strange effect of the reading upon 2 Kings 22:8,
the king; (4) the consultation with Huldah — her oracle, » Kings 22:11.
..,,,, , , /^, !> Kings 22 : 14-20.
Its original form and meaning; (5) the convocation of 2 Kings 23:11,
the nation and the public reading; (6) the covenant
entered into; (7) the phrase "his commandments, and
his testimonies, and his statutes;" (8) the phrase "with 2 Kings 23:3,
all his heart and all his soul;" (9) one by one, the 2 Kings 23 : 4-ao,
various acts of reformation instituted by Josiah; (10) 2 Kings 23: 21-23.
the observance of the passover; (11) the purpose of 2 Kings 22:8;
these acts, viz., to confirm "the words of this covenant
which were written in this book," etc.
3. Consider (§ 26) the immediate results of the find- » Ki°«s 23:4-34.
ing of this book, and compare these results with the
actual provisions of the book of Deuteronomy, and
determine : (i) whether Deuteronomy commands any
essential thing which Josiah did not try to do ; (2)
whether 'Josiah undertook any act of reformation for
which Deuteronomy does not make provision.
4. Take up now three important questions: (i) Is there
any reasonable doubt as to the identity of the book
found by Hilkiah with the book of Deuteronomy, or,
at least, a portion of it ? (2) Does the story in Kings of 2 Kings 23: 8-13.
the finding of the book definitely indicate a belief, on
the part of its writer, that the book discovered was one
written by Moses, or of Mosaic origin ? (3) If such
Mosaic origin is implied in the narrative, what explana
tion of the narrative is possible from the point of view
of those who deny the Mosaic origin of the book ?
5. Take up, still further, these questions : (i) Do the
facts of the reformation furnish evidence that the book 3 Kings 23 14-24.
which authorizes them is of ancient date, that is, Mosaic ?
(2) Could these facts be accounted for just as easily and
naturally on the other supposition, that is, that the book
of Deuteronomy was prepared during Manasseh's reign,
lost, and found in Josiah's reign ? (3) In this latter case,
what motive, worthy of the situation, could be ascribed
to those who took part in the transaction ? Would it be
sufificient to say that it was done to recommend certain

158 priestly element IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
reforms and to establish more firmly the national reli
gion ?
§171. Representations in Deuteronomy Conceming its
Authorship.
1:1-5;= 4:if., 44 I. Read and interpret the passages in Deuteronomy
9,"ii; '29. iL; which make reference to its authorship, noting the par-
f.,30; 32:44fi,; ticular portions of the book which contain these refer-
33: If. ences, and noting, further, that the strictly legal portion,
12 : 1 — 26 : ig, contains nothing of this kind.
2. Consider whether it was customary in ancient
times to ascribe to great men writings whose authorship
was unknown, and whether instances of this custom are
Prov. 10:1; 25:1. found (in sacred writings) in the case of (i) Solomon,^
to whom are ascribed proverbs and psalms and books
Pss. 103; 122; 124; which are of a manifestly later age ; (2) David,* to whom
psalms are ascribed which certainly date from a post-
isa., chaps. 40-66. exilic time; (3) Isaiah,' to whom prophetic discourses
are ascribed which are now almost universally recognized
as belonging to the exilic and post-exilic periods ; and
(in secular writings) (4) the letters and many of the dia
logues assigned to Plato;" (5) the "Shield of Hercules"
and many other works ascribed to Hesiod.'
3. Consider also the ancient custom in accordance
with which writers, for certain reasons, ascribed their
Eccles. 1:1, 12. own writings to great men, as in the case of (i) the
Bong of Solomon writer of Ecclesiastes ;° (2) the writer of the Song of
Solomon ;' (3) the authors of the " Wisdom of Solomon "
"iS-s^etc.'"''' and of the "Psalms of Solomon ;"" (4) the author of the
" All Scripture references in this chapter which are cited without the name of the
book are from Deuteronomy.
3 See, e. g.. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.),
pp. 406 ff.
*See, e. g.. Driver, op. cit., pp. 373 ff.
5 See, e. g., Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah. «
'See Jevons, History of Greek Literature, pp. 482 f.
1 See Jevons, op. cit., p. 86.
^ See articles on " Ecclesiastes " in Hastings's Dictiondry of the Bible and in
Encyclopedia Biblica.
9 See Driver, op. cit., pp. 437 ff.
"=See articles on "Apocrypha'' in Encyclopedia Biblica and in YIastinqs's Dic
tionary of the Bible..

LEGAL LITERATURE  DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 59
book of Daniel;" (5) Plato putting his words into the
mouth of Socrates;" (6) the alleged correspondence
between St. Paul and Seneca, consisting of fourteen
letters.'^ 4. Consider the Egyptian custom of placing in con- c/. 31:26.
nection with religious works the statement "found in the
temple," this being understood to be, not a statement
that a book had been lost and found, but a conventional
fiction of the priestly class to affirm its sacred and
authoritative character."''
5. Consider, however, whether, after all, it is not
quite certain that the leaders of the time, as well as the
people, supposed the "found" book to have been (i)
lost for many years, (2) actually discovered, and (3) of
Mosaic origin.
§ 172. The Point of View and Coloring of the Book.
I. Consider, as bearing upon the Mosaic origin, (i)
-the situation — border of the wilderness — outside the i:if.
Holy Land ; (2) the lack of any reference to Jerusalem
or the temple; (3) the frequent representation that the i;8;4:i; 6:iof.;
land is not yet occupied; (4) the constant reference to 7:1-5. 17-24;
the Canaanites as Israel's enemies; (5) the references to 6:21; 7:8,18;
Egypt as a recent place of dwelling; (6) the references 4:3,4.'
to events which those addressed had themselves seen ;
(7) the many Egyptian reminiscences, c g., of methods "-'fi's-a-a;
of irrigation, bastinado, writing of law on plastered stones, "/'*' gV"'
wearing of law as amulet, deliverance from Egypt, Egyp- a8:a7,35;5:i5;
tian diseases, motives of kindness to servants.
2. Consider, on the other hand, whether all these
points are not capable of other explanation, (i) Is it
inconceivable that the writer planned to give his book a
Mosaic setting — in other words, that all this material is
merely to be regarded as a part of the dramatic repre
sentation ? Is the book not thoroughly dramatic in its
"See Driver, The Book of Daniel (Cambridge Bible), pp. xlvii-lxxvi.
"See the "Charmides," "Lysis," "Protagoras," etc.; and compare Jowett,
Dialogues of Plato (Macmillan Co., New York, 5 vols.).
'3 See Lightfoot, St. Paul's Epistle to the Philippians, p. 260.
'* See Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and Times, p. 85 ; Maspero, Histoire ancienne
de I' Orient (1st ed.), pp. 57, 73; Brugsch, Gesehichte Aegyptens (ist ed.), pp. 60, 84.

l60 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
5:6-21; <r/. Exod. whole presentation ? '5 (2) Is it not to be expected
14:21^,- c/. Exod that the writer, if a late one, would include material of
23 : 193,
16:4^; cf. Exod, the earlier times? Is there anywhere a claim that he
23:7,8; c-/.23:3. includes only late material? (3) Is the author of the
book really as hostile to the Egyptians as a writer would
be expected to be, if he lived in the generation follow
ing the exodus ? If so, how explain the permission to
admit an Egyptian to religious privileges in the third
generation, when this privilege is denied other nations
17:14-17, until the tenth generation ? (4) Is not the writer living
in a time when the upper classes have an attachment to
Egypt, which he must oppose, for how otherwise explain
Isa., chaps. 30, 31; Deut. 17 : 14-17 ? (5) Is it not true that there was con-
35:6; 2 Kings . . . , .^ , „ ^
18:21; <:/. 25:26. Stant communication with Egypt between 750 B.C. and
600 B. C, and may not these Egyptian references be
explained on the ground of this intimacy ?
3. Are there not allusions which furnish direct evi
dence that the writer is living at a distance ffom the-
2:34:3:4, 8, etc.; period of which he treats ; e. g., (i) are the phrases "at
that time," " unto this day," appropriate in the mouth
of Moses, when the events described occurred during
the preceding six months {cf. i : 3 with Numb. 33 : 38,
thus fixing the date of Numb. 20:22-28)? (2) How
24:9j25:i7;23:5; explain 2: 12 as Mosaic ? {-x) Could Moses have used
«/, 4 : 45*, 46*, appropriately the phrase "when ye came forth out of
1:1,5; 3:8; etc. Egypt"? (4) Must the writer not have lived in western
Palestine in view of his use of the phrase beyond the
Jordan of eastern Palestine ?
§ 173. The Language and Style of the Book.
I. Examine a list of special words and phrases'^ fre
quently occurring in the book of Deuteronomy, and con
sider (i) the bearing of the fact of such a list upon the
question of authorship ; does it argue for or against
identity of authorship with the other books of the Penta
teuch? (2) the general character of these expressions as
indicating early or later authorship.
'5 Cf. the same element in the book of Job, viz., a dramatic representation of
antiquity in connection with the presentation of a (comparatively) modern thought.
'^See, ^. £-., Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy,
pp. Ixxvii-lxxxiv.

LEGAL LITERATURE  DEUTERONOMIC CODE l6X
2. Examine a list of the linguistic peculiarities ap
pearing in the book,"' i. e., the peculiar forms, idioms,
etc., and consider whether these exhibit evidence (i) of
antiquity of date, or (2) of late date. With what writer c/. jer. 7 : 1-26 ;
' \ / 11:1-8; 16:1-
in the Old Testament does the book of Deuteronomy 13; 21:3-10.
show the largest number of similarities ?
3. Consider (i) the general style of Deuteronomy, c/. 2:28 with
viz., classical, pure, broad, copious, idiomatic; (2) the 1:28 -with
' > 1' ' > f ' > V / Kumb. 13:28;
striking points of style which distinguish this book from i : 35. 36, 39, 41
the other Pentateuchal books, and, indeed, from other 14:23,24,31,400.
Old Testament books, viz., (a) individual, affecting even
quotations ; {S) the hortatory element, based upon (c) the
oratorical. § 174. The Material of the Book. — Make an examina
tion of the material of the book with a view to finding
evidence for and against the Mosaic authorship, as
follows :
I. Note (i) the prohibition of intercourse with the 7:1.
Canaanites; (2) references to Israel's condition in the 4:3, 4; 7:1; 8:1;
' \ 1 9:1.
wilderness; (3) the directions for appointing a king; 17:14.
(4) the law for the cities of refuge, possible only at the 19:1-10.
time of the entrance; (5) the order to recall what 25:17-19.
Amalek did to them; (6) directions for the blessing 27:11-16.
and cursing on Mount Ebal ; and consider whether
material of this kind could possibly have had its origin
at any other than a very early time, viz., the tim,e of
Moses. 2. Consider, on the other hand, (i) whether the
presence of this material has not already been accounted
for in the statement (see § 172, 2) that the book is con
ceded to contain much very old material which has been
handed down and incorporated side by side with the
newer material ; and (2) whether the presence of the
newer material can possibly be explained in a book of
Mosaic origin, e. g.., {a) the prohibition of star-worship, 4: 19; 17:3.
which is late; {b) warnings against lower forms of proph- 18:10-12.
ecy, which cannot have antedated Amos and Hosea ;
'' See, e. g.. Driver, op. cit., p. Ixxxiv ; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch,
pp. 282-91; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testa
ment"), pp. xxxii-xli. .

l62

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

12 : 1-7.
Chaps, 15; 21; 231
24.

31:9; 33:1.4;
4:44-49; chap.
34.
Mal. 4 : 4.

1 : 9-13 ; cf. Exod.
18 : 13-26.

1 : 22 f . ; cf. Numb.
13: 1-3:
1 : 37 f , ; cf. Numb.
20:I2.
19 : 1-13 ; cf
Kumb. 35:9-34.
14 : 21 ; cf. Ezod.
23 ; 19 ; 34 : 26.
Chap, 16 ; cf.
Exod. 23 : 14 ;
Lev,, chap, 23.
Chap.5;<:/.Exod., chap. 20 ; chap.
14 ; cf. Lev, ,
chap. II.
I Sam. 9 ; 12-14 i
16 2; 10:3,5,8;
I Kings 18:30
fi. ; 2 Sam. 6 : 13,
17 1

Josh. 1:22, 23;
2:10, 11; 3:7;
10 : 28-43 ;
II : 10-15;
Judg. 2: 11-23;

(^) the law centralizing worship at one place ; {d^ laws
like those concerning contracts and inheritance, which
mark an advanced state of social development.
3. Consider from the point of view of the material
the truth or falsity of the following statements : " The
Israel of Deuteronomy is separated from the Israel of
the exodus by a complete social revolution ; " " The
nomadic tribes have grown into a settled and wealthy
community whose organization no longer needs to be
constituted, but only to be reformed."
4. Consider in their bearing on this question the
following: (i) certain passages which manifestly cannot
be ascribed to Moses, e. g., the account of his death ;
(2) the fact that the first reference in the prophets to a
Mosaic code occurs in post-exilic times ; (3) the lack of
consistency which appears in so many cases in com
parison with the other parts of the Pentateuch, e. g., the
difference in the representations concerning the appoint
ment of assistants to Moses in his work as judge ; the
different accounts of the sending out of the twelve spies;
the different causes assigned for Jehovah's anger against
Moses; the many differences between the last chapters
of Numbers and the book of Deuteronomy, though both
are assigned to the same year ; (4) the repetitions of laws
which occur also in other books, e. g., the law against
seething a kid in its mother's milk ; the law concerning
feasts ; the decalogue ; the law of clean and unclean.
5. Consider the cases in which Israel's leaders in the
early period show utter disregard of Deuteronomic laws,
without any indication that what they do is regarded
as illegal; e. g., 'S,2came\ sacrifices at other places than
Jerusalem ; Elijah sacrifices on Mount Carmel ; David
also offers sacrifice.
6. Consider the bearing upon this question of the
more important teachings (see § 178).
§ 175. The Book of Deuteronomy as Related to Other
Old Testament Literature.
I. Examine the strongly Deuteronomic character of
certain passages in Joshua, Judges, and Kings, and con
sider whether these are to be explained (i) as themselves

legal LITERATURE  DEUTERONOMIC CODE 1 63

early, and indicating the existence of the book of Deu- 3-*-^; * '-3;
° 6:i; 10 : 6-16;
teronomy at an early date; or (2) as later interpolations i Kings 2: 3. 4;
and expansions by Deuteronomic editors after the publi- "i'.-'3;
* ¦' i^ 2 Kings 9 : 7-
cation of Deuteronomy in 621 B. C. (see § 180). ""^¦' 17:7-23;
2. Examine -the remarkable cases of similarity (in 4:20; «-/. jer.
thought and form) between Jeremiah and Deuteronomy'^ ",'jer, ¦jfii.
{cf. the sixty-six passages from Deuteronomy of which ly'e.
there are echoes in not less than eighty-six of Jere- ' 29f23!^''
miah); and consider whether this is to be explained by ° 7'33,^
supposing (i) that Jeremiah was particularly fond of, and ' il^.i^.
familiar with, the ancient Deuteronomy; or (2) that Deu- " 5;''?5,
teronomy and Jeremiah are the product of nearly the ^^^Ih.''^ "'
same times, the latter being strongly influenced by the "7f3i. "'
former ; or (3) that Jeremiah was himself the author of 'V:".
Deuteronomy." 3. Consider the significance of the fact that in the
genuine portions of Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah none of
these Deuteronomic phrases are to be found.
4. Consider, still further, the cases in later literature Neh. 1:5-11;
9 : 6 fi. ;
in which the Deuteronomic phrases still maintain them- 0^5.9:4-19;
'^ I Chron. 29 : 19 ;
selves, e. f., Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Daniel. 22:13; 28:8,20;
° 2 Chron. 32:7.
§ 176. The Book of Deuteronomy and the New Testa
ment. ' I. Examine the allusions in the Ne* Testament to Marki:44;i2:26;
the "law of Moses," and consider the bearing of these ^1";'i6-29!"^1
statements on the authorship of the Pentateuch in gen- 5l46''f.V'8:^5!"'
1 i,-i7;7:'i9;Acts
crdi. 15:21; .48:23;
2. Exaniine the quotations in the New Testament Matt "lo '7 7-
taken from the book of Deuteronomy, and consider the "•sV^w'-'is-
bearing of the statements made in connection with them ^"J,^ 20:28;
O Acts 3: 22, 7:37,
on the authorship of Deuteronomy in particular. Rom. 10:19.
3. Consider the three interpretations which have been
made of these and similar passages: (i) that the state
ments are literally true and are to be accepted as final ;°°
¦'ZuNZ, Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, 1873, pp. 671-3;
Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. xciii ff.
" But see Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. xciii f. ; Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and
Times, pp. 81 f.; J. L. Konig, Alttestamentliche Studien, II; Kleinert, Das
Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker, pp. 185-90, 235.
»°See Alvah Hovey, "The New Testament as a Guide to the Interpretation of
the Old Testament," Old Testament Stud.ent, Vol. VIII, pp. 207-13.

164 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(2) that Jesus and the New Testament writers, though
knowing the real facts, accommodated themselves to the
point of view of their times and accepted the traditional
interpretation, not wishing to arouse opposition over a
matter of comparatively slight importance and thereby
detract attention from the great truths they wished to
teach;" (3) that Jesus and the New Testament writers
were not sent to teach historical and biblical criticism,
hence were not given any more knowledge concerning
such questions than was possessed by their contem
poraries.''' §177. Is Not the Book a Forgery and a Fraud, if
Not Written by Moses ?
I. Consider (i) whether, in view of its own assertions
and the general belief, this book is not a fraudulent
imposture, if Moses did not write it ; (2) whether, if a
forgery, it could under any circumstances be counted
among the sacred writings ; (3) how, if a forgery, it
could possibly have gained acceptance in the Jewish
nation ; (4) whether the writer, whoever he was, did not
secure its acceptance on the pretense that it was the
work of Moses.
2. Consider, on the other hand, (i) whether, in those
days, there was anything in existence like the literary
usages and laws of the modern world, e. g., any literary
proprietorship, any literary copyright ; and, if these were
not in existence, can the modern conception of forgery or
plagiarism have existed ? (2) the suggestions made above
(§171, 2, 3) concerning ancient customs in connection
with writings ; (3) whether there are not books of excellent
morality which are, nevertheless, literary forgeries;'^ (4)
whether there have not been cases in which a modern law
book has been palmed off as ancient;"' (5) whether the-
proposition of forgery is possible in view of the fact that
Chap. 18. the supposed forgers, the priests of Zadok, include laws
" See G. B. Stevens, " The Bearing of New Testament Statements upon the
Authorship of Old Testament Books," Old Testament Student, Yol. VIII, pp. 164-70.
==See C. H. Toy, "The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old Testament,"
Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 124-33.
=3 E. g., the Sibylline oracles. »< Cf. Sir Henry Maine, in Ancient Law, p. 82

LEGAL LITERATURE — DEUTERONOMIC CODE I65
touching the interests of the country-Levites which are
in direct conflict with the interests of the Zadokites;'^
(6) whether the mass of the people who heard the read- $:i:3i;it9.
ing of the law was in any proper position to consider
critically the question of authorship ; (7) whether Hilkiah
in permitting the belief in the Mosaic authorship was
really guilty of delusion; was it not rather illusion? (8)
whether the principle of illusion is not (a) necessary in
all educational work ;"' {b) practiced in the Old and New
Testaments ;°' (<:) one of the greatest elements in the
teaching of Jesus himself ;'° (9) whether, after all, the
writer of this book was not properly using the word
Moses, inasmuch as {a) this work was only a continuation
of the work of Moses, along the same lines and for the
same ends ; (^) this work was but the fuller growth of
the seed planted by Moses ; (<:) even where the older
usage is changed, as in the case of the place of
worship, the principle underlying the changQ^is one
enunciated by Moses ; {d) the writer is doing only what
Moses himself under the changed circumstances would
have done ; (<?) the writer has done just what modern
writers do, as in the case of the name of Webster's
Dictionary, the original author having long been dead,
and the dictionary, although greatly modified and
enlarged, still bearing his name ; or the name of
Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar, many editions having
appeared since the death of the author, with very
significant changes in system and matter.
§178. The Religious Teachings of the Book. — Con
sider (i) the general religious teachings and -their sig
nificance (see §28); (2) the teachings of Deuteronomy
upon the special subjects compared in §§ 52-166.
§ 179. The Structure and General Character of the Book
of Deuteronomy. I. Consider the various sections which constitute the
'S Cf. Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and limes, pp. 76 f.
=» Cf. ibid., pp. 77 f.
"' Cf. Jer. 20 : 7, in which the prophet utters his disappointment in his discovery
that he had been illuded (not deluded); also Heb. 4 : 8, 9.
=8 Cf. John 16 : 12.

l66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
book of Deuteronomy as it now stands, and note their
specific contents :
j.j.j, (i) Introduction.
1:6-4:40. (2) The /«/ discourse of Moses, introductory.
4:41-43. (3) Appointment of three cities of refuge.
4:44-49. (4) Superscription to the second discourse of Moses.
5:1— 26: 19; chap. (5) The second discouxse — the law.
Chaps. 5-11. {a) Hortatory introduction.
Chaps. 12-26, 28. {b) Code of laws.
Chap. 27. (6) The acceptance of the code.
29:1—30:20. (7) The M/>(/ discourse, supplementary.
31:1-8. (8) Moses's last words of encouragement.
31:9-13, (9) Delivery of the law to the priests.
31:14,15,23. (10) Commission of Joshua.
31:16-22,24-30; (11) Song of Moses.
32:45-47.' ' (12) Final commendation of the law to Israel.
32:48—34:12. (13) Moses's blessing and death.
2. Consider the literary structure of this material
upon the modern hypothesis : "^ ( i ) To P are assigned
the few touches found in 1:3; 32:48-52; 34 : la, 5<J,
7-9 ; consider these passages in connection with the
commonly accepted idea of P, and note that by means of
them, at a late date, Deuteronomy was brought into the
Hexateuch. (2) To JE are assigned the earlier parts of the
book, viz., the incorporation of the blessing (chap. 33,
this being taken from JE in its original form); 27 : s-7a,-
31:14, 15; 31:23; 34:1a, ib-sa, 6, 10. (3) To D,
the first Deuteronomic writer, and to D', a second Deu
teronomic writer, is assigned the remainder, divided as
follows (D' being in black type): i : i f.; i 14 — 3: 13;
3:14-17; 3:18—4:28; 4:29-31; 4:32-40; 4:41-49;
5:1—26:19; 27:1-4; 27:7^-8; 27:9 f.; 27:11-26;
28: I — 29: 8; 29:9-28; 30: i-io; 30: 11-20; 31 : 1-13;
31:16-22; 31 : 24-27; 31:28-30; 32:45-47; 34:iif.
D° followed some time after D, and, besides making the
additions, incorporated the JE portion and the song
32 : 1-43-
"5 So Driver, Deuteronomy; for variations consult Bertholet, Deuteronomium
("Kurzer Hand-Commentar") ; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium (" Hand-Kommen-
tar"); G. F. MooRE, "Heuteronomy," Encyclopedia Biblica; St AERK, Das Deute
ronomium, sein Inhalt und seine literarische Form.

legal LITERATURE  DEUTERONOMIC CODE 1 67
3. Consider" the general character of the material in
Deuteronomy, consisting as it does of (i) historical, (2)
legal, (3) hortatory elements. Which of these elements
is the controlling one ? Is the history narrated simply
for the sake of imparting a knowledge of historical
events, or is it used rather for the purpose of illustrating
and enforcing great truths ? Notice also that the laws
are imbedded in a didactic setting, and that their gen
eral tone is not imperative, but a.rgumentative and per
suasive ; reasons are assigned for yielding obedience to
them and rewards are promised to the obedient. Consider
also the way in which the prophetic and priestly ele
ments are combined in Deuteronomy, how the great ideas
of the book are of a prophetic character, and how the
priestly laws are calculated to give concrete expression
to these prophetic ideas and secure their lodgment in
the life and thought of the people.
§ 1 80. Other Work of the Deutefonomic Writers. —
After the book of Deuteronomy was accepted as the law- josh.- 1:3-9, "-
book of Israel, there seems to have arisen a school of 5:4-8';*io^28-'
writers controlled by the spirit of Deuteronomy whose *^' ''^'''
activity may be clearly traced in the Old Testament i Kings 2:10-12;
literature during the years immediately preceding the I ¦ 14-^66 ;\! 1-9;
exile and onward fora century or more. Their work 's.i-s.ec.
may be seen most clearly in the books of Judges and judg. 2:7, 11-23;
Kings, which they edited from the Deuteronomic point e-i' 7-10;" etc?'
of view, inserting interpretations of the history of Israel
based wholly on the teachings of Deuteronomy. Much
of their work is found also in Joshua, and some traces i sam. i : 7 f ., 12.
of it appear in Samuel and in the preceding books of Gen. 26:1-5;
the Hexateuch (§.i 7 5).3'' Exod. 15:26.
§181. Literature to be Consulted.
Havernick, Introduction to the Pentateuch (1836, transl. 1850), pp. 410 f.;
Hengstenberg, Genuineness of the Pentateuch (1839, transl. 1847); Keil, Introduc
tion to the Old Testament (i8<i'i, 3d ed. 1873, transl. 1869); Kuenen, The Hexateuch
(1861, 2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886); Keil, Deuteronomy (1862, 2d ed. 1870, transl.
1867); Schroeder, Deuteronomy (Lange's "Commentary," 1866, transl. 1879);
Esf IN, Deuteronomy ("Speaker's Commentary," 1871); Kuenen, Religion of Israel,
VoL II, pp. 7-44 (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History
of Israel, pp. 402 ff. (ist ed. 1878, 2d ed. 1883, 4th ed. 1895, transl. 1885); W. R. Smith,
3° Cf. Addis, Documents ofthe Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 29 ff.

l68 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Old Testament in the Jewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892); BlSSELL, The Penta
teuch, Its Origin and Structure (1885); G. Vos, The Mosaic Origin of the Pentateuchal
Codes (i88(i); Cheyne, feremiah. His Life and Times (1888, chaps, v-vii); Driver,
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (l8<)l, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 69-103;
Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 7-44 (1892, transl. 1896); H. E. Ryle,
Canon of the Old Testament (i8g2, 2d ed. 1895), see Index; MonteFiore, Religion of
the Ancient Hebrews (" 'Hi'ohert Lectures," 1892), pp. 161-221; S. R. Driver, article
"Deuteronomy," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); B. W. Bacon, The
Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894); Cornill, The Prophets of Israel (189S), pp.
80-92; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism ofthe Pentateuch (1895), see Index;
Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), pp. i-xcv;
A. Harper, Deuteronomy (Expositor's Bible, 1895); C. J. Ball, "The Blessing of
Moses," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, l8g6, pp. 118-37; L. W.
Batten, "The Origin and Character of Deuteronomy," Biblical World, April,
1898, pp. 246-54; Ed. Konig, "The Unity of Deuteronomy," Expository Times,
Oct and Dec, 1898, pp. 16-19, 124-7; Feb., 1899, pp. 227-30; G. L. RoBlNSON,
"The Genesis of Deuteronomy," Expositor, Oct. and Nov., 1898, pp. 241-61, 351-69;
Feb., Apr., and May, 1899, pp. 151-60, 271-95, 356-71; H. E. Ryle, article "Deuter
onomy," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Th. Tyler, "Notes on
Deut. 32 : 42," Jewish Quarterly Review, 1898, pp. 379 f.; Addis, The Documents of
the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp. 2-^0 ; W. P. McKee, "Transient and Perma
nent Elements in Deuteronomy," Biblical World April, 1899, pp. 249 ff.; H.,G.
Mitchell, " The Use of the Second Person in Deuteronomy," Journal of Biblical
Literature, 1899, pp. 61-109; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899), pp.
170-80; F. H. Woods, article " Hexateuch," Hastings's Dictionary ofthe Bible, Vol.
I, (1899); G. F. Moore, article "Deuteronomy," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899);
Martin, The Tora of Moses (1900); Stibitz, "The Centralization of Jehovah Wor
ship in Israel," Reformed Church Review, Jan., 1900; Duff, Old Testament Theology,
Vol. II (1900); J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, Ihe Hexateuch,
Vol. I (1900); Hayman, "The Blessing of Moses," American Journal of Semitic
Languages and Literatures, VoL XVII (1901), pp. 96-106; Wellhausen and
Cheyne, article "Hexateuch," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Warren, "The
Origin of the Pentateuch," Biblical World, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 194 ff.
KuEPER, Jeremias librorum sacrorum interpres et vindex (1838), pp. 4-4S; J. L.
Konig, " Das Deuteronomium und der Prophet Jeremiah," Alttestamentliche Studien,
Vol. II (1839); Riehm, Die Gesetzgebung Mosis im Lande Moab (1854); K. H. Graf,
Der Segen Mose's (1857); F. W. ScHULTZ, Das Deuteronomium , (18 Sg); KN(iBEL,Das
Deuteronomium (" Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament;" 1861); Kamp
hausen, Das Lied Moses (1862); KosTERS, De Historie-Beschouwing van den Deutero-
nomist met de Berichten in Gen. — Num, vergeleken (1868); Klostermann, " Das Lied
Mose's und das Deuteronomium," Studien und Kritiken, 187 if.; KleineRT, Das
Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker (1872); Reinke,- " Ueber das unter dem
Konige Josia aufgefundene Gesetzbuch," Beitrdge zur Erkldrung des Alten Testa
ments, 8^1872), pp. 131-80; Riehm, Studien und Kritiken, 1873, pp. 165-200; ZuNZ,
Zeitschrift ((er deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXVIII (1873), pp. 669-76;
Kayser, Das vorexilische Buch der Urgeschichte Israel und seine Erweiterungen
(1874); HOLLENBERG, "Die deuteronomischen Bestandtheile des Buches Josua,"
Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp, 462-506; Havet, Le Christianisme et ses origines.

LEGAL LITERATURE  DEUTERONOMIC CODE 1 69
Vol. Ill (1878), pp. 32 ff.; Reuss, L'histoire sainte et la loi. Vol. I (1879), pp. 154 ff.;
J. J. P. Valeton, " Deuteronomium," Theologische Studien, Vol. V (1879),, pp. 169-206,
291-313; VI (1880), pp. 133-74, ,303-20; VII (1881), pp. 39-56, 205-28; Steinthal,
"Das fiinfte Buch Mose," Zeitschrift fiir Volkerpsychologie und Sprachwissensc haft,
1879, pp. 1-28; Idem, "Die erzahlenden Stiicke im fiinften Buche Mose," ibid., 1880,
pp. 253-89; Delitzsch, "Pentateuch-kritische Studien," Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wis
senschaft und kirchliches Leben,'Vol. I (1880), pp. 445 ff., 503 ff., 559 ff.; Stade, Zeit
schrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. V (1885), pp. 292-300; D'Eichthal,
Mllanges de critique biblique (i886); Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887),
pp. 148-73,649-71; 'Martin , Introduction d la critique gdnirale de I'Ancien Testa
ment, Vol. I (1887), pp. 295 ff.; Vernes, Une nouvelle hypothise sur la composition du
Deut.; examen des vues de M. d' Eichthal (l88i); Kuenen, "De Jongste Phasen der
Critiek van den Hexateuch," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1888, pp. 35 ff.; Horst, "Etudes
sur le DeuL," Revue de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. XVI (1888), pp. 28-65; XVII
(1889), pp, 1-22; XVIII (1890), pp. 320-34; XXIII (1895), 184-200; XXVII (1899),
pp. 119-76; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuch und der historischen
Biicher des Alten Testaments (1889, 3d ed. 1899); Baudissin, Gesehichte des alttesta
mentlichen Priesterthums (1889); Van Hoonacker, L'origine des 4 premiers chapitres
du Deut. (1889); A. Zahn, Das Deuteronomium (1890); Klostermann, "Beitrage
zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Pentateuch," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, 1890-92;
iJiONTET, Le Deutlronome {i8gi); Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament {l8gi,
2d ed. 1892), pp. 29-4S ; Westphal, Les sources du Pentateuch, Vol. II (1892), pp.
32 fi.; Oettli, Das Deuteronomium (1893); H, Preiss, Zum Deuteronomium, — ein
Beitrag zur Kritik des Pentateuchs (i8g2); Marti, "Daserste ofKcielle Bekenntnis,"
Zeitschrift fiir Theologie und Kirche, 1892, pp. 29-73; Reuss, Die heilige Gesehichte
und das Gesetz (1893), pp. 106 ff.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions
geschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), § 16; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament
(1893), pp. 209-25; 'VilLXiEBOER, Die Litteratur desAlten Testament (1893, tr. 1894),
§ II; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 255-331; Steuernagel,
Der Rahmen^ des Deuteronomium (1894); Willy S-xaerk, Das Deuteronomium, sein
Inhalt und seine literarische Form (l8gn); PlEPENBRiNG, "Lar^forme et le code de
Josias," Revue de l'histoire des religions. Vol. XXIX (1894), pp. 123 ff.; Steuernagel,
Die Entstehung des deuteronomischen Gesetzes (1896); Naumann, Das Deuterono
mium (1897); D. Castelli, " Una congettura sopra Deuteronomio 32 : 5," Zeitschrift
fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVII (1897), pp. 337 f.; M. Lambert, "Le
cantique de Moise, Deut. XXXII," Revue des itudes juives. Vol. XXXVI (1898), pp.
47-52; von Gall, "Deuteronomium und Deuteronomius," Zeitschrift fiir die alttest
amentliche Wissenschaft.Vol.XlX (1899), pp. 173-7; J- Hal]£vy, "Le Deut^ronome,"
Revue .simitique. Vol. \ll (1899), pp. 313-32; Bertholet, Deuteronomium erkldrt
("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1899), pp. ix-xxix; Finke, Wer
hat dies Biicher Moses verfasst? (1900); KLOSTERMANN, Deuteronomium und Gr&g&s
(1900); Steuernagel, Ueberseizung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium
und Josua, und allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch (" Hand-Kommentar zum
Alten Testament," 1900); Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes
(1901), pp. 103-22 ; HerNER, Ist der zweite Dekalog dlter als das Bundesbuch? (1901);
Hummelauer, Commentarius in Deuteronomium (1901).

CHAPTER XIII.

Kings 24 : 1-7.

THE LEGAL LITERATURE — EZEKIEL S CONTRIBUTION.
§ 182. The Historical Situation of which Ezekiel
and his work formed a part deserves careful study
(§§3ofi-)-' I. Gather together the principal facts (i) of the first
deportation as narrated in Kings, viz., the reign of
Jehoiakim, its character ; the reign of Jehoiachin, the
invasion of Nebuchadnezzar, the carrying away of the
princes, etc. (vs. 14); the date of this being 597 B. C;
(2) of the second deportation, including the reign of
Zedekiah, the siege of Jerusalem, its destruction, the car
rying away of the residue (vs. 1 1).
2. Note (i) the situation after the destruction of the
city under Gedaliah, and the story of Gedaliah's murder;
(2) the prophet's estimate of those taken away captive
and those allowed to remain (the good and the bad figs),
and consider {d) whether it was the. captives or those
left behind who were adjudged the more important;
also {])) which of these two classes was supposed to be suf
fering the more keenly; still further (<c), how the lower
classes left behind regarded these matters.
3. Study Jeremiah's letter' to the captives in Babylon
and formulate the policy therein advocated in respect to
business, marriage, etc.
'See McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill, pp. 227-431 ;
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 488-98 ; Stade, Gesehichte
des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 675-703; II, 1-67; Guthe, art. "Israel," §§40-47,
Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II.
'It is very probable that Jer., chap. 29, at least in its present form, is from a
later writer, for : (l) Jeremiah is spoken of in the third person and described "as the
prophet ; " (2) the nature of the advice given suggests that it comes from one looking
back upon the conditions he is dealing -with, rather than one living in the midst of
movements the outcome of which was still uncertain; (3) parts of it seem to be
dependent upon the Books of Kings ; (4) the booklet, chaps. 26-29, bears marks of
late workmanship, linguistic and otherwise. See, c. g., Cornill, The Book of fere-
miah (SBOT); Schmidt, arL "Jeremiah," Encyclopedia Biblica; Dvhm, Das Buch
Jeremia ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum A. T.").
170

2 Kings 25 : i-ai ;
Jer., chap. 52.

2 Kings 25 : 22-26.

Jer., chap, 24;
29 : 15-20.

Ezek. 11:14-21;
Jer., chaps. 42-
44.
Bzek. 33 : 24 f .

Jer., chap. 29,

LEGAL LITERATURE  EZEKIEL's CONTRIBUTION I/I
4. Consider the general effect which the news of the Ezek. 33:211.
fall of Jerusalem must have had when it reached the ears
of those who were already in captivity, among whom was
Ezekiel. See Guthe, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 239 ff.
5. Note (i) that the period was one of transition, or,
perhaps more truly, of revolution ; one in which mon-
olatry was tp be supplanted by monotheism, idolatry by
the sole worship of Jehovah ; (2) that the' principal
scene of action was no longer Palestine, but Babylon ;
(3) that Israel was now scattered, the nationality broken ;
(4) that the work of the prophetic order was giving
place to that of the priestly order ; for Jeremiah and Eze
kiel were priests, and the books of Haggai, Zechariah, Jer. i : i ; Ezek.
and Malachi, which follow, are far more priestly than
prophetic {cf. § 34).
§ 183. The Preparation of Ezekiel.
I. Consider (i) the significance of the fact that he was 1:3.3
a priest, and the great influence, at this time, of the
priestly position, second only to that of the king; (2)
the character of the training which he would receive; 22:25,26:4:14.
(3) the influence which must have been exercised over
him by the book of Deuteronomy and by Jeremiah's ser
mons (see § 184).
2. Note (i) the fact that Ezekiel had been in cap- 33:"; «/. 26:11.
tivity already eleven years ¦• when news of the fall of
Jerusalem was received ; (2) the fact that the call came to 1:2.
him'after five years' experience in captivity (592 B. C);
(3) the latest date in the book (570 B. C). 29:17.
3. Study (i) the strange and wonderful character of
' All Scripture references in this chapter cited without the name of the book are
from Ezekiel.
-•33:21 states that the tidings came in the twelfth year of the captivity; but we
learn from 26 : I f. that Ezekiel already knew of the fall of Jerusalem in the eleventh
year ofthe captivity. The Syriac version has eleventh year in 33: 21 also, and this is
probably correct. Jerusalem fell on the ninth day of the fourth month of the eleventh
year of Zedekiah's reign (2 Kings 25 :2 f.; Jer. 39 : 2), which was also the eleventh
year of the captivity, since Zedekiah was placed on the throne when Jehoiachin was
removed to Babylon (2 Kings 24 : 15 ff.); and it is not reasonable to suppose that the
captives in Babylon did not hear of the fall of their city until a year and a half after
the event.

