bigram

This is a table of type bigram and their frequencies. Use it to search & browse the list to learn more about your study carrel.

bigram	frequency
influenza virus	7345
virus infection	5550
influenza viruses	3043
respiratory tract	2796
respiratory syncytial	2752
rna viruses	2699
immune response	2694
syncytial virus	2632
respiratory syndrome	2624
acute respiratory	2527
avian influenza	2303
infected cells	2196
ebola virus	2159
virus replication	2151
viral rna	2057
immune responses	1979
respiratory viruses	1927
amino acid	1890
viral infections	1875
viral replication	1772
host cell	1764
viral infection	1705
cell culture	1613
united states	1607
severe acute	1589
virus type	1569
immunodeficiency virus	1519
public health	1516
virus infections	1506
herpes simplex	1494
epithelial cells	1448
type i	1431
infectious diseases	1418
dengue virus	1382
west nile	1372
antiviral activity	1357
infl uenza	1314
simplex virus	1297
zika virus	1293
immune system	1284
innate immune	1272
virus particles	1265
vaccinia virus	1235
cord uid	1203
doc id	1203
gene expression	1188
cell lines	1171
viral proteins	1165
nile virus	1159
nucleic acid	1146
human immunodeficiency	1131
rna virus	1123
disease virus	1122
clinical signs	1112
hemorrhagic fever	1092
fever virus	1082
syndrome coronavirus	1032
viral genome	1021
may also	1010
lower respiratory	996
rna polymerase	975
pandemic influenza	973
electron microscopy	956
cell surface	948
highly pathogenic	947
host cells	904
hong kong	902
neutralizing antibodies	886
nervous system	872
stranded rna	852
encephalitis virus	837
enveloped viruses	827
nipah virus	805
animal models	804
sialic acid	794
clinical trials	791
amino acids	789
influenza vaccine	773
virus entry	770
chain reaction	765
measles virus	760
respiratory virus	752
polymerase chain	747
membrane fusion	740
infectious bronchitis	737
dna viruses	732
respiratory disease	731
respiratory infections	726
closely related	714
seasonal influenza	709
middle east	705
monoclonal antibodies	704
like particles	698
upper respiratory	696
viral load	690
human influenza	684
plasma membrane	683
syndrome virus	680
enteric viruses	674
central nervous	669
cell cultures	660
mosaic virus	654
structural proteins	650
viral particles	650
dendritic cells	646
host range	641
world health	629
virus disease	625
yellow fever	613
young children	611
human metapneumovirus	608
infectious virus	607
cell line	606
cell death	606
reverse transcription	604
influenza infection	603
vesicular stomatitis	602
nucleic acids	600
life cycle	589
hepatitis virus	588
virus strains	583
rabies virus	581
antiviral drugs	581
receptor binding	581
rna replication	580
innate immunity	580
infectious disease	576
east respiratory	574
health organization	572
parainfluenza virus	567
porcine reproductive	567
newcastle disease	564
diarrhea virus	561
virus rna	559
bronchitis virus	558
vaccine development	558
rna synthesis	557
viral diseases	552
stomatitis virus	549
live attenuated	548
novel coronavirus	545
disease severity	545
tissue culture	545
virus detection	543
severe disease	541
viral protein	538
virus vaccine	533
influenza vaccines	528
sars coronavirus	526
time pcr	525
viral genomes	521
phylogenetic analysis	520
monoclonal antibody	520
tract infections	519
reverse transcriptase	518
host factors	517
human coronavirus	507
valley fever	502
mouse model	502
important role	502
rift valley	502
strand rna	500
risk factors	499
dependent rna	496
endoplasmic reticulum	491
virus genome	490
human respiratory	490
host immune	489
incubation period	485
class i	483
vero cells	482
chikungunya virus	482
reverse genetics	481
infected mice	478
capsid protein	478
protein synthesis	477
binding site	476
antiviral agents	469
viral entry	468
cell responses	467
rsv infection	463
japanese encephalitis	461
genetic diversity	458
spike protein	457
virus transmission	455
pathogenic avian	454
respiratory viral	454
viral pathogens	453
antibody responses	453
swine influenza	450
antibody response	448
respiratory illness	446
virus isolation	445
influenza pandemic	445
mouse hepatitis	441
neutralizing antibody	437
infected patients	434
wide range	431
binding protein	429
viral envelope	423
human infection	423
disease control	423
virus strain	422
cell membrane	420
high levels	419
viral dna	418
cleavage site	414
mammalian cells	414
hendra virus	412
saudi arabia	409
adaptive immune	409
endothelial cells	408
large number	407
protective immunity	406
i interferon	405
rna genome	401
host species	400
cell types	396
i ifn	396
sendai virus	396
virus vaccines	395
health care	394
target cells	394
clinical disease	392
viruses may	391
direct contact	390
emerging viruses	390
recent studies	389
fusion protein	389
may occur	388
leukemia virus	387
respiratory infection	386
infected animals	385
common cold	385
mouth disease	384
infectious agents	382
marburg virus	381
emerging infectious	380
antiviral effect	380
barr virus	376
bone marrow	375
even though	375
experimental infection	373
guinea pigs	373
cells infected	371
previously described	371
human transmission	371
protein kinase	371
many viruses	370
lymph nodes	369
uenza virus	368
plant viruses	366
porcine epidemic	366
viruses isolated	366
human disease	366
virus isolates	365
open reading	362
fruit bats	362
systematic review	361
sequence analysis	360
human population	358
escherichia coli	358
room temperature	358
sindbis virus	356
clinical trial	353
recent study	352
nucleotide sequence	352
bovine viral	350
inflammatory response	350
specific antibodies	350
gene therapy	349
borne encephalitis	348
highly conserved	345
envelope protein	345
epidemic diarrhea	344
virus may	341
ns protein	341
animal model	341
host proteins	341
persistent infection	341
swine fever	341
rna interference	340
north america	339
viral antigens	339
mg kg	337
virus evolution	335
human health	334
side effects	334
associated virus	332
virus particle	332
developing countries	332
different viruses	330
molecular biology	329
pregnant women	329
clinical samples	328
human rhinovirus	328
infected cell	328
virus ns	328
recent years	324
widely used	324
tract infection	323
genome sequence	322
like receptor	321
envelope glycoprotein	320
semliki forest	319
