AN OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE INTELLECTUAL CLASS IN WESTERN EUROPE BY JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON PROCESSOR OP HISTORY IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY No man hath propounded to himself the general state of learning to be described and repre sented from age to age, as many have done the works of nature, and the state civil and ecclesiastical ; without which the history of the world seemeth to me to be as the statua of Polyphemus with his eye out. Bacon, Advancement of Learning, Bk. II, i, 2. THIRD EDITION, REVISED NEW YORK 1915 PREFATORY NOTE This outline of Intellectual History is designed first and foremost to be used in connection with the course of lectures offered in this field to graduate and advanced undergraduate students in the School of Political Science of Columbia Uni versity. Should it fall into the hands of others than those for whom it is primarily intended they should recollect that the selection and ordering of the historical facts which it eon- tains may appear more arbitrary than they do when they are explained in class. At no very distant date the author hopes to complete a manual of which this preliminary outline is the harbinger. The bibliographies demand a word of explanation. They are adapted to the specific purpose in hand — namely, to illus trate the general trend of knowledge and speculation among educated people in the past. They make no pretence to be adequate lists of works relating to the various fields of inten sive scholarship upon which it is necessary to encroach, such as Greek philosophy, the history of the Jews, the origin of Christianity, Scholasticism, Humanism, the Protestant Re volt, or the development of the modern sciences. From the vast literature that exists upon each of these subjects those few works have been chosen, in consultation with experts in the respective fields, which give in a clear, compact and au thentic form those large considerations with which the course deals. The treatises relating specifically to the history of thought, at least in the sense in which it is here used, are few in number, and none of them attempts to follow the lines suggested in this outline. In addition to the histories of philosophy, literature and education, which have other aims than the present under taking, there are the works of Lecky, Andrew D. White, Leslie Stephen, J. M. Robertson, Henry O. Taylor, Benn, Merz and others, covering portions of the field from special standpoints. iv Prefatory Note These are cited in their appropriate places, but in general, as has been implied, the student who desires a review of the whole subject must seek his materials where he can find them — they are not yet collected and digested for him in any convenient manual. An asterisk has been placed before those titles in the bibliographies which recommend themselves especially for the purposes of the course. It has not been deemed necessary to refer in every instance to the valuable special articles to be found in encyclopaedias, the most useful of which, in addition to the eleventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, are The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge (1908 sqq., in 12 vols.) edited by S. M. Jackson and based upon the third edition of the Realencyclopddie fiir protestantische Theologie (1896-1909, 22 vols.) ; The Catholic Encyclopedia (1907 sqq., 16 vols) ; The Jewish Encyclopedia (1901-06 in 12 vols.); Encyclopedia of Re ligion and Ethics edited by James Hastings (1908 sqq., in slow process of publication) ; the Cyclopedia of Education, edited by Paul Monroe (1910 sqq.) ; and La Grande EncyclopSdie (31 vols., 1885-1903). The Columbia University Press is planning to publish a very valuable collection of historical sources, Records of Civilization, edited by Professor James T. Shotwell. Several volumes are announced to appear during the coming year. It is now the custom in the more scholarly encyclopaedias to fur nish bibliographies, which are sometimes very excellent indeed. In this way and by means of the references in the works men tioned in the syllabus it will be possible for the more earnest and enterprising student to proceed as far as he has the patience to go in carrying out any particular line of study. It has not been thought worth while to cite articles in periodi cals, although now and then the more technical historical and philosophical journals make interesting contributions to the history of thought. J. H. R. Columbia University, October, 1915. TABLE OP CONTENTS PART I. THE BACKGROUND OF INTELLECTUAL HISTORY. Section 1. Scope and Aims of Intellectual History ... 1 2. Man's uneducated Mind 2 3. The Antiquity of Man 3 4. Primitive Reasoning of Man : General Perspective of Intellectual Development 3 PART H. HELLENISM AND ITS TRANSMISSION TO THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Section 5. Intellectual Debt of Europe to Egypt and Assyria . 5 6. Beginnings of Philosophic Speculation among the Greeks 5 7. The Sophists : Socrates and Plato .... 6 8. Aristotle and his Supreme Place in the History of European Thought 7 9. The Four Main Schools of Greek Thought : Stoics and Epicureans 8 10. Transfer of the Intellectual Hegemony to Alexandria : the Hellenistic Period 9 11. How Hellenism was Transmitted to the Romans . 10 12. Cicero's R61e in transferring Greek Thought into Latin 10 13. Decline and Disappearance of Hellenism in Western Europe 11 PART HE. FORMATION IN THE LATER ROMAN EMPD3E OF THE INTELLECTUAL HERITAGE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Section 14. How Christian Literature largely supplanted that of Greece and Rome 13 15. "The Christian Epic": Syncretism: The Place of Religion in the History of the Intellectual Class . 13 16. The General Religious Disposition in the Roman Empire: Neoplatonism 14 17. Persian Syncretism : Mithraism : Manichaeism . 15 18. How Judaism became the Background of the Religion of Europe : The Hebrew Bible .... 16 \ VI Table of Contents 19. How the New Testament became a part of the Intel lectual Heritage of Europe 20. How the Catholic Church became the Intellectual Arbiter of Western Europe 21. Asceticism and the Monastic Life .... 22. Summary of the Views of Man and the World Trans mitted by the Later Roman Empire to Posterity . 23. Intellectual Stagnation of the Early Middle Ages PART IV. RISE OF THE MEDIAEVAL UNTVERSITEES AND THE PREVAILING OF A MEDIAEVALIZED ARISTOTLE. Section 24. Abelard and the Development of Theology into a sub ject of Systematic Instruction ..... 25. Revival of the Study of Law : Medicine . 26. The Origin of the Mediaeval Universities . 27. How Aristotle's Works in Latin Translations became the Basis of Instruction in the Arts Course 28. Nature and Scope of University Instruction in the Thirteenth Century: Scholasticism 29. Astrology and Alchemy ...... Page 18 18 19 2022 24 24 252627 29 PART V. SLOW UNDERMINING OF THE SCHOLASTIC SYSTEM (FROM ROGER BACON TO LORD BACON). Section 30. Ezeursus on the Question of Dividing the Past into Periods . . .30 31. Discoveries of the Thirteenth Century : Beginnings of Experimental Science : Roger Bacon . . .30 32. Beginnings of Criticism of Social Institutions : Peter Dubois and Marsiglio of Padua . . . .31 33. Dante and his World 32 34. Petrarch and Humanism ...... 32 35. Italian Scholarship in the Fifteenth Century . . 33 36. The Making of Books before the Invention of Printing 35 37. The Invention of Printing and its Effects . . .35 38. Spread of Humanism beyond the Alps, especially into Germany 36 39. Erasmus, the Embodiment of Humanistic Enlighten ment 37 40. General Nature of the Protestant Revolt . . .38 41. Relation of the Protestant Revolt to Intellectual Pro gress 39 42. Witchcraft and the Superstitions underlying it . .39 Table of Contents vii PART VI. BIRTH OF THE MODERN SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT. Section 43. Discovery of the Vastness and Order of the Universe . 41 44. Exploration of the Earth 42 45. Montaigne and his Perception of the Varied Interest of the Purely Human 42 46. Francis Bacon and the "Kingdom of Man" . . 43 47. Descartes and the New Philosophy . . . .44 48. Conditions and Achievements of Scientific Research in the Seventeenth Century 44 49. Development of Toleration and of the Freedom of the Press .45 50. Decline of Belief in the Miraculous : The English Deists 46 51. The French Philosophes : Voltaire . . . .47 52. Development of the Idea of Progress . . . .48 53. Reaction against the Thought of the Eighteenth Century 48 PART VH. THE CHIEF NOVEL ELEMENTS IN CONTEMPORA NEOUS INTELLECTUAL LIFE. Section 54. The New Social Basis of Intellectual Life : Democracy 50 55. The New Historical Basis of Intellectual Life: The Doctrine of Evolution 51 56. The New Economic Basis of Intellectual Life: The Industrial Revolution ...... 51 57. Socialism, the Religion of Industrial Democracy . 52 58. Speculation concerning Man's Bodily Welfare . . 53 59. The Newer Social Sciences 53 60. Problem of readjusting Education to our new Knowl edge and new Needs 54 61. The Conservative Spirit in the Light of Intellectual History 55 AN OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE INTELLECTUAL CLASS IN WESTERN EUROPE Pabt I. THE BACKGROUND OF INTELLECTUAL HISTORY. Section t. Scope and Aims of Intellectual History. Sketch of the development of History: epic, political, "sacred"; the "philosophy of history." How in the latter half of the nineteenth century History became scientific and truly historical in its aims and methods. Man's abject dependence on the past gives rise to the con tinuity of history. Our convictions, opinions, prejudices, in tellectual tastes; our knowledge, our methods of learning and of applying our information we owe, with slight exceptions, to the past — often to a remote past. History an expansion of memory, and like memory it alone can explain the present and in this lies its most unmistakable value. G-eneral neglect of Intellectual History. Distinction between the history of the intellectual class and the history of philosophy, science, litera ture, or education. Reading: The article "History" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (by J. T. Shotwell); Robinson, J. H., The New History, especially essays I-IV. There is no satisfactory general account of the history of history, but Flint, R., The History of the Philosophy of History (1894), whieh relates chiefly to France, contains much of value. Langlois and Seignobos, Introduction to the Study of History, sets forth the modern scien tific methods of historical research. 2 History of the Intellectual Class . Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historisehen Methode (6th ed., 1908), is the most elaborate study of the subject and gives a list of works on special fields of historiography. An idea of more recent discussions can be had in Berr, H., La Synthdse en Histoire (1911). See also article "Histoire," in La Grande Encyclopedic. Section 2. Man's uneducated Mind. Two historical facts of supreme importance discovered in the latter half of the Nineteenth century: that man is de scended from the lower animals and that he appears to have been sojourning on the earth for several hundred thousand years. Contrast between the implications of this view of man's origin and of that formerly held. Reasons for assuming that we retain our animal mind along with our animal body. Importance of the new study of animal (comparative) psychology. Extraordinary educa- bility of the Chimpanzee. How an ape learns : Trick psy chology, "trial and error"; association of thought through "contiguity,"— all very human. Why the ape does not "ape." Man's large brain, superadded to his ape-like struc ture and temperament, enables him to imitate and to transmit acquired knowledge and habits and so to accumulate civilisa tion. Fundamental contrast between "nature" and "nur ture" (culture), the first of which only is transmitted heredi tarily. Problem of the hereditary transmission of acquired characters. Hypothesis of a colony of really uneducated infants. Human nature constantly confused with what is really human nurture. Question of racial differences in mental capacity. Does Intellectual history deal with nature or nurture or both ? "Crampton, H. E., The Doctrine of Evolution, its Basis and its Scope (1911), especially chaps, v-vi; *Geddes & Thompson, Evolution (Home University Library); 'Drummond, H., The Ascent of Man, chaps, i-ii; 'Thorndike, E. L., Animal Intelligence, Experimental Studies (1911), espe cially chaps, i, iv, andvii; Holmes, S. J., The Evolution of Animal Intel ligence (1911); Washburn, M., The Animal Mind (1908), especially earlier chapters; James, Wm., Psychology (edition in 2 vols., 1895), chaps, xxii and xxiv, on reasoning and instinct. Thorndike, E. L., The Original Nature of Man (1913). Background of Intellectual History 3 Darwin, Ch., %he Descent of Man; Morgan, C. Lloyd, Instinct and Experi ence (1912); McDougall, W., Social Psychology (3d ed., 1910); by the same, Body and Mind (2d ed., 1913) ; Tarde, G., Laws of Imitation; Hobhouse, Mind in Evolution (1901). Section 3. The Antiquity of Man. Nature of the evidence bearing on man's antiquity. Lyell's Antiquity of Man, published in 1863. Physical remains of man; Pithecantropus Erectus discovered in Java in 1892. " Eoliths." The fist hatchet the first well developed unmis takable human utensil. Paleolithic eras. Great influence in the development of culture attributed to the movements of the ice sheet. Paleolithic art. Ground stone tools of the Neo lithic period. The continuity of invention illustrated by bronze celts. Vast progress implied by the advance to the Neolithic or agricultural stage. Survival of paleolithic civi lizations among the recently extinct Tasmanians and other backward peoples. Buttel-Reepen, Man and his Forerunners, 1913, good illustrated summary Keith, A., Antiquity of Man (1915); Sollas, Ancient Hunters, 2d ed., 1915 Article "Archeology" by C. H. Read in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. *MacCurdy, G. G., Becent Discoveries tearing on the Antiquity of Man in Europe (1910), extract from the Smithsonian Report of 1909 ; *Haddon, History of Anthropology (1910), especially chaps, iv and viii; Marett, R. R., Anthropology (Home University Library). Lyell, Ch., Antiquity of Man (1863); Mortillet, de, G. et A., La Prihis- toire; Dechelette, J., Manuel d'arcMologie prehistorique, Vol. I. Section 4. Primitive Reasoning of Man: General Per spective of Intellectual Development. Nature of primitive intellectual life can be deduced from archeological survivals and from the study of contemporane ous savages. Development of language ; reflections on the r61e of language. Spontaneous generation of superstition. Prevalence of the mana, animism, magic, totemism; "dream logic," belief in the soul and a life beyond the grave. These all perendure as elements in even highly developed later reli gious systems and in ancient and mediaeval science. General perspective of the history of the human mind illus trated by a clock dial on which each of the twelve hours repre- 4 History of the Intellectual Class sents 20,000 years. What we call "civilization" a recent and hitherto precarious addition to the older attainments of mankind. *Boas, Franz, The Mmd of Primitive Man (1911), especially chaps, i-v and the summary, pp. 