172 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
the visions which constituted the call, including {a) the
1:4-48. vision of God — what conceptions of God are implied
in the four living creatures (vss. 5-14), the four wheels
2:iff. (vss. 15-21), the throne and glory (vss. 22-28)? {b) the
2:3-7. prophet's introduction to his work by the God seen in
2:8—3:3. the vision — the people a rebellious one, the inspira-
3:4-9. tion accorded him, the special strength given him, his
3:10-15. particular mission to the captives of Tel-abib, the pre-
3:i6-2j. cise character of his function, viz., to be a watchman ; (2)
33:1-9. his later feeling of responsibility as a watchman.
4. Examine, for the purpose of gaining a better point
of view for an appreciation' of his work, certain refer-
3:4-11,26:14:1-5. ences to his life and activity in exile : (i) the character
11:25. of the people with whom he was called to work; (2) his
20:1:8:1:14:1-5. own character as Jehovah's spokesman ; (3) the fact that
he was frequently consulted in his own house by the
24:15-18. 19-27. elders of Israel ; (4) his use of the death of his wife as
an occasion fora public message; (5) the threatening
character of his early sermons ; (6) the consolatory
33:30-33. character of his later sermons ; (7) his place and stand
ing among the exiles.
§184. Ezekiel's Prophetic 'Work. — For the better
understanding of Ezekiel's work as a priest, and the
priestly structure of which he was the author, it' is
important that his work as prophet should be appreci
ated. This is perhaps most easily considered in connec
tion with that of Jeremiah.
I. Consider the degree of dependence which Eze
kiel exhibits in relation to Jeremiah as seen in the fol
lowing passages: 3:3, cf. Jer. 15:16; 3:17, ^/. Jer,
6:17; 7:14, 27, cf. Jer. 4:5-9; chap. 13, cf Jer,
14:13-16; 13: 10, <r/. Jer. 6: 14; 16 : 51, <r/. Jer. 3 : 11
chap. i8, cf. Jer. 31:29^; chap. 20, cf Jer. 11:3-8
24 : 16-23, ^/- Jer. 16 : 3-9 ; chaps.. 29-31, cf. Jer., chap
46; chap. 34, cf. Jer. 23:1-4; 36:26, cf. Jer. 24:7
37:24, ef. Jer. 30 : 9 ; 38 : 15, cf. Jer. ,6:22.
See especially Smend, Der Prophet Ezechiel f" Kurzgefasstes
exegetisches Handbuch," 1880), pp. xxiv f.; C. H. Toy, art.
"Ezekiel," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II, col. 1462 ; Davidson, The
Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Camb. Bible, 1892), pp. xix f, xlvi ff. '

LEGAL LITERATURE  EZEKIEL's CONTRIBUTION I73
2. Study (i) the place occupied in his preaching by Chap. 18; cf
the teaching of individual responsibility — does he elabo- ?^"*' '''• 'f '
Jer. 31:391.
rate the teaching of Jeremiah on this subject ? does he
give it any special application to the exiles? (2) his 33:1-17.
counsels concerning submission to Babylon and his pre
dictions concerning Jerusalem's fall, as compared with ^^i"'"-!^;
those of Jeremiah. 38:14-23.
3. Consider (i) his ethical and social teachings as Chaps. 18, 22.
enunciated, e. g., in chaps. 18 and 22, and note their
high character so far as concerns relations between
Israelites ; (2) his attitude toward the outside nations,
to which no obligations are due, there being as yet no Chaps. 25-32.
international code.
4. Consider, also, if possible, Ezekiel's conceptions
concerning (i) God — how far does he sympathize
with the older ideas, how far with the new ? Is he a
monotheist? or does he accept the existence of other
deities? Is the conception of Jehovah as a universal 1:26,28; 10:19;
God associated with the older idea of the tribal God? 43:7.'
(2) Man — his inward life, his outward life, reward and 18:28; 18:5-8.
punishment, the hereafter — .f^^^?/, transformation of the 26:20; 31:14-17;
heart (regeneration); cf. Jer. 31: 33. 36:261.
See Tov, art. " Ezekiel," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II, cols.
1467 ff ; Davidson, op. cit., pp. xxxi-xliii.
§ 185. Ezekiel's Own Representations Conceming Chaps.
40-48. — Frequent references are made by the prophet
to the origin of the material contained in these chapters.
Consider the various statements: (i) the man with an 40:1-4.
appearance like brass and a line of flax in his hand, and
a measuring reed — what or whom did this man symbol
ize? what was his function? what the purpose of his
work ? (2) the various steps in his guidance of the 40: 17. 24, 28, 32,
prophet; (3) the messages delivered from time to time 42 : 13 ; 43': 6-12. '
in the progress of the journey; (4) the visions of divine 44:5-8; 47:6if.
elorv revealed; (5) the use of the phrase, "thus saith 43:1-5:44:4.
, ^ , !. 42:18; 44:9; 45:9;
the Lord God. 46:1, 16; 47:13.
Formulate, upon the basis of this material, a state
ment covering the author's point of view on this ques
tion.

174 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
§ 1 86. The Structure and General Character of Ezek.,
Chaps. 40-48.
40:1—43:12. I. Note the contents of the section: (i) plans and
43:13-27. specifications for the future temple; (2) the ordinances
44:4-31. for the erection and dedication of the altar; (3) the law
45:1-5. concerning the priesthood; (4) the sacred territory
5:6-25. located and defined; (5) regulations in reference to
44:1-3; 46:1-18. sacrifices; (6) the function of "the prince," with special
46:19-24. reference to his religious obligations; (7) the law pro
viding special places for the cooking of the sacrifices
47:1-12. offered by the people; (8) description of the living
47:13—48:29. waters issuing from the temple; (9) a statement of the
boundaries of the land and its allotment among the
tribes, with especial provision for proselytes (47 : 22 f.) ;
48:30-35. (10) the dimensions of the Holy City and the location of
its twelve gates.
40:1. 2. Consider (i) that this material comes from a
date twelve years later than any portion of the book'
except 29: 17, 18; (2) that there is in this section no
"teaching" on any subject; (3) that there is given here
a picture in which a people is represented as living in
an ideal condition ; (4) "that it does not describe how
salvation is to be attained, for the salvation is realized
and enjoyed ; it describes the people and their condition
and their life now that redemption has come ;"* (5) that,
with the temple occupying the central place, there are
taken up questions relating to the priests, the sacrifices,
the land including the Dead Sea, the division of terri
tory, the laying out of the city; (6) that, in addition,
there are the regulations regarding the functions of the
"prince;" (7) that, in other words, it is an ideal state
5 Attention may be called here to the fact that the genuineness of the book or of
certain parts of it has been called in question by some scholars ; e. g., ZUNZ, Gottes
dienstliche Vortrage der Juden (2d ed.), pp. 165 ff., and in ZDMG., Vol. XXVII, pp.
676 ff., and Geiger, Urschrift und iibersetzungen der Bibel, p. 23, place the whole
book in the Persian period; Seinecke, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel,Yol. II (1884),
pp. I ff., assigns it to the Maccabsean period ; VoLZ, Die vorexilische Jahweprophetie
und der Messias (1897), p. 84, note, regards the last nine chapters as the work of a
disciple of Ezekiel. These views, however, have not met with any general acceptance.
'A. B. Davidson, op. cit., p. 288.

LEGAL LITERATURE  EZEKIEL's CONTRIBUTION I 75
which is thus presented, a conception which constitutes
the germ of the doctrine of the kingdom of God.
3. Consider, still further, (i) its form, namely vision, 40:2; 43:3.
in contrast with the form of Deuteronomy, which was
the sermonic; (2) how, not infrequently, it lapses into 45: iff-; 46:iff.;
the form of sermon or address to the people; (3)
whether in spirit it niore nearly resembles Deuteronomy
or Leviticus ; (4) the strange and confusing mingling of
the natural and supernatural elements, and show the
origin of this in the prophetic conception of life ; (5)
the relation of this picture to the preceding context, in 39:25-29.
which Israel is represented as having now received the
outpouring of the divine spirit — is it not the climax of
the book ?
§ 187. The Principal Ideas of the section deserve clas
sification and formulation :
I. Note the statement, made above,, to the effect that
there were no "teachings" in the section; this does not
mean, however, that the picture does not rest upon cer
tain conceptions, or imply the truth of certain great
ideas. 2. For a general statement of the ideas of Ezekiel in
this section, see §31. For the material on the priest,
see §§65, 66; on the place of worship, §§77, 78; on
sacrifice, §§89, 90; on feasts, §102; on the sabbath,
§§114, 115; on clean and unclean, §§ 128, 129.
3. Consider some of the more important of the great
ideas that underlie the form of presentation employed in ,
these closing chapters, keeping in mind constantly the ¦
necessity in many cases of basing our conclusions largely
upon the general tone and character of the material
rather than upon specific statements and texts, (i) The
idea of God — what is the bearing upon this idea of (a)
the fact that the temple, Jehovah's house, is placed in the 45:1-8.
middle of the Holy Land and surrounded on all sides
by the land of the priests, Jehovah's ministers, thus being
kept from contact with everything profane and pollut
ing ? {V) the stringent regulations concerning those who 44:4-28.
may approach Jehovah to offer sacrifice, and concerning
their apparel, etc.? (<r) the exclusion of foreigners from

176 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
the temple and of the laity from the inner court of the
temple ? Does not the whole representation in chaps.
40-48 give the impression of the great exaltation and
43:1-5. holiness of Jehovah in comparison with everything
43:6-9; 48:35. human? (2) Jehovah's relation to Israel — note that
Jehovah is represented as having restored his people to
favor, and as requiring of them holiness in order that
44:7,9' they may enjoy his favor forever. Note also the feeling
of superiority over all foreigners that appears in the
restrictions placed upon the latter, though provision is
- made for proselytes. Does not the spirit of particular
ism appear here very clearly ? (3) The subordination of
political to religious ideals — note {a) the fact that the
"prince's" functions are almost wholly religious; {b^ the
45 : 8-12; 46: 16 ff, exceedingly few non-religious matters that are dealt
with ; {c) the complete silence on all matters relating to
national ambition or development; {d) the fact that the.
nation is represented rather as a community existing
only for religious purposes ; (1?) the emphasis laid on the
ceremonial as compared with the ethical side of the reli-
43:2iff.; 44:27; gious life. (4) The great emphasis laid upon the idea of
^'¦''' atonement as an evidence of an increasing sense of the
exceeding sinfulness of sin. Is this not a correlative of
the exalted idea of Jehovah's holiness ?
§ 188. The General Relation of Ezek., Chaps. 40-48, to
Deuteronomy.
44:10-15; </. I. Consider the place of the priests in both sections,
Deut. i8:i-8. , t^
noting that Deuteronomy makes no distinction between
priests and Levites, while Ezekiel degrades the Levites,
gives the reasons for so doing, and restricts the priest
hood to the sons of Zadok.
44:17-27;^/. 2. Consider the comparative fulness in the treatment
neut. 17 : 9.
44:29!; chaps, of (i) the duties of priests, (2) the provision made for the
li': 1-4. '''¦''*'' priests; does not this indicate a great advance in the
conception of the place and dignity of the priesthood ?
3. Consider the absence in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, as
compared with Deuteronomy, of warnings against idola
try.
Deut, chap. 16. 4. Consider the feasts as enumerated in Deuter
onomy, the sacrificial details being absent; while in

LEGAL LITERATURE — ^EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION 1 77
Ezekiel' the details of the material are given, and a Ezek. 45:21-25.
special ceremony of purification of the sanctuary on the 45: 18-20 (lxx).
first day of the first and seventh months.
5. Consider the apparent failure of the J)euteronomic
scheme in the catastrophe of the exile ; for was not this
scheme intended for a " holy " people, and to serve as Deut. 7:6.
the expression of a people closely united with a "holy"
God ? Was it not intended to bring the people into a
life which should be worthy of Jehovah, their Lord, and
was not the destruction of Jerusalem understood to sepa
rate them from him ?
6. Is not Ezekiel's scheme clearly prepared for a
people restored from captivity, and not only restored,
but actually purified and regenerated? "It opens with 36:24-28.
an elaborate account of a new temple set on the sacred
hill. The 'law of the house' is expounded with much 40:1—43:12.
detail, and the prophet then announces the ordinances
of the altar. These are followed in turn by regulations
for the priesthood and the appropriate sacrifices, and a
scheme of cultus is thus displayed by which the people,
once more consecrated, shall be preserved from further
temptation to unfaithfulness, and shall secure the pres
ence of Jehovah in their midst forever." °
The relationship of Ezekiel's cultus to that of P will
be considered in the next chapter.
§ 189. Literature to be Consulted.
P. Fairbairn, Exposition of the Book of Ezekiel (i8si); Henderson, The Book
of the Prophet Ezekiel Translated, etc. (i8';i';fj; H. Smith VfARLEiGH, Ezekiel's Temple
(1856); Colenso, The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined (i8t2-'jg).
Vol. VI, pp. 3-23; Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869-70, transl. 1882), VoL II, pp.
190 ff.; CuRRiE,.£'z^/J2V/(" Speaker's Commentary," 1876); 'K.xsenen, The Prophets and
Prophecy in Israel (1S77), pp. 238-42; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of
Israel (1878, transl. 1885), pp. 378 ff.; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish
Church (i,st ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 442 f.; Plumptre, "Ezekiel: An Ideal Biog
raphy,'' Expositor, 1884 ; Kuenen, Modern Review, Oct., 1884, pp. 617-40 ; Kuenen,
The Hexateuch (transk from the Dutch, 1886), § 15, 10; H. Sulley, The Temple of
Ezekiel's Prophecy (1888); Kittel, History of the Hebrews.Vol. I (1888-92, transL
1895), pp. 125 ff.; F. W. Farrar, "The Last Nine Chapters of Ezekiel," Expositor,
1889, pp. I ff.; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891,
6th ed. 1897), pp. 145 ff., 278-98; Kirkpatrick, Doctrine of the Prophets (1892),
1 Probably from oversight the Feast of Weeks is omitted.
•J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, p. 127.

178 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
pp. 320-45 ; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures,"
1S92), see Index; A. B. Davidson, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel ("Camb. Bible,"
1892); SKiNNER,.£z«i!>/(" Expositor's Bible," 1895); Cornill, The Prophets of Israel
(1895) PP- 115-.30 ; L. B. Paton, Presbyterian and Reformed Review, Jan., 1896, pp.
98 ff.; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (2d ed. 1897), pp. 126 ff.; Douglas,
"Ezekiel's Temple," Expository 7Vot«, Vol. IX (1898), pp. 515 ff.; Skinner, article
"Ezekiel," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Wood, article " Hexa
teuch," Hastings's Dictionary ¦ of the Bible, VoL II (1899), P- 374; C. H. Toy, The
Book ofthe Prophet Ezekiel — A New English Translation (" Sacred Books of the Old
and New Testaments," Part XII, 1899); J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-
Battersby, The Hexateuch, VoL I (1900), pp. 126 ff.; C. H. Toy, article "Ezekiel,"
Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Wellhausen and Cheyne, article "Hexa
teuch," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901), coll. 2051 f.; Konig, "The Priests and
the Levites in Ezek. 44 : 7-IS," Expository Times, April, 1901 ; CoBERN, Ezekiel and
Daniel (igoi).
Hafenreffer, Templum Ezekiel (1613); E. F. Rosenmuller, Scholia in Vetus
Testamentum, Pars VI (2d ed. 1826), pp. 575 ff.; ZuNZ, Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrage
der Juden (1832, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 165-70 ; J. F. Bottcher, Proben alttestamentlicher
Schrifterkldrung (1833), pp. 218-365; Havernick, Commentar iiber den Prophet
Ezechiel (1843); HiTZiG, Der Prophet -Ezechiel erkldrt (1847); Balmer-Rinck, Des
Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel (1856); Th. Kliefoth, Das Buch Ezechiels
iibersetzt und erkldrt (1864 i.); Graf, Gesehichte der Biicher des alten Bundes (l8tb),
pp. 81-3; Hengstenberg, Der Prophet Ezechiel (lid"]); Keil, Der Prophet Ezechiel
(1868, 2d ed. 1882); Schrader, article "Ezechiel," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, VoL
II (1869); ZuNZ, " Bibelkritisches. II: Ezechiel," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Mor
genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXVII (1873), pp. 676-81; Schroder, Das Buch
Ezechiel ("Langes Bibelwerk," 1873); G. C. Steynis, De Verhouding van de ,
Wetgeving bij Ezekiel tot die in den Pentateuch (1873); Graetz, "Die Echtheit des
Buches des Propheten Ezechiel," Monatsschrift fiir Gesehichte und Wissenschaft des
Judenthums, Vol. XXIII (1874), pp. 433-46, 515-25 ; Kayser, Das vorexilische Buch
der Urgeschichte Israels und seine Erweiterungen (1874), pp, 176 ff.; DuHM, Theologie
der Propheten (18"] S), pp. 208-11, 216 f., 252-63; "S^'OLDEViE, Jahrbiicher fiir protes
tantisehe Theologie, 1875, pp. 355 ff-> Klostermann, "Ezechiel, ein Beitrag zur
bessern Wiirdigung seiner Person und seiner Schrift," Theologische Studien und
Kritiken, 1877, pp. 391-439 ; Klostermann, " Hat Ezechiel die in Lev. 18-26 am
deutlichsten erkennbare Gesetzessammlung verfasst ?" Zeitschrift fiir Lutherische
Theologie, 1877, pp. 406-45 (reprinted in Der Pentateuch, 1893, pp. 368 ff.); Smend,
Der Prophet Ezechiel ("Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum A. T.," 1880);
Horst, Lev. 77-26 und Hezekiel (1881); E. Kuhn, "Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel
der VoUendungszeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Vol. LV (1882), pp. 601-
88; Cornill, Der Prophet Ezechiel geschildert (1882); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung
des altisraelitischen Prophetenthums (1883), pp, 38-60 ; P. WURSTER, "Zur Charakter-
istik und Gesehichte des Priestercodex und Heiligkeitsgesetzes," Zeitschrift fiir die
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. IV (1884), pp. 122 f.; Seinecke, Gesehichte des
Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1884), pp. 1-20 ; Dillmann, Die Biicher Numeri Deutero
nomium und foshua (2d ed. 1 886), pp. 644 ff.; Cornill, Das Buch des Prophet
Ezechiel {l 886) ; Arndt, Die Stellung Ezechiels in der alttestamentlichen Prophetic ( 1 886);
Valeton, Viertal Voorlez. over Prophet, des Ouden Verbonds (i88t); Stade, Gesehichte

LEGAL LITERATURE  EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION I 79
des Volkes Israel, Vol, II (1888), pp. 1-63; Orelli, Ezekiel (" Kurzgefasster Com
mentar," 1888, 2d ed. 1896); H. Meulenbelt, De Prediking van den Prefect Ezechill
(1888); Perrot et Chipiez, Le temple de Jlrusalem et la maison du Bois-Liban
restituis d'apris Ezikiel et le livre des Rois (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das alte
Testament (l88g-go), VoL II, pp. 1 1 1-26; Knabenbauer, Commentarius in Ezek. (1890);
L. Gautier, La mission du prophite Ezikiel (i8gi); Baentzsch, Das Heiligkeitsgesetz
(1893), pp. 121 ff.; Diestel, article " Hesekiel," Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen
Alterthums, Vol. I (2d ed., 1893); Gaupp, "Die EigentUmlichkeit des Ezekiel,"
Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, Vol. V (1894), pp. 613 ff.; Kamrath, " Der messianische
Theil des ezech. Proph., besonders in seihen Verhaltnissen zum Hexateuch," /a,4r-
biicher fiir protestantisehe Theologie, Vol. XVII (1891), pp. 585 ff.; CoRNILL, Einlei
tung in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 77 f., 168-70 ; Wildeboer, Die Litteratur des
Alten Testaments (1893, transl. 1895), pp. 245-57; Konig. Einleitung in das Alte
Testament (1893), pp. 354-60; D. H. MiJLLER, Ezechiel-Studien (1895); BERTHOLET,
Die Verfassungsentwurf des Hesechiel (3896); BERTHOLET, Das Buch Hesekiel
erkldrt ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1897); Dussaud, "Les
visions d'Ez^kiel," Revue de l'histoire des religions. Vol. XIX (1898), pp. 301 ff.;
Orelli, article " Ezechiel," Realencyklopddie fiir Protestantisehe Theologie und Kirche,
Vol. V (3d ed., 1898); Kraetzschmar, Das Buch Ezechiel iibersetzt und erkldrt
("Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900); Baudissin, Einleitung in die
Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. I90ff., 453-7'; Schmalzl, Ezechiel erkldrt
("Kurzgefasster wissenschaftL Commentar," 1901).

CHAPTER XIV.
THE LEGAL LITERATURE — THE PRIESTLY CODE.
§ 190. The Story of the Adoption of the Law in Ezra's
Times (§§ 40-44).'
I. Consider the conditions of the times in which this
Ezra 7: 1, 7-9; event occurred : (i) the date of the event ;= (2) the char-
Neh. 7:73; 9:1. acter of Ezra and his constituency; (3) the duration of
8:2iH.;9':5ff. Ezra's joumey, March to August ; (4) the gifts and let-
8:24-30. ' ters; (5) the work of Nehemiah (§40); (6) the work of
Ezra (§41).
Neh., chaps. 8-10. 2. Study the account of the formal adoption, includ
ing (i) the place of the assembly; (2) the duration of the
Neh. 8:3. reading; (3) the circumstances attending the reading;
Neh. 8:8. (4) the reception given the law by the people; (5) the
Neh. 8: 9. method of interpretation; (6) the occasion of their
Neh.8:i3ff. weeping; (7) the reading on the second day in refer
ence to the Feast of Booths, and the compliance of the
Neh. 9: 39; 10: 29- people; (8) the various things which they covenanted to
Neh. 10:37-39. do (§43); (9) the fact that the priests are clearly distin
guished from the Levites (§§43, 68).
2 Kings 22:1-+ 3. Compare the general circumstances of the accept-
'''^^' ance of the book of Deuteronomy (§25) with those of
the acceptance of this book, noting points of similarity
and difference, e. g., (i) the national assembly; (2) the
celebration of a feast, in one case the Passover, in the other
' Ezra's work is probably to be placed after that of Nehemiah ; for the arguments
in support of this position see Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel (l8gn ; transl. into Ger
man, 1895); Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian, and
Greek Periods, pp. 196 ff.; Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, pp. 36-81 ;
C. C. Torrey, The Comp'osition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah, pp. 51-65;
Guthe, art, " Israel " (§§ 55 ff,), Encyc. Biblica; A. van Hoo*iacker, Nouvelles itudes
sur la restauration juive apris I'exile de Babylone (1896).
" The arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem is placed shortly after 433 B. C. by KosTERS and
Cheyne, Encyc. Biblica, Vol. II, col. 1487, and others. Professor van Hoonacker,
however, places it in the seventh year of Artaxerxes II., viz., 398-7; while Kuenen
Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur biblischen Wissenschaft (1894), Ed. Meyer, Die Ent
stehung des Judenthums (1896), and others retain the date 458 B. C.
180

LEGAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY CODE l8l
the Feast of Booths, in a manner different from that in
which they had previously been observed in Canaan.
4. Consider, now, whether the law adopted thus by
the people in Ezra's time was (i) the entire Hexateuch
as we now possess it; or (2) the so-called Holiness
Code, that is, Lev., chaps. 17-2^; or (3) the whole
Levitical code known as P (§ 43).'
5. Consider why, if Ezra brought the law with him
in 458 B. C, he took no steps to make it known to the Ezra7:i4.
people until twelve years later, after Nehemiah had come
(446 or 445 B. C). Is it enough to answer that this was
delayed by (i) the troublous character of the times Ezra 10: 7.
which followed the expulsion of the foreign wives ; (2)
the necessity of Ezra's taking time to acquaint himself
with the conditions of the country and the adjustment
of the details of the law to those conditions ; (3) the
need of such a character as Nehemiah to arouse the
enthusiasm of the people ?
§ 191. Representations in P Conceming its Authorship
{cf. closely § 171).
I. Read and compare some of the various passages
in P which refer to its authorship, noting particularly
the phraseology employed, e. g., (i) "And Jehovah Exod.25:i.
spake unto Moses, saying;" (2) "And he gave unto Exod. 31:18.
Moses the two tables of the testimony, tables of stone,
written with the finger of God;" (3) "And Moses Exod. 35:1,4.
assembled all the congregation of the children of Israel,
and said unto them;" (4) "And it came to pass on the Lev. 9:1.
eighth day, that Moses called Aaron and his sons, and
the elders of Israel ; and he said unto Aaron ; " (5) "And Lev. 10:8. 12.
Jehovah spake unto Aaron, saying;" (6) "And Jehovah Lev. ii:i; 14:33;
spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying;" (7) "These Le'v.'26:46; «-/.
are the statutes and ordinances and laws, which Jehovah
made between him and the children of Israel in Mount
Sinai by Moses."
5 This point may well be omitted, except by those who desire to go into the criti
cal questions involved ; see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The
Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 138 ff.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, §57;
Steuernagel, Deuteronomium und Josua {" Handkommentar z. A. T."), pp. 277 ff.;
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 405 ff.; the articles on the
Hexateuch in the various Bible dictionaries ; and the discussions in the many intro
ductions to the Old Testament.

I82

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT.

Numb. 33:2. 2. Read the interesting passage in which writing is
ascribed to Moses, and consider whether the contents are
consistent with an assignment to the times ot Moses.
3. Take up now, one by one, the suggestions which
have been offered in explanation of a non-Mosaic author
ship, as indicated in.§ 171 under 2, 3, 4, 5.
§ 192. Point of View and Coloring of the Priestly Code
(^/. §172).
I. Consider, as bearing upon the Mosaic origin, (i)
the representation concerning the plains of Moab as the
scene of certain legislation concerning Levitical cities;
(2) the situation at Sinai as the scene of certain events
and legislation ; (3) the situation in Egypt as the place
of the initiation of the Passover ; (4) the exact statement
of the date of departure from Sinai ; (5) the date of the
ordinances of the tabernacle and of its erection, together
with the statement that it accompanied Israel through
Lev. 14:34; 18:3; all the wanderings ; (6) the fact that it looks forward to
19:23; Numb. E> ' \ /
entrance into Canaan, and introduces legislation appli
cable only to settled life in Canaan ; (7) the warnings
uttered against practices of Egypt which they had
known and practices of Canaan which they are to know;
(8) the allusions to Egypt and Jehovah's deliverance of
Israel from bondage there; (9) the absence of any men
tion of Jerusalem and the temple.
2. Consider, as bearing further upon this question,
(i) the regulations against Molech worship; (2) the
agricultural character of the feasts ; (3) the experiences
of the exile as depicted in Lev., chap. 26 ; (4) the phrase
"beyond the Jordan," used of the east side of Jordan;
(s) the constant reference to Moses in the third person ;
(6) the apparent distance of Moses and Aaron in the
narrative Exod. 6 : 26 f., and of the eating of manna in the
description of the same ; (7) passages in which Israel seems
to be represented as in possession of the land of Canaan ;
(8) the significance of the great periods passed over in
silence (is it not against the supposition that the author
was a contemporary?), e. g., {a) between Exod. i : 5-7 and
1 : 13, a period of two or four hundred years ;¦• {b) between
*For an analysis of the text here see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-
Battersby. The Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 80 f., or the commentaries of Dillmann and
Baentsch. On the historical events see the histories of Kittel, Stade, Wellhausen, Kent.

Numb. 35:1;
36 : 13.
Numb. 1:1; 3:14
9:5; Exod.
24: 18 — 25: 1.
Exod. 12:1.
Numb. io:iz.
Ezod. 29 : 46.
Ezod., chaps.
25 ff., 35-40.
Ezod. 40: 17-38,

19:23,
15:2, 18; 33:51
34:2,
Lev, 18:3, 271,
20 : 22 £.

I^v. 19:34, 36;
25:2, 54;
Numb. 8:17;

Lev. 20:1-5.
Lev., chap. 23;
Numb., chaps.
28, 29.
Numb. 34:15'
35:14.
Lev. 7 : 28 ; 8:1;
9:1, 5t; 23:1

Ezod. 16 : 55.
Lev. 18:24 ff,;
20:23.

LEGAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY CODE I 83
Numb. 20 ': i and 20 : 2 2i5, a period of thirty-eight years
{cf. 10:11 and 33:37);^ {c) the representation that Dan's Numb.i:38;
descendants in the fourth generation numbered 62,700.
§ 193. The Language and Style of the Priestly Code.
I. Examine a list of special words and phrases fre
quently occurring in this code,' and consider (i) the
bearing of the fact of such a list upon the question of
authorship; does it argue for or against identity of
authorship with the other books of the Hexateuch?
(2) the general character of these expressions as indi
cating early or late authorship. Note especially that the Exod. 40:2, 17;
months are numbered rather than named, and that the chap.^s."''
New Year comes in the spring, not in the autumn.
When did this method of enumeration prevail ?
2. Examine a list of the -linguistic peculiarities
appearing in the book, /. e., peculiar forms, idioms, etc., Cf, e. g., Lev.
and consider whether these exhibit evidence of antiquity Ezek. 20:5, 7,
of date, or of late date. With what writer in the Old with Ezek.'"*
Testament does the Priestly Code show the largest num
ber of similarities ?
3. Consider (i) the general style of the Priestly Code,
viz., stereotyped, repetitious, statistical, rigid, prosaic,
precise, systematic ; (2) the striking points of style which
distinguish this code from other portions of the Hexa
teuch and, indeed, from other Old Testament writings,
viz., {a) legal, {b) imperative, {c) idealistic'
§ 1 94. The Material of the Priestly Code as Bearing on
the Date and Authorship.
I. Examine the great number of repetitions of laws
found in other portions of the Pentateuch and within P
itself {e. g., Exod., chaps. 25-28 and 35-40 ; Lev. 3 : 5-
5 See Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, p. 28.
'Extensive lists of the various linguistic phenomena of the Priestly Code are to
be found in J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I,
pp. 208-21; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, §§43, 44, 51,58; Addis,
Documents of the Hexateuch, \ol. II, pp. 170-73; Griggs, Higher Criticism of the
Hexateuch, pp. 172-80; Ryssel, De Elohistae Pentateuchi Sermone (1878); Giese-
BRECHT, " Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," Zeitschrift fiir die
alttestamentliche Wissenchaft, VoL I (1881), pp. 177-276; 'Driyer, Journal of Philology ,
Vol. XI, pp. 201-36.
' On literary style of P see the articles by W. R. Harper in Hebraica, Vols. V, VI.

1 84 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
4 : 35 and chap. i8 ; 19 : 3^, 30 and 26 : 2 ; 19:9 and
23:22; 19:26(2 and 17:10-14; 24:21 and 24:17;
18 : 6-23 and 20: 10-21 ; Lev., chap. 8; Exod. 30 : i —
31 :ii, and Numb., chap. 8), and consider (i) how these
repetitions may be accounted for upon the supposition
that all portions of the Hexateuch had their origin
within one man's lifetime and as one man's work ; (2)
how these repetitions may be explained upon the suppo
sition of three or more distinct codes of law, which
originated as codifications of teachings and usages that
had grown up through many centuries.
2. Examine passages which seem to furnish instances
of discrepancy and variation between P and other legisla
tion {e. g., the differences in the lists of "clean and
unclean " as given in Lev., chap, i r, and Ueut., chap. 14 ;
the variations in the details of the structure of the ark of
the covenant as described in Exod. 25:10; 37:1; 40:20,
and Deut., chap. 9; 10:1, 3, 5; the representation of
the tabernacle as located within the camp in Exod.,
chaps. 25-29, but without the camp in Exod. 33:7;
Numb. 1 1 : 24-30 ; 12:4; 10:33 — all E passages; the
law of the altar as given in Exod. 20 : 24 (E) and the
totally different altar provided for in Exod., chaps. 25-
29 ; the law of slaves. Lev. 25 : 39-42, cf. Exod. 21 : 1-6
(E) and Deut. 15:12; the regulations concerning the
priest as found in Deuteronomy and in the Priestly
Code — see §§62, 63, and 68, 69), and consider (i) how
these discrepancies may be accounted for upon the sup
position that all portions of the Hexateuch had their
origin within one man's lifetime and as one man's work ;
(2) how they may be explained upon the supposition of
three or more distinct codes of law, which originated as
codifications of teachings and usages that had grown up
through many centuries.
3. Examine the narratives relating to the tabernacle,
Ezod., chaps. viz., (a) the directions for its erection and decoration ;
Ezad., chaps. (^) the record of its erection and decoration ; and in the
35-40. study of these narratives consider the following ques
tions : (i) are the representations concerning the taber
nacle in the wilderness consistent with each other?'
' See Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 52, 129.

LEGAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY CODE I 85
(2) What is the significance of the fact that the first state- Exod. 33:7.
ment made represents the tent as in actual use before it
was constructed ?' (3) What are the various names by
which the tent is designated in the several docu
ments ? '° (4) To what extent do the various codes
describe a different service in connection with it?" (5)
Is it possible to understand this representation as an
ideal one, and as corresponding to the prophetic pic
tures of the future ?
§ 195. Structure and Contents of the Priestly Code.
I. Consider the extent to which the P history and
legislation constitute the basis on which the entire
Hexateuch rests, or the framework into which the rest of
the material is fitted.
2. Compare the relation of the P legislation to the
P history with that of the Deuteronomic legislation to
the Deuteronomic historical setting.
3. Consider (i) whether there are not to be found Lev, 7:371.;
^ -^ 11:46!.; 13:59;
formulae which mark the end of small codes and, conse- 16:34; etc.
quently, (2) whether the P legislation is not made up of
several separate collections of laws, e. g. : {a) Lev.; chaps.
17-26; {b) hev., chaps. 1-7; {c) Exod., chaps. 25-28;
{d) Exod., chaps. 35-40; {e) hev., chap. 11 ; (/) Lev.,
chaps. 13, 14; {g) hev., chap. 15; {h) Numb., chaps.
28-36. 4. Examine the contents and character of P^, so
called because it forms the historical groundwork of the
entire P legislation, considering (i) its central theme,
viz., Jehovah's purpose from the creation of the world to
develop and train Israel as his peculiar people, and the
means and institutions employed by him to accomplish
this purpose; (2) the extent of the ground covered, viz.. Gen. 1:1; josh.,
- chaps. 14 ft.
from the creation to the establishment of the nation ;
9 The account of the construction of the tabernacle is given by P (^= Exod.,
chaps. 35-40) as having taken place after the arrival at Sinai ; while E in Exod. 33 : 7
speaks of " the tent of meeting " as a familiar institution of the camp.
¦"See Exod. 33:7 (E); Exod. 25 :8 (P) ; Exod. 25 :9 (P) ; Numb. 1 1 : 24* (E) ;
9:i5(P); Exod. 39 : 32 (P); 35:11 (P) ; the name does not occur in J or Deuter
onomy. " See Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 55.

1 86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Oen.2:4;5:i; (3) the logical presentation, viz., (a) the toledhoth sec-
etc.'' ''¦''' tions leading up to the Sinaitic revelation ; {b) the work
ten! chap. 17. of Moses in the deliverance from Egypt; {c) thespecial
Josh., chaps. 14 ff. covenant between Jehovah and Israel; {d) the settlement
of Abraham's descendants in Palestine ; (4) the character
of all this as compared with the similar narrative of J,
especially the differences which characterize it, such as
the emphasis placed upon religious institutions, the lack
of the personal element."
5. Consider now the great passage which stands apart
and constitutes P^ that is, the Holiness Code, taking up
Lev. 26:3-45; 18: (i) certain peculiar exhortations, which are intended to
2-4! °i1)?°i, 14! emphasize the idea of holiness, and the deity of Jehovah
2M6;'2lf 31-33! who led Israel out of Egypt; (2) certain laws which do
not seem to be consistent with other parts of P; (3)
other peculiarities of the form and contents ; " (4) the
probability of the independence of this section, and in
this connection {a) the question as to the origin of this
material, ((5) its self-consistency, {c) the amount of edi
torial work which has been connected with it ; (5) other
passages which seem to show the same peculiarities ; "
(6) the question of date, distinguishing {a) the regula
tions of which it is composed, {S) the hortatory frame
work, and examining in detail the forms of the various
laws with reference to their sociological setting.
Humb. 5: 5— 6. Consider in the same general manner the portions
assigned to P', that is, priestly teaching {torah), which
treat especially of sacrifice, clean and unclean, and simi
lar topics. '5
^4o?3ifetcI 7- Consider, likewise, the portions assigned to P% that
"For further consideration of P^ see chap. XV.
^^E. g., a different style and phraseology, (see Driver, Introduction, pp. 49 ff.) ;
a parenetic framework unknown to other parts of P ; repetitions of laws found else
where in P ; commands addressed to the people, not to the priest as in P.
'? Scholars differ somewhat as to the limits of the Holiness Code ; e. g.. Driver
(/«^?-0</?<rf20«,p, 151) assigns to P*": Lev., chaps. 17-26; Exod.6:6-8; 12:12; 31:13-
\i,a; Lev. 10:9a, 10; 11:44; Numb. 15:37-41; KX)Xil% (Documents of the Hexateuch,
Vol. II, p. 178): Lev., chaps. 17-26; 11:43-45; Numb. 15 : 37-41; Carpenter AND
Harford-Battersby (op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 145): Lev., chaps. 17-26; Exod. 31: 13, 14s,-
Numb. 10:9; 15 : 3815-41.
'SFor a statement of the limits and character of P' see Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby, op. cii.. Vol. I, pp. 1521.; and for a similar statement concerning P' see
the same work. Vol. I, pp. 153-5.

LEGAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY CODE iS^
is, certain secondary expansions along many lines, tending
toward " the heightening of ritual and the elaboration of
detail." § 196. The Relation of Ezek., Chaps. 40-48, to the
Priestly Code.— The question as to the relation of the
scheme of legislation contained in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, '
to that of the Priestly Code, and especially the Holiness
Code, is one of especial interest, and has been the
occasion of much discussion. Nothing more can be
attempted here than to indicate the nature of the prob
lem and the various lines of investigation.
I. Examine lists" of the phraseological and linguis
tic affinities existing between P and Ezek., chaps. 40-48.
and consider whether they are to be accounted for on the
supposition (i) that Ezekiel was especially fond of, and
thoroughly familiar with, the P legislation, and drew up
his scheme on the basis of it; or (2) that Ezek., chaps.
40-48, served as a model for the authors of P and was
largely drawn upon by them ; or (3) that Ezekiel was
the author of the Holiness Code; or (4) that Ezek.,
chaps. 40-48, and the earlier parts of P originated at
about the same time, were both influenced largely by the
earlier existing legislation, ahd were both actuated by a
similar spirit and motive.
2. Consider from the same point of view the similar
regulations found in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, and in P; Ezek. 44: 10-15 ;«•/
,.,,.... . ,,,, Numb., chaps
e. g., ( I ) the distinction between priests and Levites ; 1-4.
/\,,.,., , , ., Ezek. 43:7-9; cf
(2) the emphasis laid upon the necessity of ceremonial Lev., chaps. 15.
"cleanness;" (3) the close similarity of the laws con- Ezek. 44': 17-27;
, . / \ , , • .,..', £-/. Lev. 21:1—
cerning the priests; (4) the large ritualistic element 22:16.
, , , . , , , . , , , , Lev. 19:30; cf.
common to both; (5) thespecial sanctity of the sabbath; Ezek. 20:12.
(6) the predominance in both of the religious element,
almost to the exclusion of secular matters ; (7) the great Ezek.4o:5-43:i2; <'/.Ezod.,chaps.
emphasis laid by both upon the sanctuary. 25-29 and 35-40.
3. Consider, further, the points of difference between
the two schemes of legislation, e. g., (i) in P the priests Ezek. 44:15; «/¦
I/GV 31 1 X.
are sons of Aaron, in Ezekiel sons of Zadok; (2) the Lev.2i:io.'
high-priest occupies a large place in P, but is not men
tioned in Ezekiel; (3) the function of "the prince" is Ezek. 46: aff.
''See, e. g.. Driver, Introduction, pp. 130-35, 14S-9; Smend, Der Prothei
Ezechiel (1880), pp. xxv-xxviii.

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Lev,, chap, i6; cf.
Ezek, 45 : i8 ft.
Ezek., chaps. 45,
48 ; cf. Numb.
35: 1-8; Josh.
21:4.
Ezek. 45:21-25;
cf. Lev., chap.
23; Numb.,
chaps. 28, 29.
Lev , chap. 25;
26:34!; 27:17-
24 ; cf. Ezek.
46:17.