reading frame	316
genetic material	316
nonstructural protein	315
transplant recipients	314
mice infected	314
genomic rna	314
hiv infection	312
causative agent	311
cell entry	310
present study	310
drug resistance	310
forest virus	309
antiviral therapy	308
nonhuman primates	307
host response	307
pcr assays	307
structural protein	306
complete genome	305
capsid proteins	305
like viruses	303
weight loss	302
human viruses	302
respiratory distress	301
clinical symptoms	301
performed using	301
virus hemagglutinin	301
pcr assay	301
acid sequence	300
feline immunodeficiency	300
two different	299
stranded dna	298
virus glycoprotein	297
mhc class	297
viral diarrhea	296
viral respiratory	296
immune cells	294
nucleocapsid protein	294
mortality rate	294
antiviral drug	293
peripheral blood	291
wild birds	290
equine encephalitis	290
human cases	290
new virus	288
years old	288
virus titers	286
antiviral response	286
low ph	286
infection may	286
sense rna	284
viral disease	284
zoonotic viruses	283
type ii	283
west africa	282
least one	282
chronic hepatitis	281
experimentally infected	281
bat species	280
time rt	280
fusion peptide	280
animal viruses	280
infected individuals	279
membrane protein	279
borna disease	278
also found	277
pathogenic viruses	276
hcv infection	276
spectrum antiviral	276
human papillomavirus	275
infection control	275
human infections	275
necrosis factor	275
congo hemorrhagic	274
several studies	273
replication cycle	272
viral antigen	272
antibody titers	272
respiratory symptoms	272
binding sites	272
clinical features	270
human cells	270
matrix protein	270
commonly used	270
molecular mechanisms	269
human cytomegalovirus	269
canine distemper	265
genome replication	265
phase i	264
genome sequences	264
viral nucleic	264
mdck cells	263
lassa fever	262
otitis media	262
crystal structure	261
tobacco mosaic	260
may lead	260
viral gene	260
another study	260
binding domain	258
lymphocytic choriomeningitis	257
length cov	256
virsorter node	256
node length	256
bacterial infections	256
virus isolated	256
ion channel	256
human parainfluenza	256
multiple sclerosis	256
nk cells	255
cellular immune	255
relative humidity	253
also known	252
human coronaviruses	252
translation initiation	250
naturally occurring	249
cellular proteins	249
vaccine candidates	249
viral sequences	247
antiviral effects	247
nonstructural proteins	246
acid residues	246
hela cells	246
borne viruses	246
like illness	246
may result	246
clinical specimens	245
heat shock	245
new host	244
stem cell	244
high risk	243
species transmission	243
tumor necrosis	243
viral shedding	243
previous studies	242
coronavirus infection	241
cat virsorter	241
haemorrhagic fever	240
virus shedding	240
may cause	239
immunocompromised patients	239
lipid rafts	239
immune evasion	239
dna polymerase	238
class ii	238
vaccine strain	238
acid sequences	237
drinking water	237
like virus	236
rna recombination	236
days post	235
viral vectors	234
pandemic virus	234
plant virus	234
parainfluenza viruses	234
blood cells	234
animal species	234
host interactions	232
wild type	232
high mortality	231
silver nanoparticles	231
related viruses	231
replication complex	231
severe respiratory	231
coronavirus disease	230
increased risk	230
intensive care	230
vaccine candidate	229
influenza vaccination	229
authors declare	229
new york	228
generation sequencing	228
sequence data	228
age groups	227
guinea pig	227
infected cats	227
mortality rates	227
choriomeningitis virus	226
venezuelan equine	226
virus genomes	226
type iii	226
envelope proteins	225
zoster virus	225
years ago	225
cytopathic effect	225
mononuclear cells	225
mutation rate	224
virus inactivation	224
infect humans	224
human bocavirus	224
target cell	224
growth factor	224
lipid bilayer	223
type virus	223
virus challenge	223
mutation rates	223
reading frames	223
additional file	222
natural killer	222
respiratory pathogens	222
viral clearance	222
control group	222
age group	221
inflammatory cytokines	221
virus envelope	220
virus families	220
cause disease	219
fatality rate	218
signaling pathway	218
fusion proteins	217
domestic animals	217
protein expression	217
linked immunosorbent	217
pulmonary disease	216
gene products	216
acute infection	216
natural infection	216
nucleotide sequences	216
controlled trial	215
asthma exacerbations	215
serum samples	215
virus proteins	215
transcription factor	214
stem cells	214
wide variety	214
human airway	213
envelope glycoproteins	212
viral pathogenesis	212
low levels	212
currently available	212
novel viruses	211
viral particle	211
tract disease	211
tissue tropism	211
first time	211
like receptors	211
molecular weight	210
naturally infected	209
clinical manifestations	208
per year	208
herpes virus	208
laboratory mice	208
viral loads	208
determine whether	207
transcription factors	207
described previously	207
human monoclonal	207
spinal cord	206
recombinant viruses	206
close contact	206
norwalk virus	206
cell fusion	206
antiviral activities	206
secondary bacterial	206
viral genes	206
rhesus macaques	205
control measures	205
cov infection	205
cell response	205
antigenic drift	205
recombinant virus	204
membrane proteins	204
two viruses	204
disease progression	204
neuraminidase inhibitors	203
virus production	203
viral glycoproteins	203
real time	203
human populations	203
specific antibody	202
avian infectious	202
iav infection	202
humoral immune	201
severe cases	201
human pathogens	201
risk assessment	201
distress syndrome	201
immunosorbent assay	201
lassa virus	200
cultured cells	200
hcv rna	200
bacterial infection	200
genetic variation	200
commercially available	199
samples collected	199
red blood	198
coat protein	198
different species	198
virus assembly	198
clinical studies	198
vaccine production	198
different types	197
dengue viruses	197
kidney cells	197
diagnostic tests	197
body weight	197
airborne transmission	196
takes place	196
airway epithelial	196
primary infection	195
small molecule	195
molecular characterization	195
gastrointestinal tract	195
conformational changes	194
receptor specificity	194
host defense	194
transmissible gastroenteritis	193
host protein	193
may provide	193
large numbers	192
