THE WAR EFFORT OF THE UNITED KINGDOM A Digest of “ Statistics relating to the War Effort of the United Kingdom." (Cmd. 6564.) ISSUED BY THE MINISTRY OF INFORMATIONCONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 (I) HOAy MANPOWER HAS BEEN MOBILIZED 4 The Extent of the Effort 4 Part-time Voluntary Work 5 The Growth of the Armed Forces 6 Industry : The Switch-over of Manpower 6 The growing part played by Women 6 The Extent of Government Work 7 (II) THE EXPANSION OF PRODUCTION : 8 Munitions 8 Production of Principal Items 9 Naval Construction 10 Ground Munitions 11 Aircraft Construction 13 Merchant Shipbuilding 14 Production of Raw and Industrial Materials 15 Agricultural Production 15 (III) THE REDUCTION OF IMPORTS 17 (IV) HOW THE WAR EFFORT HAS BEEN FINANCED : 19 The Size of the Problem 19 Sources of Revenue 20 Government Borrowing 20 (V) THE EXTENT OF THE SACRIFICE : 21 Casualties in the Armed Forces 21 Casualties in the Merchant Navy 21 Civilian Casualties 22 Shipping Losses 22 Destruction of Houses 22 Loss of Exports 23 Increased Taxation 24 Reduction in Consumption 25 Food 26 Transport 27 Sale of Overseas Assets 28 New Overseas Liabilities 28 2p ■ ^HE Government White Paper tells for the first time the ■ story in facts and figures of the United Kingdom’s mobilization ■ for war. It discloses the extent to which manpower and resources have been mobilized and the manner in which they have been organized for war production ; the immense contribution made by women and the remarkable output of arms and munitions achieved. It shows how considerable was the extent to which this production supplied our own needs and those of our Allies ; how carefully co-ordinated has been the planning of imports and home production to husband vital shipping space, how food policy and agricultural production have been interlocked to serve these same purposes of total war effort, and how the immense task of financing this tremendous war effort has been accomplished. Finally it shows the sacrifices in the lives of men and women of the Services, of the Merchant Navy and of the civilian population, in the loss of shipping, the destruction of houses, in increased burdens of taxation, lower living standards, the abandonment of export trade and the sale of foreign investments that this gigantic effort has involved. To see this story in its full significance it must be remembered that what has been accomplished in production has been done by a people living under aerial bombardment and faced with attempted blockade by sea ; that for two long periods, and these^he most critical, factories had to work under constant and severe air attacks which destroyed and damaged many, and that everything brought to these shores during a large part of this time had to run the gauntlet of U-boat attack. Production and transport have been handicapped by the blackout, by the dispersal of factories in order to deny to the enemy the vulnerable targets he sought, by the diversion of shipping from London and South and East coast ports and by the disruption of normal channels of communication. Men and women engaged in tasks of war production, which called for great efforts on the part of all, have over and above these tasks given service in Civil Defence, in the Home Guard, the Fire Service, and later as Fire Guards and in part-time duties in canteens, hospitals, salvage drives, savings groups, in helping the evacuated and bombed out, in all those innumerable activities that have become a part of the essential texture of wartime life in Britain. Few have been content with one job. It is against this background of danger and difficulty, of hardship and sacrifice, that this story of unprecedented mobilization must be seen. It is an achievement of which the men and women of Britain have a right to be proud. 3THE WAR EFFORT OF THE UNITED KINGDOM i HOW MANPOWER HAS BEEN MOBILIZED. {showing the extent to which manpower and womanpower have been mobilized) I. THE EXTENT OF THE EFFORT In June, 1944, the population of Great Britain* (England, Scotland and Wales) was approximately 46! millions. Nearly a third of this total consisted of children under 14 (9 millions) and of men over 64 and women over 59 (5! millions). The population in the “ active ” age groups (men aged 14-64; women aged 14-59) was therefore only 31,930,000. This was almost equally divided between men (15,910,000) and women (16,020,000). Of this total in June, 1944, approximately 22 millions had been mobilized. The remaining 9,914,000 consisted mainly of housewives with such domestic responsibilities as the care of young children or invalids, or housekeeping for men and women engaged in the war effort, including those billeted upon them, or for evacuees, of students and school children over 14, and invalids (including war invalids). This total of 22 millions mobilized for the Services and industrial employment represented an increase of 3^ millions since June, 1939. It included 93.6% of the men aged 14-64 and 44.4% of the women aged 14-59 in these age groups (the 900,000 women part-time workers being included on the basis of two being equivalent to one whole- time worker.) * Northern Ireland, population x J millions, is not included in the Ministry of Labour manpower statistics. 4This is how the total was divided : MEN WOMEN The Services and Whole-time Civil Defence Armed Forces . . . . . . . . 