Lev., chap. 16;
Ezod. 25 : 16 1.
Lev., chaps. 21,

Lev. 4 : 1—6 : 7;
6:24 — 7:10.

peculiar to Ezekiel ; (4) the legislation for the Day of
Atonement is unknown to Ezekiel ; (5) the assignment
of property to the priests is radically different, the scheme
of Ezekiel having no parallel in this respect; (6) the
legislation concerning feasts differs in many details; (7)
Ezekiel knows nothing of a sabbatical year, or Year of
Jubilee, upon which P lays great emphasis; (8) in gen
eral, the legislation of P is much more detailed and
elaborate than that of Ezekiel. What is the bearing of
these and other differences upon the answer to the ques
tions suggested above ?
§ 197. The Principal Ideas of the Priestly Code.
I. Consider that, for the most part, the Priestly Code
is not didactic, as is Deuteronomy, but is rather a manual
of religious customs and practices. To what extent,
however, does it give concrete expression to certain
great conceptions which lay at the basis of all its regula
tions, and were deeply impressed upon the minds and
hearts of the worshipers as they participated in the
ceremonies prescribed by it ?
2. For a general statement concerning the ideas of
P, see § 49. For the P material on the priest, see §§ 68,
69 ; on the place of worship, see §§ 79, 80 ; on sacrifice,
see §§ 91, 92 ; on feasts, see §§ 103, 104 ; on the sabbath,
see §§ 117, 118; on clean and unclean, see §§ 131, 132.
3. In an effort to discover the chief ideas of the
Priestly Code consideration must be paid, not only to
specific statements that may be found in the text, but
also to the general tone and character of the -material as
a whole and to the amount of attention given to the
various features of the system of worship: (i) The idea
of God here reaches the highest plane attained in the
Old Testament. He is a Being so great, so holy, so
awful, that access to him is permitted only under the
most stringent conditions and always through the media
tion of a specially consecrated priest ; into his inmost
presence only one man in the entire nation, viz., the
holiest man — the high-priest — may come, and that but
once a year. (2) In the light of this unapproachable
holiness, the blackness of sin is immeasurably intensified ;

LEGAL LITERATURE  -PRIESTLY CODE I 89
he- cannot look upon sin witn the least degree of allow
ance ; his holiness, pervading everything, is in constant
danger of violation ; hence the possibilities of sin are
greatly multiplied. Sin was the cause of all of Israel's Lev. 26:3-45.
calamities in the past ; hence, in order to insure Jehovah's
favor and blessing for the future, every precaution must
be taken to avoid sin, and to make propitiation to him
when sin is unavoidable or for any reason has been com
mitted. (3) The holy God demands a correspondingly Lev. 11:441;
holy people who shall honor him with a holy worship. .2i:7-f.; 22:32.'
It is the purpose of the P legislation to secure this end.
This explains the great emphasis laid upon (4) ritual Lev., chaps. 8,
12 J 13 f CXC<
and ceremony. Everything is carefully prescribed and
intrusted to the execution of the priests whose especial
function it is to guide and lead the people in the pres
entation of an acceptable worship unto Jehovah. (5)
Religion has become the great business of life ; it has
- stepped in and occupied the place formerly held by
national politics and ambitions. (6) The exalted con
ception of Jehovah and the necessity of constant propi- Lev., chap. 23.
tiatory rites have completely done away with the joyous
abandon of the worship of early days, and the spirit of
confidence and fellowship has been largely replaced by
that of reyerence and godly fear.
§ 198. Literature to be Consulted.
Colenso, The Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua Critically Examined (7 parts ;
1862-69); 'V^ELLHA'XShEN, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, 5th ed. 1897;
transl. from German 1885), pp. 374-91, 404-10; Driver, Journal of Philology, Vol.
XI (1882), pp. 201-36; Kuenen, An Historico-Critical Enquiry into the Origin of the
Hexateuch (188'^, transl. 1886); Bissell, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and Structure:
An Examination of Recent Theories (\88S); KvxTEL, History of the Hebrews (1888,
transl. 1895), Vol. I, pp. 96-132 ; W. R. Harper and W. H. Green, Hebraica, Vols.
V-VIII (1888-91); W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (1889, 2d
ed. 1892); YiRlVER, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (l8gi , 6th ed.
1897), PP- 42-591 126-59; Briggs, The Higher Criticism ofthe Hexateuch (1892, 2d
ed. 1897), pp. Io8 f., 172-80, 233 ff.; Paton, "The Relation of Lev. XX to Lev.
XVII-XIX," Hebraica, VoL X (1893), pp. 111-21; B. W. Bacon, The Triple Tradi
tion ofthe Exodus (\8gd,); Driver and White, Leviticus ("Sacred Books of the Old
and New Testaments;" Hebrew text 1894, English transl. 1898); W. H. Green,
The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895); Paton, "The Holiness Code and
Ezekiel," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1896, pp. 98-115; Konig, Expositor,
August, 1896, p. 97; Paton, " The Original Form of Lev. i-j-ig," Journal of Biblical

I go PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Literature, 1897, pp. 31-7; Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, VoL II (1898), pp,
170-91; F. H. Woods, art. "Hexateuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, "Vol.
II (1899), pp. 368-71 ; Paton, "The Original Form of Leviticus, Chaps. 21 and 22,"
Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1899), pp. 149-75; Idem, "The Original
Form of Leviticus, Chaps. 23, 25," ibid., VoL XVIII (1899), pp. 35-6o; J. E. Car
penter AND G. Hareorxi-Batters'&y, The Hexateuch (1900), Vol. I, pp. 121-57;
Wellhausen, art. " Hexateuch," §§ 29 f., ^Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. Il (1901);
H. G. Mitchell, The World before Abraham (1901), pp. 17 ff., 29 ff., 58 ff.; Kent
AND Sanders, " The Growth of Israelitish Law," in Biblical and Semitic Studies by the
Members of the Semitic and Biblical Faculty of Yale University (1901), pp. 41-90;
G. F. Moore, art. "Leviticus," Encyclopedia Biblica, VoL III (1902); G. B. Gray,
arL "Law Literature," ibid.
E, Bertheau, Die sieben Gruppen mosaischer Gesetze in den drei mittleren Biichem
des Pentateuchs (1840); J. PoPPER, Der biblische Bericht iiber die Stiftshiitte (1862);
Merx, "Kritische Untersuchungen iiber die Opfergesetze, Lev. \-'VW" Zeitschrift fiir
wissenschaftliche Theologie, Vol. VI (1863), pp. 41-84, 164-81; Graf, Die geschicht-
lichen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1866); Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israelj'Vol.
I (1887), pp. 62 ff.; Noldeke, Die alttestamentliche Literatur (1868); Noldeke,
Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testaments (i86g), pp. 1-144; Kuenen, "De
priesterlike Bestanddeelen van Pentateuch en Josua," Theologisch Tijdschrift, VoL
IV (1870), pp. 391-426, 492-500; Kayser, Das vorexilische Buch der Urgeschichte
Israels und seine Erweiterungen (1874); Hofmann, "Einheit und Integritat der
Opfergesetze Lev. i-"] ," Magazin fiir Wissenschaft des Judenthums, i8'jT ; Kloster
mann, " Ezechiel und das Heiligkeits-Gesetz," Zeitschrift fiir luth. Theologie und
Kirche, 1877, pp. 406-44 (republished in Der Pentateuch, iSg^, pp. 368-418); Bleek-
VfELLHAUSEN, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1878); VON Ryssel, De Elohistae
Pentateuchi Sermone (l8'j8) ; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des altisraelitischen Priester
thums (1880), pp. •; 4 S.; Franz Delitzsch, Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft
und kirchliches Leben,'Vol. 1 (1881), pp. 617-26; Horst, Leviticus XVII-XXVI und
Hezekiel (1881); Giesebrecht, " Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276; P. WUR-
STER, " Zur Charakteristik und Gesehichte des Priestercodex und Heiligkeitsgesetz,"
ibid.,'Vol. IV (1884), pp. 112-33; Dillmann, Die Biicher Numeri, Deuteronomium
und Josua (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 2d ed.
1886), pp, 593-690; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der histori
schen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1889, 3d ed. 1 899); Westphal, Les sources du
Pentateuque (1888, 1892); RiEHU, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (i88g); Steinthal,
Zeitschrift fiir Vblker-Psychologie, 'Vol. X.X (1890), pp. 54 ff.; CoRNlLL, Einleitung in
das AlteTestament (l8gi, 3d ed. 1896), pp. 56-86; KoNiG, Theologische Studien und
Kritiken, 1893, pp. 464-8, 478; WiLDEBOER, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar
de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893, German transL 1895), §20; HOLZINGER,
Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 332-475; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte
Testament (i8g'i), %\8; 'Baentsch, Das Heiligkeits-Gesetz (i8g3); Meyer, Die
Entstehung des Judenthums (i8g(>), pp. 208-15; Wellhausen, Die Composition des
Hexateuchs und der historischen Biicher des Alten Testaments (3d ed. i8gg) ; Guthe,
Gesehichte des Volkes Israel (i8gg), pp. ,259 f. ; Steuernagel, Ueberseizung und
Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und Josua und allgemeine Einleitung in d(n
Hexateuch ("Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900), pp. 271-8; Hal^vy,

LEGAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY CODE IQI
"Influence du code sacerdotal sur les prophfetes," Revue simitique, January, 1901;
Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (igoi), §§ 31, 41-4, 50-55.
See also the commentaries on Exodus by Dillmann (1897), Holzinger (1900),
Baentsch (1900), and Kennedy ("The Temple Bible," 1901); and on Leviticus by
Kalisch (1867), Keil (2d ed. 1870), Lange (1874), Strack (1894), Dillmann-
Ryssel (1897), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1901), and Paterson (" The Temple
Bible," 1901), ,

Paet Fifth

THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP -THE HISTORICAL
LITERATURE
XV. The Priestly Narrative in the Hexateuch.
XVI. The Books of Chronicles.
XVII. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah.

CHAPTER XV.
historical literature  priestly NARRATIVE IN THE HEXATEUCH.
§199. The New Tendency Encouraged in the Exile. —
Consider (i) the effect of the exile upon the ambition of isa. 57: 17-20.
Israel to be a nation among other nations of the earth ;
(2) the actual condition, in the exile, of all political sCbron. 35: 17-21.
institutions and political machinery; (3) the certainty isa. 41 : 17-20.
that under these conditions the minds of the leaders
and the energies of the people would be turned in some
other direction; (4) the naturalness and, indeed, the Ezek., chaps.
inevitableness of a turning in the direction of a more *°"* '
definitely religious, as distinguished from a political,
regime; (5) the foundation for this movement already isa. 44:24-28.
prepared in the two great doctrines of individualism, as
preached by the priest Jeremiah, and solidarity, as jer, 3i:29f.
preached by the priest Ezekiel — doctrines preached in Ezek., chaps. 18,
view of and in connection with the fall of the nation. ^^'
See J. R. Slater, " Individualism and Solidarity as Developed
by Jeremiah and Ezekiel," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp.
172-83; yiONTEElORE, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Reli
gion as Illustrated by the Religion ofthe Ancient Hebrews, pp. 216-19,
251-3; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, pp. 488 f.
§200. The Basis of This Tendency toward Priestly
Influence.—^ Observe now three things : ( i) that the 2 Kings 22 :3—
23 :52.
priestly influence had long been in existence, and that
only a century or so before the fall of Jerusalem it had
been greatly strengthened by the union of effort in which
prophet and priest joined, and of which the promulgation
of Deuteronomy was the result {cf. §§25-8, 170); (2) jer. i:i; Ezek.
that the prophetic work in these last days had in large ^'^'
measure fallen to priests, e. g., Jeremiah and Ezekiel ;
(3) that, inasmuch as the will of God had now been pre
sented so clearly in the prophetic word (for prophecy had
practically completed its work, having reached its highest
development in Jeremiah) and in the written law (the 2 Kings 22: 3;
law as found in Deuteronomy having been canonized in ^^'^'
195

196

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Deut, 10; 8.

Exod. 20:23 —
23:33; Deut,,
chaps, 16-26.

Ezek. , chaps.
40-48.

Mal. 1 : 6-14 ;
Zech. i4:ieff.
Leviticus.

Hag. 1:7-14;
2:1-9; Zech.
6:9-14.

C/.P (below).

Cf. Chronicles.

621 B. C), the task that remained was not so much the
revelation of new truth as the interpretation, organi
zation, and application of the great body of truth
already known. Such ministration was the 'work of the
priest. §201. The Origin of the Idea of the Church or Com
munity. — Consider now to what extent the idea and
practice of the community or church (i) were the further
development of the priestly conception and ritual which
existed before the exile and were formulated during the
exile by Ezekiel in his visions ; (2) were the direct
outcome of the prophetic teaching of individualism and
solidarity (see § 199); and*still further (3) were the neces
sary result of the historical forces which combined to
destroy the nation and put an end to prophetic work and
leadership. §202. The Purpose of the Church. ^ — -(i) Study, as
widely as possible {e. g., in Ezekiel's code, the Levitical
code, and the priestly prophets), the purpose of the
church as it now began to take the place of the nation,
as that purpose exhibited itself (a) in the emphasis placed
on worship, {b^ in the multiplication of ordinances seek
ing to preserve, organize, and develop the ritual of the
temple; and (2) consider how greatly such interest
(already existing in the exile) would be strengthened
when the return had taken place, the temple had been
rebuilt, and worship had actually been established in the
new environment.
§203. The Desire to Prepare Histories of Worship. —
Consider how, under these circumstances, there would
come into existence the desire (i) to trace the beginnings
of these ordinances to the earliest times, and to show
the place assigned them under the great leaders of the
past ; (2) tq, write a narrative which would present their
history through the long centuries from David's time
down to the last days — a story parallel with that other
narrative (prepared by the prophets who had now passed
away) which, in representing prophetic truth, had almost
entirely ignored the priest-side of the national history;
and (3) to show just how these institutions were finally

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY NARRATIVE I97
reinstated or re-established after the return by the great Cf Ezra and
leaders Ezra and Nehemiah. This desire found its reali
zation in what we may call the histories of the priestly
school. § 204. The Histories of the Prophetic School. — Recall
(i) the history of J, the work of a Judean prophet, prob- Gen. 2:43— 4:26;
ably the oldest of the prophetic histories, which gathers
up the stories and traditions of the earliest times down
to the settlement of Israel in Canaan and uses all this
material for the purpose of illustrating and enforcing
the truths of prophecy;' (2) the history of E, which Gen. 15:1,5,16;
• 11 1 1 T 1 • ' r Cll3.p. 20; <6tCi
covers practically the same ground as J, but is written from
the point of view of northern Israel, and is somewhat less
naive in its conception of God and in respect to other
theological ideas;' (3) the histories found in Judges,
Samuel, and Kings, which trace the progress of the
nation from the conquest to the exile ; and note the
principal characteristics, common to them all, viz.:
(a) that they are in large part compilations of older 2Sam. 1:18;
\ ' .1 o i i J Kings II : 41 ;
material; {f) the emphasis laid by them upon the 14:29; 2Kings
thought of sin as the cause of all of Israel's troubles ; 2 Kingsl chap. 24.
(«:) the purpose of their work as evidently didactic,
rather than historical in the modern sense of the word ;
'The J-material in Geii., chaps. 1-40, is: 2:4^ — 4:26; 5:29; 6:1-8; 7:1-5,
7-10, 12, l-jb, 22f.; 8:2^,33,6-12,13^,20-22; 9:18-27; lo:lb, 8-19, 21,24-30;
1 1': 1-9, 28-30; 12:1-40,6-20; 13:1-5,6^-110,13-18; 15 : 3 f., 6-1 1, 17 f.; 16:1*.
2,4-14; 18:1—19:28,30-38; 21 -.la, 2a,'], 28-30, 33; 22:20-24; 24:1—25:6,
18, 21-260, 28; 26:1-30, 6-14, 16 f., 19-33; 27 : 10, 2, 3, 4^, 5*, 6, 70, IS, l8i-20,
24-290, 29<:, 300, 30c, 31^-34. 41M2, 43^. 4S<2.' 28 : 10, 13-16, 19 ; 29 : 2-14, 31-35 ;
30:3^-16, 22^, 230, 24 f., 27, 29-310, 34-380, 39-400, 40<r-43; 31 :i, 17, l8a, 25, 27,
31, 43 f., 46, 48-50; 32 : 3-70, 13^-220, 23^-29, 31 f.; 33 : 1-iSo,- 34 :2^ 3^, 3^. 5. 7.
11,19,26,2915-31; 35:14,16-220,- 36:31-39; 37:2^2^-4,12,130,1415,18^,21,
25,5-27, 28^, 320, 35 ; 38 : I — 39 : 6(5, 7^-23. The remainder of the document may be
found in J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. II ;
or in Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. I ; or in Driver, Introduction to the
Literature of the Old Testament.
"The E-material in Gen., chaps. 1-40, is : 15 : l, ^, 5, 16; 20 : 1-18; 21:6, 8-27,
3if.,34; 22:1-13,19; 25:253,27,29-34; 27:115,40,73-14, 16-180, 21-23, 30(5, 310,
35-410,44,453.- 28:llf., 17 f., 20, 210, 22; 29:1, 15-23,25-280,30; 30:1-30,17-
20, 26, 313-33, 383, 403,- 31 :2-l6, 19-24, 26, 28-30, 32-42,47, 51—32:2, 230, 30;
33:18^-20; 35:1-5,63-8; 37 :5-ii, 13-5, I4«. 17-5, 19 f-, 22-250, 280,28^-31, 323, 33^.
34. 36 ; 39: 6<^. 7«'' 4° = '"23- For the remainder of the document see literature cited
in the foregoing footnote.

198 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
{d) the selection and arrangement of material, which is
such as to enforce the great lessons of prophecy.
§205. The Priestly Histories. — Under this head may
be classified (i) the priestly narrative in the Hexateuch;
(2) the books of Chronicles, which furnish a parallel
history, as understood by the priest, for the entire
period covered by the prophetic history found in
.S«e 5204 Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and (3) the books of
Ezra and Nehemiah, which describe the restoration from
exile and the re-establishment of the temple and its
elaborate system of worship. These all possess the same
general characteristics of style, are controlled by the
same theological ideas, are interested in the same general
subject, and are written from the same priestly point of
view. §206. The Historical Character of the Priestly His
tories. — Keep in mind (i) the purpose of these so-called
histories, viz., to represent the priest-side, that is, the
element of worship ; (2) the consequent necessity of
making selections from the large body of material in
existence ; (3) the fragmentary and disconnected char
acter of the material which comes by selection ; (4) the -
only method that, under these circumstances, can be
employed — that of compilation; (5) the danger of
confusion and disorder ; (6) the certainty that material
having its origin centuries after the event described will
not be intended to serve as a chronicle of the event, but
rather to meet some definite and practical end in view;
(7) the difference between actual history and idealized
story; (8) the meaning of the word "pragmatic" as
applied to history.
See, e. g., my article in Sunday School Times, July, 1889 ; Geo.
F. Moore, art. "Historical Literature," Encylopedia Biblica, Vol.
II ; W. E. Barnes, " The Religious Standpoint of the Chronicler,"
American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIII
(1896-97), pp. 14-20 ; T. G. Soares, "The Import of the Chronicles
as a Piece of Religio-Historical Literature," American Journal of
Theology, VoL III (1899), pp. 251-74; C. C. Torrey, The Composi
tion and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemia ("Beiheft zur Zeitschrift
fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft" Tt, 1896); L. Diestel, "Die
hebraische Geschichtesschreibung," Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theo
logie, Vol. XVIII (1873), PP- 365 ff-; Franz Delitzsch, "Die

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 1 99
Formenreichtum der israelitischen Geschichtsliteratur," Zeitschrift
fur lutherische Theologie und Kirche, VoL XXXVI (1870), pp. 31 ff.;
J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly His
torians (1901), pp. 241 ff., 271 ff.
§ 207. The Scope of the Priestly Narrative. — This
document is found alongside of the prophetical histories
J and E in the Hexateuch.^ Like them it goes back to
the time of creation and sketches the course of events «..-n. ..  2:4a,-
up to the settlement of Israel in Canaan. This leads it isfi^etc!'^'''''
in many cases to duplicate the narratives of the pro
phetic historians; but, although the same events are Gen. 34:1,2a, 3^.
often narrated in both accounts, the point of view is 20-25, 27^29a,- '
widely different, since the purposes of the two schools 5,'7^,''ii, igfetc!
of writers are of a different character. The priestly nar
rative is primarily concerned with questions like {ct) the
divine choice of Israel as the peculiar people of God ;
{S) the divine origin of her system of worship ; {c) the
growth of the accompanying institutions and customs.
§ 208. The Gradual Growth of the Priestly Narrative. —
A careful examination of this priestly narrative reveals
that it is not all the work of one hand or one time, but,
like the prophetic histories, is a compilation of older
materials, which have gradually been brought together
and wrought into a homogeneous narrative. This ap
pears {a) from the fact that there are many repetitions
3 The material belonging to the priestly narrative, as indicated in The Hexateuch,
by J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, is as follows : Gen. 1:1 — 2 : 40,-
5:1-28, 30-32; 6:9-22; 7:6, II, 13-170, 18-21, 24; 8:1, 20, 33-5, 130, 14-19;
9:1-17, 28, 29; 10:10,2-7,20,22,23,31,32; 11:10-27, 31.32; 12:43,5; 13:60,
Il3, 12 ; 16: 10, 3, IS, 16 ; 17 : 1-27; 19 :29; 21: l3, 23-5; 23": 1-20 ; 25 : 7-17, 19,20,
263,- 26:34,35; 27:46—28:9; 29:24,283,29; 30:21,220,- 31:183,-33:183,-
34:1-20,33,4,6,8-10, 12-18, 20-25,27-290,- 3S:6<^. 9-13. 15,223—36:30,40-43;
37:1, 20, 2<r,- 41:453,460,- 46:6-27; 47:5,60,7-11,273,28; 48:3-7; 49:1a,
28-330, 33;:,- 50:12, 13; Exod. 1:1-5, 7.13. 14*/ 2:233-25; 6:2—7:13, 19, 200,
2l3,22; 8:5-7,153-19; 9:8-12; 11:9 — 12:20,24,28,40—13:2,20; 14:1-4,8,
93, 153, i63-i8, 210, 2i(r-23, 26, 270, 280, 29 ; 16:1-3, 5-35; 17:10,- I9:i> 20,
24:153-180,- 25:1 — 31:180,- 34:29 — 40:38; Lev. I:l — 27:34; Numb. 1:1 —
10:28, 34; 13:1-170, 2l3, 25, 260, 32; 14:10, 2, 5-7, 90, 10, 26-30, 32-390,
15:1-41; 16:10, l3, 23, 3-11,16-24,260, 270, 323, 33c, 35—20:10, 2,33,4,6-80,
8i:-i 3, 223-29; 21:40,10,110,- 22:1; 25:6—32:38; 33:1—36:13; Deut. 32 : 48-52;
34:10, ic, Sd, 7-9; losh. 3:40, 8, IS, 16; 4:73,80, 13, 1S-17. 19; 5:10-12; 9:15.:,
17-21; 13:15 — 14:5; 15:1-12,20-61; 16:4-9-; 17:1-10; i8:l, II — 19:46,48—
21:42; 22:9-34.

200 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod., chaps. 25- within the priestly narrative itself, e. g., the repetition of
30, cf. 35-40; *
Numb., chaps, the account of the structure of the tabernacle, the double
1-3, c/. 26 ; Lev.,
chap. 23, c/, account of the census of Israel, the two recensions of
Numb,, chaps.
28,29. the laws concerning feasts, etc.; and {b) from the differ
ent tone and character of various parts of the narrative.
It is now generally granted that there are at least four
different strata in this work. These are (i) a continuous
narrative from the creation to the settlement in Canaan,
which forms the groundwork of the priestly narrative
Lev., chaps, 17-26. (^p^)- (2) the Holiness Code(^P''); (3) a collection
Numb, 15:1-31; ^, . , ,, ,, I' \oi
etc, of priestly teachings on subjects connected with the
Exod.3o:22— various institutions (^P'); (4) "a miscellaneous set
31,11, ec. ^j secondary enlargements, ranging over a wide variety
of topics — genealogical expansions, legislative elabora
tions, illustrative narratives, etc."( = P^).
See, e. g.,'5. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The
Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 142 ff.; Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch,
Vol. II, pp. 186 ff.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp.
332 ff.; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium und Josua, und allgemeine
Einleitung in den Hexateuch, p. 272 ; Baudissin, Einleitung in die
Biicher des Alten Testamentes, pp. 154 ff.; ''^ELLHAXSSEN, Prolegomena
to the History of Israel, p. 385.
§ 209. The Sources of the Priestly Narrative. — (i)
Gen. 6:5-8; Examine carefully some of the narratives contained in
7:1-5, 7-10,
etc. ;c/-. 6: 9-22; both the prophetic history and in the priestly narrative,
e. g., the accounts of the deluge, the story of Dinah,''
the bringing of water from the rock in the wilderness,^
etc., and consider whether the prophetic and priestly
writers are to be regarded (a) as having used the same
sources, or (i5) as having used different sources, or {c)
as being dependent one upon the other ; if the latter,
which is the original ?
(2) Consider, further, whether it is probable that any
sources other than popular traditions were ever in exist
ence for the study of the earliest prehistoric times. In
cases where the priestly and prophetic accounts of the
^In the Dinah narrative the following material is from P : Gen. 34 : I, 20, .33, 4,
6, 8-10, 12-18, 20-25, 27-290,- and the remainder of chap. 34 belongs to J. -
5 In Numb., chap. 20, the following material is assigned to P : 20 : 10, 2, 33-4,
6-80, 8i;-l3, 223-29 ; the following to J : 20 : l3, 30, 5, 83, 19 f.; and the remainder
to E.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 201
same event differ widely, e. g., in the accounts of the
events at Sinai,^ what explanation maybe given?' Is
the difference to be explained as due to the use of vary
ing sources or as a result of the different purpose and
point of view of these writers ?
(3) Compare the creation accounts of J and P with Gen. 1:1—2 :4a/
11 J , 1 1 r 1 , 1 . . • cf- Gen. 2 : 4*-
each other, and still further with the creation stories as 24,
found on Babylonian tablets. Note carefully the points
of resemblance and difference, and try to determine (a)
which of the two shows the clearer traces of Babylonian
influence ; {b') whether they both resemble the same
Babylonian tradition ; or (c) whether each reflects a
different Babylonian tradition ; or {d') whether the
Hebrew and Babylonian accounts are to be considered
as parallel, but independent, narratives, {e) If the Baby
lonian accounts are considered as sources of the He
brew narratives, note how thoroughly the Hebrew writers
have edited their sources and the different style of edit
ing done by P as compared with J.
For English translations of these Babylonian stories see W.
Muss-Arnolt's rendering in R. F. Harper's Assyrian and Babylo
nian Literature (" The ^ orld's Great Books," Aldine edition. New
York, 1901), pp. 282-300. On the relations of the Hebrew and
Babylonian accounts, see Lenormant, The Beginnings of His
tory, pp. 47-66 ; Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis; John D. Davis,
Genesis and Semitic Tradition, pp. 1-22 ; H. ZiMMERN, Biblische
und babylonische Urgeschichte (1901); J. Barth, .5o3i»/ und israeli-
tisches Religionswesen (1902), pp. 21-31.
§210. The Legislation Embodied in the Priestly
Narrative. — Note that, just as the prophetic histories Exoa. 34:17-28.
included some elements of legislation, viz., the smaller
Book of the Covenant in J, and the greater Book of the Exod. 20:23-
Covenant, with the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1-17), in E,
So the priestly narrative contains its proportion of laws.
' For the distribution of material among the various sources in Exod'., chaps.
19-40, in the, book of Leviticus, and in Numb., chaps, i-io, see the literature cited
in note i.
'Other stories which are thought to be duplicates are : (l) the account of the birth
of Hagar, etc., in Gen., chap. 16 (P = 16 : 10, 3, 15, 16 ; the remainder belongs to J);
(2) the birth of Isaac (P — Gen. 21 : l3, 2/5, 3-5 ; the remainder belongs to J and E):
the revelation of God to Jacob at Bethel (P = Gen. 35 : 60, 9-13, 15 ; the remainder
belongs to J and E).

202 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 12 : 1-20, This legal element is found in portions of Exodus and
i3:i';''25'!'i'- Numbers and in the entire book of Leviticus, (i) Notice
35-40 ;' Numb.' the relatively large amount of space and consideration
chaps^ i^'iS, given to legal matters in P, as compared with J and E.
19,2 -31, an j.^ .^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ .^ ^ ^^^ g ^^^ j^g^j material is inci
dental, while in P it is the essential and all-important
thing ¦? (2) How may this increase of legal material be
accounted for ? Is it perhaps due to the greater interest
of the priestly writers in such matters ?
§211. Orderly, Systematic Treatment of Material. —
Gen. 1:1— 2:4a. Read the priestly narrative of the creation, and (i) notice
that the order of events is carefully distributed through
out six days, corresponding to the working days of the
week, and that God is represented as resting upon the
Gen. 2 : 4<i-25. seventh day. (2) Is not the whole account much more
systematic than the prophetic account of the same sub-
Gen. 2:4a,- 5:1; ject in the following chapter? (3) Consider also the
ii:i'o; 11:27; division of the patriarchal period into ten "generations,"
25:121 25:19}
36:1:37:2. beginning with the "generations of the heaven and of
the earth,"* and ending with the generations of Jacob.
Geh,i:i;8:i; (4) Notice that prior to the time of Abraham the gen-
Gen. 17:1. eral name eldhim is used; between Abraham and Moses
Exod. 6:2L the name el shaddaia.ppea.xs ; after the times of Moses the
name is Jehovah. (5) Observe the similar system which
appears in the presentation of the covenant idea; the
first covenant being represented as having been made
Gen. 9:8-17. with Noah, its sign — the rainbow; the second covenant
Gen., chap. 17. being with Abraham, its sign — circumcision; while still
Exod, 3i:i6f. later the sabbath is spoken of as a covenant, and as the
sign of a covenant.
See Driver, Introduction to the Literature ofthe Old Testament
(6th ed.), pp. 1298.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp.
353 ff.; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly
Historians, pp. 2i,si.; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium und Josua u.
s. w., pp, 271 f. •
§212, The Fondness of the Priestly Narrative for Genea-
Gen. 1:1— 2:4a,- logical Statements. — (i) Recall the fact, previously men-
5:1; 10: i; etc. .,11* , . , 1 ,
tioned, that the creation account and the patriarchal
' Gen, 2 : 40 belongs to P's preceding narrative and should probably be transposed
to the beginning of chap. 1.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 203
history are presented in the form of genealosries. (2) Exod, 6:14-27;
- o o \ / Numb, 1:516,
Notice further the large amount of genealogical material 20,47; 3^14-39;
26:1 — 27:11,
in the priestly narratives, and that long periods of time
are frequently represented by nothing more than a genea
logical list. (3) Does it seem that the writer uses these
lists in large part as connecting links for his narrative,
hastening over by their means long periods of time in
which he has no especial interest, in order to give more
attention to matters in which he is vitally concerned ?
§ 2 1 3. Prevalence of Statistics and Dates in the Priestly
Narrative. — In illustration of this characteristic of P, Gen., chap. 5;
6: i5t; 7:6,11,
recall the fact that it gives the ages of the antediluvians ; i3,2o,24;8:3ff,, 13, 14; 12:4;
the dimensions of the ark; the date of the flood; the 16:3, 16; 17:1,
24ff, ;2i:5;
depth of the waters of the flood and its duration ; the 23:16; 46:27;
'^ Exod, 12:401,;
age of Abraham at various junctures in his life ; the price i6:i;i9:i;
25;ioff,, 23, 25,
paid for the field of Ephron ; the number of people that sifl-; chaps.
'^ 26-30 and 35-40;
entered Effypt ; the duration of the sojourn in Egypt; Lev., chap, 23;
°Jt^ ' ' bjf > Numb., chaps.
the date of the arrival in the wilderness of Sin and of that 28, 29; chaps.
1-3, and 26;
at Sinai; the dimensions and specifications of the ark of chap. 7; 34:1-15
testimony, the table of shewbread, and the golden can
dlestick ; most minute specifications for the tabernacle
with all its furnishings ; the exact dates of all feasts ; a
census of Israel at Sinai ; the exact value of the offerings
made in connection with the dedication of the altar ; a
careful demarkation of the boundaries of the various
tribes ; etc. Does not the presence of so much material
of this sort render the general style stiff and precise
as compared with the free, flowing narratives of J
and E?
§ 2 1 4. The Style of the Priestly Narrative is Repetitious.
— (i) Observe that the account of the structure of the 1° and 3^-4^0;'' "
tabernacle is given in full twice; also that the census of 1-3 and'26; 7:13-
Israel at Sinai is twice narrated. (2) Read Numb., chap. 8l;i3, etc.|io:
7, and notice that six verses are used twelve times in this Ik-'W^o',' ll',
chapter. (3) Consider, further, the large extent to which 9-?i;,2*-M^etc,;
certain formulas and stereotyped phrases are repeated, etc,TiV:'44V'
and the fact that many sentences are cast in the same 2i-5;'25:'26*,-"
mold. (4) Are some of these repetitions due to the fact *%* wumb.
that the priestly narrative is a compilation? But can 221, etc',; ''
the tendency to the repeated use of the same phraseology etc.'^' "^' '

204 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
be SO explained ? Is it not a marked characteristic of
the priestly style ?
On the style of the priestly narrative in general see : Driver,
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp.
126-35 ; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The
Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 125 f.; GuNKEL, The Legends of Genesis, pp.
145 f., 148; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 349-54;
Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes, pp.
96-102; and the articles by W. R. Harper and W. H. Green in
Hebraica, Vols. V and VI.
§215. The Selection of Material in the Priestly Narra
tive. — (i) Consider whether, if it is not the purpose of the
priestly writers to write a history in the modern sense of
the word, but rather to teach certain truths with reference
to God and the proper methods of worship, it may not be
reasonable to suppose that they selected and arranged
their material with a view to its appropriateness to the
end they had in view. (2) Notice, for example, {a) that,
while in J the narrative of the creation is merely intro-
Gen. 1:1— 2:4a. ductory to the account of man's first sin, in P the cre
ation narrative is treated in a manner to emphasize
strongly the sanctity of the sabbath ; (3) that between
the creation and Abraham the centuries are bridged over
by means of genealogies, with the single exception of the
deluge and the account of the covenant with Noah ; (c)
Gen., chap. 17. that the only incidents in Abraham's life to which P
gives any consideration are the account of the institu-
Gen., chap. 23. tion of circumcision with the accompanying covenant.
Gen. 28:1-9. and the purchase of the field of Ephron; (</) that the
only incident treated in the life of Isaac is the care
taken to provide for his son's marriage to a woman of
Gen. 34 : 1 f., 3«, 4, his own race ; and in Jacob's life the failure of the pro-
6. 8-10, 12-18, ^
etc.; 35:9-13, posed alliance between the sons of Jacob and the men
15 ; 46 : 6-27. of Shechem, .the appearance of God to him at Bethel
with the promise to bless his descendants, and his
entrance into Egypt with his sons ; {e) that in the
Exod. 12 : 1-20, account of the exodus the only incidents receivina: any
40-51, .-) .-
considerable attention are the institution of the Passover,
Exod,, chaps, 25- the giving of manna on six days and its withholding on
1-27; etc. the seventh, and the legislation at Sinai which consti
tutes the bulk of the priestly narrative. (3) Consider in

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 205
each of the above cases why the incident was chosen for
treatment to the exclusion of other material, much of
which would have been of more interest and value as
pure history.
See, e.g., Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis, pp. 1461.; Hol
zinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 359 f.
^ § 2 1 6. The Theological Point of View of the Priestly
Narrative.— (i) Is not the conception of God that appears
in the priestly narrative in many respects the highest
attained in the Old Testament ? Note that in the
creation account of P, as compared with that of J, all
anthropomorphic features are lacking; it is sufficient for Gen.i:i— 2:4a.
God to speak and the thing is done. He is most holy,
so that none but members of the holiest class may come ifumb., chap. 18;
Lev., chap. 8.
near his altar or perform the highest functions of his wor
ship; and these ministers are set apart by a most solemn
service of consecration. The usual manifestation of his
presence is by means of a cloud resting upon the tent Exod. 4o:34fl.;
01 Humb. 16 : 19.
of meeting and the appearance of his "glory." In the
presence of such a holy Being the sinfulness of man is
greatly intensified ; constant sacrifices are necessary to
make atonement ; and there is an obligation resting upon Lev. 19:2.
all Israel to be holy, because God is holy. This exalted
conception of God can be traced everywhere in the nar
rative and in the legislation. (2) To what extent is it
due to this conception of God and of Israel's relation to
him that the accounts of Israel's ancestors given by P
differ so widely in spirit from the corresponding narra
tives of J and E ? (3) Consider the significance of the
fact that none of the sins and shortcomings of the patri
archs, so freely mentioned by the prophetic writers, are
alluded to ih the priestly narrative ; it being taken for
granted that the patriarchs, who were the founders of the
holy nation, as such must themselves have been holy.
(4) Note also that no sacrifices are offered nor altars built
by the patriarchs according to the priestly narrative, in
contrast with the prophetic account, because sacrifice was Gen. 35:6, sfl.;
eft 35 * 7«
not legal until the Mosaic legislation had been given
and the proper means for the right conduct of sacrifice
provided.