also observed	192
respiratory diseases	192
better understanding	192
gene transfer	192
data suggest	192
cell receptor	192
new viruses	192
vaccine virus	191
like particle	191
broad spectrum	191
sore throat	190
genome sequencing	190
within days	190
natural reservoir	190
pdm virus	189
international committee	189
million people	189
may contribute	189
hcv replication	189
per cent	189
virus infectivity	189
plaque assay	189
south america	189
case fatality	188
rubella virus	188
dna virus	188
active site	187
natural host	187
signaling pathways	187
north american	187
protein interactions	187
african swine	187
among children	187
antiviral immunity	186
enveloped virus	186
regulatory factor	186
classical swine	186
bovine serum	186
viral polymerase	185
antiviral properties	185
multiplex pcr	185
distemper virus	185
patients infected	185
reservoir hosts	185
animal health	185
antiviral responses	185
positive samples	185
secondary structure	184
drug delivery	184
vertical transmission	184
mass spectrometry	184
virus spread	184
protective efficacy	183
new world	183
statistically significant	183
defective interfering	183
results suggest	183
significantly higher	183
based vaccines	183
dna replication	183
nitric oxide	183
virus titer	182
recombinant vaccinia	182
attenuated vaccines	182
virus species	182
viral mrnas	182
dna vaccines	182
persistently infected	182
rhinovirus infection	181
viral membrane	181
cell type	181
adaptive immunity	180
pr virus	180
high level	180
cell cycle	180
adenovirus type	180
inhibitory effect	180
mg ml	180
cause severe	180
rapid detection	180
conformational change	180
feline infectious	179
recent advances	179
cystic fibrosis	179
lung injury	179
acquired pneumonia	179
binding proteins	178
viral capsid	178
aedes aegypti	178
risk factor	177
molecular basis	177
deep sequencing	177
dengue fever	177
time points	177
chronic obstructive	177
coronavirus infections	177
may play	176
sars virus	176
dependent manner	176
inactivated vaccine	176
disease caused	176
rna genomes	175
genome size	175
modified vaccinia	175
epithelial cell	175
staphylococcus aureus	175
streptococcus pneumoniae	174
infectious peritonitis	173
adverse effects	173
sialic acids	173
disease outbreaks	173
severe influenza	173
specific cd	173
small intestine	173
cell membranes	172
dna vaccine	172
zoonotic diseases	172
one study	172
environmental factors	172
studies using	172
proinflammatory cytokines	172
surface proteins	171
well known	171
based vaccine	171
early stages	170
inflammatory responses	170
molecular epidemiology	170
cynomolgus macaques	170
terminal domain	170
will also	170
drug discovery	170
many different	170
shock protein	170
southeast asia	169
virus types	168
obstructive pulmonary	168
viral life	168
live virus	168
spike glycoprotein	168
post infection	168
coding region	167
taken together	167
serum antibody	167
flying foxes	167
inactivated influenza	167
neu ac	167
cellular receptor	167
rna silencing	166
mouse models	166
viral persistence	166
human adenovirus	166
respiratory failure	166
differential diagnosis	165
vaccine strains	165
national institute	165
pandemic potential	165
different viral	164
cohort study	164
virus activity	164
virus persistence	164
many years	164
critical role	164
bacterial pathogens	164
oxidative stress	164
following infection	164
viral agents	164
cancer cells	164
proteolytic cleavage	163
replication complexes	163
immune complexes	163
also used	163
inactivated vaccines	163
key role	163
electron microscopic	162
several viruses	162
studies suggest	161
southern china	161
major histocompatibility	161
chicken eggs	161
point mutations	161
previously reported	161
virus dna	160
significant differences	160
oral route	160
cerebrospinal fluid	160
mediated endocytosis	159
core protein	159
cytopathic effects	159
high mutation	159
protective immune	159
united kingdom	159
also shown	159
virus using	158
cell activation	158
cell tropism	158
virus growth	158
initiation factor	157
antiviral treatment	157
limited number	157
major cause	157
african green	157
total number	157
small number	157
virus protein	157
early stage	157
nasal swabs	157
fi rst	157
gene product	157
alveolar macrophages	157
fatty acid	156
study showed	156
healthy adults	156
influenza strains	156
human diseases	156
phylogenetic trees	156
insect cells	156
protease inhibitors	156
signal transduction	156
family members	155
also reported	155
cotton rats	155
nuclear export	155
influenza surveillance	155
acute phase	155
prospective study	155
one virus	155
viral pneumonia	155
cell proliferation	155
mediated immunity	154
democratic republic	154
hospitalized patients	154
tcid ml	154
interferon response	154
detection methods	154
viral mrna	154
murine leukemia	154
hospitalized children	154
inclusion bodies	153
acid substitutions	153
virus infected	153
interferon regulatory	153
global health	153
confirmed cases	153
acute viral	152
small molecules	152
viral fitness	152
cytokine storm	152
many cases	152
viral titers	152
evidence suggests	152
genetic characterization	152
feline calicivirus	152
rhesus monkeys	152
fatal cases	151
canine parvovirus	151
influenza season	151
two distinct	151
studies showed	151
maternal antibodies	151
infection induces	151
neutralizing activity	150
clinical characteristics	150
viral strains	150
antigen presentation	150
structural basis	150
two major	150
highly sensitive	150
viral gastroenteritis	150
phase ii	150
laboratory animals	150
dendritic cell	150
i ifns	150
virus pathogenesis	149
ha gene	149
surface glycoproteins	149
pulmonary syndrome	149
simian virus	149
also detected	149
human enteric	149
attenuated influenza	149
heparan sulfate	149
high prevalence	148
emerging viral	148
ifn response	148
novel influenza	148
situ hybridization	148
proteins involved	148
environmental conditions	148
converting enzyme	147
nk cell	147
broad range	147
avian viruses	147
expression levels	147
well plates	147
relatively low	147
human host	146
viral infectivity	146
gene segments	146
become infected	146
tested positive	146
virus diseases	146
major role	146
body fluids	145
different cell	145
virus attachment	145
small rnas	145
lung tissue	145
three times	145
take place	145
also showed	145