4,502,000 — Women’s Auxiliary Services .. .. — 467,000 Whole-time Civil Defence . . . . 225,000 56,000 total Forces and Whole-time Civil Defence : 5,250,000 Munitions (Group I) Industries (Iron and steel, non-ferrous metals, ship- building, engineering, aircraft, vehicles, instruments, chemicals and explosives). total Group I Industries 3,210,000 1,851,000 5,061,000 Basic (Group II) Industries (Agriculture, mining, public utilities, national and local government, inland transport, shipping, and the manufacture of food, drink and tobacco). total Group II Industries 4,059,000 1,644,000 5,703,000 Other (Group III) Industries (Building, civil engineering, textiles, clothing, other manufacturing industries, distributive trades and civilian services). total Group III Industries 2,900,000 3,102,000 6,002,000 GRAND TOTAL 22,016,000 In addition to these 22 millions in the active age groups, it is estimated that approximately one million older men and women were also in paid employment. 57% of all men between the ages of 18 and 40 have served or are serving in the Armed Forces. The other men in these age groups have been kept in industry because of special skill, particularly in making munitions, or because they were unfit for service in the Armed Forces. 55% of the total number of single, married and widowed women aged 18-40 (90% of the single women) were in the Services, whole- time Civil Defence or employed in industry. Two million of these had never been employed in industry before and represented, therefore, a net addition to the industrial labour force. 2. PART-TIME VOLUNTARY WORK Large numbers of men and women have also rendered part-time voluntary service :— if million men in the Home Guard. if million men and 350,000 women in part-time Civil Defence. Over 1,000,000 women were enrolled in the W.V.S. and many hundreds of thousands of others were giving part-time war service of different kinds in the organization of salvage parties, savings groups, 5the collection, making and distribution of hospital supplies, comforts for the Forces and the Merchant Navy, etc. Several millions of men and women performed 48 hours a month fireguard duties. 3. THE GROWTH OF THE ARMED FORCES The total (June, 1944) of 4^ million men serving in the Armed Forces was reached in spite of casualties sustained during five years of war. Including the number of killed, missing, taken prisoner, or released on medical and other grounds, the total number of men who have served or are serving in the Armed Forces of the United King- dom during this war is over 5^ millions. The following table shows the rapid expansion of the Armed Forces (not including those locally enlisted abroad who by 1944 numbered 40,000), and Women’s Auxiliary Services : MID-YEAR MEN WOMEN TOTAL 1938 384,000 — 384,000 1939 477,000 — 477,000 1941 3,271,000 103,000 3,374,000 1942 3,785,000 307,00° 4,092,000 1943 4,284,000 461,000 4,745,000 x944 4,502,000 467,000 4,969,000 The numbers e engaged in Whole-time Civil Defence reached their peak in 1941. In 1942 the total was maintained by the enrolment of further women to replace men transferred to other work or the Forces. The reduction of bombing and the enrolment of fireguards made it possible after 1942 to reduce the numbers further. MID-YEAR MEN WOMEN TOTAL *939 80,000 — 80,000 1941 324,000 59,ooo 383,00° 1942 304,000 80,000 384,000 J943 253,OOO 70,000 323,000 1944 225,000 56,000 281,000 4. INDUSTRY (a) The Switchover of manpower and the growing part played by women Employment in the munitions industries reached its peak towards the end of 1943, since when there have been slight reductions in this category. Reductions in Group III industries have been very sub- stantial and continuous throughout the war, the number of men in 1944 being half of the corresponding 1939 total, and the total of men 6and women employed dropping between 1939 and 1944 from 9^ to 6 millions. The detailed changes showing the extent to which women have come into employment, thus releasing men, may be summarized as follows :— GROUP I (Munitions) GROUP II (Basic) GROUP I [I (Others) MEN WOMEN MEN WOMEN MEN WOMEN June, 1939 (June, 1943 June, 1944 2,600,000 3.305.000 3.210.000 506,000 1.928.000 1.851.000 4.688.000 4.040.000 4.059.000 " 852,000 1,592,000 1,644,000 5,798,000 3,093,000 2,900,000 3.479.000 3,186,000) 3.102.000 -f or — + 610,000 + i,345,ooo —629,000 + 792,000 —2,898,000 —377,ooo Some striking changes are to be noted between 1939 and 1944 in individual industries. For example :— INDUSTRY MALES FEMALES GROUP II Agriculture and horticulture Mining . . .. National Government Service Local Government Service 98,000 —66,000 +104,000* —198,000 + I I7,OOC + 8,OOC + 372,000 +142,00c / Transport, Shipping and Fishing .'. —184,000 +161,00c GROUP III Building and civil engineering Textiles Clothing Other manufactures Distributive Trades Other services —694,000 —180,000 — 73,000 —462,000 —916,000 —529,000 + 7,000 —196,00c —165,00c — 26,00c — 43,000 + 60,00a •Much of this increase has occurred in the number of industrial employees of the Service and Supply Departments. (b) Extent of employment on Government work. At the middle of 1944, 7.6 million persons were engaged in the manufacturing industries (excluding mining), and of these 76 % were engaged on Government work, 20% on work for the home market, and 4% in producing goods for export. In 1938 about 15% of persons in the manufacturing industries (excluding mining) were engaged in producing goods for export. Even in the Group III manufacturing industries, which have to meet the needs of the civilian population, half of those employed are working on Government orders. The proportions for individual industries in 1943 were as follows: Textiles 49%, clothing 39%, boots and shoes 20%, other manufactures 79%. 