244-250, calculated to dispel many venerable illu sions ; by the same author, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian Languages (Bureau of Ethnology, 1910), and discussion of language in Payne, History of the New World called America, Vol. H, pp. 88 sqq. ; Car penter, J. E., Comparative Religion (Home University Library); Marett, op. tit.; *Thomas, Wm. I., Source Book for Social Origins, pp. 1-26, 143-186, 426-435, and part VI, on Magic, Animism, etc. Tylor, E.B., Primitive Culture, 2 vols. ; Westermarck, Origin and Develop ment of Moral Ideas (2 vols., 1906-8) ; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, new ed., 1915. Part II. HELLENISM AND ITS TRANSMISSION TO THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Section 5. Intellectual Debt of Europe to Egypt and Assyria. The Greeks wrote the first books (with the exception of portions of the Old Testament) destined to form a part of the intellectual heritage of Western Europe. Unsolved problem of what the Greeks owed to the Egyptians and to the eastern Mediterranean countries. The Egyptians the first, so far as is known, to invent writing. Character of the slight remains of early Egyptian literature. Interest mainly practical, e. g., care of the body in this world and of the soul in the next. Egyptian origin of Alchemy. From Assyria came astrology and our divisions of the circle and of the day. Newly discovered Aegean civilization. *Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, 1912 ; Jastrow, Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria, 1915 ; Hawes, C. H. and H. B., Crete, the Forerunner of Greece (1911) ; Hogarth, D. G., Ionia and the East (1909); *Rogers, R. W., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, espe cially in its relations to Israel, 1908. Meyer, E., Geschichte des Altertums, new ed., 1907, sqq. ; Cantor, Vorles- ungenuber Geschichte der Mathematilc, parts I-II, pp. 17-104; Dussaud, R., Les Civilisations prehe'lleniques, 1910. Section 6. The Beginnings of Philosophic Speculation among the Greeks. The intellectual life, strictly speaking, appears to have first begun on a considerable scale in the Ionian towns and in their colonies in southern Italy and Sicily (700-500 B.C.). Thales of Miletus. Search for the material principle of all things culminated in the theory of the four elements of Empedocles (fl. circa 450 B.C.) which was later sanctified by Aristotle. The Eleatic philosophers — Xenophanes (fl. circa 530 B.C.), Parmenides (fl. circa 495) — their confidence in metaphysical reasoning, their paradoxes and unchanging world. Pytha gorean enthusiasm for explanatory value of numbers and pro- 6 History of the Intellectual Class portion. Leucippus (fl. circa 440 B.C.) and Democritus (fl. 410 B.C.) advance the mechanistic theory of atoms. Destruction of Miletus in 494. (A generation earlier the Hebrews had returned from the exile and were developing the literature which was destined to be included in the Old Testa ment.) After the repulse of Xerxes (Marathon, 490; Ther- mopolae and Salamis, 480) Athens becomes the center of an incomparable intellectual life for a century and a half. Short accounts of the early Greek thinkers will be found in *Marshall, John, A Short History of Greek Philosophy ; Burnet, Greek Philosophy, Vol. I, 1914, Thales to Plato; Windelband, Ancient Philosophy; Zeller, Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy, and in Croiset, Histoire de la Litt&ratwe Grecque, Vol. H, pp. 471-535. Extracts from Pre-Socratio philosophy in 'Bakewell, Source Book in Ancient Philosophy, pp. 1-66. Fuller treatments may be found in Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Vol. I; Burnet, John, Early Greek Philosophy, and Zeller, History of Greek Philos ophy from the earliest period to Socrates, 2 vols. Section 7. The Sophists: Socrates and Plato. Appearance of a class of professional teachers, Sophists, in Athens, who bring philosophy down to earth. Their char acter and the reasons for their bad reputation. Attitude of Euripides. Our impressions of Socrates (470-399) (who wrote nothing) largely due to Xenophon and Plato. Socrates early alienated from natural science; his exclusive reliance upon discussion (dialectic). Plato (427-347): Nature and variety of his Dialogues. Importance of the indecisive character of the discussions. Free play of reason ; Plato has no " authorities " in later sense of term, and gives only a subordinate place to the supernatural. Theory of ideas the basis of later Platonism. Two tenden cies in Plato which become distinct later: (a) his skeptical method approved by the Academy in succeeding centuries; (b) his mystic tendencies — as shown in the Timaeus (the only dialogue to be had in Latin in the Middle Ages) and in the sequel to the "Laws," the Epinomis — became the basis of Neoplatonism, which abjured reason. Hellenism and its Transmission 7 •Murray, Gilbert, Ancient Greek Literature, chaps, vii and xiv ; by same writer, Euripides and his Age (Home University Library) ; "Croiset, An Abridged History of Greek Literature, chap, xix (Attic philosophy from Xenophon to Aristotle) ; Burnet, Greek Philosophy, Vol. I. Shorter accounts will be found in the manuals of Marshall, Windelband, and Zeller, men tioned under section 6 ; Grote, History of Greece, chap. Ixvii contains a celebrated account of the Sophists; "Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, Vol. IV, pp. 38-68 (Sophists). Of Plato's dialogues the best worth reading are perhaps *The Republic (especially books i-ii and the opening of iii and books vii and ix) ; The Apology, Crito, and Phaedo (which relate to the trial, last hours, and death of Socrates) ; The Banquet or Symposium, deemed Plato's finest literary work ; Protagoras, showing up charmingly the chief Sophists ; the Theaetetus which deals with the nature of knowledge ; and the Timaeus (see Jowett's interesting introduction) which exhibits the mysticism that appealed to Plato's mediaeval admirers. Xenophon's Mem orabilia or Recollections of Socrates, together with several of Plato's most important dialogues, are to be found in "Everyman's Library" in two inex pensive volumes ; important extracts are given in Bakewell, Source Book. Fuller treatments of Socrates and Plato will be found in Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Vols. H-HI; Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, Vol. IV, pp. 200-385. Zeller has a volume on Socrates and the Socratic Schools and another on Plato and the older Academy. Section 8. Aristotle and his Supreme Place in the History of European Thought. How Aristotle codified Greek learning and added much of his own. Romantic story of his manuscripts. Their ency clopaedic range. Fourfold character of Aristotle's interests, philosophical, scientific, scholarly, and ethical. His habit of presenting his material in the form of systematic treatises. His theory of essence and the four " causes," material, formal, efficient, and final. The four elements, earth, water, air, and fire. The perfection of the heavens and his conception of God as the "first mover." Theory of motion and of light and heavy. Virtue a happy mean ; highmindedness ; the ideal contemplative life; Aristotle's reason-loving God. Sources of Aristotle's enduring influence. He opens the era of " la science livresque." The most available of Aristotle's works are his "Polities (especially Book I and opening of Book II) and his "Ethics (for example, Book II, chaps, vi-ix; Book IV, chaps, vii-viii, and Book X). The works of 8 History of the Intellectual Class Aristotle are now being translated into English and published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford. The Metaphysics, 1908, the Historia Animalium, 1910, and some of the lesser works have appeared. There are good trans lations of the De Anima. Important extracts may be found in Bakewell, Source Book. For general range of interests among the Greeks see Hellenic Civilization, by Professors Botsford and Sihler in " Records of Civilization ," Columbia University Press, 1915. In addition to the manuals mentioned in section 6 above, see Wallace, Outlines of the Philosophy of Aristotle; Taylor, A. E., Aristotle (an admirable little book) ; Lones, T. E., Aristotle's Researches in Natural Science, 1912 ; Grote, Aristotle; Zeller, Aristotle and the Peripatetics ; and, especially inter esting, 'Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, Vol. IV, pp. 675 sqq. Section 9. Four Main Schools of Greek Thought : Stoics and Epicureans. Four main schools of thought traced their origin to the rather vague and uncertain teachings of Socrates: (a) Plato and the Academy; (b) Aristotle and the Peripatetics; (c) Diog enes (pupil of Antisthenes) and the Cynics ; (d) Aristippus and the Cyrenaics. Zeno, shortly after Aristotle's death, revises the tenets of the Cynics and is regarded as the founder of Stoicism. Hymn of his co-worker, Cleanthes. Stoic conception of God (Provi- dentia) and of our essential freedom through reason; "Indiffer ent," things alone out of our control. Argument from design ; duty of praising God in his works. Books of Greek Stoics lost but their views to be found in the writers of the Roman period, in Cicero's Nature of the Gods, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius. Epicurus, a contemporary of Zeno, combined doctrines of the Cyrenaics with the atomic theory of Democritus. Mechanistic theory of the universe. The Epicureans hoped to free men's minds from needless anxiety in regard to the gods and death. The Roman poet Lucretius (d. about 55 B.C.) set forth atomic theory and Epicurean doctrines. His horror of "religio" (Tantum religio potuit suadere malorum). All things are due to natural causes, nothing to supernatural intervention. In addition to the manuals mentioned under section 6, Zeller, Stoics, Epi*- cureans and Skeptics; "Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, V, chap, ii excellent. For the Stoics, Seneca, On Benefits; Epictetus, Golden Sayings, Hellenism and its Transmission 9 selected by Crossley in Golden Treasury series ; Complete translation of Discourses of Epictetus by Long in Bohn Library; Marcus Aurelius, Thoughts, many editions. Hicks, Stoic and Epicurean ; For the letters of Epicurus (very important) see Diogenes Laertius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (written probably early in the third century A.D.) or extracts given by Bakewell in his Source Book. Second only in import ance to the words of Epicurus are those of his admirer Lucretius in his poem on "The Nature of Things," translated by Monro and in a more spirited manner by Bailey (Clarendon Press). Section io. Transfer of Intellectual Hegemony to Alex andria: Hellenistic Period. Character of later Greek thought. Failure to standardize sensation through invention of scientific instruments. In fluence of slavery in checking development of science. Hellenizing of Alexander's empire. Alexandria (founded 332 B. C.) becomes center of intellectual activity. Its " Museum " and great libraries. Books of period nearly all lost. Variety of scientific interest illustrated by Euclid (d. about 300) ; Aristarchus and his discovery of the rotation of the earth; Eratosthenes (about 275-195) and his encyclo paedic interests ; Archimedes (287-212) and his attitude toward applied science, and Hipparchus (d. about 130). Geographi cal and astronomical ideas of the period transmitted by Ptolemy (2d cent. A.D.). Treatises on mechanical devices by Hero of Alexandria (fl. circa 100 B.C. or later). Range of mechan ical inventions of Greeks and Romans. Unfulfilled promise of Hellenistic science. Gow, James, A Short History of Greek Mathematics (1884) ; Ball, W.W.R., Short Account of the History of Mathematics (3d ed., 1901), chaps, i-iv; Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, Vol. V, chap, i ; Mahafiy, Greek Life and Thought from the death of Alexander to the Roman Conquest (disappointing for our purpose, in spite of promising title) ; Snyder, Karl, The World Machine (marvelously enthusiastic but highly uncritical). There appears to be no satisfactory summary of the general intellectual history of this period in English, but some good chapters may be found in Holm, History of Greece, Vol. IV. The standard treatment of Hellenistic literature is Susemihl, Fr. Ge schichte der Griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit (2 vols., 1891-2). 10 History of the Intellectual Class There is an admirable recent account in Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (5th ed., 1911), Vol. H, pp. 190-228; Cantor, Vorlesungen iiber Geschichte der Mathematik (1894), sec. iii, pp. 105-482, would appear to be well nigh exhaustive; Dannemann, F., Die Naturwissenschaften in ihrer Entwieklung, 1910, I, 118 sqq. ; Gerland und Traumuller, Geschichte der Physikalische Experimentierkunst, 1899. Section n. How Hellenism was transmitted to the Romans. After the Third Samnite war the Romans annex the cities of Magna Graecia (290-272) and later (212) Syracuse. De velopment of Roman Literature and thought stimulated by Hellenism. Long history of the Latin language from Naevius (d. about 200) to the present day. Plautus (d. about 184) and Terence (d. about 159) adapt Greek comedies to Roman demands. Cato the Censor (about 232-147), first Latin prose writer, protests in vain against Greek influences. Cicero and his contemporaries Lucretius and Varro, the encyclopaedic writer. "Golden" age of Augustus (d. 14 A.D.), Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Livy. Duff, J. W., A Literary History of Rome (1909), pp. 18-38 and 92-117; Mackail, Latin Literature, chaps, i-iii, contains a brief review of the begin nings of Latin literature. Section 12. Cicero's Role in Transferring Greek Thought into Latin. Cicero (106^3) and his importance in the history of thought. His early studies in Athens, Rhodes, and elsewhere. De lighted in freedom from dogmatism. Nos qui sequimur pro- babilia et ref ellere sine pertinacia et ref elli sine iracundia parati sumus. His method of using Greek books as a basis for his philosophical treatises. His dialogue On the Nature of the Gods an admirable illustration of the various schools of thought of his time. Mackail, Latin Literature, chap, vi; Duff, J. W., A Literary History of Rome, pp. 349-397. Reid in his introduction to his edition of Cicero's Aca- demica gives an excellent account of Cicero's attitude toward Greek learning. Hellenism and its Transmission 11 Section 13. Decline and Disappearance of Hellenism in Western Europe. The Hellenic intellectual and literary impetus begins sensibly to flag after the "Golden" age of Augustus. The "Silver" age scarcely holds its own ; followed by the steady and definite decline of Hellenism in the west. The elder Pliny (d. 79 A.D.) ; his Natural History, a vast and indiscriminate compila tion. The circle of the amiable younger Pliny, about the year 100: — Tacitus, Suetonius, Martial, Quintilian; Juvenal- (d. about 140). Age of the Antonines (138-180) of which one can form some notion from the Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. Learning had long been largely reminiscent. Archaistic tendency; affectation and intricacy of literary style. Pre dominating study of rhetoric. Greek still current among the learned. The belated Lucian (d. about 200) and his witty dialogues. After this time only a few scattering ex amples of the older Hellenic ambitions. Martianus Capella, probably in Constantine's time, furnishes in his Marriage of Mercury and Philology a text book of the Seven Liberal Arts, which admirably illustrates the bad taste, degenerate style and dry epitomizing which overtook the an cient learning. Fundamental weakness of Hellenic learning : It was an im posing collection of speculations, opinions, and guesses, which, however brilliant and ingenious they might be, were based on a very slight body of exact knowledge, and failed to recognize the fundamental necessity of painful scientific research, aided by apparatus. There was no steady accumulation of knowl edge to offset the growing emotional distrust of reason. The game was played out, and the ancient knowledge which did not find its ways into the arid and unintelligent epitomes of the time, was doomed. Vain efforts of Boethius (about 475-525) to transmit to posterity Latin translations of some of the chief Greek authors. Knowledge of Greek practically lost in Western Europe for nearly a thousand years. 