cell receptors	145
small interfering	144
alpha beta	144
least two	144
respiratory secretions	143
human herpesvirus	143
potential role	143
remains unclear	143
disease burden	143
virus taxonomy	143
hantavirus pulmonary	143
antigen detection	143
feline leukemia	143
rna polymerases	143
first isolated	143
south korea	143
virus binding	143
care workers	142
viral etiology	142
natural selection	142
genetic information	142
surface antigen	142
mediated immune	142
cytokine production	142
untranslated region	142
new viral	142
encephalomyelitis virus	142
sequence alignment	141
corona virus	141
drug development	141
specific viral	141
identifi ed	141
water samples	141
viral fusion	141
positive results	141
histocompatibility complex	141
pfu ml	141
time point	141
three different	141
ex vivo	141
evolutionary history	140
phylogenetic tree	140
entry site	139
south africa	139
developed countries	139
novel virus	139
foreign gene	139
monkey kidney	139
th century	139
highly contagious	139
see table	139
cellular immunity	138
virus ankara	138
virus neutralization	138
viruses belonging	138
human beings	138
murine norovirus	138
highly effective	138
dans les	138
gold nanoparticles	138
influenza infections	138
blood samples	138
newly discovered	138
results showed	138
last years	138
rsv infections	138
climate change	138
virus vectors	138
human genome	138
viruses including	137
cells via	137
cellular receptors	137
person transmission	137
wild animals	137
total rna	137
viruses detected	137
like protease	137
ebola hemorrhagic	137
viral hepatitis	137
comparative analysis	137
new antiviral	136
genome segments	136
virus outbreak	136
zikv infection	136
inactivated virus	136
influenza hemagglutinin	136
electron microscope	136
vaccine efficacy	136
virus nonstructural	136
presenting cells	136
negative staining	136
viruses using	136
subunit vaccines	136
transmembrane domain	135
two groups	135
host responses	135
high degree	135
binding specificity	135
infections may	135
viruses infecting	135
human primates	135
genomic sequences	135
pcr products	135
might also	135
specific virus	135
innate antiviral	134
time reverse	134
membrane vesicles	134
different strains	134
virus concentration	134
fresh produce	134
gel electrophoresis	134
molecular techniques	134
adult mice	134
emerging pathogens	133
molecular methods	133
homologous recombination	133
virus encephalitis	133
sierra leone	133
natural history	133
cdna clone	132
simultaneous detection	132
fruit bat	132
interferon signaling	132
vaccine design	132
le virus	132
lung disease	132
virus variants	132
infectious agent	132
western blot	132
disease emergence	132
significantly reduced	132
positive selection	132
molecular evolution	132
coding sequence	132
uenza viruses	132
highly virulent	131
host innate	131
stimulated genes	131
infection among	131
transgenic mice	131
viral rnas	131
antiviral compounds	131
virus population	131
specific immune	131
laboratory animal	131
lethal infection	131
tumor cells	131
virus polymerase	131
zoonotic disease	131
single amino	130
mammalian cell	130
hepatocellular carcinoma	130
throat swabs	130
laboratory diagnosis	130
effective vaccines	130
virus capsid	130
day post	130
aerosol transmission	130
virus discovery	130
culture medium	130
significant difference	130
results indicate	130
channel activity	130
type infection	129
virus fusion	129
viral culture	129
cellular membranes	129
genetic variability	129
leaf curl	129
experimental studies	129
quality control	129
negative control	129
high viral	129
sequence identity	129
ifn production	129
neuraminidase inhibitor	129
poorly understood	128
cells expressing	128
fusion activity	128
diseases caused	128
young adults	128
bacterial pneumonia	128
emerging infections	128
virus antigen	128
species barrier	128
airway epithelium	128
viral families	128
virus survival	127
next generation	127
drug administration	127
virus causes	127
blood mononuclear	127
novel human	127
ifn signaling	127
several different	127
avian species	127
high throughput	127
healthcare workers	127
mechanical ventilation	127
functional genomics	127
applied biosystems	126
penaeus monodon	126
new insights	126
whole genome	126
virus induced	126
common cause	126
lethal challenge	126
deficient mice	126
protease inhibitor	126
adverse events	126
virus family	126
clinical presentation	125
different virus	125
polymerase activity	125
acidic ph	125
may develop	125
first step	125
surveillance system	125
gastroenteritis virus	125
newly synthesized	125
virus influenza	124
see also	124
viral detection	124
inhibitory activity	124
may help	124
clinical course	124
zoonotic transmission	124
pseudorabies virus	124
embryonated eggs	124
viral diversity	123
interfering rna	123
may affect	123
two types	123
children aged	123
frequently detected	123
old world	123
virus expressing	123
fatal disease	123
virus release	123
subunit vaccine	123
viruses also	123
much less	122
virus life	122
newly identified	122
measles vaccine	122
chronic infection	122
tissue damage	122
phage display	122
infectious dose	122
give rise	122
many countries	122
interspecies transmission	122
proteolytic processing	122
first reported	122
human serum	122
viruses cause	121
suckling mice	121
also present	121
antiviral agent	121
infections caused	121
viral genomic	121
natural hosts	121
rapid diagnosis	121
binding affinity	121
protein vp	121
recognition receptors	121
viral spread	121
liver disease	121
reporter gene	121
nuclear import	121
cd cells	121
single virus	120
gene delivery	120
embryonated chicken	120
may represent	120
hemagglutination inhibition	120
attenuated virus	120
pattern recognition	120
persistent infections	120
vast majority	120
fatty acids	120
rna binding	120
cleavage sites	120
cellular protein	120
rna segments	120
origin influenza	120
respiratory droplets	120
index case	119
herpes viruses	119
detection limit	119
bronchial epithelial	119
viral population	119
cells may	119
care unit	119
marburg viruses	119
negatively stained	119
cell spread	119
haemophilus influenzae	119
lymphoid tissues	119
secretory pathway	119
vaccine vectors	119
epidemiological studies	119
bluetongue virus	119
specific antiviral	119
wastewater treatment	119