206 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See, c. g.. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Tes
tament (6th ed.), pp. 128 f.; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-
Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp, 132 f.; Holzinger, Ein
leitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 376-90 ; KoNIG, Einleitung in das Alte
Testament, pp. 231 ff.
§ 217. Literature to be Consulted.
Kuenen, ^« Historico-Critical Inquiry into the Origin and Composition ofthe
Hexateuch (1861, 2d ed. 1885; transL 1886), pp. 65-107, 272-313; J. W. Colenso,'
The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, Critically Examined, Parts I-VII (1862-79);
Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, 4th ed. 189S ; transl. from
German 1885), pp. 385-91; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church
(1881, 2d ed. 1892), Lecture XII ; Driver, Journal of Philology, VoL XI (1882), pp.
201-36 ; E. C. Bissell, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and Structure (1885), pp. 318-61;
Dillmann, Genesis Critically and Exegetically Expounded (Sth. ed. 1886; transl. 1897),
Vol. I, pp. 1-26; Franz Delitzsch, A New Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1887;
transl. 1889), Vol. I, pp. 1-59; B. W. Bacon, "Pentateuchal Analysis," Hebraica,
Vol. IV (1888), pp. 219-26; Kittel, History ofthe Hebrews (1888; transl. 1895), VoL
I, pp. 96-134; W. H, Green, Hebraica, Vol. V (1888-89), PP- 149 ff., l62f., I74ff.;
Vol. VI, pp. 127, 133, 167, 180 f., 196, 210; Vol. VII, pp. 16, 27, 33, 36 f., naff.,
137 f., 141; Vol. VIII, 37 f., 63, 201 f., 228, 243; W. R. Harper, Hebraica, Vol. V
(1888-89), pp. 22 f., 25 f., 33 f., 45, 52ff., 63ff., 244f., 253, 266f., 275, 286; VoL VI,
pp. 2, I if., 19, 26 f., 36ff., 242L, 252, 265f., 276f., 288L; Driver, ,^« Introduction
to the Literature of the Old Testament (l8gi, 6th ed, 1897), pp. 126-35; E.J. Fripp,
The Composition ofthe Book of Genesis (1892); C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism of
the Hexateuch (1892, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 69-75; B. W. Bacon, The Genesis of Genesis
(1893), pp. S4-9, 66-94 ; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism ofthe Pentateuch (1895),
pp. 59-133; Idem, The Unity of the Book of Genesis (l8gs), passim; Addis, Doc
uments of the Hexateuch, 'Vol. II (1898), pp. 170-88; H. E. Ryle, article "Gene
sis" (§ iv (a)) in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Nol. II (1899); C. A. Briggs,
General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture (1899), pp., 32gi.; F. H. Woods,
article "Hexateuch" (§ iii, 2 and 4 D) in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II
(1899); L. W. Batten, The Old Testament from the Modern Point of View (1899, 2d
ed. 1901), pp. 79-119 ; J. E, Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexa
teuch, Vol. I (1900), pp. 121-56; G. F. Moore, articles "Genesis" (§§2f.) ahd
" Historical Literature " (§§ 9 f.) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Gunkel, The
Legends of Genesis (igoi),pp.-iin-bo; Wellhausen, article "Hexateuqh" (§§19,23,
24, 29, 30) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of
the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 239-47.
[I. HuPFELD, Die Quellen der Genesis (1853); K. H. Graf, Die geschichtlichen
Biicher des Alten Testaments {1866); Noldeke, Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten
Testamentes (i86g); Ed. Riehm, "Ueberdie Grundschrift des Pentateuchs," Theologische
Studien und Kritiken, 1872, pp. 283-307 ; Bleek- Wellhausen, Einleitung in das
Alie Testament (4th ed. 1878), §§ 81 ff,; RYSSEL, De Elohistae sermone (1878); Giese
brecht, "Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," Zeitschrift fiir die
alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol, I (1881), pp. 177-276; WuRSTER, "Zur Charakte
ristik und Gesehichte des Priestercodex," ibid., Vol. IV (1884), pp. iiiff.; Dill
mann, Die Biicher Numeri, Deuteronomium und Josua (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 207
Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1886), pp. 648 f,, 663; KautzscH und Socin,
Die Genesis mit dusserer Unterscheidung der Quellen (1888, 2d ed, i8gi); Well
hausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Biicher des AUen Testa
ments (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, VoL I (1889), pp, 253-80;
C. H. Cornill, Einleitu?ig in das Alte Testament (i8gi, 3d ed. 1896), pp. 56-68;
Westphal, Les sources du Pentateuque, Tome 2 (1892), pp. 21-32; Wildeboer,
Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (Dutch, 1893; transl. into German, 1895), PP-
306-33; Ed. Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 225-31; Hol
zinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 332-425; Steuernagel, Ueber
seizung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und Josua, und allgemeine Ein
leitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900), pp. 271-8;
Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 96-102.
§218, Constructive Work.
I. Prepare a brief survey of early Israelitish history from tlie pas
sages ordinarily assigned to P (see p. 199, note 3), noting especially
{a) the gaps which are found to exist, that is, the periods left
untouched, or passed over in the genealogical method (see §212);
(f) the portions on which large emphasis is laid.
2. Make a list of all the so-called duplicates {cf. § 209), that is,
those events which are described by some other writer {e. g., J or E)
as well as by P, and observe particularly the- characteristics which
distinguish the account of P from other accounts.
3. Prepare a statement which {a) will present in logical order the
various elements of style that characterize P, {b^ will show the relation
ship existing between these characteristics of style and the contents,
and ((-) will exhibit the contrast between the style of P and that of the
prophetic narrators (J and E).
4. Trace the growth of P in its various stages, viz., P", P*^, P', P", and
indicate (a) the chronological order of these various elements of P ;
{b') the ideas and laws peculiarly characteristic of each stage of the P
legislation. 5. Formulate P's conception of God, and trace the influence of
this conception in {a) the contents, that is, as explaining why certain
things are included or omitted; {b) the style, that is, as explaining why
the style is in such marked contrast, e. g., with the prophetic style; {c)
the conception, that is, as explaining the thought of the writer on
various subjects, e. g., man, angels, worship, etc, etc.

CHAPTER XVI.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES.

I Chron ^ : i ; cf.
Gen, I ::.
I Chron. j : 1-27.
I Chron. 11:28—
10 : 14.

2 Chron. 36 : 22 f .
cf. a Kings
25 : 27 ff.

2 Chron. 36 : 22.
2 Chron. 36 : 20,
22 f. ; Ezra 4:8;
5;6L; 7:27*.;
8:1; Neh, i:ii;
2 : 1 ff . ; Hag. i :
1,15; Zech. 7: 1.

I Chron. 29 : 7.

§ 2 1 9. The Scope of the History in Chronicles. — Observe
that the narrative in Chronicles (i) begins, like that in P,
with the very beginning of the human race ; (2) runs
rapidly over the early history of mankind in general ; (3)
takes up that of the Hebrew people, beginning with Abra
ham and hastening on to the death of Saul ; while (4) with
the accession of David it treats the history more elabo
rately, and covers the period from David to the exile in
the remainder of the work. Observe further that, as com
pared with the prophetic history in Judges, Samuel, and
Kings, (i) while beginning at an earlier point in history,
it gives very much less consideration to the pre-Davidic
period ; (2) it leaves the history of the Northern Kingdom
almost entirely out of account ; and (3) both stop with
the exile, the end of Israel's national life.
Consider, now, the purpose of the compiler (i) as
gathered from the scope of his work; (2) as gathered
from a comparison with Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; (3)
as gathered from the comparative fulness of treatment
of different parts.
§220. The Date of the Books of Chronicles. — Con
sidering the relationship and significance of old materials
in the book, side by side with materials which indicate a
comparatively late date for the origin of the book as a
whole, note (i) that the history extends to the "first
year of Cyrus, king of Persia ; " (2) that the common
titles of Cyrus and all the Persian kings were " the
King," the "Great King," the "King of Kings," the
" King of the Lands ; " they are never called kings of
Persia in contemporaneous literature ; does not this fact
point to a period considerably later than that of the
Persian empire ? (3) that the daric, a Persian coin intro
duced in the time of Darius I. (52 1-486 B. C.) and named
208

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 209
after him, is spoken of as in use in the time of David ;
does not this suggest that the coin had been so long in
use when Chronicles was prepared that the time and
place of its origin had been forgotten ? (4) that the
language of the book has a very strong Aramaic coloring,
is full of words and phrases characteristic of post-exilic
literature, and that the syntax is of a decidedly late char
acter;" (s) that in the list of Zerubbabel's descendants i Chron. 3: 19-24.
six generations are enumerated according to the Hebrew
text, while the Septuagiht gives eleven. Since Zerub
babel lived about 520 B. C, and a generation may be Hag. 1:1.
reckoned at about twenty years, this genealogy, according
to the Hebrew text, gives us a date about 400 B. C; or, if
the Septuagint be accepted, about 300 B. C. (6) If
Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah are the work of the same
editor (see § 226), may we not use data furnished by Ezra
and Nehemiah to determine the date of Chronicles? In
Nehemiah, the high-priest Jaddua is mentioned, and the ifeh.i2:ii,22.
phrase " the days of Jaddua" is employed to indicate a
date in the past. Does not this suggest that the writer
lived some time after Jaddua ? But, according to the
narrative of Josephus,' Jaddua was the high-priest who
met Alexander the Great as he marched through Syria
(333 B. C.) and rendered him favorable to the Jews.
Hence we get a date about 300 B. C. for the compilation
of Chronicles. See, e. g., Barnes, The Books of Chronicles (;' Cam'or\d%e'&ihle,"
1899), pp. xi f.; W. R. Smith and S. R. Driver, article "Chroni
cles," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I, col. 764 ; FRANCIS Brown, article
'' Chronicles I and II," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I,
p. 392 ; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament
(6th ed.), pp. 518 ff.
§221. The Sources of the Books of Chronicles. — Since
the chronicler was one of the latest contributors to the
collection of writings known as the Old Testament, con
sider the probability of his having used many sources
' For the linguistic data and their bearing on the date of Chronicles see especially
Fr. Brown's article " Chronicles," in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, pp.
389-92; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament {tth ed^, pp.
504 ff.; and article "Chronicles, Books of," in Encyclopedia Biblica (§11).
'Antiquities, XI, viii, 4, 5.

210 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
already in existence both within and outside of the Old
Testament writings, and notice his frequent references to
2 Chron, 9:29; such sources, viz, : (i) a series of prophetic narratives,^ («)
12: 15; 13: 22; .
20:34:26:22; the "words of Nathan, the prophet;" {b) the "prophecy
I Chron. 29 : 29. of Ahijah, the Shilonite;" {c) the "visions of Iddo, the
seer;" {d) the "words of Iddo, the seer;" {e) the "mid-
rash of the prophet Iddo ;" (/) the "words of Shemaiah,
the prophet;" {g) the "words of Jehu, the son of Hanani;"
{h) " the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and last, did
Isaiah the prophet, the son of Amoz, write ;" (/) the
" vision of Isaiah, the prophet, the son of Amoz ;" (/) the
" words of Hozai ;" {k) the " words of Samuel, the seer,
I Chron. 9:1; and of Gad, the seer;" (2) a set of court records, vari-
16; II ; 20:34;
25:26; 27:7; ously cited as {a) "the book of the kings of Israel;"
28 : 26 ; 32 : 32 ; "' ^ ' ° '
33:18; 35:27; {b) "the book of the kings of Judah and Israel ;" {c) "the
I Chron. 23:27; book of the kings of Israel and Judah ;" {d) " the affairs
2 Chron. 35 : 25. of the kings of Israel ;" {¦() a similar record of the reisrn
2 Chron, 24:27, 6 ' \o/ S
2 Chron. 30:22 ff., of David; (4) a collection of lamentations; (5) "the
<r/-.t Kings ' ^^' ' ^¦'-'
22:43; 24:2, r/, midrash of the book of the kinsfs, which is perhaps
2 Kings 12:3; * ' f f
25:1-4, £/, identical with the "book of the kings " cited under (2);
2 Kmgs 14:2!,, ° ^ "
5 f,; 4 Chron, 14: (6) the canonical books of Samuel and Kings must have
3-7, cf. 2 Sam, ^ ' °
15:13-16; 20:1, been known to the chronicler, and many passagres indi-
cf 2 Sam. II : I. / f
I Chron. 5:17. cate a close relationship between the two; (7) ancient
I Chron. 16:8-36, , , ^ '
c/. Pss. 105 : 1- genealogical lists ; (8) collections of psalms.
io6;i, 47f. ' In connection with an investigation of the sources,
the following general questions are to be considered :
Did the chronicler use any sources other than those used
by the compiler of Samuel and Kings ? Is the relation
ship between Chronicles, on the one hand, and Samuel
and Kings, on the other, to be explained as due to {a)
direct borrowing of the former from the latter, or to {b)
the use of the same sources by both, or to (<r) the use by
the chronicler of a work based upon the canonical books
of Samuel and Kings? What is the significance of tl^e
name " midrash " applied to two of the above-mentioned
sources? How much material, if any, did the chronicler
himself contribute?
'It is probable, however, that these existed only as a part of the more compre
hensive work cited under (2).

HISTORICAL LITERATURE —BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 211
On the sources of Chronicles see, e. g., Barnes, op. cit., pp. xviii-
xxi ; Fr. Brown, op. cit., pp. 394 f.; Driver, Introduction, etc., pp
519 ff.; W. R. Smith and Driver, Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I, coll.
766 ff.; Benzinger, Die Biicher der Chronik, pp. x ff,; Kuenen,
Einleitung u. s. w., §§ 28-32; Kittel, History of the Hebrews,
Vol. II, pp. 244-30.
§222. The Chronicler's Treatment of His Sources. — i chron. 10:1-12
™, . . , , (cf. I Sam.
inis IS most easily seen by means of a comparison 31: 1-13) ; ii:i-
between Chronicles on the one hand and Samuel and 1-3,6-10) ; 14:1-
17- • 1- / \ -KT 16 (r/. 2 Sam.
Kings on the Other, (i) Note that some material appears 5:11-25) ; chap.
. , , , . , . 17 (<:/. 2 Sam.,
in both works in almost exactly the same form. Con- chap. 7) ;
, J 1 1 r , / ^ " Chron 1 : 14-
sider the character of this material, {a) with reference to 17 W- ' Kmgs
_ 10 : 26-29) ;
its fitness for the chronicler's purpose, (^) as conveying 9 : 29— lo : 19 (</.
ideas that were in keeping with those represented by the 12: 19); etc,
chronicler (<:/. 8 227). (2) Note the presence of some i chron. 10:131.;
. , , , 14:17; chaps.
material not found m Samuel and Kings. Consider {a) 22-29; 2 chron.
14:9-15;
the reason for its incorporation by the chronicler, (b) the 24:20-22;
' \ ^ 22 : 10-13 J etc.
source whence it was derived, {c) the question of its his- 2Sam. 5:41;
II :2 — 12 : 23 ;
torical credibility. (3) Note the absence from Chronicles 13:1—14:33;
I Kings, chaps,
of some material found in Samuel and Kings. Consider 17. ib, 19;
2 Kings 3 - 1 —
the reason for its rejection by the chronicler as bearing 8:15; chap. 10;
on the question of the purpose of the latter. (4) Note i chrbn. 13 : 15 f .
that there are many cases in which the chronicler modi- chap. 6);
¦' 2 Chron. 5 : 4
fies the material in Samuel and Kings in some degree, (r/.i Kings
, . 8:3); chap, 23
sometimes condensing a narrative greatly, sometimes c^/. 2 Kings,
expanding; at other times changing the significance of chap. 20 (r/, 2
^ ° ' 6 6 5 Kmgs, chap. 3) ;
an event, or magnifying the size of an army, or disre- 12:24-8 (r/.i
-^ -^ Kings 14 : 25 f,),
garding historical fact. Consider, with reference to such 14: 5 and 17: 6
° ° (c/. I Kings
cases, whether the divergence is to be explained {a) as 15 : m ; 22 . 43) ;
due to the greater faithfulness of one or the other com- i Kings
, , 6:1-3, 1S-35I ;
piler to the source whence the material was taken; or {b) 8:12-16 (cf.-i
'^ ' \ / Kings 9 : 25) ;
as demanded by the chronicler's more advanced concep- 14:3-5 icf. i
Kings 15 : 12) ;
tion of God ; or (c) as an outgrowth of the chronicler's 16:12-14 (cf\
' ^ ' ° Kings 15 : 23^-
idea of the temple and the cultus; or {d) as a result of 24a); 28: 5-15
" ' \ / (c/, 2 Kings
the different historical circumstances and influences ie:5);29:3—
31 : 21 (cf. 2
amid which the chronicler lived, as compared with the Kings 18:4-70);
32 : 24-33 (cf. 2
times in which Samuel and Kings were edited ; or {e) as Kings, chap.
20) ; 36 : 9 f . (cf
due to other historical or theological influences. 2 Kings 24:8-

§ 223. The Chronicler's Use of Genealogies. — Chron
icles resembles P in its. abundant use of genealogical

"7).

212 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
I Chron., chaps, lists. Note (i) that the period from Adam to the death
1-9. of Saul is merely outlined by a series of genealogies ;
I Chron., chaps. (2) the genealogical character of much of the material
23-27. in the narrative of David's preparations for the building
2 Chron. 29:12- and care of the temple; (3) the emphasis placed upon
14; 31:11-19. 1 \' /
genealogies of the priests and Levites. How is this use
of genealogies to be explained ? Why is so much care
taken in tracing the descent of priests and Levites ? Was
there any connection, between this and the later Hebrew
law, which was very stringent in prohibiting the participa
tion of foreigners and non-Levites in the conduct of the
temple worship ? Whence may we suppose that the
chronicler secured these long lists of names ? May
they be depended upon as historically accurate ?
§ 224. The Chronological and Statistical Cheiracter of
I Chron. 12: 23-37; Chronicles. — Note that, in addition to statistics given in the
29: 1-9; 2 Chron. °
2:i7f. ; 15:11; narrative of Samuel and Kings, Chronicles states the
17 : II, 14-19; ° .
25:5*.; 26 :n number of the Israelites who came to make David king
ff.;27:6; 29: 17, °
21, 32f.; 30:24; in Hebron; the value of the offerings made in David's
last-days for the building of the temple; the number of
"strangers" pressed into the work of building the
temple ; the number of oxen and sheep sacrificed in one
day in the third month of the fifteenth year of Asa ; the
number of sheep and goats brought to Jehoshaphat as
tribute by the Arabians ; the number of soldiers in Jehosh-
aphat's standing army ; the number of the warriors of
Judah led forth by Amaziah to battle against Edom in
the valley of Salt ; the size of Uzziah's standing army ;
the number of Judah's warriors slain by Pekah of Israel ;
the exact date of the cleansing of the temple in Heze
kiah's reign ; the number of sheep, oxen, and goats
sacrificed in connection with this occasion ; the dates of
Josiah's first steps toward religious reform; and other
similar data, (i) Can any principle,or principles, be dis
covered which will account for part or all of this statis
tical information ? or (2) is it merely a characteristic of
the chronicler's literary style ? (3) What is the bearing
on this question of the fact that there are divergencies
between Chronicles and Kings in many cases where they
give figures for the same event? {Cf. § 222, (4).)

34:3.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 213
§225. The Literary Style of Chronicles.— Consisting,
as it does, in large part of excerpts from earlier sources
which have been edited and supplemented by the editor
of Chronicles, may we expect to find the unity of style
that is manifest in a work that comes from one hand ?
Examine lists of the peculiarities of vocabulary and syn
tax in Chronicles'* and read large portions of the book
with a view to determining {a) the style of the chroni
cler as distinguished from that of the sources he uses ;
{b) the style of the chronicler as compared with that of
the prophetic narratives in J, E, Judges, Samuel, and
Kings, on the one hand, and with that of P, on the other.
Is the style seen to be involved, stiff, prosaic, repeti
tious ?
, §226. The Chronicler's Selection of Material. — If it
was not the aim of the chronicler to write a history, but
to use history in such a way as to illustrate and enforce
great ideas which he wished to present, should we not
expect to find that he selects and arranges his material
with a view to his purpose ? Note that (i) he passes 2 Chron., chap.
over the history of northern Israel in silence, except in chap. 13; i'6:i-
a few places where the intimate relation of the two king- 20:35-37; 22:5-
9 j 35' 6-10 17—
doms compels him to mention Israel; why? (2) that 24; 28:5-15;
he fails to mention the sins of David, Solomon, Heze
kiah, and others who were interested in supporting the
temple and its worship ; why ? (3) that he emphasizes i chron., chaps.
the activities of these kings in behalf of the tepaple and 29:22'; 2Chron.
priesthood to such an extent as to make them appear 1-9; 19:4-11;
more like priests than kings; why ? (4) that he assigns 29-31; 34:1—
qc ¦ IQ • etc *
the priests an essential part in the battle-array; why ?
(5) that the religious institutions are given an exceedingly i chron. 13:13.
large place as compared with the books of Samuel and i chron. 6:1-81;
Kings. What light do these and other similar facts shed 23-26; 2' Chron'
upon the nature of the purpose of Chronicles ? Is it 2 kings
not a church history rather than a history of the chaps. 29-31 (c-/.
2Kingsi8:4).
nation ?
§227. The Religion of the Chronicler.— Note (i) ' fs'^j-fs;' 8,-12 i.;
that the Priestly Code serves as the standard in all 21 -'29' 12-36 ;°"
etc,
*See, e. g.. Driver, Introduction, etc., pp, 535-40; Fr. Brow.n, Hastings's
Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, pp. 389 ff.

214

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

I Chron. 21 :5;
2 Chron. 17: 14-19;
25:5; 26:11 if. ;
11: 1.

2 Chron, 27:6;
33:11-13; 31: 21 ; 13:11;
17 : 4 f , ; 26 : 5,
I Chron. 10 : 13 1. ;
2 Chron, 25:20;
24:24f,; 28:5
1f..ig; 26: 16 n, ;
21 : 12 ff,
2 Chron, 13:15,
18; 26:5; 16:7,
12.
I Chron. 28 ; 9 ;
2 Chron. 14:11;
5:22, 26; 16:9.
2 Chron, 30 : 9,
18 f.
2 Chron. 30:19.

3 Chron., chaps.
23-28; 2 Chron,,,
chaps. 3, 4.

I Chron, 14: 17; 2
Chron, i: 14-17;
17: 10-19; 3a:
23, 27-31,

See,*,.?,,iChron„ chaps. 13, 15,
16, 17; 21: 18—
29:22.
2 Chron. 7:5; 13:
3; 17:10-19; 25:
11-13; 27:6, 8;
etc.
2 Chron. 8:2;
21 : 12 (cf.
2 Kings 3: 11;
8:16).

matters of ritual and worship ; (2) that the most religious
kings are represented -as the mightiest, David having
more than a million and a half of soldiers, Jehoshaphat
over a million, Asa more than half a million, Amaziah
and Uzziah only 300,000, Rehoboam only 180,000; (3)
that prosperity is declared to be due to faithfulness to
Jehovah and his worship as conducted at the temple ;
(4) that disaster is declared to be due to sin in abandon
ing Jehovah or his worship ; (5) that Jehovah is the only
and all-sufficient source of help and deliverance ; (6)
that Jehovah is omnipotent and omniscient ; (7) that
Jehovah is merciful and good, ever ready to pardon the
penitent; (8). that, though great emphasis is laid upon
ritual, the spirit of an act is recognized as more impor
tant than the form.
§228. The Idealistic Character of Chronicles. — Recall
(i) that there is silence as to the great sins of David and
other religious leaders (see § 222 (3) ) ; (2) that the Mo
saic system as it existed in the chronicler's day is repre
sented as in full operation in the times of David and
Solomon ; (3) that the splendor and power of the king
dom in the days of David, Solomon, Jehoshaphat, Heze
kiah, and others are rather a reflection of the greatness
of 'the Persian empire, with which the chronicler was
familiar, than a representation of the actual state of
affairs ; (4) that a disproportionate prominence is given
to rhatters of temple and ritual in the early days of the
kingdom ; (5) that there is a tendency to use extraordi
narily large numbers in calculations and estimates ; (6)
that occasionally he changes the natural course of histori
cal events, e. g., representing Hiram of Tyre as giving
cities to Solomon, though the book of Kings states that
the cities were given to Hiram by Solomon in payment for
assistance rendered by Hiram in the work of building the
temple ; and Elijah as writing a message to King Jeho-
ram, although Elijah had been dead for some time. How
may these things be most satisfactorily explained? Are
they due merely to a lack of historical perspective ? Can
they beiaccounted for as necessary to the accomplishment
of the chronicler's purpose ? Is there a sense in which

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 21 5
they represent a larger truth than could be imparted by a
statement of bare fact ? In other words, can these rep
resentations be regarded as ideally true, if not literally ?
§ 229. Literature to be Consulted.
Ewald, History of Israel (1843, 3d ed. 1864, transl. 1883), VoL I, pp. 169 ff.;
C.Y. Keil, The Books of Chronicles (1870, transl. 1872); Zockler-Murphy, The
Books of Chronicles {Lange's "Commentary," 1874); W. R. Smith, art. "Chronicles,'
Encyclopedia Britannica (1876) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel
(1878, 5lh ed. 1899, transl. 1885), pp. 171-227; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the
Jewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 140 ff., 182 ff.; Ball, Chronicles (Ellicott's
"Commentary for flnglish Readers," 1883) ; Wildeboer, Origin of the Canon of the
Old lestament (1891, transl. 1895), see Index; S. R. Driver, Introduction to the
Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), PP- 516-40; Kittel, History
of the Hebrews, Vol. II (1892, transl. 1896), pp. 224-9 ; J- Robertson, Book by Book
(1892), pp. 111-19; Jennings, "Chronicles," The Thinker, July, Sept., Nov., 1892;
RvLE, Canon of the Old Testament (1892), pp. 1381., 145, 151, 162; Montefiore,
The Religion ofthe Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 1892), pp. 447 ff,, 454, 483 ;
Renan, History of the People of Israel, from the Rule of the Persians to That of the
Greeks (1893, transl. 1895), pp. 151 ff.; W. H. Bennett, The Books of Chronicles
("Expositor's Bible," 1894); GiRDLESTONE, Deuterographs (i8g4), passim; Driver,
"The Speeches in Chronicles," Expositor, Apr. and Oct., 1895; G. B. Gray, Studies
in Hebrew Proper Names (i8gb), chap, iii; Kautzsch, An Outline of the History ofthe
Literature of the Old Testament (i8gt, transl. 1899), pp. 121-8; W. E. Barnes, "The
Religious Standpoint of the Chronicler," American Journal of Semitic Languages and
Literatures, Vol. XIII (1896-97), pp. 14-20; Idem, An Apparatus Criticus to Chroni
cles in the Peshitta Version (1897) ; IDEM, "Chronicles a Targum," Expository Times,
Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 316 f.; Crockett, A Harmony of Samuel, Kings, and Chroni
cles (l8g'}); Fr. Brown, art. "Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, VoL I
(1898); T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (l8g8), seelndex; T.
G. Soares, " The Import of the Chronicles as a Piece of Religio-Historical Litera
ture," American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 251-74; W. R. Smith and
S. R. Driver, art "Books of Chronicles," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); C. F.
Kent, History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian, and Greek Periods
(1899), pp. lOl ff.; Barnes, The Books of Chronicles ("Cambridge Bible," 1899);
Beecher, " Is the Chronicler a. Veracious Historian for the Post-Exilian Period ? "
Bible Student, Oct., 1899, Jan. and Feb., 1900; Howlett, " Wellhausen and the
Chronicler," Dublin Review, Apr., 1900; Macmillan, "The Date of Chronicles,"
Presbyterian and Reformed Review, July, 1900; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of
the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 270-85; R. Somervell, "The His
torical Character of the Old Testament Narratives," Expository Times, April, 1902,
pp. 298-302. De Wette, Kritischer Versuch iiber die Glaubwiirdigkeit d. Chron. (" Beitrage,"
Vol. I (1806)); C. P. W. Gramberg, Z>«> Chronik nach ihrem geschichtlichen Charak-
ter und ihrer Glaubwiirdigkeit gepriift (1823); C. F. Keil, Apologetischer Versuch
iiber die Biicher der Chronik (1833); Movers, Kritische Untersuchungen Uber die
bibl. Chron. (1834); E. Bertheau, Die Biicher der Chronik ("Kurzgefasstes exege
tisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1854, 2d ed. 1873 ; 3d ed. by Ryssel, 1887) ;

2l6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Kuenen, Historisch-kritisch Onderzoek (i86i, 2d ed. 1887), §§28-32; Graf, Die
geschichtlichen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1866), pp. I14-247; De Wette-Schra-
der, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1869), §§ 224-33 ; Wellhausen, De gentibus
et familiis Judaeis quae i Ch. s — 4 enumerantur (1870); Franz Delitzsch, " Die
Formenreichtum der israelitischen Geschichtsliteratur," Zeitschrift fiir lutherische
Theologie und Kirche, VoL XXXVI (1870), pp. 31 ff. ; L. Diestel, "Die hebraische
Geschichtsschreibung," Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theologie, Vol. XVIII (1873), PP-
365 ff.; Oettli, Die Biicher der Chronik (" Kurzgefasster exegetischer Kommentar zum
Alten Testament," 1889); Riehu, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890),
pp. 316-28; Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891, 2d ed. 1896), §46;
Budde, " Vermutungen zum ' Midrasch ' des Buches der Konige," Zeitschrift fiir die
alttest. Wissenschaft, Vol. XII (1892), pp. 37 ff. ; H. WiNCKLER, Alttestamentliche
Untersuchungen (1892), pp. 157-67 (= "Bemerkungen zur Chronik als Geschichts-
quelle ") ; KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 269-76 ; Wildeboer,
De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893;
German transl. 1895), pp. 404-20; Klostermann, art, " Chronik," .^^a/(f«0'^^i'/'j^'^2'
fiir prot. Theologie und Kirche, "Vol. IV (3d ed. 1898); 'Benzinger, Die Biicher der
Chronik J[" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament" (1901); Baudissin, £«'»-
leitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 266-78; Rothstein, Die
Genealogie des Konigs Jojachim und seiner Nachkommen (/ Chron. 3: if— 24) in
geschichtlicher Beleiichtung (1902).
§230. Constructive Work.
1. Make a minute comparison of 2 Chron. 2: i — 9:31 with i Kings
5:1 — 11:43, ^iid {'^) classify the variations which are found; (2)
explain the motive which may have led to the making of the change.
2. Make a similar comparison of the psalms found in i Chron.
16:8-36 with the form of these same psalms as they occur in the
Psalter, viz., Pss. 105: 1-15 ; 96: 1-13 ; 106: i, 47 f.
3. Study the classification of the sources of Chronicles as pre
sented by Driver, viz.: ( i) the canonical books from Genesis to Kings ;
(2) the "book of the kings of Israel and Judah," which included the
prophetic writings referred to in 2 Chron. 20:34; 32:32 ; 33:19, and
possibly those mentioned in i Chron. 29:29; 2 Chron. 9:29; 12:15;
(3) the "acts of Uzziah," 2 Chron. 26:22; (4) the "midrash of the
prophet Iddo," 2 Chron. 13: 22 ; and (5) the " midrash of the book of
the kings" (2 Chron. 24:27), unless this be identical with (2).
4. Study the classification of sources as given by Kautzsch, viz.:
(i) excerpts from canonical books of Samuel and Kings : i Chron.,
chaps. 1-9; 10: 1-12; 11:1-9; 14: I-I 7; 16 :43 — 17 : 27; 2 Chron. 1:13
—3:1; 5:2-10; 5:13(5—6:12; 6:14-39; 7:4,5,7,8; 7:17—8:1;
8:6-iia/ 9:1-28; 9:30 — 11:4; 12:2a, qb-ii,i^b; 12:15^ — 13:2;
13:23a/ 15:16-18; 18:3-34; 21:1; 24:1-23/ 24:27/5—25:4; 25:17-
203, 21-26; 25:27^ — 26:4; 27:1-2^, 3«/ 28:1-23, 3, 4; 29:1, 2;
32: 33^— 33: 9 ; 34: 1, 2 ; (2) similar excerpts which were edited by the

HISTORICAL LITERATURE — BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 21/
chronicler: i Chron. 13: 1-14 ; 15:25-29; 18:1—21:27; 2 Chron.
1:7-12; 3: 2 — 5: I ; 7: 11-16 ; 8:17 f.; 16: 1/5-6 ; 20:31-333/21:5-
103/24:4-14; 26:21-23; 27:7-9; 32:9-21; 32:24; 33:20-25;
34:8-323/ 35:18 f., 20,^/ 35:26—36:63/ 36:8,5-123/ (3) contribu
tions of the chronicler himself and older sources which were thor
oughly worked over by him into conformity with his own point of view:
I Chron. 10: 13!; 11: 10 — 12: 40 ; 15: 1-24; 16:1-42; 21:28 — 29:30;
2 Chron. 1:1-6; 5:11-133/ 6:13; 6:40—7:3; 7:6, gf.; 8:2-5, ii/5-
16 ; 9: 29; 11:5— 12:1 ; 12: 2(5-93, 12, 133, 14, 153/ 13:3-22; 13:23,5
— 15 : 15 ; 15 : 19 — 16 : 13/ 16 : 7 — 18 : 2 ; 19 : i — 20 : 30 ; 20 : 33,5-37;
21:2-4; 21: 10,5— 23: 21; 24: 2^, 3, 15-273/ 25:5-16,20,5,273/ 26:5-
20; 27:2,5, 3,5-6; 28:2,5, 5-25; 29:3—32:8; 32: 22 f., 25-33^/ 33:10-19;
34:3-7; 34:321^-35:17; 35:203,21-25; 36:6,5-83,12,5-23.
5. Prepare an outline statement in which you will embody the
principal propositions (perhaps six or eight) which seem to hold good
concerning the contents, style, date, and character of the books of
Chronicles. §231. Supplementary Topics,
I. Take up the question of genealogies in the Old Testament, and
consider (i) the extent to which they appear; (2) the form in which
they are given ; (3) the purpose, in each case, of the insertion ; (4)
the accuracy of the representation; (5) similar usage in other Semitic
literatures, especially Arabic.
See, ,;. g., E. L. Curtis, article " Genealogy,'' Hastings's Dictionary of the
Bible; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, chap, i ; S. A. Cook,
article "Genealogies," Encyc. Biblica; Guthe, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel, pp, 2-6;
Wellhausen, De gentibus et familiis Judaeis quae i Ch. 2-4 enumerantur ; M,
Berlin, "Gershonite and Merarite Genealogies," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol.
XII (1900), pp. 291 ff.; McLennan, Studies in Ancient History, 2d series, chap. 9
( = "Examples of Fabricated Genealogies"); G. B. Gray, Studies in Hebrew
Proper Names, chap, iii ; Smend, Die Listen der Biicher Esra und Nehemia.
2. Consider the question of numbers in Chronicles, including (i) the
variations between Chronicles and the prophetic histories of Samuel
and Kings ; (2) the motive for insertion ; (3) the method of, represen
tation ; (4) the general accuracy.
See, e. g., Francis Brown, article " Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the
Bible, Vol. I, p. 394 ; T. G. Soares, American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill, pp.
264 f.; Benzinger, Chronik, p. ix.
3. Take up for study the lost books of Scripture which are cited in
Chronicles, and in connection with these (i) other lost books cited
elsewhere in Scripture, e. g., the book of Jashar; (2) the character, in
general, of these books ; (3) the relation of these books to the canoni
cal books.

CHAPTER XVII.
HISTORICAL LITERATURE — THE BOOKS OF EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.
§232. The Scope of the History in Ezra-Nehemiah. —
Ezrai:i-4. Note that the narrative in these books (i) begins with
the decree of Cyrus permitting the exiled Jews to return
Neh. 13:6-30. from Babylon; (2) closes with an account of the activi
ties of Nehemiah during his second visit to Jerusalem ;
(3) covers a period, therefore, of about one hundred
years ; and (4) that comparatively few of the events
and movements belonging to this period are treated in
the history, much being passed over in silence.
Ezrai:5-ii; a:i- Observe the order of presentation : (i) The account
of the return gives the decree of Cyrus, a statement about
the gifts sent to the temple, and a long list of the names
of the returning exiles ; nothing being said of the journey
£zra3:i— 4:94. itself. Then follows (2) the account of- the building of
an altar to Jehovah and of the attempt to rebuild the
temple; with (3) the story of the successful opposition
Ezra 5:1— 6:39. of the enemies of the Jews. (4) The next section
describes (3) the renewed effort to build the temple,
under the leadership of Haggai and Zechariah ; {b) the
renewed opposition on the part of the enemy and the
resulting correspondence with Darius ; {c) the comple
tion of the work, and the festivities connected with the
Ezra 7: 1— 8:36. dedication of the restored temple. Then (5), passing
over in silence a period of about sixty years, the historian
gives the story of Ezra's visit to Jerusalem, including the
letter of authority given to him by Artaxerxes, a list of
the names of all who accompanied Ezra, and a list of
the presents sent up from Babylon for the temple. (6)
Ezra 9:1—10:44. The last section of the book of Ezra deals with Ezra's
efforts to put a stop to the marriages of Jews with for
eigners, and gives much space to Ezra's prayer in refer
ence to this subject, and to a list of the names of those
who had married foreign wives.
218

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  EZRA-NEHEMIAH 2I9
Notice that the book of Nehemiah (i) opens with Heh.i:i— 3:8.
the account of Nehemiah's purpose to visit Jerusalem,
and his success in securing the sanction and the support
of Artaxerxes the king. Then follows (2) the narrative of Neh. 2:9-30.
Nehemiah's arrival at Jerusalem, his tour of inspection
made under cover of darkness, and his success in arousing
the citizens to repair the walls of the city. (3) At this point Neh. 3 : 1-33.
is inserted a list of those who engaged in the work, with
careful indication of the special portion performed by each
family or group ; together with a description of the efforts
of the Samaritans to hinder the work and the measures Neh. 4:1-33.
taken by Nehemiah to bring the plans of the Samaritans
to nought. Thereupon (4) comes a digression con- Neh. 5:1-19.
cerning Nehemiah's championship of the cause of the
oppressed debtors among the Jews, and his own policy of
refraining from levying upon the people for his support
as former governors had done. (5) The story of the Neh. 6:1— 7:4.
building of the walls is then continued by a recital of
various conspiracies made by the Samaritans against the
life and the influence of Nehemiah until the work of
building was completed and the city was properly
guarded. (6) A list of those who had returned from ^^'^^^':ll''/^'
exile is next included, this list being a duplicate of one
given in Ezra. Upon this list follows (7) the account of Neh, 8:1-9:38.
Ezra's introduction of the law and of its adoption by
the people in public assembly.' Then comes (8) a list Neh^io:i-a7; 10:
of those who signed the new covenant and an account of
the terms of the covenant itself, with still other lists of Heh.n: 1-12:36.
names. (9) A description of the ceremonies in connec; Neh. 12 : 27-43.
tion with the dedication of the wall is then given. (10)
To this are subjoined brief statements concerning the Neh. 12:44-13:3.
provision made by Nehemiah for the support of the tem
ple ministry and concerning the expulsion of foreigners.
The narrative closes (i i) with the reforms in the inter- Neh. 13:4-31-
ests of the temple and its ministry, sabbath observance,
and the prohibition of mixed marriages, carried through
by Nehemiah after his return from a visit to Babylon.
§ 233. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement, based upon a study
of the foregoing outline of the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, concern
ing the purpose of these narratives, as it appears (3) in the kind of

220 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
matter selected for treatment ; (,5) in the relative amount of prominence
given to the various subjects ; {c) in the places assigned respectively to
Ezra and to Nehemiah. §234. The Unity of the Books of Ezra-Nehemiah. —
Consider the following facts: (i) Some most ancient
Jewish and early Christian writers speak of the book of
Ezra in such a wayas to indicate that they include with
it the present book of Nehemiah.' (2) The old Jewish
commentators, e. g., Rashi and Aben Ezra, pass from
Ezra 10:44 to Neh. i :i without any break such as is
customary in passing from one book to another. (3)
The Massoretic notes attached to each book in the
Hebrew Bible are not found at the close of Ezra, but do
appear at the end of Nehemiah, and there give facts
showing that the Massoretes regarded Ezra-Nehemiah as
one book ; e. g., they declare Neh. 3 : 12 to be the middle
verse of this book. (4) The sections into which the
Hebrew text was divided by the Massoretes for use in
the synagogue service show that they thought of Ezra-
Nehemiah as a single book, one section being Ezra 8 : 35
— Neh. 2:1. (5) The two books are united in the Sep
tuagint translation.
§235. Constructive Work. — In the light of these facts, and the
additional fact that the two books treat the; same period, are concerned
with the same general problems, and furnish much evidence pointing
to their having been edited by the sarne hand, formulate an extended
answer to the question : Shall we consider the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah, now treated separately, as a single literary production ?
See especially Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah ("Cambridge Bible"), pp. i-xiii.
§236. The Unity of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. —
2 Chron. 36:231.; What is the significance of the following facts ? (i) The
£•/. Ezra 1 : 1-3. , , r ^, . , , ,
closing verses of Chronicles are repeated at the opening
of the book of Ezra. (2) Both works are compilations
from various sources (see §§ 221, 228). (3) Both give
especial prominence to genealogical lists (see §§223;
230, (i)). (4) The two works greatly resemble each
other in general literary style and in their vocabulary
(see §§225; 230,(4)). (5) The two exhibit the same
absorbing interest in matters relating to the temple and
'So, e. g., Talmud, Baba bathra, folio 14, c. 2; Melito, bishop of Sardis (ca. 180
A. D.), cited in Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., IV, 26.