12 History of the Intellectual Class An emotional and consequent intellectual revolution had been in progress in the Roman Empire, which not only serves to explain the intellectual life of the Middle Ages but that of modern times. "Pliny the Younger, Letters, translated by Firth (Camelot Series) ; Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, Bk. H, chap, i ("Circle of the Younger Pliny"); Mackail, Latin Literature, part HI, chaps, iv-v; Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights ; "Glover, Conflict of Religions in the early Roman Em pire, chap, vii ; "Hatch, Influence of Greek Thought and Usages on the Chris tian Church, chap, ii (Greek Education) ; Selections from Lucian, translated by E. J. Smith; Walden, J.W. H., Universities of Ancient Greece (relates chiefly to this period) ; "Taylor, H. O., Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, pp. 18-56 ; Glover, Life and Letters in the Fourth Century ; Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Empire, Bk. V (Characteristics of Roman Education and Culture in the Fifth Century). Part III. FORMATION IN THE LATER ROMAN EM PIRE OF THE INTELLECTUAL HERITAGE OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Section 14. How Christian Literature Largely Sup planted that of Greece and Rome. The new Christian literature confined to religious exhorta tion, biblical exegesis, controversy, and "sacred" history. Earliest Christian works were in Greek ; Apology of Minucius Felix (end of 2d century) first example of a Christian work in Latin. Tertullian (d. about 230) first voluminous Latin writer. Cyprian (d. 258). Great expansion of Christian literature after Constantine's accession; Eusebius and his Ecclesiastical History; Sozomen, Socrates, and Orosius estab lish new standards of historiography. Athanasius (d. 375), Basil (d. 379), and Chrysostom (d. 407) write in Greek; chief Latin "fathers" of this period, Ambrose (d. 373), Jerome (d. 420), and, above all, Augustine (d. 430). The origin and character of the intellectual activity of the patristic period will be the subject of the succeeding sections and references will be given in connection with each topic. For the general development of Chris tian literature see short account in Mackail, Latin Literature, part iii, chap, vi, and excellent extensive treatment in Ebert, Litteratur des Mittel- alters, Vol. I. Section 15. "The Christian Epic'': Syncretism: The Place of Religion in the History of the Intellectual Class. "The Christian Epic," as summarized by Santayana. Whence came the Church with its conception of "two cities," its revelation dominating reason, its ideas of sin and salvation, of the resurrection and last judgment, of heaven and hell, angels and devils, miracles, martyrs and monks, its mysticism and sacraments, and its power to make disbehef a crime in the eyes of the State? Habit of Christian apologists to contrast Christianity, pure 14 History of the Intellectual Class and undefiled, with an unspeakable "paganism" or idol wor ship. Historical "Christianity" now appears to the modern student of comparative religion to have been the highly com plex result of a long development, and to resemble in certain important respects a number of world religions — Stoicism, Neoplatonism, Mithraism, Maniehaeism, Judaism — with which it found itself in rivalry during the early centuries of its exis tence. Religious "syncretism," a process of unconscious borrowing and lending. A new religious system is always deeply affected by the prevailing conditions and always carries over much that is old. "Religious" a vague and comprehensive term applied to: (1) Certain classes of emotions (awe, dependence, self-distrust, aspiration, etc.) ; (2) Conduct, which may take the form of distinctive religious acts (ceremonies, sacrifices, prayers, " good works ") or the observance of what in primitive conditions are recognized as "taboos"; (3) Priestly or ecclesiastical organi zations; (4) Beliefs about supernatural beings and man's re lations to them : the latter may take the form of revelation and be reduced to creeds and -become the subject of elaborate theological speculations. The highly, organized Christian Church with its revelations, its creeds, and vast system of theology has exercised an incalculable influence on the devel opment of thought and science in Western Europe from the days of Augustine to our own. "Santayana, Life of Reason ; Reason in Religion, chap, vi; "Hatch, In fluence of Greek Thought and Usages on the Christian Church, chap, i; "Taylor, Henry O., The Mediaeval Mind, chap, iii; "Shotwell, James T., The Religious Revolution, 1913; Farnell, The Evolution of Religion, 1905 (a brief and admirable statement of the anthropological attitude toward religious phenomena) ; Knox, G. W., Japanese Life in Town and Country, chaps, vi-ix (contains striking parallelisms between oriental and western religious ideas). Section 16. The General Religious Disposition in the Roman Empire. Neoplatonism. Stoicism (see above section 9) had a good deal in common with Christianity, but exalted reason. Decline of confidence Intellectual Heritage of the Middle Ages 15 in reason; consciousness of sin and 'pollution; longing for purification and salvation; great expansion of the super natural — good and evil spirits, theurgy, mysticism, ecstacy, asceticism. Plutarch (b. about 50 A.D.) and his respectful attitude toward new gods and old myths. Neoplatonism: Kindred in mystical spirit to Christianity; communion through ecstacy with a supernatural God ; intuition superior to reason ; contempt of material things. Doctrines of Plotinus (about 204-270), its reputed founder, edited by Porphyry (about 232-300), whose attack on Christianity was later burned by order of Theodosius II. Jamblicus (d. about 330) defends unbounded credulity in his de Mysteriis. The Celestial Hierarchy, which we first hear of in the early sixth century, a Neoplatonic work ascribed by the Church to Diony- sius the Areopagite. Augustine's attitude toward Platonism in his Confessions and City of God. "Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism (remarkable work) ; Dill, Roman Society in the last Century of the Empire, Book I, chap, iv; "Hatch, Influence of Greek Thought and Usages on the Christian Church, especially chaps, ii, iii, and xi ; "Glover, Conflict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire, chap, iii (Plutarch) and viii (Celsus). For Neoplatonism see Select Works of Plotinus (Bohn Library) ; "Extracts in Bakewell, Source Book; "Harnack, History of Dogma, appendix to Vol. I, pp. 336 sqq. ; "Taylor, Ancient Ideals, Vol. H, pp. SO sqq. ; Croiset, Histoire de la Litterature grecque, Vol. V, pp. 820-841. Section 17. Persian Syncretism: Mithraism: Mani- chaeism. Persian (Zoroastrian) explanation of the existence of evil by assuming two principles, the light and the dark, the good and the bad, at war with one another. Worship of Mithras, the Mediator, appeared in the Roman Empire as early as Plu tarch and later spreads widely in the west. Worship of the sun. Similarities between Mithraism and Christianity in its ritual, baptism, and communion. How the Christian Sunday and Christmas are associated with Mithras. Manes, born at Ctesiphon about 215 A.D. (crucified in 272) largely affected by teachings of primitive Christianity. Re- 16 History of the Intellectual Class jection by the Manichaeans of the Old Testament, as the work of the evil spirit. Final judgment and separation of the light from the darkness. Manichaeism had its revelation of truth, its ecclesiastical organization, its asceticism, and heaven and hell. Revival in later Middle Ages of Manichaean con ceptions by the Cathari (Albigensians). Cumont, F., The Mysteries of Mithra ; "Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius, final chapter (on Mithras) ; Harnack, History of Dogma, appendix to Vol. HI, pp. 316 sqq. The so-called "Acta Archelai," or alleged disputation between Manes and the Christian bishop Arehelaus of Mesopo tamia (early fourth century) may be found translated in Ante-Nicene Christian Library, Vol. XX. Augustine's works directed against the Mani chaeans — to which sect he once belonged — are translated in The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. IV. Section 18. How xTudaism Became the Background of the Religion of Europe: The Hebrew Bible. Christianity a development of Judaism, to which it owed in great measure its early propagation. Christians assign to Hebrew literature a position far higher than to that of Greece and Rome, and accept Jewish tradition and history as history par excellence, beginning with the account in the Pentateuch of the creation, the fall of man, the flood, the confounding of tongues. Summary of Jewish history : — Founding of Hebrew mon archy under Saul, about 1050 B.C. David and Solomon, about 1025-950. Jerusalem becomes the capital. Division of Hebrew kingdom. Northern part taken by Sargon, 722. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 586. Baby lonian exile. Return of Jews to Jerusalem under Cyrus, 537. In following centuries, successively under various foreign powers, Palestine finally becomes part of the Roman Empire, 6 A.D. Jerusalem destroyed by Titus in 70 A.D. The importance of the " Diaspora " or Jews of the Dispersion, who were greatly affected by Hellenism. Alexandria a center of Jewish learning ; the Septuagint, including the Apocrypha ; Philo Judaeus (d. about 50 A.D.). The active missionary spirit of the Hebrews of his time. Intellectual Heritage of the Middle Ages 17 Formation of the canon of the Old Testament, which was largely compiled, revised, or written after the exile. Char acteristics of "inspired" scriptures: Everything true, essential, significant, equipollent, harmonious, interchangeable, and sus ceptible of infinite combinations, regardless of context and of historical and literary considerations. Necessity of allegori cal interpretation. Excellently illustrated by Philo Judaeus' " Allegories of the Sacred Laws." The messianic, prophetic, and apocalyptic elements in the Bible. The later Jewish angelology, demonology, and eschatology, exhibited in "the Book of Enoch." The wide range of superstitions illustrated by the pseudepigraphical literature and in the traditional rules and interpretations contained in the Talmuds. The Christians reject the Jewish "Law" but regard the Bible as the background of their religion, believing that it foretold the coming of Jesus and described God's dispensations to his chosen people, whose successors they were. Like the Jews, they resorted freely to allegorical interpretations, "Biblical alchemy," as may be seen in "The Epistle of Barnabas" and the " Shepherd of Hermas." Cornhill, History of the People of Israel — a brief, clear outline, the con servatism of which may be offset by Reinaeh, Solomon, Orpheus, A General History of Religions, 1909, chap, vii; "Moore, Geo. F., The Literature of the Old Testament (Home Univ. Lib.), admirable; Loisy, Alfred, La Religion d' Israel, 1908, delightful little volume; Charles, R. H., Religious Develop ment between the Old and New Testaments (Home Univ. Lib.) ; Kent, C. F., The Students' Old Testament logically and chronologically arranged, 6 vols., 1904 sqq., very interesting; The Apocrapha and Pseudepigrapha of the 0. T. in English, edited by R. H. Charles, 2 vols., 1913, very^lluminating. "Super natural Religion, part I, chap, iv, first part (on superstitions of the Talmud) ; "Hatch, Influence of Greek Thought and Usages on the Christian Church, chap. iii (on the Greek use of allegory) ; Philo Judaeus, The Creation of the World and The Allegories of the Sacred Laws in his works in Bohn Library, Vol. I. For the relations of Christianity to Judaism see Schmidt, Nathaniel, The Prophet of Nazareth, chaps, iii-vii; "Harnack, History of Dogma, Vol. I, pp. 99-114 ; Wernle, The Beginnings of Christianity, Vol. I, pp. 1-36 ; Santayana, Life of Reason, Reason in Religion, chap, v (The Hebraic tradition), " The Epistle of Barnabas" and the " Shepherd of Hermas" may be found in The Apostolic Fathers (Loeb Classical Library). See also article "Israel," by Wellhausen, in 9th edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica and article "Jews" 18 History of the Intellectual Class in the 11th edition. Juster, J., Les Julfs dans Vempire Romain, leur condition juridique, iconomique et soeiale, Vol. I, 1914 (Vol. H to contain documents and tables). Excellent treatments of the various topics in this and the following sections will be found in the Catholic Encyclopedia and the Jewish Encyclo paedia. Section 19. How the New Testament became a part of the Intellectual Heritage of Europe. The synoptic gospels. Relations of gospels of Matthew and Luke to that of Mark, which in turn seems to have been compiled from earlier sources. The "Non-Marcan" docu ment, reconstructed by Harnack. Attitude of Paul toward the life of Jesus. Argument of those who believe that Jesus did not contemplate the founding of a " church " in the later sense. The New Testament formed by a process of exclusion. Justin (about 150 A.D.) refers only to "memorials of the apostles." Irenaeus (d. 202) assumes the existence of the canon of the New Testament, and Tertullian (d. about 230) first uses the term "Novum Testamentum." Long doubts, according to Eusebius, in regard to the inclusion of Hebrews, 2 Peter, Jude, and Revelation. Natural tendency to interpret the New Testament in the same way as the Old. Harnack, History of Dogma, Vol. I, pp. 41-75, and Vol. II, pp. 38-66 ; "Conybeare, F. C, Myth, Magic, and Morals, chaps, i-ix (a clear discussion of the sources for the life of Jesus) ; "Muzzey, D. S., Rise of the New Testa ment; Wrede, The Origin of the New Testament, both good brief accounts; Schmidt, Nathaniel, The Prophet of Nazareth, chaps, viii-ix; "Glover, Con flict of Religions in the Early Roman Empire, chaps, iv-v ; Wernle, The Be ginnings of Christianity, Vol. I, especially chaps, iv-xiii ; "Reinach, Orplieus, chap, viii ; "Harnack, The Expansion of Christianity, Vol. I, pp. 1-39 ; Gwatkin, Selections from Early Christian Writers , (a valuable little volume containing both the Greek or Latin original and a translation into English). Section 20. How the Catholic Church became the Intel lectual Arbiter of Western Europe. Informal character of the primitive " ecclesia." Develop ment of the " overseers " into bishops and of the elders (pres byters) into priests. The clergy becomes a distinct order. Divergence of belief and the appearance of numerous Christian sects beget the idea of orthodoxy and its opposite, "heresy." Intellectual Heritage of the Middle Ages 19 Contagious, wilful, and devilish character of heresy (see 2 Peter or Jude); Cyprian's "Unity of the Church"; doctrine that outside the one church there was no possibility of salvation. Supreme position in questions of faith of the bishop of Rome, " the successor of the two most glorious of the apostles " ; the Church takes on the characteristics of a State, which it was destined to retain, and adopts the Latin language, in the West, which it thus sanctified and perpetuated. Edict of Toleration issued by Emperor Galerius in 311. Pol icy of Constantine favorable to the Catholic Church. The sixteenth book of the Theodosian Code contains edicts relating to the Church issued by the Roman Emperors during the fourth and early fifth centuries. They make it a crime to disagree with the Church; they provide harsh penalties for heretical teaching and writing, and grant privileges to the orthodox clergy (exemptions from regular taxes and benefit of clergy). Theodosius the Great forbids (392) all worship of heathen gods and Christianity becomes a monopoly defended by the State. Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Empire, Book I, chap, ii ; Huttmann, M. A., The Establishment of Christianity and the Proscription of Paganism, 1914, " Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, Colum bia University" ; Addis, W.E., Christianity and the Roman Empire; Hardy, E. G., Christianity and the Roman Government ; "Lecky, Rise and Influence of Rationalism, chap, iv, part I, and opening of part II; "Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History, Vol. I, pp. 19-27 and 62-73, gives extracts illustrating the development of the Church ; Reinach, Orpheus, chap. ix. Section 21. Asceticism and the Monastic Life. The monastic life generally acknowledged during the Mid dle Ages to be the ideal Christian life. Important rdle of the monks and friars in the intellectual history of western Europe. Asceticism and monastic life by no means exclu sively Christian. Ascetic tendencies of Stoicism and of Neoplatonism. The " saintly" spirit as discussed by William James. Puritanical tendencies of the early Christians. Monasticism first develops on a large scale in Egypt in the fourth century. St. Anthony (d. about 356). His life by Athanasius, and the life of Paul, the first hermit, by Jerome. 20 History of the Intellectual Class Pachomius organizes monastic communities on the Nile and writes the first monastic rule. Egypt speedily becomes the source of the classical traditions of monasticism. Basil, bishop of Cappadocia, prepares a rule in which the Church undertakes to regulate the new tendencies. Church in the West accepts monasticism. " Regular" and " secular " clergy. The secular clergy become a celibate class. Apparent contradiction between the monastic and sacramental theory of salvation. Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine ratify the new monastic life. Benedict draws up his rule for Monte Cassino about 530, and furnishes a standard guide to the mon astic life in the West. The principles of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Literary and scholarly phases of monasti cism incidental. "James, William, Varieties of Religious Experience, Lectures xi-xiii (on Saintliness) ; Workman, H. B., Evolution of the Monastic Ideal, 1913 ; "Tay lor, H. O. , The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, chap, vii ; Harnack, Monasticism (an interesting essay) ; Jerome's Life of Paul the First Hermit is translated in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, VI, pp. 299-303, and the Life of Anthony, attributed to Athanasius, in same, IV, pp. 195 sqq. The Benedictine Rule is in large part translated in Hen derson, Select Documents of the Middle Ages, pp. 274 sqq. ; and in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book for Mediaeval History, pp. 434 sqq. ; "Life of St. Columban, Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, no. 7. Section 22. Summary of the Views of Man and the World Transmitted by the Later Roman Empire to Posterity. Indifference to natural phenomena (except viewed from the standpoint of astrology and alchemy) ; loss of much of the older knowledge and of the clarity and proportion of Hellenism. The seven Liberal Arts — logic, grammar, and rhetoric; arith metic, geometry, astronomy (astrology), and music — epitomized by Cassiodorus in the sixth century. Augustine's conception of the city of the devil comprised all secular matters. Origin of " sacred" as over against " profane " history. The " Chron icle " of Eusebius makes Hebrew history the background of all development. Sozomen, Socrates, and other Christian histo- Intellectual Heritage of the Middle Ages 21 rians deal by preference with martyrs and miracles. Orosius, under Augustine's influence, writes his " Seven Books of His tory against the Pagans," which becomes a standard manual of general history. Natural science, like history, only valuable as illustrating God's ways to man, but magic useful to foretell the future, heal the sick, and make gold. The worst in Pliny's Natural History and other similar compilations utilized for moral and spiritual ends. The " Physiologus," which probably origi nated in Alexandria before 150 A.D. Flourishing of the miraculous; any unusual or startling occurrence attributed to the intervention of either God or the devil. The worship of what Harnack has called " a God of arbitrariness." Our legal expression "act of God" confined to unforeseeable natural disasters. How with a growing appreciation for natural law and a chastened taste in wonders, miracles have tended to become a source of intellectual distress and bewilderment. How allegory put an end to all literary criticism. Augus tine's view of the resources of vagueness. (Confessions, xii, 31.) Gregory the Great's Moralia. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) prepares an encyclopaedia of edifying "Etymologies." Hebrew cosmology proves a grave obstacle to the advance of natural science. Eschatology took the place of our modern ideas of scientific and social progress. Theology the highest form of intellectual activity, the " Queen of Sciences." No form of ignorance or of perversity of thought left for the Middle Ages to discover. "Taylor, H. 0., Tlie Mediaeval Mind, Vol. I, chap, iv (The Patristic Mind); Supernatural Religion, part I, chap, iv, end, and chap, v ; McCabe, Joseph, Augustine; "Augustine, City of God, especially Bk. I, VH, X (IX in the Temple Classic edition), XII (XI), XVIH (XIV), XXI-XXH (XVII-XVIH). The "Physiologus" is edited in the Greek version with a German transla tion by Lauchert. Brehaut, An Encyclopaedist of the Dark Ages, Isidore of Seville, " Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, Columbia Univ ersity." White, Andrew D., History of the Warfare of Science and Theology, 2 vols. This work, in spite of its polemical character and its inaccuracies, is an unrivalled arraignment of the weaknesses of the whole traditional 22 History of the Intellectual Glass theological view of the world. The Church History of Eusebius, translated with admirable notes by Professor McGiffert, may be found in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Vol. I. The histories of Socrates and Sozomen are in the same collection. Section 23. Intellectual Stagnation of the Early Middle Ages. Disruption of the western portions of the Roman Empire in the fifth century and the establishment of kingdoms under German chiefs. The Germans had little to contribute to the intellectual heritage, and with the destruction or decline of the towns and flourishing villas, books and education became more and more rare. Higher intellectual culture at that time very superficial and precarious. Ineffectual attempt of Boethius to hand down Plato and Aristotle in Latin. How Cassiodorus (about 480-575) gave monasticism a literary turn. His popular compilations. Gregory of Tours (d. 594) laments the general ignorance and resolves to write in "rustic" Latin. Gregory the Great (d. 604) regarded as one of the great Latin fathers. His pro test against the prevailing artificiality of style. His popular "Dialogues" and his allegorical "Moralia." The Church forced to maintain a modicum of literary activity in order to survive. The monasteries a refuge for those with scholarly ambitions and tastes. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) and his compilations. The Venerable Bede (d. 735) represents the greatest possibilities of his time. Charlemagne reestablishes order and directs monasteries and cathedrals to maintain schools. Hopeful intellectual revival in the ninth century — Alcuin, Claudius of Turin, Agobard of Lyons, Rhabanus Maurus, Walafrid Strabo, Hinc- mar of Rheims, Erigena. Commentaries and text books. The annals grow into chronicles. Lives of Saints. Mon astic schools at Tours, Fulda, Corbie, and elsewhere. Re newed invasions; chronic disorder and neighborhood war. Intellectual decline in following century. Legend of the Tear 1000. Emergence during this period of the modern Intellectual Heritage of the Middle Ages 23 languages. Strasburg Oaths (843). King Alfred's inter est in English. Political conditions tend to become better in the twelfth century. "Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, Vol. I, chap, v (The Latin Transmitters of Antique and Patristic Culture), chap, vi (The Barbaric Disruption of the Empire), chap, x (The Carolingian Period); Robinson, J. H., The New His tory, chap, vi, "The Fall of Rome"; "Poole, R. L., Illustrations of Mediaeval Thought, chap, i-ii ; Taylor, Mediaeval Mind, chap, xi (Continuity of Antique Thought in Italy), chap, xii (Mental Aspects of the Eleventh Century in France). Roger, L'enseignement des lettres classiques d'Ausone d Alcuin (1905), with exhaustive bibliography. Part IV. RISE OF THE MEDIAEVAL UNIVERSITIES AND THE PREVAILING OF A MEDIAEVAL- IZED ARISTOTLE. Section 24. Abelard and the Development of Theology into a Subject of Systematic Instruction. Seemingly rather sudden beginning, about the year 1100, of a steady progress in intellectual matters. Importance of the growth of towns, the extension of commerce, and of other secular interests. Abelard (1070-1142) exhibits a taste for criticism. His "Historia calamitatum." The issue between Realists and Nominalists. Passage on the nature of "universals" in Boethius's translation of Porphyry's Introduction to Aristotle's "Categories." Abelard's "Sic et Non"; Haec quippe prima sapientiae clavis definitur, assidua scilicet seu frequens inter- rogatio; . . . dubitando enim ad inquisitionem venimus; in- quirendo veritatem percipimus. He promoted the educa tional enthusiasm which led later to the formation of the Universities. Appearance about the time of Abelard's death of Peter Lom bard's " Sentences," a handbook (which first distinctly formu lated the seven sacraments) affording a basis for an elaborate system of theological instruction. Contrast between the Scholastic theology and that of the Fathers. "Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, chap, ii; Poole, Illustrations of Mediaeval Thought, chap, v; Taylor, H. O., The Mediaeval Mind, chap, xxv (Heloise) ; "McCabe, Joseph, Abelard (a most fascinating biography). Section 25. Revival of the Study of Law: Medicine. Importance of the appearance of a class of professional lawyers. Law gives scope for intellectual activity and criticism, with perfect conservatism and veneration for author ity. Irnerius lecturing on the Digest of Justinian at Bologna early in the twelfth century. Components of the "Corpus Mediaeval Universities: Scholasticism 25 juris civilis" or Roman law as codified under Justinian, A.D. 527 sqq.: The Code, with its later supplements (novellae) ; the Pandects or Digest of the opinions of the leading jurists ; the Institutes, a brief text book. The codification of the Canon or Church law in Gratian's Decretum (Concordia discordantium canonum), published about 1142. This was based on older collections : Dionysius Exi- guus collected the "decretals" of the popes about the year 500; the acts of the councils ; the Pseudo-Isidorian collection of the ninth century. Misleading term " forgery." Gratian unsus pectingly includes many "forged" documents. Bologna becomes the chief center of legal studies. Origin of our degree, LL.D. Attention to medicine at Salerno. Role of authority, especially of Galen (b. about 130 A.D.). This subject in time takes its place as a professional study beside Theology and the two Laws. "Rashdall, Utiiversities of Europe in the Middle Ages, chap, iv, sections 1 and 2 ; "Taylor, H. O., The Mediaeval Mind, chap, xxxiii; Tardif, Histoire des sources du droit canonique (1887), an indispensable introduction to a study of the Corpus juris canonici of which Friedberg's edition is far the best for historical students. Section 26. The Origin of Mediaeval Universities. Increase of students and instructors made some sort of a guild organization expedient, and resulted naturally in univer- sitates or corporations of teachers or students. Scholastic corporations appear at Paris and Bologna in the latter part of the twelfth century. At Bologna the students' guilds con trol those of the professors. At Paris the Faculty of Arts predominates. The technical faculties of theology, law (civil and canon), and medicine. A degree originally admission to a professors' guild and permission to teach. "Magister," "Professor," and "Doctor" nearly synonymous; The A. B. and A.M. — University lectures commonly consisted in com mentaries on authoritative texts. — No university buildings. Origin of the colleges. Oxford and Cambridge. 