des virus	119
water quality	118
aedes albopictus	118
interfering rnas	118
coronavirus spike	118
common ancestor	118
culture systems	118
attenuated live	118
current knowledge	118
expression systems	118
brain barrier	118
internal ribosome	118
genetic analysis	118
less likely	118
mouse strains	118
neurological disease	118
phase iii	118
ribosome entry	118
cytoplasmic domain	118
two main	118
protective equipment	117
encephalomyocarditis virus	117
emerging diseases	117
study group	117
also important	117
viral vector	117
much higher	117
cell epitopes	117
coding regions	117
reactive oxygen	117
nuclear localization	117
also occur	117
terminal region	117
igg antibodies	117
infected host	117
dengue hemorrhagic	117
en el	117
among different	117
severe pneumonia	116
protein sequences	116
poliovirus rna	116
biological properties	116
activated protein	116
respiratory specimens	116
salivary glands	116
emerging virus	116
may become	116
children hospitalized	116
biosafety level	116
airway inflammation	116
phylogenetic analyses	116
viral species	116
clinical practice	116
vaccine vector	115
viral attachment	115
disease outbreak	115
endothelial cell	115
interferon production	115
large amounts	115
effective vaccine	115
dependent enhancement	115
heart disease	115
du virus	115
throughput sequencing	115
highly susceptible	115
protective effect	115
simian immunodeficiency	115
human rhinoviruses	115
higher levels	114
van der	114
rna molecules	114
infant mice	114
small animal	114
viral surface	114
cell growth	114
polymerase complex	114
strains isolated	114
research council	114
also cause	114
universal influenza	114
serine protease	114
recombination events	114
beta interferon	114
ns gene	114
essential role	114
multiple viruses	114
primary human	114
murine hepatitis	114
long term	114
cellular factors	113
leading cause	113
infection occurs	113
serological tests	113
infectious particles	113
acute lower	113
lymph node	113
novel antiviral	113
dna sequences	113
reservoir host	113
sequence similarity	113
gene sequences	113
hantaan virus	113
whole virus	113
antiviral state	113
antibody production	113
better understand	113
common respiratory	113
hbv infection	113
immunodeficient mice	113
febrile illness	113
cytoplasmic tail	113
virus research	113
may include	113
different mechanisms	113
inflammatory cells	112
first described	112
rv infection	112
differentially expressed	112
human lung	112
adhesion molecule	112
inhibit viral	112
ha protein	112
east asia	112
viral contamination	112
immunocompetent mice	112
crucial role	112
results obtained	112
mouse colonies	112
knockout mice	111
molecular detection	111
creative commons	111
broadly neutralizing	111
dans le	111
body temperature	111
host population	111
transmission electron	111
previous study	111
similar results	111
rotavirus infection	111
virion assembly	111
productive infection	111
surface protein	111
virus removal	111
diagnostic methods	111
sarcoma virus	111
personal protective	111
pcr amplification	111
convalescent plasma	111
acute gastroenteritis	111
long time	110
live vaccines	110
randomized controlled	110
respiratory epithelium	110
viral components	110
will help	110
table i	110
negatively charged	110
ace receptor	110
oral fluid	110
positively charged	110
viruses causing	110
single dose	110
murine coronavirus	110
data indicate	110
respiratory epithelial	110
data analysis	110
see chapter	110
well tolerated	110
veterinary medicine	110
skin lesions	110
causative agents	110
dsrna viruses	110
current status	109
tissue samples	109
high sensitivity	109
rna viral	109
immune complex	109
high affinity	109
certain viruses	109
antibody levels	109
viral evolution	109
infected pigs	109
transmission routes	108
maximum likelihood	108
viral vaccines	108
viruses associated	108
acid changes	108
oxygen species	108
also demonstrated	108
may explain	108
virus will	108
reassortant viruses	108
combination therapy	108
among others	108
log reduction	107
host cellular	107
protect mice	107
relatively high	107
supportive care	107
mammalian species	107
zoonotic potential	107
respiratory samples	107
novel host	107
may serve	107
among patients	107
viral hemorrhagic	107
past years	107
attenuated vaccine	107
early life	107
newly emerging	107
infections among	106
based assays	106
mouse brain	106
many studies	106
specific primers	106
adenovirus infection	106
vaccinated animals	106
complement fixation	106
latent infection	106
antigenic shift	106
two decades	106
smallpox vaccine	106
possible role	106
infection rate	106
serological evidence	106
inhibitory effects	106
symptom onset	106
coding sequences	106
healthy individuals	106
rsv disease	106
pet birds	106
severe illness	105
respiratory illnesses	105
virus isolate	105
new human	105
future studies	105
varicella zoster	105
mumps virus	105
influenza viral	105
among humans	105
pathological changes	105
virucidal activity	105
acute otitis	105
high concentrations	105
preventive measures	105
vitro studies	105
west african	105
copy number	105
see section	105
early detection	105
polymerase ii	105
distantly related	105
viral metagenomics	105
like symptoms	104
ebov infection	104
etiologic agent	104
initial infection	104
influenza pandemics	104
genetic engineering	104
genes encoding	104
buffered saline	104
dna synthesis	104
environmental samples	104
golgi apparatus	104
virus also	104
close proximity	104
well documented	104
near future	104
well established	104
virus nucleoprotein	103
human virus	103
nonenveloped viruses	103
maternal antibody	103
flying fox	103
nonhuman primate	103
expression system	103
spanish flu	103
nasal mucosa	103
antiviral signaling	103
delivery systems	103
clinical outcome	103
ssrna viruses	102
new zealand	102
associated coronavirus	102
human norovirus	102
mutant spectrum	102
tanguticum nanoparticles	102
host factor	102
therapeutic agents	102
small rna	102
virus induces	102
high frequency	102
nasal secretions	102
important factor	102
will provide	102
first report	102
sample collection	102
general population	102
bronchoalveolar lavage	102
proteins may	102
viral transmission	102
movement protein	102
ill patients	101
virus sequences	101
significantly lower	101
virus interactions	101