7II THE EXPANSION OF PRODUCTION [showing the striking and rapid expansion of war production) I. MUNITIONS The monthly output of munitions in the United Kingdom in the first half of 1944 was about six times as great as that at the outbreak of war. As a result, the United Kingdom has not only been the principal source of supply of the munitions required by the British Commonwealth and Empire Forces (though large quantities of equip- ment have also been made in the Dominions and India, and supplies have been received from the United States both against British cash purchases and under Lend-Lease) but has also been able to equip the Allied Forces dependent on us for supplies, provide substantial assistance to Russia, and help other Allies. About 7/ioths of the total supply of munitions produced by, or made available to the British Commonwealth and Empire since the beginning of the war has been produced in the U.K. and about i/ioth by other Empire countries, a total of 4/5ths from British Common- wealth and Empire sources. The remaining 1 /5th of Empire supplies has come from the U.S.A., Of this American contribution 1 /5th has taken the form of British cash purchases. The production achievement is all the greater when the changes in production types required as the war progressed are taken into account. The average hours of work for men, including overtime, in the munitions industries were 54 hours a week at the beginning of 1944, compared with 48 hours before the war. 8PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF MUNITIONS BY THE UNITED KINGDOM FROM SEPTEMBER, 1939, TO JUNE, 1944. Naval Construction STANDARD {a) Naval Vessels NUMBER DISPLACEMENT TONNAGE Major Naval Vessels Mosquito Naval Craft Other Naval Vessels 722 1,386 3,636 1,333,^61 132,796 440,320 (b) Naval Munitions Naval Guns (including 20-mm) Ammunition (excluding rounds 20-mm) Mines and depth charges Torpedoes 49,865 23,335,°°° 897,274 17,677 Ground Munitions (a) Artillery Field, medium and heavy artillery equipments Heavy A.A. equipments. . Light A.A. equipments Anti-tank equipments Tank machine guns 13,512 6,294 15,324 27,882 57,319 (b) Machine guns and rifles Machine guns and sub-machine guns Rifles 3,729,921 2,002,000 (c) Tanks 25,Il6 Carriers and Armoured Cars 74,802 (d)' Wheeled vehicles for the Services 919,111 (e) Ammunition (rounds) ■ Gun 20-mm. Small arms Grenades 161.100.000 387.700.000 8,285,000,000 81,383,000 (/) Signal Equipment Lines of communication cables. . Telephones Wireless stations Reception Sets (miles) (units) 3,009,307 506,238 445,500 34,225 (g) Clothing Battledress (Blouses or trousers) 58,206,000 (h) Propellants and explosives (short tons) 1,020,991 93- Aircraft (a) Aircraft Total aircraft . . .. .. . . 102,609 of which Heavy bombers .. 10,018 Medium and light bombers 17,702 Fighters . . .. . . 38,025 (b) Air material Filled bombs (tons) . . 973,405 Aero-engines delivered .. 208,701 (c) Repairs Aircraft . . . . 60,099 Aero-engines .. 113005 (i) Naval Construction The effort in naval construction has been fourfold : to increase the offensive fleet despite heavy losses and the additional work involved because of the need for faster vessels with vastly more complicated armament and equipment than that fitted in the early stages of the war; to build the large numbers of escort vessels needed to protect our ocean communications ; to provide the large numbers of small patrol and other craft necessitated by the enemy invasion of France and the Low Countries and the progress of operations in the Mediter- ranean ; and finally to provide the landing craft required for combined operations. The vital need for aircraft and army equipment after the earlier German successes necessarily limited the manpower available for shipbuilding, as did also the large number of men required for the refit and repair of ships continuously at sea and frequently in action. Moreover, the fact that in 1944 a greater effort had to be concentrated on the refitting and repair of vessels in connection with preparations for the invasion of Europe and the Far Eastern war necessarily meant a decline in the rate of new production of certain types of vessels and armaments. The increase in ships has called for an even greater increase in naval munitions. It is now necessary to arm regular warships with many offensive and defensive weapons additional to those fitted in the early stages of the war. Moreover, much additional equipment is required in the way of radar and wireless apparatus, control gear and devices for protection against the various forms of enemy attack, including surface craft, U-boats, aircraft and mines of the magnetic and other 10types. In addition practically every merchant ship must be equipped with complete defensive armament including many of the weapons and devices fitted in war vessels. NAVAL CONSTRUCTION AND ARMAMENTS 1939 ' 3 months 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 i year TOTAL Sept., 1939 —June, 1944 Major War Vessels (displacement) 17 (22,780 tons) 106 (221,935 tons) 170 (346,416 tons) 173 (299,920 tons) 168 (292,450 tons) 88 (150,460 tons) 722 (1,333,961 tons) Mosquito Craft 2 121 395 405 337 126 1,386 Other Naval Vessels 9 200 3H 605 1,601 907 3,636 Naval Guns (including 20-mm.) 441 1,486 3,977 13,449 20,023 10,489 49,865 Torpedoes .. 