26 History of the Intellectual Class "Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, I, pp. 144-252 (Bologna), pp. 273-344 (Paris) ; "Vol. II, chap, xiv (Student Life in the Middle Ages) ; Paetow, L. J., The Arts Course in Mediaeval Universities (with bibliography), published by University of Illinois, 1910 ; Wulf , M. de, History of Mediaeval Philosophy, 1909. Section 27. How Aristotle's Works, in Latin Transla tions, became the Basis of Instruction in the Arts Course. Great importance of the introduction of Aristotle's works into the new universities in the first half of the thirteenth century. Previous to 1200 only the logical treatises avail able in Latin. Two sources from which his works came to Paris — through Constantinople and through the Mohamme dan scholars of Spain. Circuitous manner in which a knowledge of Aristotle had reached Spain. Importance of the Mohammedan commentators, especially Avicenna (d. in Persia, 1037) and Averroes of Cordova (d. 1198). How it came about that the European universities based their instruc tion on a Latin translation of a Hebrew translation of an Arabic commentary on an Arabic translation [of a Persian translation] of a Syriac translation of a Greek philosopher. Averroes' worshipful attitude toward Aristotle. Lecturing on Aristotle's Natural philosophy and Metaphysics at Paris forbidden at first by papal legate (1215). In 1231 Gregory IX appoints commission of three to expurgate Aristotle. A generation later practically all of Aristotle prescribed by fac ulty of arts at Paris. Rise of the Dominicans as teachers. Albertus Magnus (about 1193-1280) prepares a paraphrase of Aristotle including the commentaries of the Arab philosophers. His disciple Thomas Aquinas, the chief of the scholastic phil osophers (1227-1274), furnishes a more scientific edition. In this way the Dominicans christianize and popularize the great est of pagan scholars. The Averroists reject Christianity in favor of Aristotle as interpreted by Averroes. The founding of the Inquisition did not affect the intellectual classes except incidentally. Mediaeval Universities: Scholasticism 27 Indications of a good deal of intellectual freedom. Nature of heresy and lowly status of most of the heretics. Worship of Aristotle readily explained by the vast amount of information in his works, his skillful classification of knowl edge, his logical method, already in high repute, and above all by the fundamental consonance of his teleology, his theories of essence, of the four elements, and of the perfection of the heavens with Christian beliefs. Aristotle's ill-understood works and often fundamentally erroneous doctrines remain for centuries the basis of higher education and an additional obstacle that had to be overcome before modern progress could begin. Roger Bacon declared with prophetic insight, Si enim haberem potestatem super libros Aristotelis (that is the Latin translations) ego facerem omnes cremari, quia non est nisi temporis amissio studere in illis, et causa erroris et multiplicatio ignorantiae, ultra id quod valeat explicari. "Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, Vol. n, chap, xxxix; Renan, Averroes et I'Averroisme; Rashdall, Universities of Europe, I, pp. 345-392; "Lea, H. C, History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, Vol. I, contains chapters on the rise of heresies and the organization and procedure of the Inquisition in the Thirteenth Century; Vol. EI, chap, viii, deals especially with the jelation of the Inquisition to the intellectual class. Article ' ' Inquisition " in the Catholic Encyclopedia; "Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History, Vol. I, chap, xvii; Mandonnet, P., Siger de Brabant et Vaverroisme latin au xiiiieme sticle, 2d ed., 1911, with second part containing documents. Grabmann, Geschichte der Scholastische Methode. Section 28. Nature and Scope of University Instruction in the Thirteenth Century: Scholasticism. To the meager heritage which had been worked over and over again since the break-up of the Roman Empire was now added all of Aristotle's works in faulty and obscure Latin trans lations, with the commentaries of the Arabic scholars and of the . scholastic theologians. In addition to grammar and rhetoric, the "arts" course consisted mainly of lectures on Aristotle's "Physics," "Metaphysics," "Ethics," "On Animals," "On the 28 History of the Intellectual Class Soul," his lesser works on natural phenomena, and above all, his logical treatises. Exaggerated respect for Logic, which Albertus Magnus calls omnis doctrinae modus. Predominance of eristic over dia lectic. Lists of propositions and their defence. Character of the scholastic philosophy best illustrated by the commen taries on Aristotle's works prepared by Albertus Magnus and Aquinas. Mainly commentary on opinions of earlier writers and refutation of ingenuous objections with little attempt to criticize the data on which the opinions were formed or test them by a reexamination of the facts. Conception of " author itative" texts. Necessity of harmonizing conclusions with the Christian Epic and the Patristic theology. All the weak nesses of the Hellenic reasoning, combined with those of the Christian Fathers, underlay what appeared to be a most logi cally elaborated and definitive system of thought. Deficiencies of the university education: no literature. Greek practically unknown ; Latin, in a sense, a living tongue as used among scholars. Chief contrasts between Mediaeval and ancient Latin. Vernacular languages not recognized by the scholarly world until recently. Little History or Natural Science, in our sense of the word, taught in the universities. (See below, Section 31.) The range of knowledge of the educated class in general may be judged from such convenient encyclopaedic works as Alexander Neckam's " De naturis rerum," in time of Henry II of England, and, in the next century, Bartholomew Anglicus's "De proprietatibus rerum" (extracts in Steele's "Mediaeval Lore"), or Vincent of Beauvais' vast Speculum, in three parts, "Naturale," "Morale," and " Historiale." "Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, Vol. II, chap, xxxix (Albertus Magnus) and chap, xl (Aquinas) ; "Rashdall, European Universities, Vol. I, pp. 426- 477 ; Aquinas, Of God and His Creatures, a translation of the Summa contra Gentiles, by Riekaby, 1905 ; Walsh, J. J., The Thirteenth the Greatest of Centuries (N. Y. Catholic Summer School), 1907, chaps, ii-v (to be taken cum grano) ; Wulf , M. de, History of Mediaeval Philosophy, 1909. Mediaeval Universities: Scholasticism 29 Section 29. Astrology, Alchemy, and Magic. Chiefly through Arabic influence attention was turned in Western Europe to Astrology and Alchemy. Astrology, which developed in Babylonia and Assyria, found its way westward. Ptolemy's treatise. Judicial astrology as de scribed by Roger Bacon. Later taught in the universities and regarded as an indispensable adjunct to medicine. Theory centered about the "temperamentum," as influenced by stellar conditions at the time of conception and of birth. Intricate matter to determine the relations of the planets and the sun and their combined influence in particular cases. Alchemy developed in Egypt and was associated with applied chemistry. Its popularity in the Roman Empire. Arabic derivation of the term. Roger Bacon gives an excellent notion of the ambitions of the alchemists in the Thirteenth Century. Their fantastic terminology and secret and mys tical operations all stood in the way of the rapid development of chemistry. Continued interest in magic ; represented by a considerable literature. Article "Astrology" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. ; Bennett, E. H., Astrology, 1897, by a modern adept; Roger Bacon, Opus Majus (ed. by Bridges), Vol. I, pp. 238 sqq. ; Article "Alchemy" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. ; Berthelot, La Chimie an Moyen dge; Article " Alehi- mie," by Berthelot, in Grande Encyclopedic ; Muir, M. M. P., Story of Alchemy and the beginnings of Chemistry, 1903. Part V. SLOW UNDERMINING OF THE SCHOLASTIC SYSTEM (FROM ROGER BACON TO LORD BACON). Section 30. Excursus on the Question of Dividing the Past into Periods. Historical continuity seems to preclude periodizing of the past. Historical divisions adopted by Orosius; by Otto of Freising (12th Century) ; current notions of " Middle Ages," " Renaissance " and " Reformation." Suggested division from the standpoint of intellectual development. I. Neolithic or primitive; II. Ancient; III. Hellenic; IV. Patristic; V. Scho lastic (Pseudo- Aristotelian) ; VI. Period of slow disintegration of the Mediaeval System; VII. The "Aufklarung," from Lord Bacon to Voltaire (growing confidence in scientific research, and the kingdom of man ; decline of authority, revelation, and the miraculous) ; VIII. Present period, of applied science, democratization, evolution, and the scientific study of mankind. Beginning in the twelfth century there has been a tolerably steady progress, very slow at first, in regaining old knowledge and amassing new, in rejecting former errors, in criticising and applying knowledge and in spreading it by means of books and institutions of learning. Section 31. Discoveries of the Thirteenth Century: Beginnings of Experimental Science: Roger Bacon. Geographical discoveries begin to extend beyond the limits of Ptolemy's " Geography." The Crusades ; Travels of John of Piano Carpini (1246) and of William of Rubruquis (1253), and especially of Marco Polo (reached home 1295). Popular ity of Travels of Sir John Mandeville. Practical inventions : lenses, spectacles, concave mirrors, the compass, useful chemicals. Increased use of paper. Great importance of the introduction of the Arabic numerals. Beginnings of experimental science, which was to revolution- Undermining of the Scholastic System 31 ize thought. Attitude of Roger Bacon (b. about 1214, d. after 1292) ; Certitude and clarity can only come through " Ex- perientia," not through authority or mere reason. Bacon's life focuses in letter from the pope, 1266, commanding him to write out his ideas. The Opus Majus, Opus Minus, and Opus Tertium completed before end of the next year. Bacon urges investigation of common things and the useful application of the knowledge thus gained. His letter on the possible achievements of applied science. Obstacles in the way of scientific advance. Sterility of scholastic method. Views of Bacon not so exceptional as once supposed. Experimen tation went on among artisans and alchemists. "Marco Polo, Travels, many editions, the best of which is edited by H. Yule, 2 vols., 3d ed., 1903. "Travels of Sir John Mandeville. The best edition is published by the Macmillan Co., for it contains the narratives of Piano Carpini, Rubruquis, and of Friar Odorie, on which " Sir John Mande ville" relied. Beazley, C. R., The Dawn of Modem Geography, 3 vols., 1897- 1906, especially vol. iii. For Roger Bacon: Article in 11th ed. of Ency clopaedia Britannica ; Thorndike, Lynn, in Popular Science Monthly, Sep tember, 1915, and Philosophical Review, May, 1914 ; Roger Bacon Essays (in commemoration of seventh centenary), ed. by Little, 1914 ; Introduction by Brewer to his Opera Inedita of Bacon; Introduction and analysis in Bridge's edition of the Opus Majus ; Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Mathematik, sec. vii, pp. 699-768 (on the Arabians) and sec. viii on Kloster- gelehrsamkeit. Section 32. Beginnings of Criticism of Social Institu tions: Peter Dubois and Marsiglio of Padua. Tendency of society to view its institutions as sacred and permanent and to regard those who criticize them as enemies of the social order. Mediaeval discussion of the relations between pope and emperor. Rediscovery of Aristotle's Politics broadens speculation in 13th century. Peter Du bois's De Recuperatione Terre Sancte (written about 1303) offers a general program of reform — secularization of church property, international arbitration, reduction of litigation, and practical education. Marsiglio of Padua writes his Defensor Pads about 1324. His conception of popular sovereignty and of the supremacy 32 History of the Intellectual Class of the state in ecclesiastical matters. His hostility to the papacy and his critical examination of the tradition of Peter's presence in Rome. Dubois, Recuperatione Terre Sanete, edited by Langlois, with introduction, 1891; "Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History, I, 491 sqq., for ex tracts from the Defensor Pads; Poole, R. L., Illustrations of Mediaeval Thought, chap. ix. Section 33. Dante (1265-1321) and his World. Dante represents the highest secular culture of his day. Availability of his works for the student of intellectual his tory. Range of his writings in Italian and Latin — Vita Nuova, De Monarchia, De vulgari eloquio, Gommedia. Par ticular mterest of The Banquet, written for the intelligent public who did not know Latin. Cosmology (cf. passage at end of thirty-fourth canto of Inferno); Ptolemaic system; Allegory on a par with scientific descriptions. Dante's attitude toward the past (cf. end of fourth canto of Inferno). His knowledge of ancient authors. Contrast between Dante and later humanists. Dante, Convivio, as edited by Wieksteed in Temple Classics, "books i-ii. There is an excellent prose translation of the Comedia and the New Life by Charles Eliot Norton ; the De vulgari eloquentia is translated by Howell ; the De Monarchia by F. J. Church. Moore, Ed., Studies in Dante, First Series, contains an account of the scriptural and classical quotations in Dante's work ; see, especially, complete list of Dante's citations, at end of the volume. "Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, chap, xliii, an admirable review of Dante's attitude. Vossler, K., Die gottliche Komodie (1807-10, 2 vols., in 4 parts), parts i-ii, an elaborate study of the antecedents of Dante's great work. Section 34. Petrarch and Humanism. The so-called "Revival of Learning" and the theory of a Renaissance or awakening of Western Europe from its sup posed winter sleep through the rediscovery of the Latin and Greek authors. "Humanism" a convenient term for the enthusiasm for Roman and Greek literature which began to develop in Italy in the fourteenth century. Original Undermining of the Scholastic System 33 meaning of "humanitas" (cf. Aulus Gellius, Noctium Atti- carum, Libri XX, book xiii, 17). Term "litterae human- iores" misunderstood by Symonds and others; peculiar position of Italy in regard to Roman literature. Petrarch (1304-1374) the first distinguished Italian human ist; his power of self -revelation; his voluminous correspond ence; "Letter to Posterity"; scope of his works ; his conflicting ideals and ambitions as illustrated by his " Secret." Contents of his library of Latin writers ; his inability to read Greek. Translations of some of the more important of Petrarch's letters may be found in "Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch, the first Modern Scholar and Man of Letters, 2d enlarged ed., 1914 ; especially Introduction, parts i, ii, iii, and vii; and Cosenza, M. E., Petrarch's Letters to Classical Authors, 1910. "Loomis, Louise, Mediaeval Hellenism, 1906 (Columbia University Doctor's dissertation), a remarkably clear review of the antecedents of humanism. Nolhac, P., Petrarch et V Humanism, 2d ed., 2 vols, 1907, admirable; Voigt, Wiederbelebung des Classischen Alterthums, 3d ed., 1893, book i (excel lent) ; Korting, Petrarca's Leben und Werke, 1878. Brandi, Karl, Das Wer- den des Renaissance, 1908. This is a lecture which with its critical notes admirably sums up the newer view of the Renaissance. Wernle, Paul, Renaissance and Reformation (six lectures), 1912. Section 35. Italian Scholarship in the Fifteenth Century. Absence of literary criticism before Petrarch. With him began in Italy the systematic search for manuscripts, first of the Roman and then of the Greek writers, which were collated, copied, edited, and the Greek translated into Latin. Very few Roman writers "rediscovered" — chief of these, Tacitus, Younger Pliny, Lucretius, and many of Cicero's letters. Great part of Roman literature still lost, e. g., Varro, much of Livy, Tacitus, Seutonius, etc. Recent finds in Egypt. Ignorance of Greek literature in the West from the sixth to the fifteenth century. Chrysolorus, teacher of Greek at Florence, 1396-1400. Reflections of his pupil, Leonardo Bruni (1369-1444), who begins the translating of Greek works into Latin. Aurispa arrives in Venice in 1422 with 238 Greek manuscripts from Constantinople; five years later Filelfo (1398-1483?) brings 48 more. Niccolo Niccoli (1364-1437), a Florentine patron of classical literature, leaves 800 books for 34 History of the Intellectual Glass a public library. Activity of Poggio (1380-1459). Ves- pasiano's (1421-1498) description of the libraries of Cosimo de'Medici (died 1464), of Pope Nicholas V (died 1454), and of the duke of Urbino. These all included patristic and scho lastic works and indicate no special partiality for the " classics." Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) shows some critical tendencies in repudiating the " Donation of Constantine." His Elegantiae. Circle of Lorenzo de'Medici (died 1492). Ficino translates Plato into Latin (first ed. 1482), then Plotinus and Dionysius the Areopagite. Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) and his enthusiasm for the Jewish Cabbala. Aldus Manutius, the Venetian printer, issues 33 editions of Greek writers from 1494 to 1515. Place of Humanism in the intellectual development of Western Europe. Doubtless served to preserve a few Latin works that might have been lost and, what was far more im portant, to familiarize the West with that part of Greek litera ture which survives. It brought with it literary taste and some criticism, but did not revive hellenism. It ultimately furnished a new basis for "liberal" education through the substitution of a study of the "classics" for the older Aris totelian curriculum. It certainly did something to produce or forward the secularization of intellectual life early in the sixteenth century, as it appears, for example, in Pomponazzi, Machiavelli, Guicciardini. Humanism did not free itself from Neoplatonic mysticism ; it had little to contribute to modern scientific advance, which it hampered in some respects ; it tended to perpetuate the con fidence in ancient authority and impeded the development of the modern languages; it was reactionary rather than pro gressive. "Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, part HI, espe cially chaps, i, iii, vi, ix, and xi; Symonds, J. A., The Revival of Learning, especially chaps, vi and ix ; Sandys, History of Classical Scliolarship , Vol. H, chaps, i-ix; Whitcomb, M., A Literary Source Book of the Italian Renais sance, contains translated extracts from writers of the time. Voigt, Wiederbelebung des Classischen Alterthums, books ii-v and book vii on the achievements of Humanists. Undermining of the Scholastic System 35 Section 36. The Making of Books before the Invention of Printing. Among the Greeks and Romans books commonly rolls of papyrus (biblos, volumen). Derivation of "paper" and " charter." The wax tablets and stylus for correspondence and memoranda; parchment "codex" mentioned before end of first century. Slow substitution of parchment for papyrus, which disappears in the West after the Arabic conquest of Egypt, in seventh century. By twelfth century paper begins to be introduced, through the Moors, but not much used in Christian Europe until the fourteenth century. The Roman capital letters (majuscules) mainly derived from a Greek alphabet. Origin of our lower case letters (minus cules) from the cursive writing of the Romans. Variations in forms — Gothic or black letter, and Roman. Study of Paleography; temptations to abbreviate in copy ing; chances of errors; inclusion of glosses; emendations, in terpellations. No two manuscripts ever alike; families of manuscripts; collation essential to critical editing; original autograph copy (holograph) invariably lost until compara tively recent period. Organization of the book trade in connection with the universities. Standard books pretty plentiful and convenient in form. What did it mean to publish (edere) a book before the in troduction of printing? Petrarch's difficulties in getting his writings copied. Libraries mainly in monasteries. Boccaccio's account of the collection at Monte Cassino. Putnam, G. H., Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, 2 vols., 1896-7, Vol. I, part I, deals with manuscript books. Nolhae, Petrarch et V Humanism, 2d ed., 2 vols., 1907. Wattenbaeh, Schriftwesen im Mittelalter, 3d ed., 1896, is the chief treatise on the subject. Thompson, E. M., Hand book of Greek and Latin Paleography, 4th ed., is excellent. Section 37. The Invention of Printing and its Effects. Disadvantages of manu scripti. Essential elements in printing : — cast type, ink, paper, press. Only advantageous when a considerable number of copies are made. Familiarity of the ancients with stamps and seals. Block books in the 36 History of the Intellectual Class early fifteenth century. Donatuses in cast type may ante date 1440. Mayence Bible probably completed in 1456. Dated Psalter of the next year. First press in Italy, 1466. By 1500 there were some 42 presses which may have produced no less than 8 millions of copies of books by that date. Cele brated presses of Koburger at Nuremburg, Aldus at Venice, Froben at Basel. Caxton issues first book printed in England in 1477. Printers at first sedulously imitate calligraphy and current abbreviations of the scribes. The Gothic and the Roman style of letters. " Italics " invented. The col ophon. Printing insures uniformity of copies and discour ages tampering with the text. Great part of the early printed books — "incunabula" — ancient works having to do with theology, religion, astrology, and mediaeval thought, to which were added in time the Roman and Greek writers. Early in the sixteenth century printing begins to stimulate the production of new books. Great expansion of our historical sources from this time. Promise of a complete democratization of books. "Blades, Pentateuch of Printing, 1891 ; DeVinne, Invention of Printing, 2d ed., 1878; Putnam, G. H., Books and their Makers in the Middle Ages, Vol. I, part H ; Janssen, History of the German People, Vol. I, Book I, chap. i. A considerable library might be collected of works relating to early print ing, but those mentioned give an excellent idea of the chief points. Section 38. Spread of Humanism Beyond the Alps, Especially into Germany. Founding of the German universities ; Prague (1348) ; Vienna (1365, reorganized 1384). During the succeeding generation Heidelberg, Cologne, Erfurt, and Leipzig (1409). In latter part of fifteenth century the number was more than doubled ; Freiburg, Trier, Tiibigen, Basel, Wittenberg (1502). Preva lence of dialectic, Aristotle, and " Kitchen Latin." Rudolph Agricola (1442-1484), the Petrarch of Germany. First generation of German humanists resemble the early Italian humanists in their conservatism. Contrast between the national enthusiasm of Germany and Italy. Undermining of the Scholastic System 37 Later "poets" of the opening sixteenth century. Celtes, Mutianus, Crotus Rubeanus (Latinization of proper names) find themselves in opposition to the conservative (Dominican) theo logians. How Erasmus joined the circle. John Reuchlin (1455-1522) and his famous heresy case. The Letters of Obscure Men (1515-1517). Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523) and his Dialogues. Appearance of Martin Luther. "Creighton, M., History of the Papacy, Vol. VI, Book VI, chaps, i-ii; "Beard, C, Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany, chap, iii; "Lindsay, T. M., A History of the Reformation (1906), Vol. I, pp. 42-78; Janssen, Histoid of the German People, Vol. I, Book I, chaps, iii-iv ; Vol. IH, BookV; Strauss, D. F., Ulrich v. Hutten, His Life and Times (187 i) ; Whitoomb, M., Literary Source-Book of the German Renaissance (1899); Stokes, F. G., Epistolae Obscurorum Firorum, with English translation, 1909. Voigt, Wiederbelebung des Classischen Alterthums, Book VI; Geiger, Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und Deutschland, 1882, part H. Section 39. Erasmus, the Embodiment of Humanistic Enlightenment. Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536) comparable to Petrarch and Voltaire in his international reputation. Brief experi ence in a monastery. Goes to England, 1499, and to Italy (1506) to aid Aldus. His Adages give him a great reputa tion; his Enchiridion militis Christiani (1503)' and his idea of Christ's philosophy, and hope of a Christian revival which should tend neither to paganism nor to ceremonial. The Praise of Folly (1511) illustrates the freedom with which a loyal Catholic could then criticize the prevailing religious notions and practices. Confidence in culture. Goes to Basel to aid Froben with edition of the Greek New Testament (1516) (the Complutensian polyglot edition already in prepara tion in Spain). Critical comments of Erasmus on the text. Erasmus continues to live in Germany. Reasons for his dislike and disapproval of Luther. "Emerton, Erasmus; a readable biography, with extracts from Erasmus's works. "Praise of Folly, many editions of a poor old English translation with Holbein's sketches. Nichols, The Epistles of Erasmus (1901-04), » scholarly translation of letters written before 1517. "Article, "Erasmus," in the 11th ed. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 38 History of the Intellectual Glass A new edition of Erasmus's letters in the original Latin — Opus Epistol- arum — is being issued by the Oxford Press, edited by P.S.Allen; Vols. I-H (1906-10) contain the letters written 1484-1517. Section 40. General Nature of the Protestant Revolt. Protestant writers have been in the habit of ascribing the most miscellaneous beneficent results to the "Reformation," which is really a vague and misleading partisan term. The "Reformation" or Protestant Revolt was unmistakably the secession of a number of European governments from the Roman Apostolic Church. This left the " Protestant " rulers free to reform the religious institutions of their respective realms regardless of the pope. "Cujus regio ejus religio." The close relation between Church and State continued. There was freedom of conscience for the princes only, who generally endeavored to enforce religious conformity. Trea son and blasphemy replace heresy in Protestant countries. Protestants continue to accept the whole "Christian epic" and a great part of the beliefs of the church from which they seceded, but they agreed in rejecting the headship of the pope ("general priesthood of believers"); in gravely modifying the theory of the seven sacraments, especially of the eucharist (Mass) and Penance (confession and absolution) ; in adopting a different theory of the process of salvation, by surrendering the belief in purgatory and the treasury of superabundant merit (indulgences), and by deprecating "good works," such as pilgrimages, adoration of saints and relics, hearing of masses, and leading the monastic life. Illustrated by Luther's attitude toward the problem of salvation. Protestants believed that they were reverting to the insti tutions and beliefs of the early uncorrupted church, and they placed unlimited confidence in the clearness and sufficiency of the Bible. Sehaff, Ph., History of the Christian Church, VI, ch. i (a warmly partisan Protestant statement) ; The Catholic Encyclopedia, articles ' ' Protestantism " and "Reformation"; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Reforma tion " ; New Sehaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, articles "Protestantism" and "Reformation," sections i-ii; "Beard, C, The Re- Undermining of the Scholastic System 39 formation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge (Hibbert Lectures for 1883), chaps, iii-iv; Cambridge Modern History, I, chap, xix ("The Eve of the Reformation," by H. C. Lea). Section 41. Relation of the Protestant Revolt to Intel lectual Progress. The Protestant Revolt only incidently intellectual in char acter. Extent of its debt to classical scholarship. Its issues mainly mediaeval. Luther and Calvin base their theo ries on the conception of man's innate and absolute badness and incapacity to will anything pleasing to God. Calvin's stress on the seemingly paralyzing doctrine of predestination. Prot estant conception of the Bible. Luther's denunciation of the "pretty harlot," reason. Protestants shared with Roman Catholics the horror of "rationalists" and "freethinkers." The leaders of both parties agreed in hampering and denounc ing scientific discoveries. These made by those living in Catholic and Protestant countries alike, who have commonly been indifferent to religious issues. Gibbon's masterly sum mary of the direct and incidental effect of the " Reformation " (Decline and Fall, end of chap. liv). The early Protestants did not aim consciously at progress, and their teachings may be said to have been nine-tenths con servative and one-tenth reactionary. "Beard, Ch., The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge, chap, v; "McGiffert, A. C, Protestant Thought before Kant (1911), chaps, i-viii (admirable) ; Harnack, History of Dogma, Vol. VH. Troelsch, Protestantisches Christenthum und Kirehe der Neuzeit, in " Kul- tur der Gegenwart," Teil i, Abt. 4, erste Halfte, 1909. In the same Sam- melwerk, is Bezold, Stoat und Gesellschaft des Reformationszeit, 1908. Ber- ger, A. E., Die Kulturaufgdben der Reformation, 2d ed., 1908, an elaborate prolegomenon. Harnack, Martin Luther in seiner Bedeutung fur die Ge schichte der Wissenschaft und der Bildung, 4th ed., 1910 ; interesting pamphlet. Section 42. Witchcraft and the Superstitions underly ing it. Protestants retained all the old demonology and gave much prominence to the devil. The belief in witchcraft rested on 40 History of the Intellectual Class the solid foundations of the Bible and of the Greek and Roman writers. The older European heritage reenforced by the Christians' devil. The "witches' sabbath" of Norse origin. Witchcraft in its modern form emerges clearly in the fifteenth century (Heresy of the Vaudois, hence voodoo, hoodoo) . Pope issues (1484) bull, " Summis desiderantes," against witches in Germany. Next year the Malleus maleficarum (Witches' Hammer) codifies all learning in regard to witches and the method of dealing with them. Great prevalence of witchcraft during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Protestant and Catholic countries alike. Character of the charges brought against those suspected of witchcraft. Illustrated by writings of Glanvil and Cotton Mather (late seventeenth century). Trial of those suspected of sorcery. Torture to force confession. The witch's mark. Penalties, burning alive, strangling, hanging. Tens of thou sands of innocent persons perish. Dr. Wier's attempt to refute notion of witchcraft, 1565, brutally answered by the learned Bodin in his " Demonology," 1580; Reginald Scott's "Discovery of Witchcraft," 1584, had little influence, but the "Cautio criminalis" issued by Spe, a Jesuit, in 1631, was widely read. Those who tried to dis credit witchcraft denounced as "Sadducees" and atheists. Glanvil's "Saducismus Triumphatus," 1681, Sinclair's "Satan's Invisible World," 1685. Cotton Mather's "Wonders of the Invisible World" sums up the Salem experiences in 1692. "Lecky, Rise of Rationalism in Europe, chap, i; Lowell, J. R., essay on ' ' Witchcraft," in Among my Books, Vol. I ; "Burr, George L. , The Witch Persecutions (translations and reprints, Vol. HI, No. 4), an admirable col lection of vivid extracts from first hand material. By the same, Narratives of Witchcraft, 1914, confined to American eolonies. Notestein, A History of Witchcraft in England, 1911. The earlier phases of witchcraft are treated by Lea, H. C. , History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages, Vol. HI, chaps. vi-vii, and above all, Hansen, J., Zauberwahn, Inquisition und Hexenprozess im Mittelalter (1900) and the accompanying Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Hexenwahns (1901), with many extracts from inaccessible sources. Part VI. BIRTH OF THE MODERN SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT. Section 43. Discovery of the Vastness and Order of the Universe. The conceptions of man and of God closely associated with the conception of the cosmos. Christian-AristoteHan-Ptple- maic conception of the universe. The theory of transparent spheres, revolving about the earth, in which the heavenly bodies were fixed. Primum mobile. Eternal circular motions contrasted with the transient rectilinear motions of the earth. The exalted nature of the heavenly bodies, which were not made of the four elements of which all earthly things were composed. Roger Bacon's ideas of the distance and size of the heavenly bodies — Terra non habet aliquam quantitatem sensibilem respectu coeli, sicut probat Ptolemaeus. Universe limited and fixed in absolute space. The "Christian Epic" essen tially geocentric in its presuppositions. Copernicus' De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Libri VI, 1543. Preface, probably by Osiander; Copernicus' own introduction acknowledges his debt to ancient philosophers. Still believed in fixed starry sphere. His discovery had little immediate effect on prevailing notions. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) made it his chief business to think out and set forth in Latin and Italian the implications of the discovery of Copernicus. " On the Immeasurable and the Countless": single law, single force, infinite God, infinite universe, no absolute motion, no center, no up, no down, no light, no heavy— all things relative. Bruno burned by the inquisition at Rome. Kepler (1571-1630) and his discovery of the elliptical orbits of the planets. Galileo (1564-1642). His telescope (1609) speedily improved so as to magnify 32 diameters. His atti tude toward the Copernican theory, which was condemned by 42 History of the Intellectual Class Roman inquisition 1616. " Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo," 1632, and Galileo's condemnation. Galileo's chief discoveries were in physics and mechanics. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proved that the laws of falling bodies apply to the heavens. This makes a deep impres sion and finally the newer conceptions of the universe began to be popularized — for example, in Pope's "Universal Prayer" (1737). Berry, A., Short History of Astronomy, 1899; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. , Articles, Copernicus, Bruno, Kepler, and Galileo ; Hoffding, His tory of Modern Philosophy, I, pp. "103-148 and 167-183 ; Galileo, Dialogues concerning two new sciences, tr. by Crew and Salvio, 1914; White, A. D., History of the Warfare of Science with Theology, Vol. I, chap, iii; Owen, J., Skeptics of the Italian Renaissance, chap, iv (on Bruno). Section 44. Exploration of the Earth. Ptolemy's "Geography" remains the standard in spite of discoveries of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Gradual progress down the African coast in the fifteenth century. Diaz rounds the Cape of Good Hope, 1486. Columbus, as he believed, reaches "The Indies" by sailing west, 1492, and Vasco da Gama really reaches India by sailing around Africa, 1498. Portuguese visit the Malay Archipelago, 1511. Magellan's ship circumnavigates the globe (1519-1522). The question what influences, other than commercial and industrial, did the contact with new and, in some cases, highly civilized peoples exercise on Euro pean thought? Intellectual effects not conspicuous until the eighteenth century. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, chaps, i-ii (by E.J.Payne) ; Jacobs, J., The Story of Geographical Discovery. Section 45. Montaigne (1533-1592) and his Perception of the Varied Interest of the Purely Human. Montaigne's "Essais" (Books I-II, 1580, and III, 1588) the first permanently popular French work. "Je suis moy mesme la matiere de mon livre." His superb nonchalance. His attitude toward the classical authors, which he assimilates Birth of Modem Scientific Spirit 43 rather than imitates, and uses to reenforce his own ideas. Affection for Plutarch and Seneca. His appreciation of the inconstancy and relativity of all our thoughts and conduct. Endless variety the very essence of nature, and the inculcation of this the chief end of education. "There is as much difference between us and ourselves as between us and others." We can know only our own perceptions. "Que sais-je?" His unbounded tolerance and distaste for dogmatism. His God no more exacting than he. Custom and law highly artificial but properly binding on the outer man. Extra ordinary popularity of the Essays, especially in the eighteenth century. There is little use in reading about Montaigne when he writes better of himself than any one else can. Of his "Essays," which are easily obtained either in Cotton's translation, revised by Hazlitt, or in Florio's, that on *" The Education of Children" (Bk. I, 25), and that ""On Books" (Bk. H, 10), are perhaps the best worth reading for our purposes. Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, Vol. I, pp. 26-33. Section 46. Francis Bacon and " The Kingdom of Man." Lord Bacon the "buccinator" of experimental and applied modern science. His high connections ; plans a " Temporis partus maximus" about 1582. His public career. First edition of the "Essays," 1597; "Advancement of Learning," 1605. His political disgrace, 1621. His "Magna Instau- ratio" of which the Novum Organum is a part. His lively appreciation of the existing obstacles to scientific advance; the idols of the tribe, cave, market-place, and theater. "We are the ancients." Necessity of escaping from the scholastic method of "tumbling up and down in our reasons and con ceits," and studying the world about us. Undreamed of achievements possible if only the right method of research be followed. Bacon's "New Atlantis" with its House of Sol omon. Bacon used his vast and varied literary resources to spread abroad the spirit of modern scientific progress and the distrust for ancient authority. By formally according the ology the supremacy among the sciences and eliminating the 44 History of the Intellectual Class consideration of final causes from the field of scientific research he avoids religious criticism. Bacon's neglect of contem poraneous discoveries of Kepler, Bruno, and Galileo. Rejects the Copernican system. His feeble " Sylva sylvarum." Dra per's savage attack on him in his "Intellectual History." "Bacon, Advancement of Learning, especially book i (excellent edition with Life of Bacon in Clarendon Press Series ; cheaper edition in " The World's Classics" series, also issued by the Clarendon Press and containing The New Atlantis) ; "Novum Organum, especially book i ; "Hoffding, History of Modem Philosophy, I, 184-206; "Article "Bacon" in the 11th ed. of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The Philosophical Works of Francis Bacon, edited by J. M. Robertson (1 vol., 1905), is an excellent inexpensive edition. Section 47. Descartes and the New Philosophy. Descartes (1596-1650), educated by the Jesuits, goes to the wars for worldly experience. Later scholarly retirement in Holland, 1629-1649. His "Discours de la Methode" (1637) in which he proposed to reach the truth through analysis and clear ideas, on the assumption that God will not deceive. His expression "innate" ideas later misinterpreted. His mechanistic theory of the universe — Terram totumque hunc mundum instar machinae descripsi (including man's body and the animals, which he held to be automatons). His funda mental interest in mathematics. His geometry (Cartesian coordinates) and its admirable clarity. His claim to origin ality and his rejection of all authority. His anxiety to con ceal his belief in the movement of the earth — "Bene vixit qui bene latuit." "Descartes, Discourse on Method; "Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, Vol. I, pp. 212-241 ; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Descartes." Section 48. Conditions and Achievements of Scientific Research in the Seventeenth Century. Obstacles to scientific advance: the universities still domi nated by Aristotle; the theological faculties; the censorship of the press exercised by both church and state ; the role of the Jesuits. Birth of Modern Scientific Spirit 45 Development of "philosophic societies" of amateurs who studied experimentally physics, anatomy, etc. Development of a lay public interested in science. Bacon, Descartes, and Galileo each appeal to public in his mother tongue, as well as in Latin. New science tends to take modern popular form. Origin of the Royal Society, formally founded in 1662; its " Transactions." French Academy of Sciences (1666) ; The "Journal des Savants" began to appear in 1665. Paris Astronomical observatory, 1667, and Greenwich Observatory, 1676. Halley forecasts the reappearance of the comet of 1682 (period of 76 years). Instruments for scientific re search: Logarithms invented by Napier and Briggs about 1616 ; Descartes' analytical geometry (1637) ; Leibnitz pub lishes his method of calculus in 1675. The telescope; Tor- ricelli's barometer, 1643 ; the air pump ; Huygens' pendulum clock, 1657; Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) uses miscroscope to discover animalculae, blood corpuscles, bacteria, etc. Fahr enheit's thermometer (1709). "Ornstein, Martha, Rdle of the Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century, 1913 (Columbia Doctor's dissertation), excellent, with full bibliography. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Academies"; Histoire Gen erate, edited by Lavisse and Rambaud, Vol. V, pp. 450 sqq., and VI, pp. 394 sqq., good chapters by Paul Tannery ; Dannemann, F., Die Naturwissen schaften in ihrer Entwicklung, Vol. n, 1911 ; Gerland und Traumiiller, Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst, 1899. Section 49. Development of Toleration and the Freedom of the Press. The intolerance of the Church a natural result of its state like organization and claims. Its doctrine of exclusive sal vation and its conception of heresy both sanctioned by the State. Doubt and error regarded as sinful. Beginnings of censorship of the press after the invention of printing. Licensing by ecclesiastical and civil authorities. The Tri- dentine Index of 1564. Indices librorum expurgatorum et prohibitorum. Fierce edicts issued in France. Protestants of sixteenth century accept the theory of intol- 46 History of the Intellectual Glass erance (except Anabaptists and Socinians). Intolerance in England. Long Parliament ratifies system of Star Chamber, 1643, and calls forth Milton's "Areopagitica," for the liberty of unlicensed printing (1644). Chillingwbrth's "The Rehgion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation" (1637) and the doc trine of adiophora or things indifferent. Jeremy Taylor's "Liberty of Prophesying" (1647). Situation in England after Restoration. Glanvil's "Vanity of Dogmatizing," 1661; Death penalty for heresy removed 1677; Bayle's "Compel them to come in," 1686; Locke's first "Letter on Toleration," 1689; Censorship allowed to lapse, 1694, and Act of Toleration, 1695 (excepting Catholics and Unitarians). Anthony Collins, "Discourse of Free- thinking," 1713. Parliament continues occasionally to con demn books. Symonds, J. A., Renaissance in Italy, The Catholic Reaction, part I, chap. iii; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Press Law"; "Milton, Areopagitica, edited by Hales (Clarendon Press Series), with historical in troduction; Putnam, G. H., The Censorship of the Church of Rome, 1906-7. The best general treatment of the subject is to be found in "Lecky, Rise and Influence of Rationalism, chap, iv, part H. Bury, J. B., A History of Freedom of Thought (Home Univ. Lib.), excellent brief account. Schaff, Ph. , The Progress of Religious Freedom as shown in the History of Toleration Acts, 1889. Section 50. The Decline of Belief in the Miraculous : The English Deists. Christian conception of "revealed" truth, especially in the Bible. Revelation supported by miracles and prophesy.- Protestants reject mediaeval miracles. Freedom of thought in England permits criticism of the older system of belief in the light of new scientific knowledge. Herbert of Cherbury (died 1648) the "first Deist." His five principles of natural rehgion set forth in his Religion of the Gentiles (completed in 1645). He rejects revelation. Charles Blount (died 1693) formulates Deism and seeks to Birth of Modern Scientific Spirit 47 discredit revelation and miracles. Locke's Reasonableness of Christianity (1695) and Toland's Christianity not mysterious (1696). Spinoza in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (1670) had laid the foundations for what would now be called " the higher criticism." Shaftsbury (1671-1713) divorces morality from religion and theology. Bitterness of Woolston, who in his "Dis courses," 1727-29, violently attacks bibhcal miracles. Tindal's Christianity as old as the Creation, or the Gospel a Republica tion of the Religion of Nature (1730). Pope's "Universal Prayer" and his "Essay on Man" (1732-34) dedicated to the deist Bolingbroke. Butler's Analogy, 1737. Hume's essay on Miracles, 1748, and his Natural History of Religion, 1757. [For conservative reaction against Rationalism see below, section 53.] "Lecky, Rise and Influence of Rationalism, chap, ii ; "McGiffert, Protestant Thought before Kant, chap, x; Benn, A.W., History of English Rationalism in the Nineteenth Century (2 vols., 1906), Vol. I, chap, iii; Stephen, Leslie, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, Vol. I ; Leland, John, A View of the Principal Deistical Writers (2 vols., 1754-6), an old, hostile review of the movement. Section 51. The French Philosophes. .* Voltaire (1694-1778) and his extraordinary reputation and influence. Sojourn in England, 1726-29. His Philosophic Letters on the English (burned by order of the Parlement of Paris) well illustrates his debt to the English. John Morley's estimate of Voltaire. Vast range of his literary appeal. The Philosophic Dictionary, 1765. Diderot (1713-1784). The Encyclopaedia (1751-1765) and the obstacles which its editors encountered. Its nature scientific rather than polemic. D'Holbach and the atheists. "Morley, John, Voltaire, especially chaps, i, ii, and v ; the same, Diderot and the Encyclopaedists, 2 vols. ; Faguet, Le 18ieme Steele; Voltaire, Lettres philosophiques sur VAnglais, edited by Lanson, 2 vols., 1909, with elaborate notes ; Lange, History of Materialism, Vol. H, chaps, i— iii ; Cushing, Max P., Baron d'Holbach, 1914. 