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  EZRA-NEHEMIAH 221
its service; e.g., {a) great prominence is given to the Ezra3:8-i3;
Levites, who are mentioned more than sixty times in £/?c'hr'on?^'
Ezra-Nehemiah and about one hundred times in Chroni
cles; (,5) in both the musical service is emphasized; (c) Ezra3:ioL;
. 1 i_ , , , , ' \ / Neh, 12:27, 36,
in both prayer is highly esteemed, and hence is frequently 46; cf Chron.
, , . , ^ J' Ezra 9: 6-15;
placed m the mouths of Israel's great leaders: (d) Neh, 1:4; 49;
...... , ° ^ ' cf. Chron,
religious festivals and ceremonies are described in detail Ezrae: 19-33,
, , , , s. , Neh, 13 : 37-43 .
by botri ; (e) the porters are mentioned as a part of the cf. 2 chron.,
5: 1 — 7: 10.
temple staff nowhere except in Ezra-Nehemiah and Ezra 3 43 ; Neh.
Chronicles, in which books they are often so spoken of ; cf. ch'ron.
(/) the Nethinim, mentioned frequently in Ezra-Nehe- Ezra7:7; 8:17;
miah, are mentioned in no other book except Chronicles; lo-.ia]' cf!
(6) Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles come from the same ' ron. 9,2,
period (see §§220, 227); (7) Ezra-Nehemiah takes up
the history at the point where it stops in Chronicles and
continues it until the building of the. second temple is
narrated, the two books, Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah,
thus constituting a history of the temple and its worship
from the time of the building of Solomon's temple until
the restoration of worship in the days of Ezra and
Nehemiah. See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xxvi ff.; Reuss, Das
Alte Testament, pp. 8 ff.; KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, p.
285.; 'Driver, Introduction, etc., pp. 516 f,; Sayce, Introduction to
Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther, pp, 29 f,; cf. Higher Criticism and the
Verdict of the Monuments, pp. 537 f.> 54^.
§237. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement discussing the
explanation of these facts, whether (i) by the supposition that the two
editors, working in the same period and upon the same subjects and
with the same interests, used the same methods and arrived at similar
results ; or (2) by the supposition that the two books are really one,
being the product of the same editor's labors.
§ 238. The Date of Ezra-Nehemiah {cf. §220). — Note
(i) the use of the expression "the days of Nehemiah;" Neh. 13:36, 47.
does the writer not seem to regard these days as long
past? (2) the use of the title "king of Persia," in view Ezrai:if.,8;
of the fact that contemporary sources when speaking of 34; '6:14; 7:1.
Persian monarchs use simply "the king;" does not this Hag. 1:1, 15;
^ -^ ° Zech. 7:1; Ezra
suggest that the Persian dominion was a thing of the 7:27*.; 8:1,33,
past in the writer's time? the words "of Persia" would i:'ii;'3:iff.;
'^ 5:4, 14; 6:7;
be superfluous while the Persian empire was supreme, 13:6.

222 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Neh. 13: 10 f., 33; but entirely appropriate after its overthrow; (3) the
}os\\h\is. An- reference to Jaddua, the high-priest, who lived three
vu^B.'"' ' generations later than Eliashib, the contemporary of
Nehemiah; this points to a time as late as the days
of Alexander the Great for Jaddua, and the phrase
" the days of Jaddua," would seem to indicate that the
Neh. 12:33. priesthood of Jaddua was now long past; (4) the refer
ence to " the reign of Darius, the Persian," as a period
some time past; it is generally agreed that the king
referred to is Darius Codomannus, 336-332 B. C; (5)
Neh. 12:33. the reference to "the book of the chronicles" which is
said to have contained the register of the Levites as far
down as the high-priesthood of Johanan, the son of
Ezra4:6-33; Eliashib ; (6) the treatment of the sources, which is such
7:1-10; etc. ' \ / ... , , , 1 / f
as no contemporary historian would have ventured (,:/.
§229).
§239. Constructive Work. — Discuss the significance of the preced
ing facts; and determine whether they point (i) to the work of a later
editor, who inserted all these allusions to late history in a book that
had been written at an earlier period, or (2) to the probability that
the book as a whole was not compiled, and edited until a time some
where about 300 B. C.
See, c. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xxiii ff.; Driver, Introduction, etc.,
p. 545 ; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes, pp. 266 ff.
§240. The Sources of Ezra-Nehemiah. — In support of
the position that Ezra-Nehemiah is the work of an editor
who compiled largely from existing sources, consider (i)
Ezra 3:1; 5:1; the many cases of abrupt transition from one atopic or
1:1; 7:73'*,- incident to another, an abruptness which is natural ina
work made up of extracts from older works placed side by
side, but hard to account for in a work all of which origi
nated from the same hand ; (2) the frequent change from
the third to the first person, and vice versa, in closely
related sections of the work, without any indication of
Ezra 4 : 8—6 : 18 ; reason for the change; (3) the presence of two large sec
tions written in Aramaic, without any apparent reason for
Neh. 7:6-73; 11: the change of speech ; (4) the presence of lists of names
which have no close ponnection with the context to
Ezra3:3;3:2; which they belong ; (5) the use of important names in
Neh. 12: 22, 3*2. such away as to imply that they had occurred in some

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  EZRA-NEHEMIAH 223
previous context from which they are now severed ; (6)
the marked differences in style and language appearing
in various parts of the narrative ; (7) the fact that all the
other historical books of the Old Testament are com
pilations ; for the book of Chronicles especially see
§ 221; (8) the allusion to the "books of the chronicles," Neh. 12:23.
apparently a temple-register from which the editor
obtaine'd some materials.
As materials which the editor seems to have derived
from earlier sources may be noted (i) the decree of Ezra 1:1-4.
Cyrus permitting the exiles to return home; (2) the Ezra 4 : 7-16 ; 4 :
17-24 ; 5 : 1 —
Aramaic sections containing (3) the letter sent by the 6:18; 7:12-26.
Jews' enemies to Artaxerxes; (,5) the king's reply; (,:)
the account of the building of the temple in the days of
Haggai and Zechariah, with certain letters that passed
between Jerusalem and Babylon with reference to it ;
{d) the firman of Artaxerxes endowing Ezra with such
authority as he desired; (3) various lists, including (3) Ezra 1:9-11;
the vessels of the temple; {b) the Jews who came back Neh. 7:6-73;
. Ezra 10:20-44;
from exile with Zerubbabel; {c) the men who married Neh., chap. 3;
10: 1-27; II :3-
foreign wives; {d) the builders of the wall; {e) the 36:12:1-26,
signers of the covenant ; (/) the dwellers in Jerusalem
and in other cities ; {g) the priests and Levites ; (4) the Neh, n-.nb—
account of the adoption of the law and the new covenant '°'^^'
in the time of Nehemiah; (5) certain portions of the Ezra 7: 27— 8:34;
narrative which use the first person and seem to have ^¦^"'5'
belonged to the memoirs of Ezra; (6) similar sections Neh,, chaps. 1-6;
which seem to have been taken from the memoirs of ^T'Im-si-"'"
Nehemiah. § 241. The Treatment of the Sources in Ezra-Nehemiah.
— Consider {i) the form of the decree of Cyrus with Ezrai:2ff. ; «/.
^ ' 6:3 ft.
reference to the return of the exiles as it is given in two
different places in Ezra, and note the differences in
phraseology and contents ; is it probable that there were
two copies of the decree in existence differing so much
as these, or is it more natural to ascribe the variations to
the hand of the editor? (2) the fact that a large section Neh., chaps. 8-10;
^ ' cf. Ezra, chaps.
of Nehemiah appears to belong to the memoirs of Ezra, 7-10.
being closely connected with them in the period with
which they deal, in tone, and in phraseology; (3) the Ezra chaps. 4-6;
¦I '^ °-^ ^ ' Neh., chaps.
fact that the opposition of the Samaritans to the Jewish 4,6.

224 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
community is all crowded together at the beginning of
the narrative, though, as a matter of fact, the dates given
show that this opposition extended over a period of
about eighty years and grew more and more bitter ; (4)
Ezra2:i— 3:ia,- the fact that there are more than one hundred variations
cf. Neh. 7 : 6-73. in two copies of the same genealogical list, and, in par
ticular, that the numbers differ oftener than they agree.
Consider further (5) the evidence pointing to the
conclusion that Ezra's expedition xeaWy followed that of
Nehemiah instead of preceding it, as the editor's narrative
reads; e.g., (3) Nehemiah's memoirs make no allusion to
any previous work of Ezra; (,5) those who came back with
Ezra seem to have taken no part in the rebuilding of the
walls, as they certainly would have done had they been
Neh. 13:25; cf present; {c\ Ezra's measures, especially with reference to
Ezra, chap, 10. '^ ' ^ ' ' sr j
intermarriage, all seem more decisive than those of Nehe
miah, which have the appearance of being tentative ; {d)
the fact that, according to the editor's narrative, Ezra's
law was not promulgated until after the arrival of Nehe
miah, and that no explanation of this long delay is
Ezra 9: 9. offered by the editor; {e) the fact that Ezra gives thanks
to Jehovah that the walls have been rebuilt at a time
when Nehemiah, the builder of the walls, had not yet
appeared on the scene, according to the editor's narrative.
What motive could have led to such a rearrangement of
the documentary sources? Is it sufficient to say that it
was for the purpose of giving Ezra, the priest, precedence
over Nehemiah, the layman?
§ 242. The Style of Ezra-Nehemiah. — As indicative of
Ezra, chap. 2; ^^^ editor's tastes and interests note (i ) the large amount
44'Neh.3°i-32; '^^ genealogical xaatexial he incorporates into his narrative,
27?i5'^i.°jfa6. giving lists of those who took part in the first return
from exile, of those who helped build the wall, of those
Ezra 1 : 10 1; who dwelt in Jerusalem, etc., etc.; (2) the similar fond-
i8fV^22;^8'26 ness for statistical statements, as evidenced in connection
17,' ^18; 7f66-73. with the above lists and on every other possible occasion ;
Ezra I : I ; 3 : 1, 6, (3) the numerous chronological data with which his work
'^."•^fi^jfj: ¦ abounds. In connection with these characteristics,
i6f!; ifeh°i?i; recall the similar features seen to have been character-
g:|^"yj3'.V:2 istic of the books of Chronicles (see §§ 223, 224). Con-
L,i3,i7f.;9:i. sider (4) the style of the editor's own contributions to

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  EZRA-NEHEMIAH 22 5
the work as distinguished from the style of the sources
used by him.
§243. Constructive Work. — Examine lists of phrases and words
peculiar to the various sources, and read each source separately, as far
as possible, in order that its literary style may impress itself upon your
mind. Then treat the editor's own contribution in the same way, and
compare its style with that of the editorial contributions to the books
of Chronicles, with a view to the light that may be thrown by such a
comparison upon the question of the unity of Chronicles, Ezra, and
Nehemiah. See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xviii f., xxviii f.; Driver, Introduc
tion, etc., pp. 546 ff., 553; Geissler, Die literarische Beziehungen der Esramemoiren,
insbesondere zur Chronik und den hexateuchischen Quellenschriften (1899).
§244. The Religion of Ezra-Nehemiah. — If Ezra-Nehe
miah is the result of a compiler's work, the religious
interests of the compiler must be looked for in three
directions: (i) the nature of the subjects he selects for
treatment; (2) the relative prominence gi-ven by him to
various matters ; (3) the religious tone of the material
contributed by himself. In reference to (i) it maybe Neh, 12:37-43;
noted that the subjects treated are all of a religious char- 10, ' ' '
acter, such matters as are not in themselves distinctively
religious being given a religious interpretation, e. g.,
the buildirig of the walls and the movement against inter
marriages with foreigners. As to (^2^ we may note the Ezrai:3-n;2:
. , , , . „ , , 68fl.; chap. 3;
great prominence given to the temple and its affairs, the Neh, 3:4-14;
f , , , , . , , Ezra6; 16-23;
important place in the community assigned to priests Neh. 12:37-47;
,T.,,, ,,, , Ezra 2 : 40-63 ;
and Levites, and the large amount of attention bestowed 3:8-10,13; 7:7,
upon matters of ritual, descriptions of religious cere- 30; io:i8ff,;
, , , ,,, ^ • / \ , 1 Neh, 13:1-36,
monies, and the like. Concerning (3) we observe the Ezra6:i6-33; 7 : I-IO ; 8 : 35 f . ;
priestly interest dominant in the editor's work, and that Neh, 13:44-47;
^ 13 : 1-3.
the Priestly Code serves as the standard in all matters of
ritual and worship.
In general, is there any appreciable difference be
tween the religious ideals and feelings of the editor of
Ezra-Nehemiah and those of the Chronicler {cf. § 227)?
If not, is not this a strong indication of the unity of
Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles?
§ 245. Literature to be Consulted.
F. W. ScHULZ, Ezra, 'Nehemiah and Esther (Lange's " Commentary on the
Holy Scriptures," 1876, transl. 1877); EwALD, History of Israel, Vol, I (1843, 3d ed.

226 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
1864, transl. 1883), pp. 169-96 ; Keil, Commentary on the Books of Ezra, Nehemiah
and Esther (1870, transl. 1879); D. H. Haigk, ' Coincidence of the History of Ezra
-with the First Part of the History of Nehemiah," Transactions ofthe Society of Biblical ,
Archeology, Vol. II (1873), pp. 1 10-13; J' S. Black, articles on "Ezra" and "Books
of Ezra and Nehemiah," Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. VIII (1878); W. R. Smith,
The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 42f. ; Geo.
Rawlinson, Ezra and Nehemiah ("Pulpit Commentary," 1881) ; Kuenen, National
Religions and Universal Religion (Hibbert Lectures, 1882), pp. 323-7 (on "Ezra
and the Establishmfent of Judaism ") ; A. H. Sayce, An Introduction to the Books of
Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1885, 3d ed. 1893); Marcus Dods, "Ezra" and "Nehe
miah,'' Expositor, 3d series. Vol. VI (1887), pp. S3-64, 287-97; ?• H. Hunter, After
the Exile, Vol. II (1890); G. Rawlinson, Ezra and Nehetfiiah, Their Lives and Times
("Men of the Bible " series, 1890); Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old
Testament (ist ed. 1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 540-54 ; W. F. Adeney, Ezra, Nehemiah
and^sther (\8g3); Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (i8g3),
pp. 537-53; -A-. C. Hervey, " The Chronology of Ezra II and IV, 6-23," Expositor,
June, 1893, pp. 431-43 ; July, 1893, pp. 50-63 ; H. E. Ryle, The Books of Ezra and
Nehemiah ("Cambridge Bible," 1893); G. S. Goodspeed, "Ezra and Nehemiah,"
Biblical World, Vol. I (1893), pp. 40-48, 208-19; H. HowoRTH, The Academy, 1893,
Jan. 7, pp. 131,; Jan. 21, p. 60; Feb. 4, p. 106; Feb. 25, pp. 174 f.; April 15, pp. 326 f.;
June 17, p. 524; July 22, pp. 73!.; Sept. 16, pp. 233 f. ; Idem, "A Criticism of the
Sources and Relative Importance and Value of the Canonical Book of Ezra and the
Apocryphal Book Known as Esdras I," Transactions ofthe Ninth International Con
gress of Orientalists, Vol. II (1893), PP- 68-85; C. C. TORREY, The Composition and
Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah (" Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestament
liche Wissenschaft," II, 1896); Kautzsch, The Literature ofthe Old Testament (i8gt,
transl. 1899), pp. I2I-8; J. A. Selbie, "Van Hoonacker on Israel's Retum from
Exile," Expository Times,'Vol.V\l (1897), pp. 71-3; Idem, "Israel's Return from
Exile," ibid., pp.. 320-22; Idem, " Ezra-Nehemiah," ibid., pp. 509-11; Idem, " Kosters
on Israel's Return from Exile," ibid.. Vol. IX, pp. 66-8 ; A. R. S. Kennedy, " Did
the Jews Return under Cyrus?" ibid.,'Vol.YlU.(i8g']),pp. 268-71; Van Hoonacker,
"The Return of the Jews under Cyrus," ibid.. Vol. VIII (1897), PP- 351-4 > Cheyne,
Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898), pp. 36-81; Idem, "The Times of Ezra
and Nehemiah,'' Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 238-50; N. Schmidt, "Nehe
miah and His Work," ibid.. Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 329-43 ; L. W. Batten, art. "Ezra
and Nehemiah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); C. F. Kent, A
History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and Greek Periods (1899),
pp. 126-36, 167-214 ; J. O. Boyd, " The Documents of the Book of Ezra," Presbyterian
and Reformed Review, 1900, pp. 414-37; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Pro
phetic and Priestly Historians (igoi), pp. 31^-3^; Cheyne, "From Isaiah to Ezra,''
American Journal of Theology, 190 1, pp. 433-41; Kosters and Cheyne, art. "E-;ra-
Nehemiah," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901) ; Guthe and Batten, The Books of
Ezra and Nehemiah — Critical Edition ofthe Hebrew Text, etc. ("Polychrome Bible,"
1901); J. W. Harper, The Books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther ("The Temple
Bible," 1902).
Kleinert,. in Beitrdge zu den theologischen Wissenschaften von den Professoren
zu Dorpat, Band I (1832), pp. 1-^304 (on origin, structure, and date of Ezra-Nehe
miah); Keil, Apologetischer Versuch uber die Biicher der Chronik und iiber die

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  EZRA-NEHEMIAH ' 22/
Integritat des Buches Ezra (1833); Kuenen, Historisch-kritisch Onderzoek naar het
Ontstaan en de Verzameling van de Boeken des Ouden Verbonds, Vol. II (186 1, 2d ed.
1887, German transl. 1892), pp. 103-83; Schrader, "Die Dauer des zweiten Tempel-
baues. Zugleich ein Kritik des Buches Ezra," Theologische Studien und Kritiken,
1867, pp. 460-504; Margraf, "Zur Aufhellung der nachexilischen Chronologic,"
Theolog. Quartalschrift, 1870, pp. 567 ff.; DE Saulcy, Stude chronologique des livres
d'Esdras et de Nihimie (1868); B5hme, Nehemia 1-6 (1871); Franz Delitzsch,
" Der Esra der t)berlieferung und der Esra der neuesten Pentateuch-Kritik," Zeit
schrift fUr die gesamte lutherische Theologie u. Kirche, Vol. XXXVIII (1877); J.
Halevy, "Esdras et le code sacerdotal," Revue de l'histoire des religions. Vol. IV
(1877); Eb. Nestle, "Zum Frage nach der urspriingliche Einheit der Biicher Chronik,
Esra und Nehemia," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1879, pp. 155-21; Smend,
Die Listen der Biicher Ezra und Nehemia (1881); A. Rosenzweig, Das Jahrhundert
nach dem babylonischen ,Exil mit besonderer Riicksicht auf die religiose Entwicklung
des Judentums (1885); J. HalAvy, " Esdras a-t-il promulgu^ une loi nouvelle?" Revue
de l'histoire des religions. Vol. XII (1885); Kuenen, " L'ceuvre d'Esdras," ibid., VoL
XIII (1886), pp. 334-58 (German transl. by K. Budde in Gesammelte Abhandlungen
zur biblischen Wissenschaft von Dr. Abraham Kuenen (1894), pp. 370-91); Bleek-
Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5th ed. 1886), pp. 205-22; Ber-
THEAU-Ryssel, Die Biicher Esra-Nehemia und Esther erkldrt ("Kurzgefasstes
exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1887); Ryssel, " Die Anfange der
jiidischen Schriftgelehrsamkeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1887, pp. 149-82;
Stade, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel, VoL II (1888), pp. 95-193; Oettli, Ezra und
Nehemia (Strack und Zockler's " Kurzgefasste Kommentar," 1889); Riehm, Ein
leitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890), pp. 329-38 ; Van Hoonacker, Nihimie
et Esdras. Une nouvelle hypothise sur la chronologic de Vdpoque de la restauration
(1890) ; Kuenen, " De Chronologie van het Perzische Tijdvak der Joodsche Geschie-
denis," Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen,
Afdeeling Letterkunde, Amsterdam, 1890, pp. 273-322 (German transl. by K. Budde,
in Gesammelte Abhandlungen u. s.w. (1894), pp. 212-51); Cornill, Einleitung in
das Alte Testament (i8gi, 3d ed. i896),§45; Van 'Hoon ac'K.er, Zorobabel et le second
tempile: itude sur la' chronologie des six. premiers chapitres du livre d'Esdras (l8g2);
Idem, Nihimie en Van 20 d'Artaxerxis I, Esdras en Tan 7 d' Artaxerxis 7/(1892);
ZxsNZ, Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrage der Juden (1892), pp. 20-31; KoNlG, Einleitung
in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 276-85 ; Ch. Huyghe, " La chronologie des livres
d'Esdras et de N^h^mie," Revue des questions historiques, 1893; Wildeboer, De
Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893, German
transl. 1895), pp. 404-20; Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak
(1894, German transl. 1895); Lagrange, "N^hdmie et Esdras," Revue biblique, Oct
1894; Wellhausen, "Die Riickkehr der Juden aus dem babylonischen Exil," Nach-
ric'hten der koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft zu Gottingen, 1895, pp. 166-86;
Kosters, "Het Tijdvak van Israels Herstel," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1895, pp.
549-57; 1896, pp. 489-504; 1897, pp. 518-54; Fl. de Moor, "L'^poque de la
restauration juive d'aprfes les livres d'Esdras et de N^h^mie," Science catholique,
1895 ; Van Hoonacker, Nouvelles itudes sur la restauration juive apris Vexil
de Babylone (1896); Ed. Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judenthums (1896); Well
hausen, G'ottingischer gelehrter Anzeiger, 1897, No. 2, pp. 89 ff. (review of Meyer's
Entstehung des Judenthums); Ed. Meyer, /. Wellhausen und meine Schrift, "Die

228 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Entstehung des Judenthums" (1897); 'S. IAarqv ART, Fundamente israelitischer und
jiidischer Gesehichte (1897), pp. 28-68; Sellin, Serubbabel — ein Beitrag zur
Gesehichte der messianischen Erwartung und der Entstehung des Judenthums (1898),
pp. 48-61; Klostermann, art. "Esra und Nehemia," Realencyklopedie fiir prot.
Theol. u. Kirche, Vol. V (3d ed. 1898) ; Guthe, Gesehichte des Volkes Israel (1899),
pp. 245-60; J. Geissler, Die literarische Beziehungen der Esramemoiren insbesondere
zur Chronik und den hexateuchischen Quellenschriften (l8gg); MoULTON, " Uber die
ijberlieferung und den textkritischen Werth des dritten Esrabuches," Zeitschrift fUr
die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, VoL XIX (1899), pp. 209-58 ; Vol. XX (1900), pp.
1-35; WiNCKLER, "Die Zeit der Herstellung ]ndas," Altorientalische Forschungen,
zweite Reihe, Band II (1899), pp. 210-27 ; Idem, "Die Zeit von Ezras Ankunft in
Jerusalem," ibid., pp. 2/^1-/^; Idem, "Die doppelte Darstellung in Ezra-Nehemia,"
ibid.. Band III (1901), pp. 458-89; NlKEL, Die Wieder herstellung des jiidischen
Gemeinwesens nach dem babylonischen Exil(\goo); C. SlEGERlEX), Esra, Nehemia und
Esther iibersetzt und erkldrt (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1901); Sellin,
Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der jiidischen Gemeinde, Band II (1901); Baudissin,
Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 264-6, 279-300 ; Bertho
let, Die Biicher Esra und Nehemia erkldrt ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten
Testament," 1902) ; Carl Holzhey, Die Biicher Ezra und Nehemia. Untersuchung
ihres litterarischen und geschichtlichen Charakters (1902).
§ 246, Supplementary Topics.
I. Make a careful comparison of the parallel passages, Ezra2:i — y.ia
and Neh. 7:6-23, noting and classifying the variations in the two lists.
2. Analyze Ezra-Nehemiah carefully, with a view to determining
for yourself tLe sources of the various materials of which it is com
posed and the historical value of the narrative as it has been presented
by the editor.
Cf. especially Torrey, The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah;
GVTHE, Ezra and Nehemiah ("Polychrome Bible," 1901); Siegerieu, Esra, Nehe
mia und Esther (" Handkommentar z. A. T."), pp. 7-14 ; KosTERS, Het Herstel van
Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak (1894, Germ, transl. 1895); Carl Holzhey, ZJzV
Biicher Ezra und Nehemia; Untersuchung ihres litterarischen und geschichtlichen
Charakters (igo2) ; Meyer, Z^zV Entstehung des Judenthums; Schrader, Theologi
sche Studien und Kritiken, 1867, pp. 460-504; Van Hoonacyler, Nihimie et Esdras;
J. O. Boyd, "The Documents of the Book of Ezra," Presbyterian and Reformed
Review, 1900, pp. 414-37.
3. Compare the canonical book of Ezra with the apocryphal book,
Esdras I, noting (i) the materials common to both, (2) the materials
peculiar to each; and consider the relative value of each as historical
sources. See, e. g., H, Howorth, " A Criticism of the Sources and Relative Importance
and Value of the Canonical Book of Ezra and the Apocryphal Book Known as Esdras
I," Transactions of the Ninth International Congress of Orientalists, Vol. II (1893), pp.
68-85 ; Moulton, "Uber die ijberlieferung und den text-kritischen Werth des dritten
Esrabuches," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX, pp. 209-58 ;

HISTORICAL LITERATURE  EZRA-NEHEMIAH 229
XX, 1-35 ; Bertholet, Esra und Nehemia, p. xvi : Siegfried, Esra, Nehemia
und Esther, pp. 14 f.
4. Study the contents of the numerous genealogical lists in Ezra-
Nehemiah from the point of view of (i) their origin, (2) their historical
value, (3) their purpose.
See Smend, Die Listen der Biicher Ezra und Nehemia (1881).
5. Study the descriptions of priestly ceremonies, and customs, the
provision made for the support of the temple and its ministry, and all
other references to laws and usages of worship, and note the points of
contact with the codes of worship, with a view to determining which
stratum of laws is reflected by the narrative of Ezra-Nehemiah.
6. Consider the fact that certain portions of Ezra-Nehemiah are
written in Aramaic, and the best explanation of this fact. In this con
nection study the significance of the presence of an Aramaic section in
the book of Daniel.
See, c. g., Bertholet, op. cit., p. xv; Siegfried, op. cit., p. 7 ; Ryle, op. cit., p.
XX ; Baudissin, Einleitung, p. 283. On Daniel see the commentaries by Driver,
Marti, Behrmann, Bevan, and Prince.

Paet Sixth

THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP -THE HYMNAL
LITERATURE
XVIII. The Priestly Element in the Psalter.

CHAPTER XVIIL
the hymnal literature — the PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE PSALTER.
§ 247. The Scope of the Priestly Element in the Psalter. — The Psalter
was used in the ritual of worship. But more than this ; a consider
able portion of it had its origin in connection with such ritual. It
was, therefore, very largely a result, directly or indirectly, of the
priestly activity. Its outward form (§259) shows many peculiarities
which are distinctly priestly. It abounds in allusions (§§ 261 ff.) to the
priest, the place of worship, feasts, etc. Its principal coijtents consist
of prayers and songs of praise (§§ 265 f.), that is, material intended for
use in worship. Much of the composition, although by no means all,
may, indeed, be attributed to priests, or guilds of priests.
§ 248. Other Elements than the Priestly occupy a large
place in the Psalter. This is due to the fact that at the
late period in Hebrew history in which the Psalter finally
took on its present form the work of the prophets for
the most part had been concluded ; the work also of the
sage had taken strong hold upon the people, and conse-
quentlymuch of the teaching of both these classes had
been absorbed into the general thought and opinion of
the times. Accordingly, we may be prepared to find in Pss. 15,19,32,46,
73 1 9^*
this collection a very large prophetic element, and a
smaller amount of the wisdom material. At the same
tim'e, it may fairly be cla,imed that the priestly element
dominates ; for in fact, the Psalter has shown itself to be
the greatest help to worship that history has known.
§249. Constructive Study. — Take up Pss. 72-99, and Pss. 72-99.
distinguish each as predominantly prophetic, priestly, or
philosophic (that is, as exhibiting the wisdom element).
§ 250. Many Important Problems present themselves to the student
of the Psalter ; most of these require at least a tentative solution before
the more general questions can be satisfactorily considered. Among
such problems are the following :
I. Are the superscriptions, of which so many are found in the
Psalter, a part of the psalm in each case, and consequently authorita-
233

2 34 PklESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
tive? Or are they from a much later date, and consequently to be
treated only as editorial and unauthoritative suggestions ?
2. May we expect to find, in connection with each of the psalms, a
historical background, similar to that which, in recent years, has been
emphasized so strongly in connection with the sermons of prophets,
and the different codes of legislation ?
3. Did David really write all the psalms attributed to him, or any
considerable portion of them ? Is it reasonable any longer to suppose
that any of the psalms in this collection come from so early a period
as the reign of David ?
4. Is the " I " which plays so important a part in the psalms an
individual, or is it a personification of the Israelitish community?
5. Are there psalms in the Psalter which come from as late a date
as the times of the Maccabees, i. e., 168 to 161 B. C?
6. To what extent may it be supposed that editorial work has been
done on the collection as a whole, and in connection with individual
psalms ? §251. Of What Authority Are the Superscriptions ? —
In answering this question, consider —
^% U' J?' il' i!'' I. The form and content, and note that they are
10^17,19,20,21, J ' J
42' 50' 72' 87' 90' complete sentences, or detached phrases which give
Pss. 3, 7, 18, 30, information, more or less definite, concerning the
34,5i>52, 54, 56, , , . , . f , ¦ , ,
57,60,63,92,100, authorship, or the circumstances out of which a psalm
120-134, 142. ^
Pss. 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, grew, or matters of a musical or liturgical character ; and
22,45, I, 2, 4, ^^^ %\ssh superscriptions are rarely found outside of the
Isa. 38:9; Psalter
Hab. 3:1. rsduer. 2. Their origin, and determine whether they are to be
regarded as coming from the author of the psalm in
each case; or from contemporaries of the author; or from
editors or collectors living long after the original produc
tion of the psalm.
3. Their authority, and note :
(a) The considerations which may be urged in favor
of this authority, viz., the fact that they evidently are
I Chron. 15:20,21. very old — so old, indeed, that to the writer of i Chron.
15:20, 21, the Hebrew words had lost their meaning;
the fact that in the Hebrew they form an organic part of
Pss. 51,54, 59. the psalm itself; the fact that, in some cases at least, the
substance of the superscription seems to be entirely con
sistent with the content of the psalm; the fact, also, that

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 235
they are not distributed indiscriminately, but evidently
were intended to subserve a particular purpose.
{b) The considerations which are urged as opposing
their authority, viz., the fact that very frequently the
manuscripts and versions differ, while the Septuagint
and the,Peshitto present many deviations and additions,'
thus indicating that even in the most ancient days there
were many differences of opinion; the fact that the Pss. 27, 74, 79.
superscription in many cases is plainly inconsistent with
the content of the psalm ; the fact that so few authors
are named, when probably there were many; the fact,
also, that statements referring to historical circumstances
are limited to psalms ascribed to David.
4. The tests to which they must be subjected, viz.: {a)
that of linguistic and rhetorical consistency when exam
ined with reference to the content of the psalm ; {b) that
of historical and logical consistency with the content of
the psalm.
In all this each superscription should be taken up
for separate consideration.
§252. Constructive Study. — Examine a series of
superscriptions and tabulate the questions suggested by e. g., Pss. 18, 72,
each case, with the results which may fairly be accepted 23] 34, 45, 51, 60^
in each instance.
§ 253. Is there an Historical Element in the Psalter, like
that which has been found to form the background of
Old Testament prophecy and Old Testament legislation ?
That is, can we find any connection between these psalms
and the history of the people in the midst of which
they were first uttered? Did Israel's history, or did the
experiences of Israel's leaders, find expression in the
Psalms? I. Consider, now, the various kinds of psalms which
may be thought of as in one way or another historical :
' See W. T. Davison, art. " Psalms," in Hastings's Dictionary ofthe Bible, Vol.
IV, p. 150; Kirkpatrick, The Book of Psalms, Books IV and V (1901), pp. xxxi £.;
Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed., 1897), pp. 370 f.;
Baethgen, Z);> Psalmen ("Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 2d ed., 1897),
p. v; Duhm, Die Psalmen ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1899),
p. xvii.

235 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Pss. 106,78. {a) Certain psalms describe in a concrete way certain
historical events, either individual or national; may
these, and others like them, be called objectively historical ?
Pss. »4:7-io; 46, (b') Certain psalms, although not descriptive of his
torical events, may be regarded as the outgrowth, and in
themselves the expression, of an historical event— sub
jectively historical. ;
Pss. 22, 51,69, 84, (^) Certain psalms may be regarded as the expression,
' ' ' ' although not the description, of individual experience.
2. Note some points of general interest in respect to
the historical element in the Psalms :
(a) The absence, in general, of distinct allusion to
specific historical events. How far may this be explained
(i) on the ground of the lyric character of the Psalms?
(2) On the ground of the divine purpose as to the use of
the Psalter as a hymn-book for all ages? (3) On the
supposition that changes and omissions have been intro
duced throughout the centuries, as editors have trans
mitted the collection from hand to hand?
{S) The great importance of discovering this histori
cal element wherever possible (i) for the sake of the
freshness and vividness which is thereby added to the
material ; (2) for the sake of the new historical data thus
brought to light ; (3) for the sake of the evidence thus
gained respecting the growth and development of
psalmody. 3. Still further, make a study of three closely related
points, viz.:
{a) The sources from which' help may be obtained
for reaching a decision on these questions, e. g., (i) bib
lical history ; (2) the stylo and language of the Psalms;
(3) the present position and arrangement in the Psalter;
and (4) the superscriptions.
{S) The character of the knowledge thus obtained : is
it definite? is it trustworthy? is it abundant?
(c) The analogy furnished by a study of the modern
hymn-book.
Pss. 78, 81, 105, §254. Constructive Study. — Examine certain psalms ;
79,126,137.' ' and (i) classify each under one of the heads (i. («) {b^
and (f)) indicated above; (2) point out in detail and dis
cuss the historical element which you find.

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE

237

§255. What Is David's Place in Connection with the
Psalter? — Perhaps no problem more important than this
may be found in Old Testament literature. It is well
worth while to examine into the scope and the signifi
cance of this problem. Consider, therefore — Pss. 8, 19,29,
r^, , Pss, 59, 54, 56, 34
I. The psalms assigned to David by tradition — in y's'/, M2, 52,
' ¦' 63 (?) 7, 6 (?),
all seventy-three, and ordinarily classified by periods as "•^^¦
follows: {a) psalms reflecting his early life; {b) psalms 68. 132,' 30. ' "*'
connected with Saul's persecution ; {c) psalms connected ^eo.Ts. ^'' "°' "'
with the removal of the ark; (d) psalms connected with Pss. 51,32.
Pss. 6^ 3 4 2?
David's v/ars; {e) psalms connected with David's fall; 26, 62,' 27,28,41!
(/) psalms connected with his flight from Absalom ; {g) pss.' 5,' 9, 11-14,
others not definitely connected with any period. sMo.'ss.'sl.'li,'
2. The reasons urged for the probability of so large ?^fii|?;l2,'!°4;
a number of Davidic psalms, e. g. : j^|; 143-^145.'^°"
{a) The period preceding David was just what would
have been expected to produce such a result, since it
included, e. g., (i) the religious revival under Samuel ;
(2) a wonderiul activity on the part of the prophets, like
Samuel, Gad, Nathan; (3) the- founding of the prophetic
schools ; (4) a marked degree of development in theway
of spiritual activity.
{b) The times of David furnished an excellent basis
for these psalms, since they were times of national
struggle, of multiform experience, of high aspiration.
(c) The several historical references to David as a i sam. 16:17, 18;
^ ' , . , , 18:10: 2 Sam.
musician and a poet substantiate this claim. 1:19-27; -Amos
{d) The many-sidedness of David's character as it is
revealed in his private life, as shepherd, soldier, states
man ; priest, prophet, king ; friend, father, leader.
{e) The overwhelming evidence furnished by the
superscriptions, which, at all events, show that from very
early times David was regarded as the author.
(/) The ease with which the events of David's life
may be fitted into connection with the content of the
Psalms." =0n this point the following statements present the opposing views : " References
to the more remarkable passages in David's life occur in places without number.
There are psalms, not a few, which it is impossible for anyone to read without being-
reminded that they are his." — Binnie, The Psalms.
The view that these psalms come from David "implies absolute incapacity to

238 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
3. The reasons urged against the probability of so
large a number of Davidic psalms :
(a) The uniform tendency of tradition to magnify
the work of a particular man ; as seen in the parallel
cases of Moses, to whom all Hebrew legislation is
£¦.,?-„ Lev. 1 : 1 ; ascribed; Isaiah, to whom the work of four or more
4:1; Deut. 27 :
i; Prov, 1:1; prophets is ascribed; and Solomon, to whom so large a
Eccl. 1:1;^^ ' °
Cant, 1:1. portion of the wisdom literature is assigned.
,E.^.,Pss, 3,18, {b) The fact that only in the case of psalms assigned
to David are the circumstances of occasion or origin
indicated.
E.g., Pss. 122, {c) The certainty that in many cases the assignment
to David is unquestionably wrong; and, with this, the
unreliable character in general of the superscriptions.
{d) The difficulty involved in the proposition that
the composition of psalms was thus restricted to so few
periods. Were there not many historical situations in
which conditions existed favorable to psalmody ?
{e) The difficulties involved in the proposition that
psalms which represent the highest and latest stage of
Israelitish spiritual development should have had their
origin (i) before the work and utterances of a single
Cf Pss. 90, 97. prophet of those who have written; (2) before there was
any considerable acceptance on the part of the Israelitish
Cf Pss. 91,96. nation of the doctrine of one God; (3) during a period
when Israel was steeped in superstition and continually
Cf. Pss. 86, 39, relapsing into idolatry of the foulest character ; (4) in
connection with the life of a king characterized by a
spirit at once fierce and warlike, and by a life abounding
in the most heinous crimes, among which were adultery
and murder.
4. The views presented in some of the more impor
tant contributions to the subject, e.g.: Konig (1893)
maintains the historical probability of the Davidic author
ship of certain psalms and finds no objection to assigning
3, 4, 6, 7, 8, II, 15, 18, 23, 29, 30, and 32 to David.
Driver {Introduction, 6th ed., 1897) grants that a majority
understand the difference between old Israel and later Judaism, and makes almost
anything possible in the way of ascription of comparatively modern pieces to ancient
authors." — W. R. Smith, Encyclopedia Biblica, col. 3931.

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 239
of the "Davidic" psalms are not David's, but insists
upon the possibility of Davidic psalms, and declares that
if there are any such, they may safely be looked for
among those on Ewald's list, which is possibly too large.
Baethgen (1897) says, "of the seventy-three psalms
ascribed to David, in the case of only a few at the most
can Davidic authorship be defended with any plausibility,
e.g., 3, 4, 18; and that even for these the supposition of
a later redaction is hardly to be avoided." Wellhausen
(1898) says : "It is not a question whether there be any
post-exilic psalms, but rather whether the psalms contain
any poems written before the exile." Duhm (1899)
, denies the existence of any Davidic psalms, and is
doubtful whether any psalms come from a time earlier
than the Greek period. Kirkpatrick (1901) argues for
the Davidic authorship of Ps. 18, and adds: "If this be
acknowledged, important consequences follow. For
depth of devotion, simplicity of trust, joyousness of
gratitude, and confidence of hope, not less than for its
natural force and poetic beauty, that psalm has few
rivals. It has all the freshness of creative genius. It
can hardly have been the solitary production of its
author. If such a psalm could have been written by
David, so might many others." Cheyne {Encyclopcedia
Biblica) denies the historical possibility of Davidic
psalms in our Psalter, and explains the superscription of
David as a corruption of an original of Jedithun.^
5. The various tests to which each psalm, thought to
be Davidic, must be subjected, viz.:
{a) The historical test ; that is : Is the background
of the psalm in harmony with the conditions of David's
time ? Are the historical and social presuppositions of
the psalm met by the facts of the Davidic period ?
{b~) The theological test ; that is : Are the ideas con
cerning God, man, and sin which the psalm reflects in
k-eeping with the stage of theological thought to which
David and his contemporaries may fairly be said to have
belonged ?
(,:) The rhetorical test; that is: Are the poetical
SSee also pp. 23 f.