viral quasispecies	101
copies ml	101
vaccine viruses	101
viral glycoprotein	101
genetic reassortment	101
several days	101
findings suggest	101
surface receptors	101
also identified	101
associated protein	101
determined using	101
antiviral therapies	101
several years	101
data set	101
etiological agent	101
ebola viruses	100
recombinant mva	100
sequence homology	100
viruses use	100
specific pathogen	100
mutant viruses	100
blood vessels	100
indirect contact	100
effective antiviral	100
immune status	100
recombinant proteins	100
porcine circovirus	100
last decade	100
vertebrate hosts	100
virus receptor	100
matrix completion	100
viruses circulating	100
transmembrane protein	100
interstitial pneumonia	100
gene silencing	100
viruses will	100
natural infections	100
antiviral immune	100
golgi complex	100
viral titer	99
competing interests	99
ebola outbreak	99
foodborne viruses	99
nuclear factor	99
also play	99
new coronavirus	99
mucous membranes	99
antiviral innate	99
virus associated	99
national institutes	99
acute bronchiolitis	99
economic losses	99
family paramyxoviridae	99
antiviral action	99
coronavirus oc	99
unpublished data	99
humoral immunity	99
standard deviation	99
food safety	99
associated herpesvirus	99
low level	99
gene encoding	99
igg antibody	98
disease symptoms	98
antiviral strategies	98
existing immunity	98
challenge virus	98
mosquito cells	98
potential therapeutic	98
genetically modified	98
avian infl	98
virus adsorption	98
experimental conditions	98
consensus sequence	98
candidate vaccines	98
disease may	98
signifi cant	98
hematopoietic stem	98
acute lung	98
canine kidney	98
complex formation	98
will continue	98
quantitative pcr	98
virus glycoproteins	98
intestinal tract	98
natural reservoirs	98
fetal bovine	98
forming units	98
les virus	97
hiv aids	97
factors associated	97
fluorescent protein	97
entry inhibitors	97
virus host	97
antigenic variation	97
infected human	97
hepatitis viruses	97
lung epithelial	97
cell transplant	97
european countries	97
genome organization	97
codon usage	97
metapneumovirus infection	97
protects mice	97
fecal samples	97
high rate	97
specific igg	97
coronavirus replication	97
nested pcr	97
many viral	97
remains unknown	96
mammalian viruses	96
vaccine delivery	96
sin nombre	96
infection cycle	96
recombinant protein	96
candidate vaccine	96
passive immunization	96
flow cytometry	96
virus populations	96
wnv infection	96
vaccination strategies	96
influenza epidemics	96
often associated	96
another example	96
experimental data	96
critically ill	96
highly specific	96
monkeypox virus	96
infection rates	96
one hand	96
scid mice	96
gross lesions	96
virus vp	95
thymidine kinase	95
mycobacterium tuberculosis	95
minute virus	95
live vaccine	95
glycosylation sites	95
fatality rates	95
surface glycoprotein	95
bovine herpesvirus	95
white spot	95
also possible	95
host immunity	95
medical research	95
several weeks	95
virulence factors	95
single stranded	95
animal studies	95
human immune	95
associated viruses	95
statistical analysis	95
cell wall	95
vaccines based	95
virus gene	95
virus groups	95
immune cell	95
analysis revealed	95
selective pressure	95
experimental infections	95
clinical use	95
hemorrhagic fevers	95
past decade	95
plasmid dna	95
infection results	94
mitochondrial function	94
linked sialic	94
clinical management	94
autoimmune diseases	94
protein interaction	94
breast cancer	94
vivo studies	94
chez les	94
infectious viruses	94
control study	94
potential antiviral	94
mutant virus	94
virus factories	94
emerging zoonotic	94
brain tissue	94
gold standard	94
metagenomic analysis	94
rna helicase	94
control strategies	94
new influenza	94
sars cov	94
glial cells	94
disease transmission	94
interfering particles	94
integral membrane	94
respiratory system	94
pandemic strain	94
ist die	93
health authorities	93
jc virus	93
supplementary material	93
intermediate host	93
human macrophages	93
first identified	93
infect cells	93
will allow	93
ns proteins	93
central africa	93
full length	93
virus identification	93
cell leukemia	93
infected person	93
days later	93
negative stain	93
relative abundance	93
lipid metabolism	93
multiple sequence	93
outer membrane	93
survival rate	93
identifi cation	93
research complications	93
defense mechanisms	93
infection causes	93
antiviral defense	93
blood cell	92
global burden	92
pediatric patients	92
single nucleotide	92
eukaryotic cells	92
data sets	92
movement proteins	92
every year	92
high titers	92
st century	92
surface area	92
accessory proteins	92
pandemic viruses	92
diarrhoea virus	92
detection rate	92
late endosomes	92
migratory birds	92
blood donors	92
quantum dots	92
cytomegalovirus infection	92
human hepatitis	92
well understood	92
transmitted via	91
dsdna viruses	91
nasal swab	91
endosomal membrane	91
particle size	91
environmental surfaces	91
conserved among	91
small round	91
zoonotic pathogens	91
type viruses	91
killer cells	91
important roles	91
bovine respiratory	91
lung function	91
based methods	91
bl mice	91
studies indicate	91
antigenic sites	91
clinical diagnosis	91
thin sections	91
negative strand	91
honey bee	91
viral genetic	91
mediated antiviral	91
ubiquitin ligase	91
large dna	91
data obtained	91
two proteins	91
cells using	91
green monkey	91
protein structure	91
lymphoid tissue	91
virus group	91
throughput screening	91
factors affecting	90
expression vector	90
sample preparation	90
significantly different	90
viruses present	90
increasing number	90
also called	90
interferon induction	90
ctl responses	90
viral variants	90
cellular entry	90
often used	90
human cell	90
diabetes mellitus	90
transmission via	90
allantoic fluid	90
cytokine responses	90
i interferons	90
genetically engineered	90
whole blood	90
three viruses	90
ifn induction	90
virus vector	90
molecular mimicry	90
endemic areas	90
cell monolayers	90
ctl response	89
several viral	89
viral populations	89
adult patients	89
higher risk	89
spot syndrome	89
clinical data	89
recent work	89
common colds	89
viral diagnosis	89
induced apoptosis	89
resistant viruses	89
foamy virus	89
different stages	89
recent report	89
cell lysis	89
yellow head	89
million deaths	89
negative results	89
cotton rat	89