362 939 1,929 3,896 7,039 3,5i2 17,677 Mines and Depth Charges 9,048 175,986 196,452 218,532 233,206 64,050 897,274 («) Ground Munitions Production of munitions for the ground forces rose steadily from the outbreak of war until early 1943. The figures given do not, how- ever, give a complete picture of the expansion in production which has taken place, for over the period there have been marked changes in the types of equipment produced. In the case of tank and anti- tank equipment, 2-pounders gave place to 6-pounders and they, later, were replaced by 17-pounders. Ammunition not only grew in weight but also became more complicated and difficult to make. Fighting vehicles now are heavier and more highly powered than they were, and wireless sets and other types of signal equipment have become much more elaborate. A wide range of specialized stores, sometimes oL a very bulky character, has been made to facilitate the landings in Western Europe. During 1943 and 1944 the production of many stores decreased as a consequence of movements of labour and industrial capacity to aircraft manufacture. The following figures show some of the most striking increases in the production of ground munitions :— 11Ground Munitions ACTUAL 1939 (3 months) 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 (£ year) TOTALS Sept., 1939— June, 1944 Gun Ammu- nition (million rounds) . . i-9 12.8 29-3 59-4 46.4 “•3 161,100,000 20mm. (million rounds) — 3-2 15-5 9i-3 167.S no.2 387,700,000 Small Arms (million rounds) 45 . 572 1,148 2,173 3,046 1,301 8,285,000,000 Wireless stations (thousands) 3-o 19.6 31.8 102.3 193-1 95-7 445,500 Carriers and Armoured Cars 633 6,044 10,481 , 19,312 24,375 13,957 74,802 Artillery (i) Field, medium and heavy artillery equipments — 968 3»*78o 3,946 2,962 1,856 13,512 Artillery (ii) Light and heavy A.A. e 6,873 885 21,618 equipments 254 1,990 4,214 7,402 Artillery (iii) Anti- tank - equipments 138 i,534 2,747 9,569 13,049 1,845 28,882 Tank machine guns 418 2,907 7,368 23,806 W,457 3,363 57,319 Brens and Vickers machine guns 7,000 30,200 39,300 68,200 81,000 33,8oo 259,500 Sub- machine - guns (thousands) — — 6.4 L438.3 L572.4 395-9 3,413,000 Rifles 18,300 80,800 78,500 594,900 910,100 319,400 2,002,000 12(iii) Aircraft Construction At the beginning of the war total deliveries of new aircraft were no more than at the rate of 730 a month, and over a quarter of these were trainers. By 1943 the average rate of deliveries had trebled, and as measured by structure weight (reflecting the change to the production of larger and more powerful types, particularly heavy bombers) had increased nearly sixfold. 2,889 heavy bombers were delivered in the first six months of 1944, compared with only 41 in the whole of 1940. In spite of this the output of fighters also showed a striking increase—from no a month in 1939 to 940 a month in the first half of 1944. Bomb loads increased with the size and power of the bombers pro- duced. In 1939 the average bomb load was 1.2 tons ; in 1943 it was 4.0 tons. The weight of bombs which could be carried a distance of 1.000 miles in one sortie by the monthly output of bombers increased from 210 tons in 1939 to more than 3,000 tons at the beginning of J944- Engine output increased from 1,130 a month at the end of 1939 to an average of 5,270 a month in the first half of 1944. Over the same period the average horse-power of engines produced was doubled. The repair of aircraft has absorbed an appreciable proportion of the capacity of the. industry. For every six aircraft newly produced in 1943, four aircraft underwent major repairs in the U.K. v The following figures also illustrate the rapid and substantial ex- pansion which has taken place :— DELIVERIES OF AIRCRAFT, AERO-ENGINES AND BOMBS 1939 (3 months) 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 (i year) ACTUAL TOTALS Sept., 1939— June, 1944 Structure weight of newly delivered aircraft (million pounds) . . II.26 58.84 87.26 I33-36 185.23 in.75 587,700,000 Aero- engines delivered (numbers) 4.532 24,074 36,551 53,916 57,985 31,643 208,701 L3 1939 (3 months.) 1940 i94i 1942 1943 1944 (i year) ACTUAL TOTALS Sept., 1939— June, 1944. Weight of filled bombs (thousand tons) 4-5 48.3 143-4 240.9 308.6 227.8 973,500 Bomb load at 1,000 miles range of average monthly output of bombers (tons) 210 389 736 i,436 '2,575 3,221 Heavy bombers . . • 4i 498 1,976 4,614 2,889 10,018 Fighters 447 4.283 7,063 9,850 10,727 5,655 38,025 2. MERCHANT SHIPBUILDING The tonnage of merchant ships constructed in the United Kingdom in the years 1940-1943 averaged nearly 1 /5th more than in the years 1915- 1918. Just over 4^ million gross tons (the equivalent of 6f million deadweight tons) of new merchant ships (tankers* and non-tankers) were constructed in the United Kingdom between September, 1939, and December, 1943. For the three years 1941, 1942 and 1943, production averaged approximately 1 \ million gross tons. The detailed figures (vessels of 100 gross tons and over) were : 1939 (Sept.