240 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
form and the general literary style such as were charac
teristic of the earlier days of Hebrew poetry ?
{d) The grammatical test ; that is : Are the syntax,
the order of words, the structure of sentences, and the
grammatical forms such as are found in the earlier stages
of the language of the Old Testament?
{e) The vocabulary test ; that is : Is the language of
the psalm the pure Hebrew of the Davidic age, or does
it contain Aramaic, Persian, and Greek words, so many
of which crowded into the Hebrew speech in the course
of the later history ?
§256. Constructive Study. — Select from each of the
following groups of psalms one or more, and apply the
tests suggested above :
Pss. 122, 124, 131, I. Psalms which, although assigned by tradition to
David, are almost universally believed to be wrongly so
assigned.
Pss, 3, 4,7, 11. 18, 2. Psalms which are certainly to be regarded as
29. Davidic, if there are any Davidic psalms.
Pss. 8, 19, 22, 23, 3. Psalms which, while assigned to David by some
24.25,32,37. . , . . , ,
eminent authorities, are, to say the least, uncertain.
§ 257. Constructive Study. — Formulate a statement which will pre
sent briefly what is involved in a decisi.on to assign no psalms to David,
in contrast with the traditional view ascribing to him seventy-three, or
even a more liberal position ascribiing ten or twelve.
§258. Does the "I" of the Psalter represent an
individual, or the entire Israelitish community ? Con
sider, in connection with this problem, the following
points: I . The use of the rhetorical figure, termed personifica
tion in general literature.''
2. The use of personification by the Arabs in the
effort to find concrete expression for the origin of a tribe
or community .5
< On the general subject of personification see especially Freytag, Technique of
the Drama, trans, by E. J. MacEwan (3d ed., 1900), pp. 246 £f.
SW. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885, 2d ed., 1903),
pp. 20 f.

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 24 1
3. Some specific examples: w^^ Egyptians (Exod. .s.^,, Numb, 20:
X , , r ¦ , ; . , , 18,19; Isa.12:
14:15); and the frequent interchange of singular and 1,2: 25:1; 26:
, , 9; ler, 10: 19;
plural. Mic. 7:7-10;
r, . , r ...... Lam. 1 : ii,J-i6,
4. borne important examples of personification in the 18-22; isa. 61:
Old Testament : "*'
{a) The servant of Jehovah, under which figure is set isa., chaps. 40-55.
forth the mission of the community of pious Jews as the
representative of Jehovah in a wicked world.
(3) The character of Job in the Book of Job ; under
the guise of a person, the sufferings of the Jewish com
munity at the hands of heathen oppressors are portrayed
and discussed, the poet setting forth the doubts and
questions which arose in the minds of pious Jews, the
various theories proposed in explanation of the suffer
ings, and his own point of view.
{c) The common practice of the prophets, e. g., Amos's Am. 5: 1 tf,
dirge over the approaching destruction of northern
Israel ; Hosea's representation of Israel as the bride of Hos., chap. 2.
Jehovah ; the representation of Jerusalem as a person in isa., chap. 60.
Isaiah ; Ezekiel's characterization of Samaria and Jerusa- Ezek., chap. 23.
lem as two harlots; and the use of the title "Virgin
daughter of Israel."
5. Some of the points involved in interpreting the
"I" as of the community :
{a) If the "I" be the community of Israel, and the
statements made represent the thought of the community
as a whole, will it be necessary to find a date for these
psalms in which there was a fair degree of unanimity of
opinion in the community?
{b) If these psalms are the expression of the heart of
the community at large, could they have been written at
a time when the prophets and priests were in definite
conflict with each other, i. e., down until 621 B. C?
{c) When, as a matter of fact, did there first come to
be a community feeling in Israel?
{d) Is a difference to be found between national
feeling and community feeling? If so, in what does
this consist? Is the idea of a church-nation evident?
{e) Is it, in general, true that the community inter
pretation requires a later date for the psalms than the
individual interpretation?

242 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(/) Would, the following description of the "I"
meet the demands of the case, viz.: "the company of
faithful Israelites and diligent frequenters of the temple^
who- formed the kernel of the post-exilic Judean com
munity"? (g) Would one expect to find, at this age of religious
development, in a hymn-book intended for a community
and for public worship, psalms of so strongly marked
an individual character?
{ll) Is it not true, on the other hand, that the lyric
poet always generalizes, and that, while describing his
own experiences, he really includes all whose situation is
like his own?
{i) Are not these psalms, when interpreted of the
community, much more significant?
{J) Is it also true that a writer may as a representa
tive include with himself a few others, perhaps an entire
party, who have the same feelings with himself?
§ 2 59. Constructive Study. — Take up, now, the special
study of certain passages, and determine whether, on the
whole, the individual, or the community interpretation
Pss 44:4,6,15; seems more fitting, e. g.:
66'i3°ft;'7i; I. A group which most modern writers would regard
io2;Vi8.'''°' as representing the community.
Pss. 7; 9; 10; 28; 2. A group thought by some to have as subject the
godly portion of the community.
Pss. 44 ; 56 ; 57 ; j. A group thought by some to have as subject the
145. nation as a whole.
§ 260. Did Any Psalms Have Their Origin in the Maccabean Period
(/. e., 168-161 B. C.)? — Consider, in this connection:
I. The question of the close of the Old Testament canon. When
may this be supposed to have happened, and under what circumstances?
What bearing on this question does the book of Ecclesiasticus (see
Prologue) have? And, further, in what relation with this event does
the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes stand?
2. The question of the age of the Book of Daniel; e. g.: {a) What
considerations may be urged against the older view which placed the
book in the days of the exile, and in favor of the modern view which
assigns it to the age of the Maccabees? {b) What important difference
in the interpretation of chap. 11 turns on this decision?

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 243
3. The question of the origin and date of the Septuagint; e. g.: {a)
Could books have found their place in the canon as late as i6i B. C,
and yet have secured a place in the Greek version? {b) At what
periods were the various divisions of the Old Testament translated into
Greek? (,:) The significance of the fact that the Septuagint includes a
psalm not found in the Hebrew.
4. The special circumstances of the Maccabean times which cannot
be found in connection with any earlier period of Israelitish history;
e. g.: {ct) a time when protestation of national innocence was possible
{cf. Ps. 44); {b) a time when synagogues were in existence {cf. Ps.
74:8); (c) a time when Israel and the opposing nations constitute the
two classes mentioned.
§261. Constructive Study. — Take up certain psalms,
and determine for yourself whether they seem to fit into
the Maccabean times; e. g..
I. Certain psalms, generally acknowledged to be Pss. 44, 74, 79, 83.
Maccabean. 2. Certain psalms concerning which there is con- Pss. 80, 60,
siderable doubt.
3. Certain psalms concerning which there is still a Pss. 20, 21, 33, 101,
greater degree of doubt.
§ 262. In What Ways Did the Editorial Factor Enter
into the Psalter? — This question can only be touched
upon. Consider —
I. The editorial element which appears in connec
tion with the superscriptions (see above, § 251), a work
involving selection, arrangement, interpretation, and
designation as to use. Is there evidence of difference of
opinion in this work ?
2. The editorial work suggested by the fact that the
Greek text (Septuagint) has a psalm not contained in the Ps. 151.
Hebrew Psalter, concerning David as a shepherd.
3. The editorial work to be inferred from {a) the
fact that Pss. 42, 43, now two, were quite certainly one Pss.42,43,113,114.
at an earlier time; cf. also Pss. 113, 114; and {b) the fact
that Ps. 24, now one, was perhaps originally two, vss. Pss. 24, 27, 32.
1-6 and vss. 7-10 being separate pieces; cf. also Ps.
27 :i-6 and 7-14; Ps. 32 : 1-7 and 8-1 1.
4. The editorial work implied in the two editions of
the same psalm which are to be found, in which one ^^j^lp^"^,^^*"''

244 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
word in every four shows a variation, the more common
of which may be classified as {a) the incorporation of
glosses, {b) correction of harsh and unusual terms, {c)
alterations for the purpose of securing greater harmony,
or of removing words which were objectionable from the
dogmatic point of view.^
5. Editorial work which went so far as to add new
Ps. 51:18, 19. verses to an old psalm.
6. Who these editors were; e. g., those connected
with the song service of the temple ? prophets ? priests ?
scribes ?
§263. Constructive Study. — Select from any part of
,£¦.£-., Pss. 72-76. the Psalter half a dozen psalms, and, taking them up one
by one, tabulate carefully anything that looks like edito
rial work.
§ 264. The Priestly Factor in the Psalter is plainly
discernible in certain external elements affecting its out
ward form and use :
Ps. 41:13. I. Read the doxology which closes Book I ; compare
Pss. 72:18, 19; the similar doxologies in other psalms, and note that by
89:52; 106:48; ° r ' J
150. means of these doxologies the Psalter is divided into /fwf
books. Was this suggested by the division of the law '
into five books ? May both arrangements be ascribed
to the priests ?
^.f-., Pss. 51: 7, 2. Examine the phraseology, tone, and style, of sev-
6;65:'i-3;74:i- eral passages, and observe how definitely all this points
to the priest.
Ps, 24, 3. Note, {a) in Ps. 24, the question asked in vs. 3,
with the answer given in vss. 4-6 ; likewise, {b) the' simi
lar interchange of general statement, answer, and ques-
Pss.42, 43. tion in vss. 7-10; {c) the thrice-recurring refrain in Pss.
42, 43 (vss. 5, II, and vs. 5) ; {d) the monotonous refrain
Ps. 136. in Ps. 136; and consider whether these examples do not
seem to show that, in some cases at least, there was
antiphonal singing by divisions of the temple choir, as
well as that the psalms were used in public song. Con
sider also {e) the many musical terms employed.
Pss. 122, 124, 134. 4. Examine Pss. 122, 124, 134, and consider their
* Cf. W. H. Bennett, " Notes on a Comparison of Psalm XVIII with 2 Sam.
XXII," Hebraica, VoL III, pp. 65-S6.

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 245
adaptation to the purpose which seems to be suggested
in their title, "Songs of Ascents," viz., songs sung by
companies of pilgrims on their way to the temple at
Jerusalem. With what spirit is the temple itself re
garded ?
5. Read carefully the group of psalms numbered
146—150, and note that the entire content is an invita- Pss. 146-150.
tion or call to worship — exhortations to the whole con
gregation of worshipers to sing praises to Jehovah.
6. Consider the use of certain psalms in connection Pss. 81:1-5;
^ ¦ 33: 1-3; 98:4-6.
with special occasions of worship; e. g.: {a) with feasts; 1 chron. 15 : 16-28.
{b) with the temple-worship; {c) with the dedication of ^^^'t.^i^'^o-is.
the wall at Jerusalem; {d) with the bringing up of the ''^'^^f^S'p^^'^'
ark to Jerusalem. 105:1-15; 96:1-
¦' ^13; io6:47f.
§265. Constructive Study. — Summarize the material suggested in
§ 264, and formulate a statement on the priestly element in the Psalter
as seen in the external use.
8266. References to the Priett are found in the Pss. 58:64; 99:6;
105:26; 106:16,
Psalter. What, briefly, is the.evidence furnished by these 30 1; 110:4;
1 , ¦ . . T , ¦ ¦ n 115: 10, 12;
passages concerning the priest, his position, and his influ- "8:3; 132 : 9,
ence? i35:i9£..
8267. References to the Place of Worship are found Pss. 5:7; 11:4;
20 : 2 ; 22 : 25 ; 24 :
in the Psalter. What may be inferred from this material 3; 26:6-8, 12;
27 : 4-6 ; 28 : 2 ;
concerning the attitude of the psalmists toward the 29:9:36:8:40:
° . , . -, 9;42:4;43:3L;
temple and its worship ? 46:4; 48:1 f.,
8268. References to Sacrifice are found in the Psalter. 52:8; 55:14V
61 : 4 ; 63 : 2 ; 65 :
What light do these references throw upon the subject of 1,4; 66:13; 68:
15-17.24,29:69:
the priestly tone and spirit of the Psalter? What is the 9; 73:17; 74:
'^ 2 ff . ; 76 : 2 ; 77 :
attitude of the psalmists toward sacrifice? 13; 78:54. 58,
r 1 . , -r, , 60, 68 f . ; etc.
§269. References to Feasts are found in the Psalter, psb. 4:5; 20:3;
Consider also the significance of the Psalms of Ascents in 14,' Is;'"! fief.,
this connection.' Do the psalms furnish any evidence eili'sViV;'^:"!
as to the ideas concerning feasts at the time of their JS7;m':"6Vi7;
5 .118:27.
composition? Pss.4:7; 81:3.
§270. The Very Essence of the Psalter is Priestly,
since in its purpose and contents it may be explained
'On these psalms see the literature cited on p. 106, note 10; also Baethgen,
Die Psalmen iibersetzt und erkldrt ("Handkommentar,'' u. s. w.; 2d ed., 1897), pp.
xvii f.; W. T. Davison, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, pp. 153!;
and the commentaries of Ewald and Delitzsch, in loc.

246 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See, ^.^.,Pss, 69, only as a Book of Worship. In this regard it maybe con-
88,17,26,143, ,,-' ,, ^, • / f ¦ ,. .,. A
See, £.£-., Pss. 29, sidered from three points of view, according as it served
103. ' ' ' the purpose of (i) Book of Prayer, for the Israelitish
91'; 23. 73. ' church; (2) Book of Praise; (3) Manual of Personal
^^' ^' ¦ Communion with God.
§ 27 1. The Psalter as a Book of Prayer. — Note that —
I. Sometimes throughout an entire psalm the tone is
Cf. Ps. 21 : 1-21 that of supplication or penitence, or both ; while at other
with Ps. 22 : 22- , . , . , , . , , ,
31. times the tone of supplication with which the psalm
begins passes over into one of triumphant praise.
Pss. 80, 85, 90, 123. 2. Sometimes the prayer is unquestionably the formal
prayer spoken by the congregation as such ; while at
other times the prayer is clearly that of an individual
soul "in converse with God, disclosing to him its mani
fold emotions, desires, aspirations, or fears."
3. The Psalter is as definitely a prayer-book as it is a
hymn-book, and to be interpreted as such.
§ 272. Constructive Studies. — Take up, in turn, the
following assignments of work :
Pss. 69, 88, 79, 74, xa. Examine carefully certain prayers offered for
deliverance, and analyze the thought which they contain, .
in order to determine, e. g., {a) the nature of the calumny
or trouble from which deliverance is sought ; {b) the out
ward circumstances of the suffering described; {c) the
grounds on which petition for relief is based; {d) the
extent to which faith exists that deliverance will ulti
mately be secured; {e) the stage of religious thought
marked by these utterances.
2 Kings 19: 15-19; lb. Study in the same way similar utterances found
rtQ ¦ o • AiTins
7:5;jon,2:j-9; outside of the Psalter, and note the points of difference.
Hab., chap. 3.
Pss. 17, 26, 55, 57, 2a. Examine certain prayers which demand from God
^' '°" vindication of character; and analyze the thought pre
sented, in order to formulate, e. g., {a) the nature of the
accusation which seems to have been preferred against
the defendant ; {b) the injury which he is represented
as having suffered in consequence ; {c) the grounds
on which the demand for vindication is made ; {d) the
measure of the suppliant's consciousness of rectitude ;
{e) the stage of religious development suggested by
these utterances.

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 247
2b. Study in the same way similar pieces found out- isa. 57:1 l; lob,
. 1 r 1 -r. chaps. 22, 30.
Side of the Psalter, and note any points of difference.
3a. Examine passages containing petition iox guidance Pss. 143,61,86,
in the midst of danger and difficulty; and analyze the
same in order to determine, e. g., {a) the nature of the
trouble or difficulty in which the suppliant finds him
self; {b) the historical background which is implied ; {c)
the tone of the supplication put forth for guidance ; {d)
the degree of expectation which is exhibited as to the
answer to be vouchsafed ; {e) the stage of religious
development indicated.
3,5. Study in the same way similar utterances found Numb, n : 10-15 ;
outside the Psalter, and note the points of difference. iSam. 23:'2.
' 7-12 ; 30 : 7 1,
4. Examine certain prayers which exhibit more of the
element of contemplation; and analyze the thought .ff. i-., Pss. 77, 73,
expressed, adopting as the basis of analysis your own
form of logical development.
§ 273. The Psalter as a Book of Praise. — Observe —
I. That the very name of the Hebrew Psalter {t'h'illim)
means "praise-songs;" and that still other words .E..r-,Pss. 66,
'^ ° 112, 113.
expressing various phases of the idea of song axe em
ployed. 2. That in many cases the tone of prayer passes into .e. ^., pss. 13, 22,
that of praise, and in still others, the tone of praise
passes into that of prayer.
3. That everything of a musical character points to
the use of the psalms as media oi praise.
§274. Constructive Studies. — Take up, in turn, the
following assignments of work :
la. Examine carefully certain praise-songs, in which .e.^., Pss. 65,107,
-' '^ ° 114, 124, 136.
the author seeks to find expression for the praise of
God because of the manifestation of his power; and
analyze the thought according as it is related to {a) the
writer's situation ; {b) the form of manifestati6n of the
divine power ; {c) the way in which the writer's situation
has been affected by this particular manifestation ; {d)
the stage of religious thought marked by these utterances.
lb. Study in the same way similar utterances found .s.,r., isa., chap,
' ¦' 12 ; Ezod,, chap.
outside the Psalter and note points of similarity and 15-
difference.

248 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Pss. 104, 103, 48, 2ffl. Examine certain praise songs, in which the writer
46, 146, 147. r o '
seeks to find expression for praise of God, on the ground
of what he is, perhaps, in history or in nature ; in other
words, his attributes, analyzing the thought with refer
ence to {a) the writer's situation ; {b) the particular attri
butes referred to; (c) the bearing, upon the writer's
position ; {d) the stage of religious thought marked by
these utterances.
£.|^., Job, chaps. 2b. Take up, in the same way, similar utterances
36, 37, 38, 39; ^' •"
Isa. 40: 27-31; outside the Psalter, and note points of similarity and
44:24-28:45: ' ^ J
18 L; 63: 7-19. difference.
§275. The Psalter as a Manual of Personal Communion with God. —
Observe —
I. " The surprising variety of mOod and subject and occasion in the
Psalms which gives them their catholicity, and, combined with their
deep spirituality, adapts them to be" a manual of meditation and
communion. 2. The strange and significant expression of the community-feeling
in the personified " I " — a fact which adds greatly to the use of the book
for practical and devotional purposes.
3. The incomparable freedom with which the soul is represented as
in converse with the Deity, laying bare its inmost feelings.
§276. Constructive Studies. — Take up the following
lines of work :
Pss. 46, 64, 102. la. An examination of certain psalms with a view to
{a) the position of the author ; {b) his relation of trust and
dependence on God; (<:) the analysis of this feeling ; {d)
the conception of God which underlies if.
Jer. 20: 7-13; Isa., ib. A similar examination of certain passages outside
chap. 26. , ,,, , sr o
of the Psalter.
Pss. 51,38, 39. 2a. An examination of certain psalms, with a view
to {a) the' position of the author ; {b) the consciousness
before God of the "exceeding sinfulness of sin," and an
intense longing for forgiveness ; {c) the analysis of this
Ez^a,chap.9; feeling; {d) the conception of God which underlies it.
Isa., chap. 1, 2b. A similar examination of certain passages Outside
6:5;Am.5: *^ °
10-15. of the Psalter.
Pss. 42, 22, 13. 3 a. An examination of certain psalms with a view to
{a) the psalmist's position; {b) his longing for com
munion with God; {c) the analysis of this feeling; {d).

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 249
the conception of God which underlies it; {e) the custom
referred to in this psalm of praising God in public
worship. 3^. A similar examination of certain passages outside Lam., chap. 5;
of the Psalter. isa„ 63: 15-64:
4a. An examination of certain psalms with a view to Pss. 91,23,73,
{a) the psalmist's position; {b) the confidence, security,
joy, and comfort resulting from fellowship with God;
{c) the analysis of this feeling ; {d) the underlying con
ception of God.
'. 4b. A similar examination of certain passages outside Deut. 33:26-29;
, ., T, ,, Am. 7:10-17;
of the Psalter. jer. 20:7-13;
§277. The Significance of the Psalter as Related to
the Priestly System. — Consider, now —
I. The various elements of worship that have found tangible expres
sion in the Psalter, e. g., prayer, praise, penitence, gratitude, thanks
giving, trust, fellowship with God ; and discover, if possible, any
fundamental religious emotion which does not find full expression in it.
2. The full and definite evidence cited that the Psalter {a) had its
origin in connection with the temple-worship; {b) was largely the
creative work of the priests ; {c) exercised great influence upon the
priests; {d) was employed as a manual of temple- worship; (tf) served
also as a manual of private individual devotion. And, in view of all
this, ask yourself the following questions :
{a) If all this is a part of the priestly system of the Old Testament,
what is the conception of this priestly work which we must hold?
{b) Could a priestly system, including as its climax a hymnal,
breathing a devotion so rich, be wholly formal a,nd mechanical, devoid
of life and of spiritual power?
{c) Could such a hymnal have owed its origin to a body of priests
who were strangers to the spiritual and altogether slaves of the formal?
' {d) Is there any higher type of spirituality in the Old Testament
than that which is thus represented by the Psalter?
{e) Is it, then, true or untrue that the highest type of spiritual life
known in the Old Testament is oi priestly oxigin, priestly environment,
and on a priestly basis?
§278. Literature to be Consulted.^
H. Ewald, Commentary on the Psalms (183$, 3d ed. 1866, transl. 1880); Isaac
Taylor, The Spirit of the Hebrew Poetry (1861); Perowne, The Book of Psalms,
sQf the extensive literature on the Psalter only the more recent and important
works of an exegetical and critical character are cited here.

250 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
with Introductions and Notes, explanatory and critical (1864, Sth ed. 1892); Franz
Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Psalms (1867, 4th ed. 1883 [transl. 1887-
89], 5th ed. 1894); The Psalms Chronologically Arranged hy Four Friends (1867, 2d
ed. i8gi); W. Kay, The Psalms, with Notes (i8']i,2d ed. 1874); A. C.Jennings
AND W. H. Lowe, The Psalms, with Introductions and Critical Notes (1875-77);
T. C. 'iA.VRXLAY, Lectures on the Origin and Growth ofthe Psalms (1880); W. R.
Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, 'Lecture VII(iS8i,2d ed. 1892);
C. H. Toy, "Date of the Korah Psalms," /o«?-«a/ of Biblical Literature, Vol. IV
(1884), pp. 80-92; Idem, "On the Asaph-Psalms," ibid.,'Vol. VI (1886), pp. 73-85;
Binnie, The Psalms, Their Origin, Teachings and Use (1886); C. H. Toy, "Rise
of Hebrew Psalm-Writing," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. VII, pp. 47-60 ; T. K.
Cheyne, The Book of Psalms: A New Translation, with Commentary. (1888); C. G,
Montefiore, "Mystic Passages in the 'Psalms," Jewish Quarterly Review, VoL I (1889),
pp. 143 ff.; A. Neubauer, "On the Titles of the Psalms According to Early Jewish
Authorities," Studia Biblica, Vol. II (1890), pp. 1-58; S. R. 'Driver, Introduction
to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 359-91; A. F. Kirk
patrick, The Book of Psalms, with Introduction and Notes, 3 vols. (" The Cam
bridge Bible," 1 891-1 901); T. K. Cheyne, Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism
(1892), pp. 129 ff.; W. T. Davison, The Praises of Israel (1893, 2d ed. 1898); J.
P. Peters, "The Development of the Psalter," The New World, 1893, PP- 203 ff.; A.
Maclaren, The Psalms ("Expositor's Bible," 1893-94); !• Sharpe, The Studenfs
Handbook to the Psalms (i8gi,); T. K. Abbot, "On the Alphabetical Arrangement
of Ps. IX and X, with Some Other Emendations," Zeitschrift f. d. alttest, Wissenschaft,
Vol. XVI (1896), pp. 292-94; J. W. Beardslee, "The Imprecatory Psalms," /'/-«-
byterian and Reformed Review, 1897, pp. 490-505; T. K. Cheyne, "The Book of
Psalms ; Its Origin and its Relation to Zoroastrianism,'' Semitic Studies in Memory
of Alexander Kohut (1897), pp. 111-19; F. Buhl, "The Aid of Criticism in the
Interpretation of the Psalms," American Journal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp.
763-75; E.G.King, The Psalms in Three Collections : Translated with Notes (l8g8);
J. Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms; A New Translation (Haupt's "Sacred Books
of the Old and New Testaments," 1898); S. R. Driver, The Parallel Psalter:
Being the Prayerbook Version of the Psalms and a New Version .... with an
Introduction and Glossaries (189S); J. ROBERTSON, The Poetry and Religion of the
Psalms (1898); T. K. Cheyne, The Christian Use of the Psalms (1899); Idem,
"Studies in the Criticism of the Psalms," Expositor, 1899, pp. 252-63, 334-44 ; G. A.
Barton, " The Bearing of the Composition of the Psalter on the Date of the 44th Psalm,"
American Joumal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 740-46; Emilie G. Briggs,
"n5Di" American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVI (1899),
pp. 1-29 ; C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to ihe Study of Holy Scripture (1899),
pp. 355-426 ; T. K. Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents ofthe Psalter in the
Light of Old Testament Criticism and the History of Religions (" Bampton Lectures "
for 1899); A. S. Carrier, "Notes on the Psalms" American ¦ Journal of Semitic
Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1900), pp. 54-59; Wright, The Psalms of
David and the Higher Criticism (igoo) ; W. S. Pratt, "A Comparative Study of
Ps. 45," yi3»r««/ of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 189-218; D. Smith,
"Songs of the Ascents," Expository Times, VoL XII (1901), pp. 62-65, 161-64,414-
16; Vol. XIII, pp. 118-20, 500-503; Vol. XV, pp. 39-42; W. T. Davison, art.
" Psalms," Hastings's Dictionary ofthe Bible, Vol. IV (1902) ; Budde, art: " Hebrew

THE HYMNAL LITER.ATURE 25 I
Poetry," ibid.. Vol. IV (1902); W. R. Smith and T. K. Chevne, art. "Psalms,"
Encyclopedia Biblica, "Vol. Til (1902); DUHM, art. "Poetical Literature," ibid., 'Vol.
Ill (1902); E. G.Hirsch, "Note on Psalms 34 and 25," American Journal of Semitic
Languages and Literatures, XVIII (1902), pp. 167-73 ; W. W. Martin, "A Psalmist's
Epithalamion," ibid., VoL XIX (1902), pp. 49-51; P. Haupt, "The Poetic Form of
the First Psalm," ibid.. Vol. XIX (1903), pp. 129-42; C. Martin, "The Impreca
tions in the Psalms," Princeton Theological Review, VoL I (1903), pp. 535-53;
J. W. Thirtle, The Titles of the Psalms: Their Nature and Meaning Explained
(1904); T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms, Translated from a Revised Text with
Notes and Introduction (1904); J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Psalmists:
The Psalms of the Old Testament Arranged in Their Natural Grouping and Freely
Rendered in Paraphrase (1904).
J. G. VON Herder, V-om Geist der ebrdischen Poesie (1782-83); Hitzig, Die
Psalmen (1835, 2d ed., 1863-65); J. Olshausen, Die Psalmen erkldrt ("Kurzge
fasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1853); T. Noldeke, Die
alttestamentliche Literatur (1868), pp. 117-42; C.'E,HRT,Abfassungszeit und Abschluss
des Psalters zur PrUfung der Frage nach Makkabaerpsalmen historisch-kritisch
untersucht (1869); E. Reuss, Le Psautier, ou le livre de cantiques de la synagogue
(1879); l^AGARX)E,Orientalia,'Vol.ll (1880), pp. 13-27; "iA. KoYVS-XElN, Die Asaph-
Psalmen untersucht (1881); F.Giesebrecht, "Uber die Abfassungszeit des Psalters,''
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 276-332; H.
Graetz, Kritischer Commentar zu den Psalmen nebst Text und Ueberseizung
(1882); F. Baethgen, "Der textkritische Wert der alten Uebersetzungen zu den
Psalmen," Jahrbiicher der prot. Theologie, Vol. VIII (1882), pp. 405-59, 593-667;
Bleek- Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5th ed. 1886), pp. 443-75;
Hupfeld-Nowack, Die Psalmen iibersetzt und ausgelegt (1888); R. Smend,
"Ueber das Ich der Psalmen,'' Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,
Vol. VIII (1888), pp. 49-147; Kessler, Die asaphitische Psalmengruppe unter
sucht (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, VoL II (1890), pp. 171-
205; W. Campe, 2?aj Verhdltniss Jeremias zu den Psalmen (l8gi) ; J. Muhlmann,
Zur Frage nach den mcCkkabdischen Psalmen (1891); C. H. Cornill, Einleitung
in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 205-20; E. SpLLIN, Disputatio de origine carmi-
num quae primus psalterii liber continet (i8g2) ; F. Baethgen, Die Psalmen iiber
setzt und erkldrt ("Handkommentar z. Alten Testament," 1892, 2d ed. 1897); W.
Staerk, " Zur Kritik der Psalmeniiberschriften," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft, VoL XII (1892), pp. 91-151; A. Rahlfs, "^jy and Ijy in den Psalmen
(1892); J. '&ACHU.ANN, Praeparation und Kommentar zu den Psalmen, mit genauen
Analysen und getreuer Ueberset%ung fiir Gymnasiasten, Studirende und Candidaten
(1892) ; B. Stade, " Die messianische Hoffnung im Psalter," Zeitschrift fiir Theologie
und Kirche, Vol. II (1892), pp. 369-413 (reprinted in Akademische Reden und Abhand
lungen [1899], pp. 37-76); Kuenen-Matthes, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in
die Biicher des Alten Testaments, Vol. Ill (1893, German transl. 1894), pp. 1-57;
E. Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 393-406; Wildeboer,
Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (1894), pp. 388-403; W. DiEHL, Erkldrung
von Ps. 4^ (1894); G. 'Beer, Individual- und Gemeinde-Psalmen (1894); B. Jacob,
"Beitrage zu einer Einleitung in die Psalmen,'" Zeitschrift f. d. alttest. Wissenschaft,
VoL XVI (1896), pp.i29-8i, 265-91; VoLXVII, pp. 48-80, 263-79; VoLXVIII, pp.
99-120; Vol. XX, pp. 49-80 ; J. K. Zenner, Die Chorgesdnge im Buche der Psalmen

252 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
(1896) ; F. CoBLENZ, Ueber das betende Ich in den Psalmen (1897) ; W. Staerk, "Die
Gottlosen in den Psalmen,'' Theologische Studien und Kritiken, i8g'J, pp. 449-88; C. H.
Cornill, Die Psalmen in der Weltlitteratur (1898); D. Leimdorfer, i?a,r Psalter-
Ego in den Ich-Psalmen: Beitrag zur wissenschaftlichen Psalmenforschung (1898);
BiJCHLER, "Zur Gesehichte der Tempelmusik und der Tempelpsalmen," zeitschrift
f. d. alttest. Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 96 ff.; W. RiEDEL, "Zur Redaktion
des Psalters," ibid.. Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 169-72; A. Merx, Ps. IX und X und
andres Maccabaeische (i8gg); H. KessI-ER, Die Psalmen ("Kurzgefasster Kommen
tar zu den heiligen Schriften,'' 1899); J. Wellhausen, "Bemerkungen zu den
Psalmen," Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. VI (1899), pp. 163-87; B. Duhm, Die
Psalmen erkldrt ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament, 1899); Idem,
Die Psalmen iibersetzt (1899); J, Koberle, Die Tempelsdnger im Alten Testament
(1899); Rothstein, "Ps. 78, ein Zeuge fiir d. Jahwistische Gestalt der Exodus-
Tradition,'' Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie, igoo. No. 4; Grimme, "Was
bedeutet TrnVlSn T'lB?" Orientalistische Literatur-Zeitung, Vol. IV (1901), pp.
180-82; Couard, "Behandlung und Losung des Problems der Theodic^e in den
Ps. 37, 39 und 73," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Vol. XLVII (1901), pp.
110-24; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp.
635-72 ; E. Kautzsch, Die Poesie und die poetischen Biicher des Alten Testaments
(1902J; Matthes, "Die Psalmen und d. Tempeldienst," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta
mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 65-82; Grimme, Psalmenprobleme :
Untersuchungen iiber Metrik, Strophik und Paseq des Psalmenbuches (1902).
§ 279. Supplementary Topics.
I. Is the Psalter rightly classified as a priestly product? Consider
the significance of the fact that it contains a large amount of prophetic
and wisdom material as well as priestly. Can it be said to belong to
any one of these three classes of Old Testament literature, or does it
belong, rather, to all of them ? Might it not properly be a class by
itself, viz., devotional literature?
2. Consider the various possible methods of classifying the Psalms;
e. g., as to {a) their subject-matter (see Driver, Introduction, pp. 368 f.),
{b) their spirit and tone, (c) the time of their origin.
3. Of what value is the Psalter as a source of information con
cerning Israel's history ? What knowledge of Israel's past history does
it reveal ? What can be legitimately inferred from a study of the
individual psalms as to the historical conditions amid which they were
composed ? What light does the fact of the existence and' use of the
Psalter throw upon the life and spirit of the post-exilic Jews?
4. In a study of the origin of the Psalter what is the significance of
{a) the presence wjthin it of such groups as the Korahite psalms, the
Asaphite psalms, the Pilgrim psalms ; {b) the groups of Yahwistic and
Elohistic psalms ; {c) the division into five books ; {d) the grouping of
the " Davidic " psalms ? On the basis of these and other similar

THE HYMNAL LITERATURE ' 253
phenomena, can any history of the growth of the Psalter through the
grouping of various earlier collections be satisfactorily traced ?
5. Take up the so-called "Imprecatory Psalms" and study them
in the light of the following considerations : {a) the times to which
they belong, when moral and spiritual conceptions were still in a more
or less primitive stage and the spirit of the gospel was not yet shed
abroad ; {b) the great provocation which called forth these utterances,
the feeling of injury, oppression, and insult revealed in them ; (,:) the
tendency of human nature to seek revenge ; {d) the deep sense of
justice out of which they spring, the feeling that such sins must not
and cannot go unpunished, that the vindication of Jehovah's character
demands the infliction of drastic penalties upon the notoriously wicked ;
{e) the necessity that this infliction of punishment should take place
here and now, since the thought of a future life and a future judgment
had not yet developed ; (/) the doctrine that prosperity was a sign of
the divine favor, while misfortune and suffering was manifest evidence
of and chastisement for sin.
6. Make a comparison of the Psalms of Solomon with the Old
Testament Psalter, and note the points of similarity and difference in
the two collections.
On the Psalms of Solomon see especially R. H.Charles, art. "Apocalyptic
Literature," §77-85, Encyclopedia Biblica; RvLE AND James, The Psalms of the
Pharisees (igoi); W. Frankenberg, Die Datierung der Psalmen Salomos: ein Bei
trag zur jiidischen Gesehichte ("Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft," 1S96).
7. Compare the old Babylonian penitential psalms with corre
sponding psalms of the Old Testament, with reference to such matters
as {a) their idea of God, {b') their conception of sin, (c) their longing
for forgiveness, (^) their idea of atonement.
On the Babylonian psalms see especially: H. ZiMMERN, Babylonische Buss-
psalmen, umschrieben, iibersetzt und erkldrt (l88s) ; R. Brijnnow, "Assyrian Hymns,"
Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, Vol. IV, pp. 1-40, 225-58; Vol. V, pp. S5-80; T. G.
Pinches, " An Erechite's Lament," Records ofthe Past (New Series), Vol. I, pp. 84 f.;
R; F. Harper, Assyrian'and Babylonian Literature (1901), pp. 429-44; J. Bahr,
Die babylonischen Busspsalmen und das Alte Testament (1903); W. Caspari, "Die
Religion in den assyrisch-babylonischen Busspsalmen," Beitrdge zur Forderung
Christlicher Theologie, Vol. VII, No. 4 (1903).

Paet Seyenth

THE PERMANENT VALUE OF THE PRIESTLY
ELEMENT
XIX. The Essential Significance of the Priestly Element.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.

§ 280. The Priestly Element Had Serious Limitations.
— The agencies, through which the Spirit of God worked
upon Israel during long centuries of guidance were
human, and therefore imperfect. The prophet, with all
his enthusiasm and enlarged vision, suffered serious limita
tions. The sage, in spite of his careful, methodical and,
at times, scientific observation and study, fell far short of
reaching even his own ideals. In what way were the
priests limited ? Consider the following :
I. There were granted to the priests, as such, no
great and iiplifting visions of the nation's future glory.
In later days, to be sure, priests like Ezekiel and
Zechariah were given such inspiration ; but they and
others like them were no longer simply priests : they
were prophets. The lack of the presence of the Spirit
in their souls placed the ordinary priests in a class
essentially different from that of the prophets.
2. The priest was by the very nature of his profession
a literalist, and consequently he was forever denied the
strength and freshness which those may have who rise
higher than the letter and see what is above and beyond it.
This fact will account for much that is distinctly disap
pointing in the priestly element.
3. Since the priestly element represented worship,
and for that reason (a) came out of an early paganism,
and (^) was constantly being drawn backward into that
same paganism, or into other forms of heathen thought
with which the sacrificial system was always in more or
less close contact, it was forced to carry a heavy burden
made up of corrupt and injurious notions and prac
tices, which even long culture would not and could
not shake off. From all this prophetism was practically
free. 257 '

Ezek. I : 1-3 : 15;
8:z-ix :25;
chaps, 40-48 ;
Zech. 1:7-6:8.

C/. Exod., chaps.
35-40; Lev,,
chaps. 1-3, 7,
14; Numb.,
chaps. 3, 4.

I Kings 3:3; 12:
25-33 ; 16 : 31 ff. ;
3 Kings 16: li
re; 31: 3-7;
Ezek. 8 : 7-13 ;
Jer. 44:17-19.

258 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
Exod. 32 : 1-6, 33- 4. All the ignorance and superstition of the masses
1-3, i2"i4;'hos.' were borne by the priestly class, rather than by the
isa.ti:7\'. ''' prophets. The priest, if he remained a priest, was
compelled to live and work, with the masses in the midst
of all that was degrading.
Lev. 8:1-9:24; 5. The priest had to do chiefly with the outer form
" *^' ' ¦ of truth, the symbol ; and while this was supposed to
Zech. 7 : 4, 5 ; Isa. represent the inner and essential thought, it not infre-
^ "^ "'^ ¦ quently failed to maintain any real connection with that
thought.
Zech. 6:11; Lev. 6. The priest was intensely ambitious of power and
2kfngs'ii:4-ao. wealth, and the fact that, in time, the order gained
. control of state and church is evidence of success which
in itself was detrimental to true and sincere effort.
Nmnb., chap. 19; 7. The teachings of the priest were more subjective
^¦'^' and less direct than those of the prophet, in that the
teaching of the latter was given to the people directly
through the spoken or written word, while much of the
priest's teaching was dependent upon the worshiper's
own interpretation of the symbol employed in the ritual.
2 Kings 22 : 3-33 : A Strong spirit of conservatism was always in control;
25; Neh. 8:1- ^ ^ , ^ ,,.,.,
JO -39; MaL i: progress was secured most frequently by revolution from
the outside, in which the prophets took leading part.
Under the circumstances the priestly teaching was always
slow to penetrate the nation's heart.
§281. The Characteristics of the Priestly System,
regarded as a whole, may be briefly studied :
I. Its spirit not peculiar. — What is to be said of the
spirit of this system when compared with that of other
priestly systems ? Wherein, if at all, is a distinction to
Lev, 17:6; 30:36; be found? Is not the spirit, in this case, just what the
~ chap. 16; 26: . . , , . , , . ,
II f. true spirit of worship always proves to be, viz., the
simplest and most common effort to come into close
touch with the higher powers ?
2. Its form not peculiar. — But what may be said of the
outer form of this priestly system ? Does it not have
c/. §§73:4, 6:95: much in common likewise with other systems ? What is
6, 7 ; 107 : 5, 6, 7;
131:8,9; 135:7. peculiar to it so far as form is concerned? Altar?
temple ? sacrifice ? feast ? music and prayer ? priest and
holy order ? Are not the Urim and Thummim of

ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 259
foreign origin ? How about sacrifices of salt and meal ?
the clean and unclean ? Can you find among the
institutions of the Israelitish priestly system one which
does not have an analogue in other religions ?
3. Its relation to other priestly systems. — (Zonsidex,
now, whether or not it is true that in its priestly system
the Hebrew religion touches other ancient religions
most closely. Have other religions prophetism and
prophecy ? Or is it not rather soothsaying and divina
tion ? Is the Hebrew priestly system as different from
other priestly systems as Hebrew prophecy is different
from other systems of prophecy ?
4. The system and the people. — Is it true that at first Amos3:6ff.,
the people were more in sympathy with their priestly 4t.;"5f4Hl,' 31-
system than with the prophetic ideas which were pro- Ho's.'i :'ii ;' '3 : 4 ;
posed in opposition? Did the nation eyer struggle *""''•'
against the priest as it struggled against the prophet ?
Does this mean that the priestly conception and expres
sion were something less alien to the hearts of the
people ?
5. The period of its dominance. — To what extent were Jer. 29:35 ff.; ao:
iff.; Am. 7:
priest and prophet in conflict with each other? And "ff; hos.6:4-
10; 5: 1 ; Isa. 1 :
why? Is it the priest whom the prophet always holds 10-17; 38:7;.
responsible for the people's sins ? Which of the two
orders represented the old ? which the new ? Which
represented form ? which spirit ? Which held back ?
which pushed forward ? How important in the history
of the nation was , this struggle between prophet and
priest ? which conquered ? when ? why ? *
6. Its chronological relation to prophecy. — "^hen in the Jer. i: i ; Ezek.
history of the priestly system was its progress most chaps. 4o-'48;
pronounced ? How explain the fact that in the later loff-j zech. 6:
^ ^ 9ff;Mal. i:6ff;
periods of prophecy the prophets were all priests ? But 3:1-9.
what became of the great teachings of the prophets
when prophetism as a movement had died out and the
priestly order was in power ? Was this teaching lost ? Deut., chaps, e-
s: J . sr ° 11; Lev. 33:23;
or was it appropriated by the priests and incorporated 35:39ff; 36:14-
into their system ? Of what importance was the legacy
left by prophecy at its death ? Are priest and prophet
now one, the priest being the spokesman ? But why did

260

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Exod. 20 : 24 ;
Deut. 12:3-4.
Deut. 18 : 1-8 ;
Numb. 18: 1-7;
Lev. 21 : 10-15.