case report	89
aged years	89
study using	89
virus neuraminidase	89
cd cd	89
kidney cell	89
new vaccines	89
vice versa	89
drug repurposing	89
calf serum	89
temperature sensitivity	88
alveolar epithelial	88
rna extraction	88
basic protein	88
hand hygiene	88
study period	88
cellular processes	88
antibodies directed	88
one health	88
surface expression	88
virus replicates	88
protein gene	88
acid binding	88
therapeutic strategies	88
cell function	88
clinical development	88
intravenous immunoglobulin	88
progeny virus	88
protein ns	88
new species	88
arthropod vectors	88
per day	88
subcellular localization	88
virus propagation	88
year old	88
viruses like	88
virus subtypes	88
da asma	88
functional analysis	88
will require	88
antibody titer	88
host gene	88
signal peptide	88
antiviral efficacy	88
er stress	87
low pathogenic	87
immune systems	87
lethal mutagenesis	87
using different	87
porcine respiratory	87
endogenous retroviruses	87
human pathogen	87
human clinical	87
animal cell	87
virus receptors	87
probably due	87
much lower	87
intranasal inoculation	87
adaptor protein	87
several months	87
spanish influenza	87
bei der	87
asian countries	87
molecular patterns	87
genbank accession	87
vp protein	87
acute hepatitis	87
escape mutants	87
living cells	87
severe clinical	87
least three	87
ebov gp	86
smallpox vaccination	86
severe fever	86
analysis using	86
hsct recipients	86
rna sequences	86
two strains	86
next pandemic	86
selection pressure	86
may vary	86
methods used	86
host antiviral	86
per ml	86
pseudomonas aeruginosa	86
vaccinia viruses	86
fatal human	86
lethal disease	86
available data	86
mucosal immunity	86
modified live	86
likely due	86
plaque reduction	86
human embryonic	86
transcription polymerase	86
currently used	86
twentieth century	86
human parvovirus	85
rhinovirus infections	85
entry process	85
saharan africa	85
lipid envelope	85
biomedical research	85
uninfected cells	85
dromedary camels	85
immune globulin	85
complete protection	85
foreign genes	85
cellular rna	85
population size	85
vectored vaccines	85
quantitative real	85
lactate dehydrogenase	85
manufacturing process	85
plasma cells	85
highly attenuated	85
contaminated water	85
virus circulation	85
virus core	85
particular interest	85
nuclear translocation	85
mechanisms involved	85
national research	85
stainless steel	85
vaccine expressing	85
metagenomic sequencing	85
mammalian hosts	85
acid extraction	85
virus bronchiolitis	85
free virus	84
resistance mutations	84
infected humans	84
emergency department	84
cap structure	84
biological materials	84
high virulence	84
within hours	84
serum antibodies	84
host genes	84
genetic variants	84
cellular membrane	84
inflammatory mediators	84
thermo fisher	84
study conducted	84
widely distributed	84
nipah viruses	84
therapeutic potential	84
factor receptor	84
virus among	84
per se	84
accession numbers	84
immune electron	84
pcr detection	84
cervical cancer	84
rsv bronchiolitis	84
chronically infected	84
affected animals	84
enveloped rna	84
acid amplification	84
will likely	84
cell interactions	84
aquatic birds	84
viruses among	84
lesser extent	83
natural products	83
thrombocytopenia syndrome	83
enzymatic activity	83
acquired immunodeficiency	83
genomic sequence	83
family flaviviridae	83
blood transfusion	83
high morbidity	83
differential expression	83
passive transfer	83
phylogenetic relationships	83
immunodeficiency syndrome	83
darby canine	83
older adults	83
antigenically related	83
potent antiviral	83
infected birds	83
latently infected	83
study design	83
viral safety	83
years later	83
host genome	83
factors involved	83
associated molecular	83
first case	83
pandemic preparedness	83
drug design	83
renal syndrome	83
infected persons	83
important cause	83
vlp vaccines	82
viral growth	82
family coronaviridae	82
linked glycosylation	82
culture system	82
virus load	82
new hosts	82
may induce	82
systemic infection	82
animal virus	82
virus clearance	82
binding properties	82
igm antibodies	82
resistant strains	82
induced asthma	82
side chains	82
vaccination programs	82
clinical outcomes	82
feline coronavirus	82
informed consent	82
unclear whether	82
viral isolates	82
rsv vaccine	82
increased susceptibility	82
genes involved	82
kda protein	82
neurological signs	82
organ cultures	82
viral pathogen	82
supplementary table	82
membrane structures	82
vascular endothelial	82
vaccinated mice	82
interferon alpha	82
significant reduction	82
disease associated	82
detection rates	82
immune signaling	81
specific ctl	81
novel viral	81
long periods	81
may allow	81
induced cell	81
lyme disease	81
known viruses	81
retrospective study	81
protein inhibits	81
graphene oxide	81
advisory committee	81
health concern	81
vaccine protects	81
ferret model	81
mice may	81
neurological symptoms	81
serial dilutions	81
two weeks	81
prevent infection	81
mesenchymal stem	81
transmission occurs	81
cellular functions	80
culture media	80
three groups	80
lipid bilayers	80
young infants	80
virus antigens	80
virus infects	80
fold higher	80
protein levels	80
recombinant dna	80
plasmacytoid dendritic	80
hpai viruses	80
cell transmission	80
herd immunity	80
otherwise healthy	80
cell biology	80
fever viruses	80
animal reservoirs	80
asymptomatic infection	80
antigenically distinct	80
rodent species	80
enteric virus	80
lymphotropic virus	80
passive immunity	80
binding pocket	80
particularly important	80
influenza activity	80
rousettus aegyptiacus	80
reported cases	80
internal genes	80
molecular cloning	80
also associated	79
chemokine receptor	79
recombinant vaccine	79
evolutionary genetics	79
genetic changes	79
coronavirus associated	79
another important	79
rational design	79
nude mice	79
asymptomatic infections	79
first year	79
viruses identified	79
mers coronavirus	79
viruses replicate	79
human viral	79
based assay	79
transport medium	79
diagnostic laboratories	79
vaccine based	79
fold increase	79
may contain	79
specific viruses	79
secondary infections	79
transmission dynamics	79
oral administration	79
different regions	79
urgent need	79
children younger	79
recently reported	79
virus specific	79
clinical illness	79
ng ml	79
lung transplant	78
cellular mrnas	78
lipid raft	78