-Dee.) 243,000 gross tons ; 1940, 810,000 gross tons ; 1941, 1,158,000 gross tons ; 1942, 1,302,000 gross tons ; 1943, 1,204,000 gross tons. This construction was achieved (a) in spite of the blackout and bombing, (b) in spite of the need for special types of ships to meet particular operational and other war needs, such as carrying awkward cargoes, and not adaptable to methods of mass production, (c) in spite of increasing complexity of armament and special equipment, (d) in spite of the heavy repair work necessitated by damage caused by enemy action and abnormal weather in the high latitudes frequented by convoys to and from North America and Russia, which absorbed more than half the manpower available for merchant shipbuilding work. At one period the amount of merchant shipping in hand for repair was over 2j million gross tons. 143. OTHER PRODUCTION (showing the contribution made by home production to the saving of shipping space) (/) Raw and industrial materials One of the most important problems facing the Government during the war has been to meet the demands of the munitions and other industries for essential raw materials and at the same time to economize in the use of imported raw materials and semi-finished products in order to save shipping space. This has been particularly important in the case of the iron and steel industry which had previously relied on large imports of high-grade (ferrous content 50-60%) iron ore. To meet the needs of the situation, home output of iron ore was increased by one-half (i8£ million tons in 1943 ; 12^ million tons average 1935-8) but in spite of the low grade (ferrous content 30%) of this ore, pig iron production was maintained at a high level. The collection 975 Maize and Maize Meal 3495 702 66 Other animal feeding stuffs 325 12 Sugar 2,168 1,658^ 1458 Fruit and Vegetables 2,604 462 327Certain imports essential for the maintenance of an adequate con- sumption standard were held at the required level or even increased, e.g., meat, to replace reduced home production (to facilitate the plough- ing up of grassland and cut imports of feeding stuffs) and of oilseeds and fats (for the manufacture of margarine and compound lard) to offset the fall in supplies of butter. THOUSAND TONS Average 1934-8 1941 1943 Meat (including bacon) . . M2 3 1,203 *,358 Canned meat 63 230 3 00 Oilseeds, oils and fats 1.783 1,948 2,154 (b) RAW MATERIALS Striking reductions were secured in the imports of certain raw materials, e.g., iron ore, scrap and timber. In place of bulky imports, such as iron ore and scrap necessary for steel-making, imports were increased of finished and semi-finished steel. THOUSAND TONS Average 1935-8 1941 1943 Iron Ore (average ferrous content 50-60%) .. 5,619 2,283 1,895 Scrap 778 549 5 Hardwood 1,126 365 3°7 Softwood 5,848 M53 1,329 Pitwood 2,688 189 72 Wood pulp . . 1,650 346 39° Newsprint 424 122 95 Paper and board 73°' 72 48 18IV HOW THE WAR EFFORT HAS BEEN FINANCED The measure of this gigantic task can be judged from the following figures : l MILLIONS GOVERNMENT REVENUE DEFICIT NATIONAL PRIVATE EXPENDITURE INCOME SAVINGS 1938 .. 1,013 883 130 4,604 351 »943 •• 5,782 2,876 2,906 8,172 1,749 Increase 1943 on 1938 . . + 4,769 + I.993 + 2,776 + 3,568 + 1,398 Almost the whole of the increase in Government expenditure is accounted for by war expenditure. (The figures exclude the value of the resources received from the United States and Canada under Lend-Lease and Mutual Aid, but include the cost of Mutual Aid to our Allies.) How was Government expenditure in 1943 covered ? £ millions 50% Taxation and other Government Revenue .. 2,876 3°i%4 Savings of private persons and businesses as lent to Government.. . . .. . . . . 1,749 n % Sales of assets and overseas disinvestment . . 655 3^% Public Savings . . . . . . . . . . 191 3% Home disinvestment .. .. .. 175 2% Payments in compensation for war damage .. 136 100% £5.782 l9How the Government has been able to finance so large a proportion of this expenditure out of current resources is seen more clearly by analyzing the growth of the national income since the war and showing how it has been redistributed to secure for the Government for war purposes not only an increased amount but also an increased share of the national income. In addition the Government has had to draw heavily on the nation’s capital resources to meet its expenditure. What were the sources of Central Government Revenue in 1938 and 1943 ? £ MILLIONS Direct Indirect Taxation on personal Other Indirect Income from Public Property, Total Taxation consumption Taxation Trading, etc. Revenue *93^ 494 290 8l 18 883 J943 1,781 915 III 69 2,876 What were the forms of Government borrowings from 1st January, 1939, to 31st December, 1943 ? 