Cf §§76; 80;
82:4.

Cf. §§ 60, 62, 66,
69.

Cf. chaps, il, ill,
iv,and §§84,93,
97, 104,

Lev., chaps. 4, 5,
6, 7, 13, 14, 15,
31 ; Numb.,
chaps, 6, 8

C/.§§ 370-77.

prophecy die ? And how did it happen that the priest,
who had always opposed the prophet and his work, took
up that work when there were no longer prophets to
conduct it ?
7. Its variations and contradictions. — Does not this
priestly element seem to be full of contradictions ? But
what is the nature of these contradictions ? Is it that of
change from time to time ? Is it the result of adjust
ment to great changes in national life? What, for
example, led to the change from the system in which
worship was distributed throughout the nation to that
of centralization at one place? Why was worship in
Babylon during the exile impossible ? Explain the
recentralization later in the second temple; and still
later its redistribution in the synagogues. All this
points to what characteristics besides those of flexibility
and capability of adjustment ?
8. Its autocratic and democratic character. — Con
sider the change in character that has taken , place
between the early days when every man might be his
own priest, and the last days which witnessed the firm
establishment of the hierarchy. How is this to be
accounted for?
9. Its purity, impurity, and artificiality. — Compare
this priestly system (a) when it was mingled with all the
impurities of Canaanitish worship, and (^) when it has
been purged and purified of its dross by the fire of
captivity ; and still again {c) when it has become
one of the most artificial rituals ever accepted by a
nation. What is to be said of these different stages ?
10. Its narrowness and breadth. — Compare, again, the '
character of this system in its later days when, from one
point of view, it was most narrow and artificial ; while,
from another, it was most broad and spiritual ; since, at
a time when animals were being slain by tens of
thousands, and the body was being worn out with
worship and purifications, then, and not till then, did
this religious system give birth to the Psalter, which
contains the greatest examples of higher spiritual con
templation and communion with God that religion has
ever produced.

go:

ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 26 1
§ 282. The Purpose or Function of the Priestly System.
— Which of these words is to be employed, "purpose"
or " function " ? What is the point of view involved in
each ?
I. Its purpose or function in general. — What may be
said as to the purpose or function of the priestly system Cf%i.
in any religion ? What other elements, aside from the
priestly element, are required to make up religion, or to
constitute the religious spirit ? What is the relation
sustained by the priestly element to the others ?
2. Its purpose or function for the individual. — {a) Was
there a meaning in the various acts of worship for each
and every person who participated in the worship ? Did c/.§§84:2; 87:2;
oil and salt, blood and fat, meal and incense, represent
ideas ? What, in the case of each of these ? Did these
ideas,- thus symbolically represented, come from men's
hearts and express various phases of their feelings ? {b)
In what sense was the temple a laboratory in which men
were required to go through a certain process, doing the
detail of the work, every detail representing an experi
ence of one or another kind in the religious life ?
Would the doing Of these things impress upon the doer
the meaning which they were supposed to represent ?
What was the answer to the oft-recurring questions :
" Why do I wash ? Why do I touch no unclean thing ?
Why do I observe the sabbath?" Was it not in each
case a great truth ? Was the act, therefore, a lesson
repeated every time the act was performed ? But would
many, perhaps the great majority, perform the act
without asking the question, and so without being
conscious of any lesson involved in it ? Is it just so in
acts of worship today ? Does this fact, in itself, affect
essentially the point in question ?
3. Its purpose or function for the nation. — (a) Did the
national idea precede or follow that of the individual? Am. 3:6; 5:iff.;
Exod. 20 : 2 ff . ;
When did the first conception of the individual as jer. 31:291;
* Ezek., chap, 18,
distinguished from the nation begin to appear ? Did
the idea of individualism have large development in Old
Testament times ? or even in the first centuries of
Christianity ? Was the priestly system, on the whole.

262 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
better; adapted to individual or national life ? {b) What,
so far as concerns relationship to the deity, would be the
result for the nation, of a regular and sincere adoption
of the ceremonial ? How different would the effect of
observing the ritual be from that of attending church in
more modern times ? Would it, in some sense, bring
them into touch with God, and under His influence?
Was it, after all, a very natural expression of man's
relation to God ? {c) Are we to suppose that sacrifice
(which may here be taken as representing the priestly
system) from the beginning was something established
by God himself and suggested by him directly to man ?
Lev., chaps. 1-7. Is this not the way in which the Priest Code everywhere
c/. §316,(4), regards sacrifice? In other words, as something given
by God to man through Moses ? Does the Priest Code
recognize the existence of a priestly system before
Moses's day ? or among other nations ? How, then, is
this presentation of the subject to be understood? {d)
But in what way are we to account for the universal
prevalence of sacrifice among the nations ? What is to
be said for and against the hypothesis of a primitive
revelation to which all this points back? Is it easier to
understand this common form of worship, viz., sacrifice,
as a natural expression, on the part of man, of the
relation which he believes himself to sustain to the
higher powers ? In this case what was the nature of the
feeling which originally prompted the action, and
controlled the devotee in the process of the action ?
Lev., chap, 16; 4: {e) Was it his sense of God's holiness and his own sin ?
oc * Q ' ^ * 10 '
i6ff.;' w'umip. his feeling that he deserved death? Did he therefore
1-9. ' ¦ present animals in sacrifice as his own substitute ? What
is meant in this connection by the use of the words
"piacular," "propitiation ?" But can we suppose that
the men of primitive times, savages, had reached so
advanced a point of philosophical reflection ? May we
perhaps suppose that this act, which constitutes so large
an element in all priestly systems, had its origin and
abiding function in a desire to acknowledge dependence
upon the higher power and to render to it homage?
Would it be far removed from this to say that the chief

ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 263
purpose of the worshiper, whether nation or individual, Lev, 4:20,26, 31,
was to gain the favor of the god, or to avert his fii.rNumi?.'
displeasure? (/) What is involved in that other expla- Genililis; 31:
nation which finds the essence of sacrifice in the meal ¦ i3;Wumb.'32:
which followed, a communion of man and God in food ? 6°,'7 ; *iVam.'
Did not eating together constitute a covenant or bond 1 6^3.5 ;^2o729;'
of friendship ? God and the tribe being one, would not Lev. a : 15,^24^°
this union be strengthened, or, if temporarily strained, Lev'.'i :'3-9,'
be restored by eating food in common ? And did not
the god receive his share in the blood poured upon the
altar ? In this case how explain the whole burnt
offering, all of which was given to the god ? How
much change in this conception of sacrifice was involved
in the advance from nomadic life, when all property was
held in common by the tribe, to the agricultural life,
when men began to hold pergonal property ? {g) In
any case, is it not true that in Old Testament times the
idea most in vogue is that the priestly system, with the
act of sacrifice as its central feature, represented the
means by which a man might make a gift to God ? Is it Numb,, chap, 28;
¦' ° '='-', Exod, 30:7L
anywhere suggested that the giving of gifts to God is
something displeasing to him ? Is there great difference Mic 6:6-8; Amos
of opinion, on the other hand, as to the particular thing 6:6.
which shall be given ?
4. Its function in connection with the messianic idea. — "
{a) In whaf sense is the word "messianic" to be taken ?
What are some of the more important eleboents of which
it is constituted? In how far may the word "eschato-
logical " be used as a synonym ? Who are indicated as
the conspicuous representatives of this movement or
element, (i) during the existence of the kingdom; (2) isa.9:6L
during the Babylonian exile? (^) When Jerusalem is isa. 49:1-6; 52:
rebuilt and the second temple is erected — that is, at the
time of the restoration — what official figure comes into Hag. 1:1, 12,14;
^ 2: 2. 4; Zech.,
especial prominence? At the same time what feeling chap. 3.
becomes uppermost in the minds of the people? As a '^^^^>.^^:'^^''
consequence of this overwhelming sense of sin, what Humb, 19: 1-9-
new importance attaches to the idea of atonement? {c)
Were the people of the restoration disappointed in ^^^-.^±^'1°'
their failure to see the fulfilment of the prophetic chap. 8.

264 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
promises concerning the re-establishment of the king
dom and the coming of the Messiah ? How did they,
Mal. 1:1-14; 3: after awhile, account for the refusal or failure of God to
c/-§§38, 15; 93, ' fulfil these promises? Regarding themselves as respon
sible, what steps were taken to force God to bring these
Mal. 3:1-6. things to pass ? How did this affect the priestly system ?
In what way, also, the further development of the
messianic idea ?
5. Its function in relatio'h to the introduction of Greek
thought. — What, in general, was the effect upon the
eastern world of the fall of the Persian empire and the
supremacy of the Greeks, attained through Alexander
the Great ? How was Greek influence exerted upon
these eastern nationalities ? To what extent was the
c/. §51 Jewish nation affected by Greece? What were the
essential contributions received by Judaism from Greece?
To what extent did Judaism successfully resist the
movement which exerted so strong an influence upon all
other nations with which it came in contact? What
enabled Judaism to withstand this influence ? What
were the elements in the priestly system that enabled it
to render this very striking service ?
c/. §197, 3. §283- The Essential Thought of the Priestly Element
may be grouped around three or four subjects. These
'are, God, Man, Sin, and the Church.
I. God. — {a^ Does not the priestly thought of God,
after all, represent the whole Old Testament, except the
portions known as Wisdom ?
{b') How, and in what sense, does the priestly element
include the prophetic ?
{c) Can a distinction be made between the priestly
and the prophetic conceptions of God in the periods that
precede the captivity in Babylon ? in the periods that
follow the captivity ?
{d) What stages of growth may be discovered in the
c/. §§ 18, 38, 49. priestly conception of God before its incorporation of
the prophetic ? likewise, after the incorporation ? Was
the later conception more strongly priestly or prophetic ?
{e) What distinct conceptions, if any, are to be found
in the Wisdom element? Are they older than the
priestly, or later ? higher or lower ?

ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 265
(/) Are holiness and majesty perhaps the two pre
dominant conceptions of God in the priestly element?
What others might be mentioned as almost equally
prominent ? Was either of these attributes a part of the
primitive Semitic conception of God ? At what time in
Greece's history did they begin to be recognized? How Lev., chaps. s, 9,
is the holiness of God symbolically represented in the Exod. 24:i5,5-i8a;
Levitical ritual ? How is the majesty of God indicated,
especially in the Priest Code? Upon what aspects of Pss. 33, 90, 91,
deity do the Psalms dwell most earnestly ?
2. Man. — {a) In what way is the priestly element
especially concerned with man ? (i) as an individual? c/. §383,3,3.
or (2) as representing the human race? or (3) as he
appears, earlier, in the Israelitish nation and later, in the
Judaistic church ? What is the position of the individual,
in contrast with that ot the nation, as represented in the
Levitical ritual? in the Psalter?
{b\ Is it through Israel alone that God will meet the Exod. 19:6;
Deut. 36:19;
world? What will be Israel's relation to the world at 33:81.
large? Does the materialistic conception continue to
the end in spite of the prophetic teaching?
{c\ Is the sinfulness oi man's nature more definitely Lev.4:35; 9:3;
^ ' ¦' , ¦' io:i6ff. ; chap.
and frequently expressed than any other quality? What 16; wumb 19:
is the form of expression most common in the ritual ? in 9o:'8; 41:4;'
, _ , ., 38:3; 33:1-5.
the Psalter ?
3. Sin. — (a) Have' there been diJEferent stages in the Josh., chap. 7;
growth of the priestly idea of sin? What, iox example, 8:'9; 9:5!-^
was the prevailing idea in the patriarchal time under the ^^'';^i^^^\^'
primitive Semitic worship? What, later, when the S?*?-.'^' .„
^ . r > ' Humb. 15:22 ff.
prophets have given their message? What, stilllater,
when the fulness of the monotheistic conception has
come to be realized ? •
{b) Is it true that the idea of sin is always and every
where simply a corollary of the idea of G-od ? What Cf.^g2,ii.
connection may be traced in the development of the
priestly system between these two ideas? How shall
we explain the growth, among the Hebrews, of the inten
sity of feeling concetning ««/
{c) Is it true that the different Hebi^ew words iox sin Lev. 4:3; 16:16;
^ ' -20:20; Numb.
express various phases of the idea as they were recog- 15:28; Deut.

266

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Amos 5:7, 10 ff.,
15; Hos. 3: 13;
4:6; 6:6ff.;
Lev. 18:1-5;
15 : 31 : 6 : 1 ff. ;
5:14 ff.
Pss. 51; 36:1-4;
39:1; 53:1.

Lev., chap, 16;
5:51.
Humb. 19:1-10,

Exod. 12:3; 16:1;
Lev. 4 : 13 ;
Numb, 35 : 34 ;
Ps, 74 : 8.
Pss. 3:6; 9:11;
48 : 13 ; 51 : 18 ;
53 : 6 ; 136 : 1 ;
Isa. 1 : 8 ; 14 : 33 ;
38: 16; Jer. 36:
18; 50:5.
Amos 1 : 3.
Lev. 34 : 8 ; 36 : 43.

Gen. 1 : 27-30 ; 9 :'
8-17 ; 17 : 1-14 ;
Exod, 31 : 16 f.

Ezra 9:1-4; chap.
10; Neh.. chaps.
9, 10 ; Lev. 4 :
13 ff. ; chap. 35.

Isa. 8 : 16-18.

Isa. 7:3; 10:30-
32.
Jer. 31 : 29 £,

Ezek., chaps. 18,
33, 40-48.

nized by the Hebrews ? What are the more important
of these words (in. English), and what is the distinctive
meaning of each ? What, as a matter of fact, is the
meaning of the word {hattath), commonly translated sin?
{d) Can a distinction be made between the priestly
and the prophetic conceptions of sin? Does Wisdom
furnish any varying ideas ? Wherein consists the difference
between the priestly conception of sin, as expressed in
the Psalter and the ritual, and that which is found in the
Assyrian penitential psalms and corresponding ritual ?
{e) How may forgiveness of sin be secured ? What
is the essential idea in the teaching concerning atone
ment as it appears in connection with the ritual ?
4. The Church. — (a) Does this word really belong
to Old Testament thought of any school ? What is the
usage of the terms " congregation "r and "synagogue"?
Is " Zion " a priestly or a prophetic word ? What general
significance does it have aside from its literal meaning ?
What is the distinctive meaning of two other common
phrases, "the Covenant people," and "the theocracy"?
{b) Was it with the inner or outer sense of the terms
cited above that the priestly element had most to do ?
Was there a time after which the inner sense received
greater consideration ?
{c) Did the great priestly narrative [P] lay stress upon
certain covenants, viz., with Adam, .Noah, Abraham, and
Moses ? What bearing did these covenants have upon
the later conception of the church ?
{d) Was Judaism a kingdom or a church ? Was the
ruling power a monarchy or a hierarchy ? Did the
priestly element, therefore, really become a church sys
tem ? and were the institutions of worship precursors in
thought as well as in form of the idea of the church ?
{e) Was the company made up of Isaiah and his dis
ciples the first step away from the national community
to the church community? Did Isaiah's teaching of the
remnant prepare the way for Jeremiah's teaching of indi
vidualism, and the two together thus furnish the basis
for the church idea ? Did Ezekiel continue to develop
this thought in the direction of a church community

ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 26/
made up of those who were circumcized of heart? Were Jer. i:i; Ezek.
1:3.
Jeremiah and Ezekiel priests as well as prophets?
(/) In wh^t way did the period of the exile during
which worship in the usual sense was impossible contri
bute to the development of the church community ?
Did this period also make more prominent the observance cf §§ ii8 and
137, 3.
of the sabbath and the service of prayer? Did Ezekiel Ezek. 8:i; 14:1;
•^ 30:1.
gather together the people for exhortation ? What indi
cations are found, in Ezra's times and later, of the growing Ezra 10: iff.;
' & 6 Heh. 9:iff.
habit of assembling for prayer and for the reading and
interpretation of Scripture ?
{g) If we may understand that back and under all
institutions thought is to be found, and if we measure the
importance of the thought by the number of the institu-
tutions involved, as also by the acknowledged character
of the institutions, is it not true that the church, with all
that it represented before the times of the Christian
church, was one of the most essential subjects of thought
in the priestly element?
§ 284. Many of the Ideals of Modem Church Life and Worship are
the direct contribution of the priestly element found in the Old Testa
ment. The word "inheritance" is perhaps a better word in this con
nection than "contribution." Some of these ideals are institutions;
and some, aspirations of the most holy character. Consider and
formulate in some detail the following propositions :
' I. That the Christian church goes back directly to the synagogue
community. See : J. A. Selbie, art. " Congregation," Hastings's Dictionary ofthe Bible; S. C.
Gayford, art. "Church," ibid.; Backer, art. "Synagogue," ibid.; J. A. Robinson, art.
"Church," Encyclopedia Biblica; I. J. Peritz, art. "Synagogue," ibid.; Schurer,
History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Division II, Vol. II, pp. 52-89,
243-52 ; Zahn, Forschungen zur Gesehichte des Neuetestamentlichen Canons, Vol. II
(1883), p. 165; Idem, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, Vol. I, pp. 66 £.; Hatch,
The Organization ofthe Early Christian Churches.
2. That the Christian service of song, prayer, and exhortation goes
back to the Jewish temple ritual and the exercises of the synagogue.
See: chap, xviii; Weiszacker, The Apostolic Age of the Christian Church, Vol.
II, pp. 246, 254, 258.
3. That the beginning of the modern Bible in forfai and idea dates
from the priestly reform of Josiah's times when Deuteronomy was
published.

268 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
See: Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 89 f.; F. H. Woods, art. "Old Testament
CanOn," Hastlvgs's Dictionary of the Bible; Wildeboer, The Origin of the Canon
of the Old Testament, pp. 22-25.
4. That the conception of the clergy as distinct from the laity goes
back to tbe Levitical priesthood.
See: §§62f.; and Hatch, The Organization of the Early Christian Churches,
pp. 141 f. ; Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp, 87 f.
5. That the idea of the mission of the church to the world at large
goes back to the commission of Israel to be a pri'est nation.
See : Exod. 19: 6; Isa. 42: 1-7; 61:6; i Pet. 2:5, 9, and Holzinger, Exodus, p.
67; 'DlLLU ANN, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie, pp. 457 f.; G. A. Smith^
The Book of Isaiah, Vol. II, pp. 237 ff.
6. That the thought of bringing God into the world comes from
the determination of the Jewish saints, under priestly influence, to live
lives of such purity and holiness as to make God introduce the messi
anic times, of which there had been dreams, but as yet no realization.
See : Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, pp. 80 f. ; Montefiore, The
Religion ofthe Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 321 f.
7. That the highest ideals of mankind touching the soul's contact
with God have come from the experiences of Jewish saints expressed in
song for purposes of Jewish worship (/. e., the Psalms).
See : §§ 275-277 ; and Perowne, The Book of Psalms (Sth ed.), Vol. I, pp. 25-40 ;
Kirkpatrick, The Book of Psalms (Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. Ixxviii ff.
8. That the Lord's Supper is the continuation of the Jewish Paschal
feast. See: Plummer, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, VoL III, p. 145; J. A.
Robinson, in Encyclopedia Biblica, col. 1419.
9. That the Lord's day, Sunday, is the offspring of the Jewish sab
bath. See : Hessey, Sunday, its Origin, History, and Present Obligation (Bampton
Lecture, 5th. ed., 1889); H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the Sabbath ("Golden Lectures"
for 1900-1901); N. J. D. White, art. "Lord's Day," Hastings's Dictionary of the
Bible; ZahSi, Gesehichte des Sonntags vornehmlich in der alten Kirche; G. A. Deiss-
MANN, art. " Lord's Day," Encyclopedia Biblica.
10. That the Christian Easter celebration is the continuation of
the spring feast which has come down to us through the Jewish Pass
over feast.
See: Hitzig, Ostern und Pfingsten (1837-38); Duchesne, La question des
origines du culte chrdtien (1889), pp. 226 ff.; Canon Venables, art. "Easter,"
Encyclopedia Britannica.
II. That Thanksgiving day is the modern representative of the
Feast of Tabernacles.

ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 209
See: Deut. 16:13-15; and A. T. Chapman, art "Feast of Tabernacles,"
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Benzinger, art. "Feast of Tabemacles," Ency
clopedia Biblica.
12. That the more widely accepted theories of the atonement
(whether right or wrong) rest fundamentally upon the Old Testament
doctrine of sacrificfe.;
See: J. O.F.Murray, art. "Atonement," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible;-
Dale, The Doctrine of the Atonement; Wilson, Hulsean Lectures on the Atonement
(1899); Schultz, ','The Significance of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," American
Journal of Theology ,'V ol. IV (1900), pp. 257-313; Archibald Scott, Sacrifice, its
Prophecy and Fulfilment ("Halrd Lecture,'' 1892-93).
13. That the New Covenant, a more accurate expression for the'
New Testament now commonly used, was first conceived and expressed '
in its fundamental principles by an Old Testament priest (who was
also a prophet).
See : Jer. 31: 31 ff.; and A. B. Davidson, art. "Covenant," Hastings's Dictionary
ofthe Bible; McClymont, art. "New Testament," ibid.
14. That the Christian practice of fasting had its direct origin in
the usage which grew up in later Judaism.
See: §§152-154; and J. S. Black, art. "Fasting," Encyclopedia Britannica;
Benzinger, art. "Fasting, Fasts," Encyclopedia Biblica; C. J. Ball, art. "Fasting
and Fasts," Smith's Dictionary ofthe Bible (2d ed. 1893).
15. That the Christian rite of baptism is historically (through John
the Baptist) and logically (moral uncleanness taking the place of cere
monial uncleanness), the successor to the Jewish rite of baptism,
practised as a means of restoration from a state of ceremonial unclean
ness, and employed in the case of proselytes.'
See : Plummer, art. " Baptism," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; J. A.
Robinson, art. "Baptism," Encyclopedia Biblica; W. Elwin, art. "Baptism,"
Smith's Dictionary ofthe Bible (2d ed. 1893).
§ 285. Permanent Truth of a most precious kind was wrought out
through this long laboratory process, along with much which, of
course, was temporary and ephemeral. Consider and formulate, among
other great and fundamental truths of an eternal character, those,
relating to —
I. The Holiness of God, especially from the point of view of the
Levitical system, in which it occupies a fundamental position.
See : J. Skinner, art. " Holiness in the Old Testament," Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible; Baudissin, Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol. II, pp.
3—142; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (2d ed.) pp. 325 f.;
A. B. Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 144-60; Schultz, Old Testament
Theology, Vol. II, pp. 166 ff.

270 priestly element in THE OLD TESTAMENT
2. The filthiness of sin, especially as symbolized in certain details
of the Levitical system, which undoubtedly were, however, only, the
tangible representation of previous prophetic thought.
See : Koberle, Siinde und Gnade im religiosen Leben des Volkes Israel bis auf
Christum (1905), pp. 325-57, 415-571 ; BERNARD, art. "Sin," Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible; Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 203-34; Tennant, The Origin
and Propagation of Sin; Idem, The Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall and Original
Sin; Clemen, Die Christliche Lehre von der Siinde.
3. The forgiveness of sin, as illustrated by the ceremonial of the
priestly system.
See: Koberle, op. cit., pp. 597-638; Bethune-Baker, art. "Forgiveness,"
Hastings's Dictionary ofthe Bible; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions
geschichte (2d ed. 1893), pp. 394-403; Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 315 ff.
4. Vicarious suffering, as involved in the doctrine of sacrifice.
See: "Qairxi, Sacrifice, its Prophecy and Fulfilment; Schultz, "The Significance
of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900),
pp. 257-313; Driver, art. "Offer, Offering," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible;
Th. Naville, Les sacrifices Uvitiques et I' expiation (i8gi).
5. The ecclesiastical state, as pictured by Ezekiel.
See: Ezek., chaps. 40-48, and the commentaries on these chapters, especially
those of Davidson (Cambridge Bible), Kraetzschmar (Hand-Kommentar zum
Alten Testament), Bertholet (Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), and
Skinner (Expositor's Bible).
§ 286. The Ethical Influence of the Priestly Element is one which
can be felt more easily than it can be described, (i) Analyze this
element and point out the various Individual factors in it which, one
may believe, would tend to an ethical uplifting of those who conscien
tiously followed the rules and regulations of the priestly ceremonial.
(2) Consider, on the other hand, the factors which might be expected
to prove injurious ethically. (3) Would some of these factors for
good vary in their influence, producing one result in certain cases, and
a different result in still other cases? (4) What, upon the whole,
would be the general ethical influence of the system ?
§ 287. Pre-natal Christianity and the Priestly Element. — Much of
that which was later called Christianity really existed before the
coming of Jesus. This is true of teachings and ideals which were
distinctively prophetic, and of those which were characteristic of
the sage, as well as of those which were peculiarly priestly in their
origin and character. All these elements, as they existed together in
Judaism, may figuratively be called pre-natal Christianity. Endeavor
to reconstruct this embryonic Christianity, and decide what part or
portion of the whole was this priestly element, as separated from the
other elements of prophecy and wisdom.

APPEI^rDIXES
A. The Vocabulary of Worship; Lists of the More Important
Words.
B. Classified Lists of Important Books.
C. New Literature on the Priestly Element.

APPENDIX A.

THE VOCABULARY OF WORSHIP.

The following list, though not designed to be exhaustive, aims to
include all the more important words relating to worship and to the great
ideas that find expression in the ritual. The list of Greek equivalents
contains the various renderings employed in the Septuagint with the
exception of sOme of the rarer ones, and of those evidently based
upon different readings from those now found in the Massoretic Text.

nr'i'a bns

7} (TKTJvij TOV /JiapTVpioV

tent of meeting

Qin^S

S^Xutris, driXol

Urim

ni^gt^il Di*iis

(j>wTl<riiiv (Neh. 7:65)

Urim and Thummim

nbs

&pd, 6pK(.a-/j.6s, SpKos, dpxu-
iu>aia, Kardpa

oath, curse

niri^s

debs, Kipios

God

n-'Ds

^opTT) (TuireXeias

ingathering, harvest

IBS

6piopJ>^i<po6&, i<f>ib5, iirufils (or ivw- ^

binding oath, vow

n^ss{

ulSei, Exod. 28:8; 39:5),

M^

ieparela (Hos. 3: 4), aTo\ii
(2 Sam. 6:14; I Chron.
I5:27) J

- ephod

IBS

(nro86s, ciroSla, Koirpla (Job
2:8)

ashes

inns

ki^ujt6s

ark

nffis

Bvffia, Bvfflaaim, K6.pirup.a,
Kdpiroais, oXoKaiTU/M

an offering made by fire

DCS

TrXij/ijueXeti', i/mpTdyeiv, &y-
ybeiv

offend, be guilty

¦am

ir'Ktip.pAeia, Ayvoia, TrXtiii.p.i-

offepse, trespass, guilt,

\riij.a, irXTj/i/nAija-is, d;nop-

trespass offering

Dips

T\Tip.fie\eiv, iv afiaprlais eivai
(Gen. 42:21)

guilty

rmm

S.-yvoLa, a/mprla, ir\rifji,fie\^'iv,
irXij/i/tAeio

wrongdoing, guilt

nii»«

i\tTos, 'Aa-Tdprri (2 Chron.
15:16; 24:18)

Asherah(A.V,, "grove")

¦!?

pdd, jSiiffo-iKos, &yu)s (Ezek.
10:6,7)

white linen

273

274

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

ii-iisa

rd wpuToyevv^piaTa, rk irpu-

first-fruits

Tbryova.

maa

i\f'ri\6v (i\j/ri\'^), jSa/ud, d^a/xd
(Ezek. 20: 29), ^(opAs,
(tT-ffKii, ii^os, povvbs, (Ps.
78:58; 1 Kings 10:13),
eiSiaXov (Ezek. 16:16)

high-place

81-13

l(Txvp6s, do-Tcfos (Judg. 3:17),
iK\eKT6s, Taxi's (Ezek.
34:3)

fat

n-'i.a

di.a6'iiK7]

covenant

n?!?

eiXoyla, ei\oyelv, ei\oyriT6i

blessirtg

Di»3)

i^dv<Tp.a, 6vplapa, dtrp.^ ijdeTa

spice, balsam

big3

hj/eiv

boil, seethe

bnia,

kX^POS, KKtipovopia, Sptov,
6vofi,a

lot

13

^ivos, wdpotKos, yyifjjpas, irpo-
a-^\vTos, yeiruv

sojourner, stranger

D-ibibg

eiddjXa, itriTiiSebpxLTa, jSSe-

idols

\iyixara, StawiJ/xara, iv-

6vp.-fip,aTa
1^31
Sa^elp, SapeTp, Sa^lp, vabs
shrine, innermost room in
Solomon's temple
01
a^pa
blood
in
Tibrr/s, t4 iyaSd, (riroSbs,
a-TToSla, KaraKdpriixris
fatness, fat ashes
b3"'n
vabs, oIkos
temple
n3T
Bvelv, Bvaid^av, (T(j>d^ei.v,
slaughter for sacrifice
0vptav, dvpid^eiv, Tpoa-
tpipetv (DeuL 17:1), iK^-
Tciv (2 Chron. 28:23)
H3T 6Spa, Bvala, Bvalaapa, dvpt-
ana, <r<l>dyiov (Am. 5:25),
oXoKai'Tai/.ia (Exod. 10:25)
sacrifice
sn
foprij
feast, pilgrim-feast
asn
ioprd^eiv
make a pilgrimage, cele
brate a feast
T»nh
p-^v, veop.rjvCa, vovprivla, ioprii
new moon, month
"fn
<TTTi)6ivLov, ^rap (Lev. 7:30)
breast of animals
san
apaprdvetv, i^apaprdveip, dSt-
Kelv, ivvoetv Kaxd, Siapapri-
veiv, iKKAlveiv, itpapaprd-
vav, lualvuv, ^Jdveii;
to sin
sen
d<tiayvli;iiv, ayvl^eiv, ^|tXd-
to atone, make expiation
a-K€a-8ai, KaBapl^cii, l>avTl-
for
^€LV
stjn
8t:n

nsan nst)n

3bn

np.ri ,ph

mn

1«n
inta

S'aa
ns^'?j ,nsB'^ 133 )n3
D'^i'as

APPENDIXES
d/«ipTMX6s, dro/iis, dir^^ijs,
dyuaprdftdi'
apiapTla, dvopia
apapria, dpdpT-ifpa, dvbpripa,
dffi^eia, dvopla, dai^ripa,
dSiKia, /iCTax/j'Tjiris (Zech.
13:1), Kaxla (Jer. 15:13),
KapSla (Ps. 32:5), pAraws
(l Kings 16:2)
2Xa(r/i6s, ^|iXa<r/iis, aynur-
p.6s, dyvto-pui
ariap, /iveXis (Gen. 45:18),
yaXd (Ps. 119:70; Ezek.
34:3), dvapx-fi (Numb.
¦18:29, 30. 32), Bvirla (i
Kings 8:64), (7-dpKas(Ezek.
44:7)
vbpoi, irpbaraypu, Sixatopa,
rb vbpj.pA>v, iiiTo\ii, Kplpa,
SiatTToXij, Tpow^, trbvTaiis,
dba-is
ivareBepaTtirpivoi/, diidSepa,
dvdBijpa, d<f>6purfui, dirii-
Xeta, dTroXXiJcti', ffay-iivq,
i^o\6Bpevpia ( i Kings
15:21), dUBpios (i Kings
20:42)
Xo7eroi', X&yiov, TrepiariiBiov,
TTod'^pTjs
pdtrreiv, luikiveiv
KaBapbv eivai, dp^pirrov elvai,
KaBapl^effBai, i,yvif€i.v, dcpa-
yvl^eaBai
dKdBaprov etvai, ixdBaprov
ylveffBai, iKtuahe<T$ai, pial-
veiv (to defile), ^e^rjXovv
(to defile), ixaBapffla,
ptavtns
dKaBapffla, dxiBapTos, diro-
KaBrip.4vrj, plavffis (Lev.
13: 44), piaheiv
&(pe<Ti.s, dtpiaeas a-qpaala,
fftipaala, adXiriy^, d<pal-
pea-ts (Numb. 36:4)
fjirap
UpeisoKoKa6rwp,a, 6X6koi/tos
xupaplp. (2 Kings 23:5),
ol lepels (Zeph. 1 : 4)

275

sinful, sinner

- sin

sin-offering
fat

statute

devoted thing, ban

breast-piece, or sacred
pouch
to dip, immerse
be clean, pure

be or become unclean

uncleanness
ram, ram's horti

liver priest
holocaust
idol-priests

.276

PRIESTLY ELEMENT -IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

-IS3

1B3
niB? 31-13

lyi'a

nsra
I'i'af'a pnTH
¦ji-ns s^a

DISC'S?
0''.n|35U

nnjB
Toya ¦¦ -I -
n3s:'n

iii.\daaa6ai,l\dirKea8ai,d(l>U-

to atone

vai (Isa. 22:14), i^dfciK,

KaBapl^eir (Exod. 30:10),

irepiKaBapl^eiv (Isa. 6:7),

^/CKaeapifeii'(Deut.32:43),

d6(fo\iv (Isa. 18:23), "T"*-
fei>'(Exod. 29:33)
fiXXo7/jd, i^iKaapa, vepixd-
atonement, ransom
Bappa, \brpov
•
IXaa-T'^piov, 4^i.\a<Tp6s
propitiatory
Xepobp, x^POvPtp, xepovPeh,
cherub
Xepov^eip, x^povP^i", X«-
. pov^iv
XiTiic, (TToKi (Isa. 22: 21)
tunic
Kalpos, iopT'fi, Sipa, dvindyii
appointed time, meeting-
(Judg. 20:38), Tro</i}7i>pis,
place
paprvpla, Spos (Exod'. 9: 5)
6v(na.<FTi)pi.ov, ^wpibs
altar
\j/d\p.6s, ipv-qais, alve<ns,
melody, psalm
ripas (Isa. 24: 16), (fJS^
0idX)7, i(Txdpa (2 Chron.
bowl, basin
4:11), KoKviTT-iip (Numb .
4:14)
TeXeuovvrds xelpai, ipTTtirXdv
install, consecrate
Tas xeipas (Exod. 28:41),
irXT/poOi/" rds x^P^s, irtjU-
irXdKtti rds x"?"' (Ezek.
43:26), TeTcX«a»/i^ros(Lev.
consecrated
2I:I0)
reXeluais, irX^^paiffis, yXvip^ ¦
installation
XapiSes, itrapvariip (Exod.
tongs
25:38), iirapvffTpls (l
Kings 7:49)
Bvffla, dupov, Bvataapa, ^4-
gift, offering, grain-offer
¦ Piov, irpotripopd
ing
tA x^^^i^rii/, x*^*'^VMo, <Tvv-
molten image
Binrt (Isa. 30:1)
vXnippiXeia, dSiKla, dBirnpa,
transgression
dBe<Tla, dvopUa, diroara-
trla, dTTb(TTa(Ti.s, davvBeala,
XiiBy], TapdiTTupa, irapa-
^alveiv (Lev. 26:40)
StKdri}, t6 SiKaTov, (wiSiKa-
tenth part, tithe
Tov, iKifibpiov (Mal. 3:10),
dirapxh (Deut. 12:6)
CTiiXii, <TT-i)Xa<ns (2 Kings
pillar, sacred stone
18:18), (TfBXos(rer.43:i3),
iWrdo-roffis (Ezek. 26:11),
BiKii, (Isa. 6:13)
APPENDIXES

277

isq .nsT'a

Sfu/ios, rd dfu/4a

unleavened bread

mii5

^iToX^, evTaXpa, irpbcrraypa,
vbp^s (Prov. 6:20), SiKal-
upa (1 Kings 2:3), Kplais
(Deut. II: l), ^^/ia(Prov.
3:1), 0wvi) (Deut. 28:9,
13), 656s(Ps. 119:151)

commandment

oipw

t6 fiYioi/, dytaffT-fipiov, ^ t4
iepii/, tA T)ym(7pivov, dyla-
o-pa, dyiaupbs, TeXeT-ij

sacred place, sanctuary

Disi-i'a

dpves, liTTeaTwpIvoi.

fatlings

mv

Xpi^^", dXel^eiv, diaxpUtv

anoint

nntOB

Xpltrpa, xp'iris, xP'<rr6i/

anointing

ll?^

<rKT)vi), a-KT^vupa, KarajKi^vu}-
ois, oTkos, a-vvaywy-fi

tabernacle

Taipia

<l>vXaK'fj, Trpo<pvXaKii, wpo-
0i)\o|, i(j>ijp£pla, Trpba-
raypa, (piXaypa, Sio-
riip-qais, iiroBiiKrj, Trapep-
/SoXiJ

watch, charge

T2BT»'a

Kplais, Kplpa, Kpn-iipiov, aiy-
KpiOLS, diKaluffts, SiKaiupa,
SiKaiuffivri, SlKr],iK5lKii<ns,
Sidra^iS, <ri)j<To|is, irpba-
Taypa

judgment

nsn'a

Supov, bbpja, 5b(n.s

gift

"Vi?

CKoia-iov, Sbpa, a'lpetris, d4>al-
pipa (Exod. 35:29), 6/io-
X07J0, bp:o\byias (Hos.
14:5), <r^dy lav (Lev.
22:23)

voluntary offering

ni3

Xtopia-pbs, psraKlvrja-is, pera-
Ktvobpevos, dTTOKaB^jpivfj,
dKaBapffla, dveidLffpa, d0c-
Spos, l>avTLffpjbs, dyvLffpbs

impurity

•nD

eiX'il, opu>\oyla, Sdpov

vow

^^f=

fi^dpevos, Naffp, iiyiaffpivos.

one consecrated, devoted.

va^tpatos, ayvela, dyios,

a Nazirite

ayiairpbs

ITS

eiX'^, dyviffpbs, ayvela, fi7ios,
aylaffpa, KaBayid^etv

consecration,Naziriteship

TCCnj

'SeeffBdv

the bronze serpent

5193

ffTTOvd'^

drink-offering

DTO?