marrow transplant	78
acid substitution	78
vivi disease	78
contaminated food	78
subgenomic rna	78
borne diseases	78
life technologies	78
sea water	78
final concentration	78
may increase	78
vitro antiviral	78
protein complexes	78
geographic distribution	78
blood products	78
respiratory coronavirus	78
crystal structures	78
protein nanocages	78
different host	78
direct interaction	78
organ systems	78
early studies	78
resistant influenza	78
previously unknown	78
white blood	77
coronavirus nl	77
experimental inoculation	77
nasopharyngeal aspirates	77
sequencing data	77
natural foci	77
domestic poultry	77
frequently used	77
bat viruses	77
agarose gel	77
may act	77
avian flu	77
comprehensive review	77
lung tissues	77
human enterovirus	77
study demonstrated	77
replication sites	77
pg ml	77
rous sarcoma	77
organ failure	77
diagnostic testing	77
infections due	77
viral assembly	77
lung slices	77
synthetic peptides	77
swine flu	77
acquired immune	77
infectious cdna	77
lipid membrane	77
economic impact	77
immune recognition	77
affecting humans	77
proteins encoded	77
variola virus	77
borne flaviviruses	77
immunodefi ciency	77
highly divergent	77
generated using	77
cell infection	76
serological studies	76
replication fidelity	76
complement activation	76
world war	76
virus cell	76
using recombinant	76
goat anti	76
nlrp inflammasome	76
virus recovery	76
infection caused	76
nasopharyngeal swabs	76
stimulated gene	76
mixed infections	76
first wave	76
infect dis	76
murine model	76
disease surveillance	76
times higher	76
recombinant human	76
false positive	76
virus via	76
cell adhesion	76
therapeutic efficacy	76
detected using	76
virus neutralizing	76
head virus	76
health officials	76
treatment options	76
including humans	76
host interaction	75
immune deficiency	75
multiple viral	75
disease viruses	75
virus detected	75
spongiform encephalopathy	75
hydrogen peroxide	75
nasal discharge	75
pathogenic bacteria	75
positive control	75
tract illness	75
hsv infection	75
dna genome	75
animals may	75
common viruses	75
circulating strains	75
including influenza	75
may facilitate	75
relatively small	75
highly variable	75
analysis showed	75
extensively studied	75
viral capsids	75
flavivirus infection	75
experimental evidence	75
nombre virus	75
genetic stability	75
high incidence	75
risk groups	75
induced disease	75
previously published	75
new vaccine	75
inducible gene	75
genetic recombination	75
herpes zoster	75
endocytic pathway	75
resistant virus	75
molecule inhibitors	74
study also	74
passive immunotherapy	74
different subtypes	74
three types	74
clinical isolates	74
population density	74
dengue infection	74
disease pathogenesis	74
serum albumin	74
pathogenic influenza	74
five years	74
distilled water	74
mild disease	74
neonatal mice	74
data collection	74
major capsid	74
currently circulating	74
viral inactivation	74
highly efficient	74
effective treatment	74
human blood	74
medical care	74
nuclear membrane	74
virus nucleocapsid	74
also affect	74
antigenic variants	74
egg production	74
studies will	74
plant rna	74
cell immunity	74
progeny virions	74
virus antibodies	74
developed using	74
middle ear	74
diagnostic laboratory	74
green monkeys	74
step rt	74
severe covid	74
severity score	74
older children	74
enter cells	74
will need	74
kg day	74
new generation	74
serial passage	74
resistant mutants	73
iii ifns	73
infecting humans	73
chikungunya fever	73
virus genetic	73
sexual transmission	73
global influenza	73
studies show	73
successfully used	73
expression vectors	73
intracellular transport	73
chronic disease	73
acute asthma	73
human volunteers	73
cause respiratory	73
also provide	73
viral translation	73
central african	73
tissue cultures	73
liver cells	73
host specificity	73
virol doi	73
recently identified	73
zaire ebolavirus	73
specific host	73
analyzed using	73
logistic regression	73
aug codon	73
studies conducted	73
well plate	73
cellular dna	73
hours post	73
viral structural	73
challenge infection	73
complete genomes	73
virus surface	73
large scale	73
positive sense	73
indirect immunofluorescence	73
pig model	73
recently developed	73
recent evidence	73
human sera	73
experimental animals	73
rhesus macaque	73
viral sequence	73
drug targets	73
less severe	73
viruses date	73
virus membrane	73
puerto rico	73
using reverse	73
proton channel	73
disease prevention	73
virus genomic	73
accession number	72
antibody complexes	72
personal communication	72
rna degradation	72
human pathogenic	72
small size	72
psittacine birds	72
smallpox virus	72
social distancing	72
vaccine effectiveness	72
messenger rna	72
clinical study	72
coronavirus hku	72
less frequently	72
host mrnas	72
highly infectious	72
viruses within	72
clinical significance	72
two doses	72
promising results	72
oral cavity	72
mortality associated	72
olfactory bulb	72
coxsackie virus	72
viral co	72
approved drugs	72
neutralizing human	72
yersinia pestis	72
fusion process	72
complete nucleotide	72
population dynamics	71
primary cells	71
preclinical studies	71
intermediate hosts	71
stop codon	71
retinoic acid	71
henipavirus infection	71
vp vp	71
fi tness	71
human subjects	71
viruses might	71
recent developments	71
days postinfection	71
central role	71
epidemiological data	71
rna segment	71
infection model	71
biological functions	71
antiretroviral therapy	71
length genome	71
mast cells	71
encephalitis viruses	71
evolutionary relationships	71
viruses expressing	71
isothermal amplification	71
pivotal role	71
mechanisms underlying	71
various viruses	71
relationships among	71
genetic background	71
aichi virus	71
last two	71
side chain	71
listeria monocytogenes	71
hcv ns	71
heart failure	71
high fever	71
infected individual	71
protein complex	71
including human	71
potential use	71
per cell	71
equine encephalomyelitis	70
fluorescent antibody	70
th responses	70
gene sequence	70
healthy children	70
using real	70
life cycles	70
viral diarrhoea	70
time course	70
short period	70
virus containing	70
virus subtype	70
env gene	70
factor alpha	70
biological activity	70
effector functions	70
leukaemia virus	70
nuclear pore	70
bovine coronavirus	70
hsp inhibitors	70
lopinavir ritonavir	70
functional receptor	70