48 History of the Intellectual Glass Section 52. Development of the Idea of Progress. Excessive conservatism of primitive peoples. Greeks speculated on the origin of things, but did not have a con ception of the possibility of indefinite progress. The He brew Prophets. The Christian conception of creation and eschatology. Progress of man from the earliest times to the opening of the seventeenth century almost altogether un conscious. Lord Bacon's conception of betterment through the acquisi tion and application of natural science. Idea of progress implied a decline in the strength of ancient authority. Descartes' independence of the past. Swift's Battle of the Boohs; Fontenelle's Dialogues of the Dead (1683) aims to dis credit authority of classical antiquity. Herder's Ideen zur Geschichte der Menschheit (1784). Condorcet's Tableau his- torique des progres de V esprit humain (1793). Flint, History of the Philosophy of History, especially pp. 87-104 ; Del- vaille, J., Essai sur I'histoire de Videe de Progres jusqu'a la fin du XVIIIieme Siecle, 1910. Section 53. Reaction Against the Thought of the Eigh teenth Century. How Hume awoke Kant from his dogmatic slumber; Herder's Auch eine Philosophic der Geschichte (1774) criti cizes spirit of the philosophes and tends to "romanticism." Montesquieu (Spirit of Laws, 1748) essentially conservative; Rousseau's return to the simple life; The German "Romantic" philosophers. Fichte and his theory of nationality; Hegel (1770-1831) and his Philosophy of History. Defense of the Christian Epic; Christian apologetics in England; Paley's View of the Evidence of Christianity, 1794; Courses in Christian evidences in American colleges; The Bridgewater Treatise (1833-40). John Wesley (1703-1791) and the Methodist rehgious revival; founding of Baptist Birth of Modern Scientific Spirit 49 Foreign Missionary Society, 1792, and of the Religious Tract Society, 1799. The Tractarian movement at Oxford; John Henry Newman (1801-1890), Affirmation of the Catholic dogmas of the Im maculate Conception (1854) and of Papal Infallibility (1870) ; The papal syllabus of 1864. The platonic tendencies of Emerson; Christian Science. "Dewey, John, German Philosophy and Politics, 1915 ; "McGiffert, The Rise of Modern Religious Ideas, 1915; Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, books vi and viii; Morley, J., Rousseau; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., articles "Kant," "Hegel," " Wesleyan Methodism," "Missions," etc. ; Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, chap, viii (The Reli gious Revival); Wesley's famous "Journal"; "Benn, History of English Rationalism in the Nineteen th Century, chaps, v and viii ( excellent for our purpose ) ; Denziger, Enchiridion Symbolorum, for the Catholic formulation of dogma. Part VII. THE CHIEF NOVEL ELEMENTS IN CON TEMPORANEOUS INTELLECTUAL LIFE. Section 54. The New Social Basis of Intellectual Life: Democracy. Democracy, political, industrial, and intellectual. Greek conception of democracy presupposed slavery (Aristotle). The Roman Res publica. Disappearance of slavery and serfdom. Development of European kingship. Divine right of kings — defended by James I and Bossuet. Posi tion of the Jesuits, Mariana and Suarez. Conception of political liberty develops in England in seventeenth century. England the model of free government in the eighteenth cen tury. Character of the House of Commons. Rousseau's Social Contract (1761) and his idea of the " general will." The " people " rarely conceived as the whole adult male population. Original limitation of the franchise in the United States. The French Declaration of the Rights of Man, 1789. Manhood suffrage established in France 1793. Gradual extension of suffrage in Europe and Amer ica. Methods of neutralizing it. The question of votes for women. Mill, On the Subjection of Women (1869). Clear tendency toward further developments of democracy — the referendum, initiative, and recall. The democratic ex periment essentially new and implies a fundamentally new conception of government and the citizen. "Scherger, G. L., The Evolution of Modern Liberty, 1904; "Lecky, Ration alism in Europe, chap, v, on the secularization of politics ; Figgis, J. N. , The Divine Right of Kings, 1896 ; Gooeh, G. P., English Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth Century, 1898; Dunning, W. A., A History of Political The ory, from Luther to Montesquieu; Rose, T. H., Rise of Democracy, 1897 (re lates to England in the 19th century) ; Dewey, John, German Philosophy and Polities, 1915; Barker, E., Political Thought in England (Spencer to present), 1915 (Home University Library). Elements of Contemporaneous Intellectual Life 51 Section 55. The New Historical Basis of Intellectual Life : The Doctrine of Evolution. Discovery of the great age of the earth; James Hutton's Theory of the Earth (1795); Lyell's Principles of Geology (1830-33). Gradual development of the evolutionary theory. Lamarck's Philosophic zoologique (1809); Cham ber's Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1846); Darwin's Origin of Species, 1859. Character of the opposition to the evolutionary theory. Popular confusion of " Darwinism " with " evolution." Revo lutionary effects of the new point of view. Does away with conception of fixed species (Platonic ideas) that had previously dominated speculation. The genetic method adopted in all the organic sciences, including the newer social sciences. Problem of adjusting History to the discoveries of the past fifty years. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed., article "Evolution"; Judd, J. W., The Coming of Evolution, 1910 ; Darwin's own historical sketch of the evo lutionary idea in the later editions of The Origin of Species; "Merz, J. T., History of European Thought in the Nineteenth Century, Vol. H (1903) — chap, ix, on the genetic view of nature, is admirable. Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, Vol. I, chap, xiv, by Huxley, on the reception of the Origin of Species, and Vol. H, chaps, i-ii, containing letters and reviews relating to the work. Fifty Years of Darwinism, 1909, a collection of essays by eminent scientists. Section 56. The New Economic Basis of Intellectual Life : The Industrial Revolution. During the past two centuries the application of scientific discoveries to daily life has revolutionized our methods of supplying our economic needs, our social and intellectual life, and the whole range of the relations of mankind. Iron, coal, and steam, essential to the development of machinery on a large scale; machinery has in turn begotten the modern factory with its vast organized labor, the modern city, and, finally, our well nigh perfect means of rapid human intercom munication. Watt patents his improved steam engine, 52 History of the Intellectual Class 1769; Fulton's steamboat, 1809; Stockton and Darlington railroad opened, 1825 ; Penny post in England, 1839 ; Morse's electric telegraph, 1844 ; the Atlantic cable successfully laid, 1866; the telephone, 1876. The advance of science and its possibilities ; the tremendous increase in the production of wealth and the growing inter dependence of nations have opened up a vast range of specu lation in regard to the betterment of mankind through the abolition or reduction of poverty, ignorance, disease, and war. Contrast between the current views of the social significance of poverty and those held previously; the Peace movement. The Nineteenth Century, a Review of Progress; articles reprinted from the "N.Y. Evening Post"; Byrn, E.W., Progress of Invention in the Nineteenth Century ; Gibbins, Economic and Industrial Progress of the Century, 1903 ; The Progress of the Century, 1901, contains excellent reviews of the changes in the nineteenth century ; Seligman, Economic Interpretation of History. Moore, Origin of Matter and Life (Home University Library) ; Duncan, The New Knowledge, deals clearly with radio-activity; Cochrane, Modern In dustrial Progress, 1904; Wells, D. A., Economic Changes, 1899; Lankester, E. Ray, The Kingdom of Man, chap, ii (chief discoveries, 1881-1906) ; Trail, Social England, Vol. VI, passim ; Lecky, Rise and Influence of Ration alism, chap, vi (Industrial history of Rationalism). Section 57. Socialism, the Religion of Industrial Democracy. Socialism, the religion of industrial democracy. Earlier "utopian" socialism. The Communist Manifesto (1848). Karl Marx (d. 1883) ; " Class struggle " and the public control of the means of production. The English Fabians. The socialists emphasize the gross injustice, reckless waste, need less suffering, and incredible stupidity of the existing econo mic and social organization. Current attempts to alleviate abuses through legislation. A small portion only of human capacity and energy utilized under present system. "Kirkup, History of Socialism, new edition by Pease, 1913 ; Wells, H. G., New Worlds for Old, 1908 ; Schaefde, The Quintessence of Socialism, by a fair minded unbeliever; Spargo, John, Socialism, 1906; Patten, Simon, The New Basis of Civilization, 1907 ; Seager, H. R., Social Insurance, A Elements of Contemporaneous Intellectual Life 53 Program of Social Reform, 1910; Simkhovitch, V. G., Marksism versus Socialism; Dewey and Tufts, Ethics, especially part HI; Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, Industrial Democracy, 1902; Weyl, W. E., The New Democracy ; Redfield, Wm. C, Tlie New Industrial Day, 1912. Section 58. Speculation Concerning Man's Bodily Wel fare. Older conception of disease as caused by the devil ; Intro duction of vaccination, 1796; Anaesthetics, 1846-7; Bacteria named, 1863 ; Development of the germ theory of disease by Pasteur and Koch ; aseptic surgery, 1870-80. Older conceptions of insanity; Exorcism; Modern study of insanity and of abnormal psychology; Hypnotism and hysteria ; Psychiatry and Freud's study of Dreams ; Question of heredity; Eugenics or human breeding ; Criminology; The alcohol prob lem; Public sanitation. The Progress of the Century, articles on advance of medicine; Daven port, C. B., Eugenics, the Science of Human Improvement by Better Breeding, 1910; Kellicott, I. E., Social Direction of Human Evolution: an Outline of the Science of Eugenics, 1911 ; Pearson, Karl, Grammar of Science, chap, xi; Whetham, The Family and the Nation, 1909; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition, articles "Temperance" and "Hypnotism"; Myers, F. W. H., Human Personality (2 vols., 1903), for the range of abnormal psychologi cal phenomena ; White, A. D., Warfare of Science and Theology, chap, xiii ("Miracles to Medicine"), xiv, xv, and xvi; Prince, Morton, Dissociation of a Personality, 1906; Coriot, I. H., Abnormal Psychology, 1910; Freud, S., Interpretation of Dreams, 1913. Gordon, Ernest, The AntirAlcoholic Move ment in Europe. Section 59. The Newer Social Sciences. Modern conditions favorable to the growth of the social sciences. Development of Political Economy in the Eigh teenth Century; The French Physiocrats; Turgot; Hume; Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, 1776. The English Clas sical School; Mill's Principles of Political Economy. Karl Marx. Tendency of Political Economy to become more democratic. 54 History of the Intellectual Class Development of Anthropology in the Nineteenth Century. Discovery of the vast age of mankind ; the study of primitive peoples and its importance. Philology ; The Arian Theory. Recent appearance of Comparative (Animal) Psychology; of Social and Functional Psychology. Origin and aims of Sociology. Socializing of Ethics as well as of Psychology. General nature of the "pragmatic" tendencies in philosophy. Constantly increasing emphasis on the social and historical aspects of the various branches of philosophy. Revolution in fiction during the past half century. Con trast between Thackeray an£ M Dickens, on the one hand, and Bernard Shaw and H. G. We« j the other. Ingram, History of Political Economy ; Haddon, History of Anthropology ; Small, A. W., The Meaning of Social Science (1910) ; Sociological Papers (Macmillan Co., 1905), very interesting discussions by leading representa tives of the social sciences; James, William, Pragmatism; Schiller, T.C. S., Humanism, 1903; especially chap, ii on "useless" knowledge. Dewey and Tufts, Ethics — an excellent example of the tendency to socialize the theory of conduct ; Bernard Shaw's introduction to Three Plays by Brieux. Rob inson, J. H., The New History, chap, iii, "The New Allies of History." Section 6o. Problem of readjusting Education to New Knowledge and New Needs. Educational ideals of the Greeks. The "Liberal arts"; prolonged enthusiasm for rhetoric and oratory ; the Scholastic ideal; origin of the "classical" course. Former close association of all education with the Church ; modern process of secularization, democratization, and state support. Ability of all classes to read and write promises soon to be general throughout the world ; novelty and import ance of this. Development of technical and industrial edu cation; higher education of women. Question of the fate of older educational system based upon the ideal of the "liberal arts," the "classics," and confidence in "training the mind" to abstract reasoning. Recom mended by its inexpensiveness. Obstacles to readjust- Elements of Contemporaneous Intellectual Life 55 ment presented by consecrated tradition and by the now questioned confidence in the miscellaneous disciplinary value of the ancient languages and mathematics. Our present departmental system based upon a scientific rather than edu cational classification of subjects. Grave effects of vested rights in hampering experiment and readjustment. As yet our education has not been brought into close relation with prevailing conditions or our ever increasing knowledge. While there are numerous books — for example, Flexner, A., The Ameri can College, 1908 ; Wendell, B., The Mystery of Education, — and still more numerous articles harshly attacking our higher education and suggesting reforms, few or none of their author- -' 'mpt the difficult task of sketching out a fundamental readjustmei?*% ueet present conditions. Efforts to bring habits of thinking up to date are made by Wallace, Graham, The Great Society; Lippmann, W., Preface to Politics and. Drift and Mastery; Dewey, John and Evelyn, The Schools of To-morrow, 1915 ; Thorndike, E. L., Education, 1912, judicious and suggestive; Weeks, A.D., The Educa tion of To-morrow, The adaptation of School Curricula to Economic Democracy. Section 6i. The Conservative Spirit in the Light of Intellectual History. In human history man's nature has probably changed but slightly; nurture (culture) has however produced the most extraordinary and varied effects, which are not uncommonly mistaken for nature. Culture cannot be transmitted heredi tarily but can be accumulated through education and modified indefinitely. Primitive natural reverence for the familiar and habitual greatly reenforced by rehgion and law. Natural conserva tism of all professions. Those who suffer most from exist ing institutions commonly helplessly accept the situation as inevitable. Position of the conservative ; he urges the impossibility of altering "human nature" and warns against the disasters of revolution. Recent emergence of the radical. His early dreams now realized beyond his wildest expectations. Maet erlinck's theory of radicalism. History would seem to dis- YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 08954 2071 56 History of the Intellectual Class credit conservatism completely as a working principle in view of the vast achievements of mankind in the recent past and of the possibilities which open before us. Dickinson, G. Lowes, Justice and Liberty, 1909 ; Maeterlinck, essays on "Our Social Duty" and "Our Anxious Morality" in the volume called Measure of the Hours; Lankester, E. Ray, The Kingdom of Man, chap, i, on " Nature's Insurgent Son" ; Wells, H. G., First and Last Things; Morley, John, On Compromise; Robinson, J. H., The New History, chap, viii on "The Conservative Spirit in the Light of History." THE MARION PRESS JAMAICA QUEENSBOROUGH NEW YORK