ISaBivtp, 'SaBavlp, 'SaBivatoi,
'ABivelp (Ezra 8:17), oi
BeSopivoi

Nethinim

nsD

pirpov, perp-qriis, ol<j>l

a measure of flour or of
grain

278

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

,nbD -liy

my
nbiy

V?

3sy
may
T T -I
may tiiy

-n»y
I'll?? bias nps
lays

dXeltpetv, XP^"''
<re/A/5aXisTrapa^alvo); Trap4pxopa.i, iy-
KaToXeiTreiv, irapairopebe-
ffBat
ovvaytayi)
bXoKabTcopa, bXoKabnoffis,
KdpTTwffLS, bXoKdpirojffis,
KdpTTOjpa, bXoKdpTTtapa, Bv
ffla, dvatpopd, dvd^affts
dbLKla, ddlKTjpa, apaprla,
dpdpTTjpa, dvopla, dvb-
P'qpa, Trapavopla, (Prov.
5:22), Kaxla (I Chron.
21:8; Jer. 13:22; 16:18),
dffipeia (Ezek. 33 : 9),
alrla (Gen. 4:13).
etdoiXov, yXvTrbv
Upeia (2 Kings 10:20), Bepa-
irela (Joel 1:14; 2:15),
dpyela (Isa. 1:14), ffivobps,
e^bdtov, Travriyvpts
Trapardffffetv, ffToi/SdfciP,
iTLffT'oij3dt^eLV, 4T0tpd^ej.v,
Tropoo'/ceudfeu'dsa. 50:42),
TrppriBivai, irpoffTi64va.i
(Exod. 40:23; Lev. 24:8),
iirirMvai. (Gep. 22 : 9),
Koff,peTv (%zek. 23:41),
atpeiv (i Chron. 12:8),
irapurrdyai, Iffovv, ipato.vv
(Ps. 40: 5; Isa. 40:18),
poijBeiv (i Chron. 12:36),
dvaXappdvav (Jer. 43 : 3),
{¦TiTp4ireiv (Job 32:14),
itaiet;' (Exod, 27:21; Lev.
24:2, 3), K4vTuvi]oh 6:4),
Ttpdv, Tt.poypd<t>eiv (2
Kings .23:35)
beKarovvdiKarovplaffpa, dBvTOv, ^^^tjXos,
pepjoXvpp4vos
¦jrdffxa, <paff4K
yXvirrbv, elSuiXov, AyaXpa, .
irepi^dpLOv, yX'bpp.a, elKtbv
K(i}diiJV

anoint
fine flour
transgress

congregation
whole burnt-offering

iniquity

arrange, set in order (the
parts of a sacrifice)

to tithe
tenth part
unclean thing, refuse
passover
idol, image
bell on high priest's robe

APPENDIXES

279

nSnB KaTaireraffpa
yigB dBireiv, dff4^uv, dcpMrdvai.
dvopecv, ddiKelv, dpaprd-
veiv, irXavdv, dvopos, ira-
pbvopos, dpaprla, irapa-
^aiveiv
yiBB dffi^aa, dSiKla, dSUripa,
dpaprla, dpdprTjpa, dvo
pla, dvbprjpa, irapdwrdjpa,
TrXdvT], dyvoia
Q1S VT]ffrda
Dia vriffreietv, dffireiv
D5a clKthv, bpoloipa, etdioXov, rb-
iros
Ti)"lp d7ios, KaBapbs, ijytaffp4vos
®1.p d7idfei>', ayvtl^cLv, KaBapi^eiv
(Job 1 : 5), Sofdfeii' (Isa.
5.16), diaffr4XXe{.v (Jos.
20:17), KaBayid^eiv, dvor
^i/Sdfei.- (Jer. 51:28) •
TDIp d7ios, dyiuffivri, ^ylaffpa,
dyid^etv, ayiaffpAs, ayvl-
mDIp rrbp^r]
bnp iKKXriffla, ffvvayiayf^, BxXos,
ffvv4dpiov (Prov. 26:26),
ffiffraffis (Gen. 49 : 6),
TrXfjBos (Exod., 12:6; 2
Chron. 31:18), Xabs (i
Kings 12:3)
"IBJp Bvpiav, flu/iidfeiK, 4TririB4vai,
Bieiv, dva<t>4peiv, Trpoa<j>4-
peiv, ividiciv, Boffid^eiv-
(Exod. .40: 27)
JlTDp Bvplapa, ffivBeais
cop pavrcla, piavreiov, oliivurpa.
^S'lp dwpov, kXtjpos (Neh. 10:34)
n"'"] bffpri, 6ff(ppaffla (Hos. 14:7)
nn"'5 n''1 bvpT^ ^(aSlas
nyi3Tp «pKO!, ^;'6pKios (Numb. 5:21),
HvopKos (Neh. 6:18).
tlSTC ffdp^aTov, ffdp^ara, ipSopAs,
Spdopos, dvdiravffis
ISltS <rdX7rt7|, Keparlvr)
Qbffi ffWT'ilpiov, elpTjviKbv, - Bvffla
fforrijplov, ffurripta, rb toS
ffwry)olov

curtain (in tabernacle be
fore Most Holy Place)
to rebel, transgress

transgression

fasting, fast
to fast
imagesacred, holy
set apart, consecrate,
dedicate

sanctity, holiness

temple-prostitute
assembly, congregation

offer burnt-offering, offer

smoke, odor, incense
divinationoffering, oblation
scent, odor
soothing odor
oath Sabbath

trumpetthank - offering,
offering ,

peace-

280

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

m

niin
myin nnin
nban
T • I
T I

nann

^Xatov, dXetppa, irlwv
fTos rijs d<p4ffeas (Deut. 15:9),
4vuivr6s d(ff4ff€(ijs (Deut.
31:10)
a^j'effts, ewaivos, Opvos, yav-
plapa, kabx'^p.a, dper'lj,
bb^a, ivSo^os, iipvriffis
q.Stov, atveffis, ebx'h x^P/^op"!?-
vr)s, i^op^oXbyqffis
p54Xvypa, dKaBapffla, dKd-
Bapros, dvopla
vbpos, ivToX-ij,', rb vbptpov
wpoffevx'ii, 4vx'fl, S4T]ffiS, ip,-
POS
dTrapxi^, dtpalpepa, d^bpiffpa,
dipopiffpbs, elffrpopd
elSiaXa, Bepaiplv, SrjXol (Hos.
3:4), rd Kevordrfiia (l Sam.
19:13), rd yXvirrd (Ezek.
21:21), ol dTTo^BeyybpievQL
(Zech. 10:2)
olxTippis, d4riffis, irapdKXrjffis
S4i!ffi,s, iXeos, irpoffevxi), |8o^
dXi}9eio, rd rAeio (Ezek.
2:63)
dirapxi), iiriBepa, d(palpepa,
dirbSopa, d^bpiffpa, Sbpa

fat, oil
year of release

praise, song of praise
thanksgiving, praise
abominationdirection, instruction, law
prayergift-offeringTeraphim

petitionfavor, request
Thummimwave-offering

APPENDIX B.
IMPORTANT BOOKS FOR THE STUDY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
I, Dictionaries and Encyclopeedias.
J. Hastings, A Dictionary ofthe Bible, Vols. I-IV (1898-1902), with an extra volume,
containing supplementary articles, indexes, and maps (1904).
T, K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encyclopedia Biblica, Vols. I-IV (1899-1903).
W. Smith, A Dictionary ofthe Bible (2d ed. 1893).
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie fUr protestantisehe Theologie und Kirche (3d ed.
1896 ff.; fourteen volumes have now been published).
n. Introductions to Old Testament Literature.
S. R. Driver, An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed. 1897).
J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1900).
J. E. Carpenter, T,.e Composition ofthe Hexateuch (1902).
C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism ofthe Hexateuch (2d ed. 1897).
W. E. Addis, The Documents ofthe Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1893, 1898).
W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (2d ed. 1892).
C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (3d ed. 1896).

APPENDIXES 281
H. Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893).
W. VON Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901).
E. KoNiG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893).
A. Kuenen, Historisch-critisch Onderzoek naar het ontstaan en de verzameling van
de boeken des Ouden Verbonds, 3 vols. (2d ed. 1885-89). German translation,
Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1887-92);
English translation of Vol. I, The Hexateuch (1886).
G. Wildeboer, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de tijdsorde van haar
ontstaan (1893; 3d ed. 1903). German translation. Die Litteratur des Alten
Testaments (1895).
C. Steuernagel, Allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum
Alten Testament," 1900).Ill, Hebrew Institutions and Archaeology.
W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses
Concerning the Pentateuch (1885).
A. Scott, Sacrifice, Its Prophecy and Fulfillment ("Baird Lecture," 1892-93).
W. VON Baudissin, Die Gesehichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889).
W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894).
I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894).
IV. Semitic Institutions and Archaeology.
W. R. Smith, Religion ofthe Semites (1889; 2d ed. 1894).
G. A. Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins — Social and Religious (1902).
W. R. Smith, Kinship and' Marriage in Early Arabia (1885 ; 2d ed. 1903).
Morris Jastrow, Jr., The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898). German
translation, being a revised and enlarged edition of the English ; Vol. I (1905).
L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology (1899).
A. H. Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia (1902).
S. I. CuRTlss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-Day (1902).
Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidenthums ( — Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill,
1887; 2ded. 1897.) '
Lagrange, £tudes sur les religions Slmitiques (1903),
Schwally, Semitische Kriegsaltertiimer, Heft I (1901).
Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 2 vols. (1876, 1878).
Baethgen, Beitrdge sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1888).
V. The Code of Hammurabi and Hebrew Legislation.
R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi (igoi,).
C, H. W. Johns, The Oldest Code of Laws in the World (1903).
C. H. W. Johns, Article " The Code of Hammurabi," Hastings's Dictionary of the
Bible (Extra Volume, 1904).
S. A. Cook, The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi (1903).
C. Edwards, Ihe Hammurabi Code and the Sinaitic Legislation (1904).
C. F. Kent, "The Recently Discovered Civil Code of Hammurabi," Biblical World,
Vol. XXI (1903), pp- 175-90.
A. H. SAYCE,"The Legal Code of Babylonia," American Journal of Theology (igoi^,
pp. 256-66.

202 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
D. H. Lyon, "The Structure of the Hammurabi Code," Journal of the American
Oriental Society, Vol. XXV (1904), pp. 248-65.
V. SCHEIL, Memoires de la delegation en Perse, Tome IV (1902).
V. SCHEIL, La loi de Hammurabi (1904).
H. WiNCKLER, Die Gesetze Hammurabis (1903).
H. 'V^lNCK.L^R, Die Gesetze Hammurabis in Umschriftund Uebersetzurig herausgegeben.
Dazu Einleitung, u. s. w. (1904).
J. Kohler u.\d F. E. Peker, H.immurabi's Gesetz, Vol. I : tiebersetzung, juristische
Wiedergabe, Erlduterung (1903).
D. II. MiJLLER, Die Gesetze Hammurabis und ihr Verhdltnis zur Mosaischen Gesetz
gebung sowie zu den XII Tafeln (1903).
H. Grimme, Das Gesetz Chammurabis und Moses (1903).
S. Oettli, Das Gesetz Hammurabis und die Thora Israels (1903).
J. Jeremias, Moses und Hammurabi (1903).
G. Cohn, Die Gesetze Hammurabi's (1903).
A. Rosenbacher, Moses und Hammurabi (1904).
Ed. K6.NIG, "Hammurabis Gesetzgebung und ihre religionsgeschichtliche Trag-
¦welie," Beweis des Glaubens (1903), pp. 169-80.
Lagrange, "Le code de Hammurabi," Revue biblique (1903), pp. 27-51.
VI. Old Testament Theology and Religion.
H. Schultz, Old Testament Theology (German, 1869; 5th ed. 1896; English, 1892).
C. G. Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 1892).
A. Duff, Old Testament Theology, .2 vols. (1891, 1900).
A. KUENE.v, The Religion of Israel, z vols. (Dutch, 1869-70; English translation,
1882-83).
A. B. Davidson, The Theology ofthe Old Testament (1904).
J. Robertson, The Early Religion of Israel (" Baird Lecture," 1889).
PlEPENBRiNG, The Theology of the Old Testament (I'iib; English translation, I893).
K. Budde, The Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899).
T,. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898). ,
R. S.MEND, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions geshichte (1893 ; 2d ed. 1899).
K. Marti, Gesehichte der israelitischen Religion (1897).
A. Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895).
APPENDIX C.
NEW LITERATURE ON THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT.
p. 63, note I — on Hexateuchal Analysis, etc.: H. G. Mitchell, The World Before
Abraham (1901); DRIVER, Commentary on Genesis (1904); C. F. Kent, Beginnings of
Hebrew History (1904); Tesch, Setzt der Prophet Amos autoritatives Gesetz voraus
(1895); Paul Vetter, "Die Zeugnisse der vorexilischen Propheten iiber dem Penta
teuch," Theologische Quartalschrift "V ol. LXXXIII (1901), pp.94-ll2, 187-207.
. P. 71, § 7i^on The Priest: J. Taylor, art. " Nethinim," Hastings's Dictionary
of The Bible (1900); A. Walker, " The Levitical Priesthood — a Study iii Social De-
\elopment," Journal of Biblical Literature W ol. XIX (1900), pp. 124-31; Benzinger,
art. "'iieyhmim," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); W. R. Smith and A. Bertholet,

APPENDIXES 283
art. "Priests," ibid.; W. R. Smith and A. Bertholet, art. "Levites," ibid.; Graf
VON Baudissin, art. " Priests and Levites," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902);
Frants Buhl, art. " Hoherpriester," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantisehe Theologie
und Kirche VoL VIII, (3d ed. 1900).
P. 72, §72, topic 6 — on The Priest in other Semitic Nations: W. H. Bennett,
art. " Molech, Moloch," Hastings's Dictionary ofthe Bible (igoo) ; G. F. Moore, art.
"Moloch," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); Idem, art. " Nature-Worship," ziJzi/. ; Idem,
art. "Tithes," ibid.; J. Jeremias, art. "Ritual," ibid.; M. J. Lagrange, "Les prgtres
babyloniens d'apr&s une publication r^cente," Revue biblique, 1901, pp. 392-413;
Spiegelberg, Der Stabkultus bei den Agyptern (1903); W. Wreszinski, Die Hohen-
priester des Amon (1904).
P. 80, § 81,— on The Place of Worship : L. W. Batten, "The Sanctuary at Shiloh
and Samuel's Sleeping Therein," Journal of Biblical Literature Vol. XIX (1900), pp.
124-31; O. C. Whitehouse, art. " Pillar," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (igoo);
G. F. Moore, art. " High Place," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); G. A. Deissmann, art.
"Mercy Seat," ibid. (1902); G. F. Moore, art. "Massebah," ibid.; Benzinger, art.
"The Brazen Sea," ibid. (1903); G. H. Box; art. "Temple, Temple Service," ibid.;
Benzinger, art, "Tabernacle," ibid.; T. W. Davies, art. "Temple," Hastings's Dic
tionary of The Bible (1902); A. R. S. Kennedy, art. "Sanctuary," ibid.; Idem, art
"Tabernacle," ibid.; J. T. Marshall, art. "Shekinah," ibid.; A. H. Sayce, "Recent
Biblical Archaeology; 'Tree and Pillar Cult," Expository Times, VoL XIII (1902) pp.
309 f.; W. E. Barnes, art. "Jachin and Boaz," Journal of Theological Studies, 1904,
pp. 447-51; J. Meinhold, /);> Lade fahves (19,00);. Idem, "Die Lade Jahves; ein,
Nachtrag," Theologische Studien und Kritiken Vol. LXXIV (1901), pp. 593-607; A.
Lotz, Die Bundeslade (1901); K. Budde, "Die Urspriingliche Bedeutung der Lade
Jahves," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 193-7;
W. RiEDEL, "Der Kultusort nach dem B^ndeshneh, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen
(1902), pp. 48-51; M. Verne, "Notes sur les sanctuaires de la region chanan^enne
qui furent fr^quent^s concurrement par les Israelites et les nations voisines," Revue
de Vhistoire des religions. Vol. XLIII (1901), pp. 352-54; P. ToRGE, Ascherak und
Astarte (1902); A. BiJCHLER, Das Synedrium in Jerusalem und die grosse Beth-Din
in der Quader-Kammer des Jerusalem- Tempels (1902); J. Prestel, Baugeschichte der
jiidischen Heiligtiimer, und die Tempel-Salomos (1904).
Pp. 90 ff., §94 — on Sacrifice: Cheyne, art. "In'-.ense," Encyclopedia Biblica
(1901); W. P. Paterson,, arL "Sacrifice," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902);
S. I. CURTiSS, " Discoveries of a Vicarious Element in Primitive Semitic Sacrifice," Ex
positor, 6th series. Vol. VI (1902), pp. 128-34; Idem, "The Origin of Sacrifice among
the Semites," ibid. (1904), pp. 461-72; S. R. Driver, arL "Propitiation," Hastings's
Dictionary of The Bible (1902); S. Langdon, " History and Significance of Carthagi
nian Sacrifice," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XXIII (1903), pp. 79-93; G. F.
MoORE, art. "Sacrifice," Encyclopedia Biblica (1903); R. de la Grasserie, "Du
role sociale du sacrifice religieux," Revue de l'histoire des religions, July-August, 1 901;
J. C. Matthes, " Zoeno&ers" Teyler' s Theologisch Tijdschrift,Y ol. 11(1904), pp. 69-92. '
Pp. 104 ff.,§io6 — on Feasts: Cheyne, art. "?nrim," Encyclopedia Biblica (igo2);
Benzinger, artt. " New Moon," " New Year," "Passover," " Pentecost," Encyclopedia
Biblica (1902), and "Feast of Tabernacles," e^V. (1903); A. T. Chapman, art. "Feast
of Tabernacles,'.' Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902); J. A. McClymont, art.

284 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
"Purim," ibid.; J. E. H. Thomson, "The Samaritan Passover," Palestine Exploration
' Fund, Vol. XXXIV (1902), pp. 82-92; Belleli, "The High Priest's Piocession on
the Day of Atonement," Jewish Quarterly Review, October, 1 904; W. Riedel, "Die
drei grossen jiidischen '? esie," Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen (1902), pp. 52-63; Fr.
Buhl, art. "Laubhiittenfest," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantisehe Theologie undKirclic,
Vol. XI (3d ed. 1902), pp. 303-6; HOCHFELD, "Die Entstehung des Hanukafestes,"
Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 264-84; S.
HANOVER, Das Festgesetz der Samaritaner nach Ibrahim ibn Ja'kub (1904); B. D.
Eerdmans, "De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift (igo^), pp. 17-41.
Pp. It4ff., § 120 — on Sabbath: Toy, " Earliest Form of \.he Sahhath," Journal of
Biblical Literature (1899), pp. 191 ff.; W. R. Smith and Benzinger, art "Jubilee,"
Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); Driver, art. "Sabbath," Hastings's Dictionary of The
Bible (1902); G. Harford-Battersby, art. "Sabbatical Year," ibid.: W. R. Smith,
Marti, and Cheyne, art " Sabbath," .£«0/^/o/«(/;a Biblica (1903); T. G., Pinches,
" Sapattu, the Babylonian Sabbath," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology,
Vol. XXVI (1964), pp. 51-56; W. RiEDEL, " 'Der Sahhaih," Alttestamentliche Unter
suchungen (1902), pp. 74-89; BoHN, Der Sabbat im Alten Testament (1903).
Pp. 126 ff., § 134 — on Clean and tJnclean : A. Macalister, artt. " Leprosy" and
"Medicine," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1900); A. R. S. Kennedy, artt.
"Food" and "Meals," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); C. Creighton, artt. "Leprosy,
Lepers," and "Medicine,"' ibid.; A. S. Peake, art. "Unclean, Uncleanness," Hast
ings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902); S. A. Cook, "Israel and Toieraism," Jewish
Quarterly Review, Vol. XIV (1902), pp. 413-48; Fr. Vinc. Zapletal, Der Totem
ismus und die Religion Israels (igoi) ; L. G. Levy, "Du totemisme chez les H^breux,''
Revue des Itudes juives, Vol. XLV (1902), pp. 13-26.
Pp. 133 f., § 139 — on Prayer: J. A. Selbie, art. "Praise," Hastings's Dictionary
ofthe Bible (1902); E. R. Bernard, art "Prayer," ibid.; Cheyne, arL "Prayer,"
Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); Justus Koberle, Die Motive des Glaubens und der
Gebetserhijrung im Alten Testament (igoi).
P. 135, § 142 — on Vows: W. H. Bennett, art. " Rechabites," Hastings's Dic
tionary ofthe Bible (1902); A. S. Peake, art. "Vow," ibid.; W. R. Smith and T. K.
Cheyne, art. "Nazirite," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); G. F. Moore, art. "Vows,
Votive Offerings,'' Hid.
Pp. 140 f., § 151 — on The Oath: M. A. Canney, art. " Oath," Encyclopedia Biblica
(1902). Pp. 142 f., § 154 — on Fasting: Benzinger, art "Fasting, Fasts," Encyclopedia
Biblica (1901); J. J. P. Valeton, "Jets over Israelietischen Vastendagen," Theologisch
Tijdschrift, VoL XXXV (1901), pp. 521-29; M. Th. Houtsma, "Nog eenmal de
Israelietische Vastendagen," ibid.. Vol. XXXVI (1Q02), pp. 334-41.
P. 145, § 157— on Oracles, Ephod, etc.: T. C. Foote, "The "Ephod," Journal of
Biblical Literature, Vol. XXI (1902), pp. 1-47; A. R. S. Kennedy, art. "Urim and
Thummim," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (igoz); G. F. Moore, art. "Urim and
Thummim," Encyclopedia Biblica (1903); Elhorst, "De Ephod," Teyler's Theolo
gisch Tijdschrift, Vol. II, No. 2 (1904).
Pp. 1461., §160 — on Magic and Divination: O.C. Whitehouse, art "Soothsayer,
Soothsaying, Sorcery," Hastings's Dictionary ofthe Bible, (1902) ; H. Zimmern and

APPENDIXES 285
Davies, art. "Magic," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); Cheyne, art "Serpent," §§ 3 ff.,
ibid.; G. F. Moore, art. "Teraphim,'" ibid.; F. Schmid, "Die Zauberei und die
Bibel," Zeitschrift fiir katholische Theologie, Vol. XXVI, pp. 107-30; H. Duhm, Die
b'osen Geister im Alten Testament (1904).
Pp. 148 f., § 163 — on Mourning Customs, etc.: Morris Jastrow, "The Tearing
of Garments as a Symbol of Mourning," Journal of the American Oriental Society,
VoL XXI (1901), pp. 23-39; R. H. Charles, art " Eschatology," Encyclopedia
Biblica (1901); Benzinger, art. " Mourning Cns'^orns," ibid.; M. Jastrow, "Baring
the Arm and Shoulder as a Sign bf Mourning," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche
Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 117-20; J. A. Beet, "The Immortality of the
Soul: Before Christ," Expositor, Sixth Series, Vol. Ill, pp. 50-61; J. Garnier, Wor
ship ofthe Dead (igo^); J, C. Matthes, " Rouw en doodenvereering in Israel," Theolo
gisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIV (1900), pp. 97-128, 193-224; Vol. XXXV (1901), pp.
320-49; J. Wohlgemuth, ZizV Unsterblichkeitslehre in der Bibel (igoi); G. By.%r, Der
biblische Hades (1902); Sartori, Die Speisung der Toten (1903); C. L. Del^itra,
Rlcherches sur les vestiges d'un culte des marts chez les anciens Hebreux (igo^) ; J.
Schreiner, Elysium und Hades (1903); F. Roux, Essai sur la vie apris la mort chez
les Israelites (1904); F. Hrozny, "Zur Hollenfahrt der Istar," Wiener Zeitschrift fiir
die Kunde des Morgenlandes (1904), pp. 323-30; G. WissowA, "Die Anfange des
rbmischen l-,arerik.-a!Aes" Archiv fUr Religionswissenschaft (igo/\), pp. 42-57; A. LoDS,
"Les Israelites croyaient-ils ^ la vie future?" Revue chritienne (1904), pp. 283-300,
359-76. Pp. 150 f., §166 — on Circumcision: H. Gunkel, "Ueberdie Beschneidung im
alten Tes'iamen'i.," Archiv fiir Papyrus-Forschung,'V ol. II (1902), pp. 13-21; P. Wend-
LAND, "Die hellenistischen Zeugnisse iiber die agyptische Beschneidung," ibid., pp.
23-31; Ulrich Wilcken, "Die agyptische Beschneidung," ibid., pp. 4-13; Kutna,
"Studien iiber die Beschneidung, IV," Monatsschrift fiir Gesehichte und Wissenschaft
des Judentums, Vol. XLVI (1902), pp. 193-205.
Pp. 167 ff., § 181 — on The Deuteronomic Code : C\SLL^N,Ihe Book of the Cove
nant in Moab (1903) ; S. Fries, Der Gesetzschrift des KSnigs Josia (1903).
Pp. 180 ff., chaps, xiv and XV — on The Priestly Document : Driver, art. "Law,"
Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1900); G. Harford-Battersby, art. "Leviti
cus," ibid.; Idem, art "Numbers," ibid.; G. F. Moore, art "Leviticus," Encyclo
pedia Biblica (1902); Idem, art. "Numbers," ibid.; G. B. Gray, Commentary on
Numbers ("International Critical -Commentary," 1903); J. HALivv, "Influence du
Code Sacerdotal sur les prophfetes," Revue simitique. Vol. IX (1901), pp. 1-6;
Holzinger, Numeri erkldrt ("Kurzer Handkommentar," 1903); Erbt, Die Sicker-
stellung des Monotheismus (1903).
Pp. 225 ff., § 245 — on Ezra and Nehemiah : W. H, Kosters and T. K. Cheyne,
art " Nehemiah," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); A. E. CowLEV, art "Samaritans,"
ibid. (1903); P. Riessler, "Uber Nehemias und Esdras," Biblische Zeitschrift, 1904,
pp. 15-27, 145-53-

I103EX

INDEX

Altar, 2, 16, 74 f., 76.
Aramaic sections of Ezra-Nehemiah
AND Daniel, 229.
.\rk, 2, 16, 18, 20, 75, 78.
ASH'feRIM, 18, 20, 29.
Atonement: day of, 5, 53, 96, 103 f.,
113, 142.
Ban, 129, 138 f.; literature on, 139.
Baptism, 269.
Belief, i.
Blessings and cursings, 136-38; litera
ture on, 137 f.
Blood: use of, 86, 89.
Bull-worship, r8.
Burnt-offering, 4, 18, 38.
Caxf-worship, 20.
Canon: formation of, 34.
Centralization of worship, 76, 78, 99.
Christianity: pre-natal, 270.
Chronicles, books of, 208-17; scope of
history in, 208; date of, 208 f.; sources
of, 209-11, 216; treatment of sources
in, 2ir; use of genealogies in, 211 f.;
chronological and statistical character
of, 212; Uterary style of, 213; selection
of material in, 213; religion of, 213 f.;
idealistic character of, 214 f.; litera
ture on, 215 f.; numbers in, 217.
Church; origin of, 19.6; purpose of, 196;
and state, separation of, 34, 42, 43, 52.
Circumcision, 149-5 ^ '• literature on, 150 f.
Clan-god, 14. .
Clean and unclean, 32, 36, 119-30, 138;
in early period, 1 19-21; in middle
period, 121, 122; in Ezekiel, 122 f.; in
later period, 123-26; literature on, 126-
28; Hebrew words for, 129; among non-
Hebrews, 129.
Clergy: distinction between, and laity,
38, 268.
Community: Israel a religious, 43, 55;
origin of idea of, 196; purpose of, rgd.
Conduct, i.
Covenant: Book of the, 25 f.; Code,

Curse, 136 f.
Cyrus: policy of, 44.
Dancing, 6, 15, 19, 20, 22.
Davidic psalms, 23, 237-40.
Decalogue, 24 f.
Deuteronomy: discovery of, 29 f;; 156 f;
teaching of, 31 ff., 165; authorship of,
157-65; point of view and coloring of,
159 f.; language and style of, 160 f.;
material of, 161 f.; its relation to other
Old Testament literature, i6Jf.; and
the New Testament, 163 f.; a forgery?
164!.; structure and general character
of, 165-67; literature on, 167-69. -
Deuteronomic writers, 167.
Divination, 17, 145-47.
Dream, 6, 17, 21.
Drink-offering, 4.
Ephod, 65, 120, 143-45-
Esdras I.: relation to Ezra, 228 f.
Ethics, i
Exclusiveness, 44, 55, 125 f., 175 f.
Exile: significance of, 35, 195; return
from, 39, 46, 51.
Ezekiel, 37, 39; work of, 170-79; histor
ical background of, 1 70 f . ; prepara
tion of, 171 f.; prophetic work of, 172 f.;
dependence upon Jeremiah, 172.;
structure and character of chaps. 40-
48, 174; genuineness of book, 174; ideas
of chaps. 40-48, 175; hterature on,
177-79.
Ezra: work of, 48; relation to Nehemiah,
180, 181; introduction of law, 180 f.;
law of, what was it? r8i; relation of
chaps. 40-48 to Priestly Code, 187 f.
Ezra and Nehemiah: books of, 218-29;
, scope of history in, 218 f.; unity of, 220;
unity of Chronicles and, 220 f., 225;
date of, 221 f.; sources of, 222 f., 228;
treatment of sources in, 223 f.; style of,
224; religion of, 225; literature on, 225-
28.
First-fruits, 21, 31, 49.
Fasts, 6, 36, 40, 45, 54, 103 f., 141-43.
269; literature on, 142 f.

289

290

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Feasts, s, 15, 21, 32, 33, 36, 38, 53, 94-
107, 176 f.; Harvest, 18, 21, 95; Vintage,
18; at Shiloh, 19; ot Ingathering, 21,
9S; of Unleavened Bread, 21, 32, 33,
53) 9S> 98, loi, 102; of Tabernacles,
32, 33' 40. 53 f-. 95, 99, i°2; of Pente-
) cost, 32, 95, 96; of Weeks, 33, 53, 95,
99, 102 ; of Passover, 32, 38, 40, 53, 96,
98, 100, loi, 102, 113; of New Moon,
38, 40, 53, 97i 102; of New Year, 53; in
early times, 94-98; in middle period
98-100; in Ezekiel, 100 f.; in later pe
riod, 101-4; literature on, 104-6; of
Booths, 95, 113; of Sheep-shearing,
97; special, 97; influence of, 97; of
Trumpets, 102 f., 113; of Purim, 104;
Hebrew words for, .170; among non-
Hebrews, 107.
Future life, 14.
Genealogies, in O. T., 217; in Chron-'
icles, 211 f.; in P., 202 f.; in Ezra-
Nehemiah, 229.
God, love of, 33; conception of, 45, 95,
96,' 107, 175, 188, 207; holiness of, 45,
55, 107, 130, 176; Kingdom of, 174 f.
Greek period, 56 f.
Hezekiah's reform, 28, 82.
High places, -z, 17, 22.
High-priest, 47, 52, 65, 70.
Histories: within the Hexateuch, 62;
priestly, 62, 195-229; origin of, 196 f.;
historical character of, 198 f. ; prophetic,
197 f.
Holiness — See Clean and Unclean.
Holiness: of God,4S, 55, 265; of sanc
tuary, 55.
Holiness Code, 63, 186.
Idolatry, 31, 35 f., 84, 90, 176.
Incense-offering, 4.
Individualism, 43, 541., 173.
Josiah: reform of, 30 f.; death of, 35.
Jubilee: .year of, 53, 114, 117.
Judaism, 42, 46, 52, 54 f.; Cornill on, 57.
Law: Levitical, 15, 43, 49, 50; Deutero
nomic, 15, 29, 155-69; early, 15!., 20,
24; codes of, 61 f.
Laws, 7!., 17, 19, 20, 44.
Legal literature, 155-91.
Levite, 18, 20, 31, 37, 39, 48, 52, 65, 66 f.;
distinction between priest and, 39, 66 f.,
68, 69, 176.

Literalism of priests, 257.
Lord's Supper: the, 268.
Lost writings of Hebrews, 217.
, Lot, 143-45.
Magic, 54, 137, 145-47; literature on,
146 f.
Malachi: priestly character of, 40.
Manasseh: reaction under, 29.
Marriages: mixed, 48, 49.
Meal-offering, 38.
Messianic expectations, 44.
Monotheism, 45, 55.
Moon-feasts, 18, 32, 38, 109, 1:12.
Mourning customs: 147-49; literature
on, 148 f.
Music, 6, 19, 20, 22, 40, 54.
Nazirite, 134 f.
Necromancy, 54.
Nehemiah: work of, 47 f.
Oaths, 139-41; literature on, 140 f.
Oracles, 6, 21, 143-45; literature on;
144 f.
Passover, 32, 38, 40, 86, 96, 98, 125.
Peace-offering, 4, 38.
Pentateuch: origin of, 15, 19.
Persian rule, 51.
Personification in Old Testament,
240 f.
Pillars: sacred, 18, 20.
Place of worship, 1-3, 14, 16, 17 f.,
i9f-> 31, 33> 36, 37, 52 f-. 74-82; in
early times, 74 f . ; in middle period, 75 f. ;
in Ezekiel, 76 f.; in later period, 77 f.;
literature on, 78-80; function of, 82.
Post-exilic period: • characteristics of,
42 f.
Prayfr, 6, 17, iS,"2i, 22, 32, 36, 40, 45,
54, 131-34; literature on, 133 f.
Priest, 3, 16, 18, 20, 22, 31, 33 f.; 36, 37,
38, 39, 47, 52, 63-73, 126; classification
of, 70; sanctity of, 38, 68, 69, 175;.
support of, x8, 31, 47,, 48, 50, 65, 67,
68; 70, 84, 89 f.; in early times, 63-66;
in Deuteronomic period, 66 f. ; in Eze
kiel, 67 f., 176; in later period, 68-70;
literature on, 70 f.; among non-He
brews, 72; outside functions of, 72; as
mediator, 73.
Priestly code, 62!., 180-91; date and
authorship of, 181-85; point of view

INDEX

291

and' coloring of, 182 f.; language'and
style of, 183; repetitions between P.
and other legislation, 183 f.; discrep
ancies between P. and other legislation,
184 f.; structure and contents of, 185-
87; strata within, 185; relation of Ezek.
chaps. 40-48 to, 187 f.; principal ideas
of, 188 f.; literature on, 189-gi.
Priestly element: limitations of, 257;
corruption in, 257; essential teachings
¦ of, 264 f.; permanent truth in, 269 f.;
ethical influence of, 270.
Priestly influence: basis of later, 195 f.
Priestly narrative in Hexateuch,
195-207; scope of, 199; gradual growth
of, 199 f.; sources of, 200 f.; legislation
within, 201 f.; systematic character of,
202 ; genealogical material within, 202 f;
statistics and dates within, 203; repe-
titiousness of, 203 f . ; selection of
material in, 204 f.; theology of, 205 f.;
literature on, 206 f.
Priestly nation, 3, 36, 72.
Priestly system : characteristics of , 2 5 8 f . ;
subjectivism of, 258; relation to proph
ecy, 259 f.; purpose of, 261 f.; national
character of, 261 f. ; relation to Messi^n-
ism, 263 f.; relation to Greek thought,
264.
Prophets: Relation of P. toward wor
ship, 22, 34, 38, 40, 62, 65, 67, 70, 73,
75, 76, 78, 84 f., 86, 90, 97, 100, 103,
109, no, 135.
Propitiation, 45, 50, 53, 54, 176, 189.
Psalm: supersciptions of, 234 f.
Psalms, 23, 233-53; of early period, 23;
literature on, 23; of second temple;
5.6; significance of, 56, 90; priest in, 71;
scope of priestly element in, 233; non-
priestly elements in, 233; problems of,
233-44; tests of Davidic, 239 f.; Macca-
baean, 242 f. ; priestly element in, 244 ff . ;
of Ascents, 245; imprecatory, 253;
Babylonian penitential, 253.
Psalter: historical element in, 235 f.;
David's contribution to, 237 -40; the
"I" of the, 240 ff.; editorial element
in, 243 f.; as a Book of Prayer, 246 f.;
as a Book of Praise, 247 f . ; as a manual
of communion, 248 f . ; significance of,
for priestly system, 249; literature on,
249-52; origin of, 252.
Reaction under Manasseh, 29; after
Josiah, 35; after rebuilding of temple,
46.

Reform of Hezekiah, 28, 82 : of Josiah,
30 f., 267; of Nehemiah, 47 f.
Refuge: cities of, 70.
Religion: its constituent elements, i, 13;
most ancient form of Semitic, 13 f.
Revelation: channels of, i.
Sabbath, 17, 18, 21, 32, 36, 38, 45, 48,
49, 53, 108-18, 150; in early times,
108-10;. in middle period, nof.; in
Ezekiel, inf.; in later period, 112-14,
150; literature on, 114-17; meaning of
Hebrew word, 117; among non-He
brews, 117 f.; origin of, 109, 118.
Sabbatical year, 21, 32, 49, 53, 109 f.,
ni, 112, 113 f.
Sacrifice, 3-5, 14 f., 17, 18, 20 f., 22,
31, 34, 36, 38, 40, S3, 83-93, 205;
nature of, 4, 14 f., 18, 20 f., 34, 45, 55,
84, 89; kinds of, 4 f., 38, 84, 85, 88;
materials of, 5, 88 f.; human, 21, 29,
32, 84, 86; in early period, 83-85; in
middle period, 85 f . ; in Ezekiel, 86 f . ;
in later period, 87-90; literature on,
90-92; Hebrew words for, 93; among
non-Hebrews, 93; origin of, 93.
Sages: attitude of toward worship, 71,
92, 117, 128, 135, 148, 150.
Samaritans, 50 f.
Scribes, 52.
Semites: contribution of, 13.
Sennacherib's invasion, 28.
Serpent worship, 18.
Seven: use of number, 118, 140.
Sin: conception of, 55, 90, 96, 103, 107,
176, 188 f., 265!.
Sin-offering, 5.
Skepticism, 47.
Slaves: release of, 53, ni.
Songs and hymns, 6 f., 17, 19, 22, 23, 40,
41, 54-
SOOTHSAYING, 54.
Sorcery, 6, i8, 21, 22, 29, 32, 40, 137,
145-47-
Springs: as abodes of deity, 2.
Stones: sacred, 2.
Synagogue, 36, 43, 51 f., 53, 81, 267.
Tabernacle, 2, 78, 184 f.
Taboo, 120, 121, 138.
Temple, :.,'2o, 37, 39, 48, 52 f., 75, 77,
78, 175; tax, 49; Samaritan, 50 f.; 81 f.

292

PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Tent of meeting, 2, 75.
Teraphim, 16, 17.
Times of worship, 5, 17, 18, 21, 32, 36,
38, 40, 53-
TlTHE, 32, 40, 47, 48, 49.
Totemism, 119 f., 121, 123, 124.
Tree-worship, 2, 18.
Trespass-offering, 4, 38.
Urim and Thummim, 18, 65, 67, 143-
45-
Visions, 18, 21, 171 f., 175.

Vows, 6, 17, 18, 21, 32, 40, 54, 134 f., 138;
hterature on, 135.
Wave-offering, 5.
Witchcraft, 18, 20, 22, 145-47.
Wood for burnt-offerings, 49.
Worship, i, 13, 34 f.; corrupt, 47; history
of, 8, 13-57, 6r; periods in history of,
13, 15 f., 27 f.; primitive stage of, 16 f.;
Canaanitish stage of, 16, 17 ff.; proph
etic stage of, 16, 19-22; Canaanitish
influence on, 17; Babylonian influence
on, 36!.; literature of, 155.

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