33% War loans (excluding official holdings) 29% Floating debt (excluding official holdings) 22% Small savings 8% Extra-budgetary funds, etc. 6% Tax reserve certificates 2 % Miscellaneous Net disinvestment abroad in the years 1939-1943 totalled £3,073 millions. Net private disinvestment at home in the years 1941, 1942 and 1943 totalled £397 millions.THE EXTENT OF THE SACRIFICE {showing the loss and destruction of human life, material and treasure, civilian sacrifice and the mortgaging of the future in the interest of the United Nations war effort) I. CASUALTIES The total casualties (Armed Forces, Merchant Seamen and Civilians) sustained by the United Kingdom in five years of war amounted to nearly three-quarters of a million. (i) Armed Forces In five years of war between 3rd September, 1939, and 3rd September, 1944, the casualties of all ranks of the Armed Forces of the United Kingdom as reported were : Killed .. 176,081 Missing 38^75 Wounded 193,788 Prisoners of War 154,968 Total 563.112 The total strength of the British Commonwealth and Empire forces at the middle of 1944 was 8,712,000 (of which the U.K. armed forces accounted for 4,542,000* or over 52%). The total casualties sustained by British Commonwealth and Empire armed forces in five years up to 3rd September, 1944, were 926,000 (243,000 killed, 81,000 missing, and 291,000 prisoners of war) of which the U.K. total represents 61 %. {it) Merchant Seamen From the beginning of the war up to 31st August, 1944, 29,629 merchant seamen serving in British registered ships have been killed Including 40,000 locally enlisted abroad. 21by enemy action at sea and 4,713 have been interned by the enemy. (No figures are available of the number who have been wounded or injured.) (Hi) Civilians In five years up to 31st August, 1944, civilian casualties were :— Killed or died of injuries Injured or detained in hospital Up to 12th June, 1944 51,822 62,900 13th June~3ist August, 1944. . 5>476 ' I5»9l8 (Including : Women Children 57*298 23*757 7*25°) 78,818 Total killed, died, or injured and detained in hospital, 136,116. 2. SHIPPING LOSSES The size of the ocean-going merchant fleet, including tankers, under the British flag at the beginning of the war was 17^ million gross tons (of vessels of 1,600 gross tons and over). Between September, 1939, and the end of 1943, 2,921 British ships of 11,643,000 gross tons had been lost—half the total number and tonnage of British, Allied and Neutral ships lost (5,758 ships of 22,161,000 gross tons). This loss was partly offset by (a) the construction of 4^ million gross tons of new ships in United Kingdom shipyards ; (b) captures ; (c) the chartering of merchant vessels from other countries ; (d) the production in Canadian shipyards ; (e) the purchase and tempor- ary acquisition of merchant ships (existing and new) from the United States and other countries. Thus by the end of 1943 the size of the ocean-going merchant fleet under the British flag was 13^ million gross tons (or 15! million gross tons including ships returnable in due course to other flags). The loss of ocean-going merchant ships on the United Kingdom and Colonial registers alone amounted to 29%. Since the beginning of 1944 the situation has improved. 3. DESTRUCTION OF HOUSES, ETC. Out of about 13 million houses in the United Kingdom at the outbreak of war, 4^ millions (or nearly 1 in every 3) have been damaged or destroyed by enemy action. Of these, 202,000 were totally destroyed or damaged beyond repair, and a further 255,000 were damaged and rendered uninhabitable. 22During the war there has been an almost complete ban on the building of new houses, and repair and maintenance work has been severely curtailed. Moreover, private persons and businesses having lent their savings to the Government, such sums, except where essential for war purposes, have not been available for keeping houses, fixtures and industrial equipment in repair and up to date. These factors alone during five years have led to a serious deterioration in living conditions. But the difficulties have been aggravated by bomb damage, the necessity for the partial evacuation of certain areas (with consequent crowding of others) and the requisition of houses for the Services and for U.S. and other troops from overseas. 4. LOSS OF EXPORTS During the first two years of war, exports had to be maintained in order to pay for imports of food, raw materials and munitions. Since 1941 the assistance received from the United States and Canada under Lend-Lease and Mutual Aid has relieved the need for increased foreign exchange earnings to finance supplies from^ North America and permitted the diversion of manpower and resources to essential war purposes. Exports have, therefore, been sacrificed deliberately in the interests of the war effort, as the following table shows :— EXPORTS OF PRODUCE AND MANUFACTURES OF THE U.K. (1excluding munitions) YEAR . Value of exports Quantity of exports as recorded (recorded exports valued at 1935 prices) £ million I938 = IO° J938 471 IOO 1940 411* 73* J941 365* 56* *943 232 29 In so far as exports have been continued, attempts have been made, as far as possible, to export goods which do not make demands on manpower, e.g. spirits, or such goods as textiles which are produced mainly by female labour. * Including munitions, exports of which became important after 1941. 23How drastic have been the reductions since 1938 is shown by the examples in the following table :— Coal (tons) Iron and Steel manufactures (tons) Motor vehicles Cotton piece goods (million sq. yds.) . . Cotton yarn (thousand cwts.) 5. INCREASED TAXATION (a) Direct taxation The amount in income tax and other direct taxes collected from private individuals and businesses rose from £494 millions in 1938 to £1,088 millions in 1941, and to £1,781 millions in 1943. Of these totals, private individuals paid £472 millions in 1938 (9.9% of personal income), £796 millions in 1941 (12.4% of personal income) and £1,169 millions in 1943 (15.2% of personal income). The standard rate of income tax almost doubled between September, 1939, and April, 1941, rising from 5/6 (April, 1939, Budget) to 7/- (September, 1939), to 7/6 (April, 1940, Budget), to 8/6 (July, 1940), to 10/- (April, 1941, Budget), at which figure it has been maintained. On incomes of over £2,000 per annum, surtax has been increased similarly. The exemption limit during the same period was reduced from £120 to £110, the personal allowance for a married man from £170 to £140 and for a single person from £100 to £80. The number of income tax payers increased from 4 millions to 13 millions. The effect of these changes is shown below : - Ranges of income before Percentages of aggregate of incomes tax paid in income tax and surtax J938 J943 Under £250 0.2 3 -° £25°—£500 2.9 14-6 £5°°—£i>°°° 11.1 28.0 £1,000—£2,000 17.0 38-7- £2,000—£10,000 28.9 51 -9 £10,000—£20,000 43-7 73*7 £20,000 and over 56-7 84.4 Excess profits tax payable by businesses and corporations, which was 60% when first imposed in 1939, was raised to 100% ’in 1940. 24 j938 35,900,000 i,9I5,°oo 58,396 1,386 1,098 *943 3,400,000 134,ooo i,i32 374 171(b) Indirect taxation Indirect taxes levied by the Central Government which fall specifically on personal consumption rose from £290 millions in 1938 to £915 millions in 1943. Adding other items, the total Central Government receipts from indirect taxation rose from £371 millions in 1938 to £1,026 millions in 1943. Adding to these figures local rates falling on personal consumption and other indirect taxes levied by local authorities, the total of indirect taxes more than doubled, rising from £582 millions in 1938, to £1,249 millions in 1943. The tax paid on beer and tobacco amounted to more than £600 millions in 1943—about two-thirds of the total revenue from all sources collected by the Central Government in a single year before the war. Examples of increases of specific rates of tax levied on personal consumption were : !938 J943 Beer (per pint) 2^d. 7^d. (on a reduced average strength) Cigarettes (Packet of 20) 5^d. 1 /9 Since the war, Purchase Tax has been imposed on most articles of personal or domestic use. The basic rate of the tax is 33£% of whole- sale value, with a reduced rate of i6§% on certain articles which require comparatively frequent replacement, and a maximum rate of 100% on various classes of goods of a luxury or non-essential character. (But while taxes have been imposed or increased on luxury or less essential articles, many millions have been expended by the Government in subsidies to keep down the level of prices of food and other essential goods. The amount of such subsidies in 1943 was £190 millions.) 6. REDUCTION IN CIVILIAN CONSUMPTION AND CURTAILMENT OF SUPPLIES The quantity of all goods and services purchased fell by 21% between 1938 and 1943, although the amount spent increased sub- stantially from £4,138 millions to £5,049 millions as the result of a rise in prices and an increase in indirect taxation. There has also been a marked deterioration in quality, though it is not possible to estimate this statistically. (a) Consumption of non-food items Calculated at 1938 prices, the following percentage decreases in personal expenditure on consumers’ goods have taken place : clothing, 45% ; boots and shoes, 27% ; furniture, furnishings, household 25textiles, etc., 77% ; hardware (including pottery, glassware, iron- monger’s goods, electrical goods, and heating and cooling appliances), 67% ; private motor cars, motor cycles, bicycles, etc., 89% ; other items (chemists’ wares, stationery, books, fancy goods, jewellery, toys and sports goods, petrol and oil, soap, polishes, candles and matches), 48%- There has been a drastic curtailment of the production of certain lines to save manpower, raw materials and shipping space. Clothes rationing was introduced in 1941, and the present ration provides adults with about half of the average pre-war consumption and is barely adequate to cover even their minimum requirements, thus causing a considerable deterioration in the state of their wardrobes. The reduction imposed on children’s essential clothes is not quite so severe. The production of many articles such as motor cars, refrigerators, pianos, vacuum cleaners, lawn-mowers, aluminium hollow-ware, was completely suspended in 1942 or earlier, while the production of cutlery, wireless sets and valves, bicycles, watches and fountain pens has been drastically curtailed. Newly produced furniture may be supplied only against permits to persons, such as the newly married or the bombed-out, setting up house. (b) Food, Food rationing was introduced early in the war. In 1944 meat (i/2d. worth per week), bacon (4 oz. per week), butter (2 oz. per week), margarine (4 oz. per week), cooking fats (2 oz. per week), cheese, tea (2 oz. per week), sugar (^ lb. per week), jam (1 lb. per month) are all rationed. The distribution of eggs and milk is controlled in order to ensure preferential supplies for priority classes of consumers and the equitable sharing of the remainder. Tinned goods and many other foods (e.g. breakfast cereals, rice, biscuits and dried fruits) are rationed on a points system—24 points per person per month, e.g. a tin of spam (small) 11 points ; 1 lb. treacle 8 points ; a tin of salmon, | size, (Grade I) 20 points, (Grade III) 8 points; 1 lb. prunes (6 points). Chocolate and sweets are on a separate personal points system (f lb. per person per month) ; fish is scarce ; supplies of fruit have dropped by one-half, and these, except for the few oranges occasionally distributed, have had to come mainly from the home crop of fruit. For considerable periods of the year fresh fruit is very scarce. Potatoes, 26other vegetables and bread are the only staple foodstuffs in unrestricted supply. Generally speaking, people in Britain have eaten more bulky and starchy foods, and are eating less meat, fats and sugar. The total consumption of milk and cheese has increased, though the allowance of milk to the non-priority consumer during the winter months of the last three.years fell to only two pints a week. •Though the ordinary consumer received only 30 eggs in 1943 as a registered customer, supplies of dried eggs were increased, and many people were able to keep their own poultry, exchanging their egg ration for an allowance, of meal. ^ Rationing and other measures, by ensuring fair distribution of available supplies, have tended to reduce the inequalities in food consumption which existed before the war. When it is realized that in spite of these reductions the nutritive value of the country’s total food supplies has fallen only slightly between 1938 and 1943, while imports of food have been halved, and the country’s health has been maintained, the achievement of the Ministry of Food’s scientific planning will be recognized. 7. INLAND TRANSPORT (a) Rail A severe reduction in passenger rail facilities has been necessary to enable the railways to provide the increased transport needed for essential war purposes. Since the war began there has been a rise of 10% in the number of passenger journeys (caused by the introduction of new persons into industry and war work, special trains for workers and troops, travel- ling members of the Forces on leave, or travel necessitated by dispersal or evacuation, and the average length of journeys has increased by 60%. The number of passenger trains, on the other hand, has been reduced and passenger train miles have fallen by 30%. In consequence the average load carried by passenger trains increased between 1938 and 1943 by 125%, with inevitable discomfort and overcrowding. Restaurant cars have virtually disappeared, though a few are availa- ble for the longest journeys only. The tonnage of freight carried and the average length of haul have both increased, so that, the work done measured by net ton miles has risen by about 40%. The strain on the railway system has been accentuated by the diversion of shipping from London and South and East Coast ports. 27(b) Road (i) Private Motor Cars The number licensed had fallen from 2,000,000 to 700,000 at the beginning of 1944. The use of these was severely restricted to essential purposes only. In 1941 the unconditional ration of motor spirit was abolished and control was secured over all motor fuel issued. The amount of motor spirit used for private cars is now only about 1 /8th of what it was before the war. (ii) Public Service Vehicles. The total mileage of all omnibus routes in the country has been reduced by 40%. Long distance express services have been discon- tinued or severely curtailed. Against this curtailment must be set the increased demands from workers for transport—the number of passengers has increased and the distances travelled to work have been longer. Many omnibuses have had to carry 30-50% more passengers than in 1938. For the whole country the increase in passengers carried has been nearly 1 /5th ; the increase in passenger miles has been i/3rd. 8. FINANCIAL COST War expenditure during the past five years has amounted to nearly £25,000,000,000. During the same period, to finance imports of essential war materials, overseas assets to the value of £1,065,000,000 have been sold. The loss of these assets has deprived this country of a source of income which has in the past contributed an essential part of the foreign exchange needed to pay for imports. These figures do not include losses of overseas assets in Empire countries, which have been destroyed or damaged to deny their use to the enemy. Despite the sale of over £1,000,000,000 of overseas assets to finance purchases and the generous aid received from the United States and Canada, the United Kingdom has in addition incurred new overseas liabilities totalling over £2,300,000,000. 28TOTAL POPULATION 46,750,000 0) * o a c 10 2 l/l 15 o E ~fo ]5 _«/> ‘c JO CD o o <3 <> a _>> .E > C ~D 4) 0) C jE ± £ ^ 2 o Si > 3 W- o 0 -c s g- S Jj 1 "2 JS X xi*- X^.X^.X^.X^. Xx4<* X X -*4». X -44*. X ivtv^x^xtv^vtx ■4|»»X-4|i» X*4* X *4»>X 44*. X ^.X^X X X >^»> X «ihh>X.4ii*X x4k> Xxi^X 44*- 4l4X4kXAX4kl «^X*4*X X 4^X 4k .l 4^X 441^ X 441^X44^ X xi*- ^.X •«|fr-X <44* x 441* X 44*. X^X <44*X X 44^ x .mxX 44X I X ^X^> X x*x I x4»- X xi*» Xx4fc> X x*x X .^.Xx4fc-X Xxfcb-x xixX 44ibXxifr> X xi*- Xxi*- X xfcb- x4*X 44^ X ■*•(► X xii* X xto. 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